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train · 729k rows

text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
The Earliest WatchesCopyright © David Boettcher 2006 - 2020 all rights reserved. Mechanical clocks appeared in Europe during the thirteenth century. These were usually installed in towers, and used bells to sound the hours, hence the name "clock" from the Medieval Latin word clocca (bell). Their purpose was to sound the canonical hours, the times during the day at which prayers were said. They were weight driven mechanisms, and as time went past smaller versions started to be made for use in houses. At some stage dials and hands were added to indicate the time, with a chapter ring marking out the hours. For some two hundred years, clocks were driven by falling weights. Although flat pieces of steel had been used as springs in locks for many centuries, the invention of the spiral coiled flat spring in the 15th century meant that a spring could be used to drive the mechanism instead of weights. Timepieces could now be made small enough to stand on a table instead of hanging on a wall, and for the first time could be moved around while they were going. Inevitably these spring driven clocks, usually in the shape of a drum or tambour, were made smaller and smaller as their makers showed off their skills, and eventually became small enough so that they could be carried on the person as ornaments, initially on a neck chain, and then hanging from the belt. These were the first watches. The first watches used the verge and foliot escapement as found in lantern clocks. There was no balance spring, and the timekeeping depended entirely on the inertia of the foliot as it was accelerated one way and the other by the crown wheel, or escape wheel, under the force of the main spring. In the 17th century the foliot, a bar pivoted at its middle on the verge staff with weights at its ends, was gradually superseded by the balance, which had a higher moment of inertia for a given size. The changing force of the main spring as it ran down, and friction in the train of gear wheels between the main spring and the escape wheel meant that the accuracy of time keeping was poor, and consequently these watches were only fitted with a single hour hand. The earliest watches were more novelties than accurate instruments, and were sold to princes and very wealthy customers. The first centre of watch making was in Southern Germany, where the numerous principalities meant a good number of princes to support the trade. The man often credited with inventing the watch in the early part of the sixteenth century is Peter Henlein of Augsburg, Germany, called "erfinder der taschenuhr" or inventor of the pocket watch. Henlein's watches were more small portable clocks than what we today think of as a watch, but the an "uhr" is a watch or clock and taschenuhr is the German word for a pocket watch. Each watch was hand made, with elaborate decoration, and encased in precious metals with exotic enamel and jewel decorations. They were made in very small numbers, and watchmakers' guilds sprang up as the established watch makers sought to restrict who could enter the trade, and thus keep supply restricted and prices high. Early watches were not good timekeepers and were fitted with only an hour hand because of this. They used a verge escapement with a simple circular flywheel called the balance. The balance had no natural frequency and was simply flicked backwards and forwards by the escapement, the speed of this, and hence the rate of the watch, depending entirely on how hard the escapement pushed the balance. With a simple mainspring as the driving power, the rate would change significantly as the spring ran down, so two devices were invented to even out the force of the mainspring, the stackfreed and the fusee. These were used in clocks before watches were made. In 1675 a small spiral spring called the balance spring was added to the balance. The balance spring and balance assembly has its own natural frequency of back and forth rotations, making the timekeeping of the watch less sensitive to changes in the force delivered by the main spring. The accuracy of timekeeping was improved so much that it was worth adding another hand to the watch to indicate minutes. There has been much debate over who invented the balance spring; the English scientist Dr Robert Hooke or Christiaan Huygens of the Netherlands. It seems that Hooke had the idea first in about 1655 and had even drafted an application for a patent on his idea. However, Hooke had been working on different ways of applying springs to watch balances for some years without producing a working device, but it was Christiaan Huygens of the Netherlands who first came up with the idea of using a spiral balance spring and successfully applied this to a watch. Hooke was convinced that Huygens had been told about his idea, and there is some evidence to support this, but there is little doubt that it was Huygens who turned the idea into a practical application. Copyright © David Boettcher 2006 - 2020 all rights reserved. This page updated November 2017. W3CMVS.	<urn:uuid:83ce4cdc-d489-45c5-8305-d76e8b587c50>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.vintagewatchstraps.com/earlywatches.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00045.warc.gz	en	0.986503	1,066	3.640625	4	[ -0.338975727558136, 0.011212527751922607, 0.24101561307907104, -0.04080633446574211, -0.2090909481048584, 0.018786251544952393, -0.0947810560464859, -0.05154859274625778, 0.557747483253479, -0.28744614124298096, -0.0567408949136734, -0.026375453919172287, -0.04188507795333862, 0.4857951402...	1	The Earliest WatchesCopyright © David Boettcher 2006 - 2020 all rights reserved. Mechanical clocks appeared in Europe during the thirteenth century. These were usually installed in towers, and used bells to sound the hours, hence the name "clock" from the Medieval Latin word clocca (bell). Their purpose was to sound the canonical hours, the times during the day at which prayers were said. They were weight driven mechanisms, and as time went past smaller versions started to be made for use in houses. At some stage dials and hands were added to indicate the time, with a chapter ring marking out the hours. For some two hundred years, clocks were driven by falling weights. Although flat pieces of steel had been used as springs in locks for many centuries, the invention of the spiral coiled flat spring in the 15th century meant that a spring could be used to drive the mechanism instead of weights. Timepieces could now be made small enough to stand on a table instead of hanging on a wall, and for the first time could be moved around while they were going. Inevitably these spring driven clocks, usually in the shape of a drum or tambour, were made smaller and smaller as their makers showed off their skills, and eventually became small enough so that they could be carried on the person as ornaments, initially on a neck chain, and then hanging from the belt. These were the first watches. The first watches used the verge and foliot escapement as found in lantern clocks. There was no balance spring, and the timekeeping depended entirely on the inertia of the foliot as it was accelerated one way and the other by the crown wheel, or escape wheel, under the force of the main spring. In the 17th century the foliot, a bar pivoted at its middle on the verge staff with weights at its ends, was gradually superseded by the balance, which had a higher moment of inertia for a given size. The changing force of the main spring as it ran down, and friction in the train of gear wheels between the main spring and the escape wheel meant that the accuracy of time keeping was poor, and consequently these watches were only fitted with a single hour hand. The earliest watches were more novelties than accurate instruments, and were sold to princes and very wealthy customers. The first centre of watch making was in Southern Germany, where the numerous principalities meant a good number of princes to support the trade. The man often credited with inventing the watch in the early part of the sixteenth century is Peter Henlein of Augsburg, Germany, called "erfinder der taschenuhr" or inventor of the pocket watch. Henlein's watches were more small portable clocks than what we today think of as a watch, but the an "uhr" is a watch or clock and taschenuhr is the German word for a pocket watch. Each watch was hand made, with elaborate decoration, and encased in precious metals with exotic enamel and jewel decorations. They were made in very small numbers, and watchmakers' guilds sprang up as the established watch makers sought to restrict who could enter the trade, and thus keep supply restricted and prices high. Early watches were not good timekeepers and were fitted with only an hour hand because of this. They used a verge escapement with a simple circular flywheel called the balance. The balance had no natural frequency and was simply flicked backwards and forwards by the escapement, the speed of this, and hence the rate of the watch, depending entirely on how hard the escapement pushed the balance. With a simple mainspring as the driving power, the rate would change significantly as the spring ran down, so two devices were invented to even out the force of the mainspring, the stackfreed and the fusee. These were used in clocks before watches were made. In 1675 a small spiral spring called the balance spring was added to the balance. The balance spring and balance assembly has its own natural frequency of back and forth rotations, making the timekeeping of the watch less sensitive to changes in the force delivered by the main spring. The accuracy of timekeeping was improved so much that it was worth adding another hand to the watch to indicate minutes. There has been much debate over who invented the balance spring; the English scientist Dr Robert Hooke or Christiaan Huygens of the Netherlands. It seems that Hooke had the idea first in about 1655 and had even drafted an application for a patent on his idea. However, Hooke had been working on different ways of applying springs to watch balances for some years without producing a working device, but it was Christiaan Huygens of the Netherlands who first came up with the idea of using a spiral balance spring and successfully applied this to a watch. Hooke was convinced that Huygens had been told about his idea, and there is some evidence to support this, but there is little doubt that it was Huygens who turned the idea into a practical application. Copyright © David Boettcher 2006 - 2020 all rights reserved. This page updated November 2017. W3CMVS.	1,070	ENGLISH	1
In 1964, two researchers from Bell Labs were monitoring the sky with their radio telescope. They were hoping to detect signals from gaseous nebulae, light years from earth, but instead they picked up something very strange. The signals were in the microwave portion of the spectrum, at frequencies much lower than they expected. How could this be? Gas clouds weren’t known to emanate microwaves. They wondered…where were these signals be coming from if not from gaseous nebulae? To make the long story short, the Bell investigators were witnessing the first light ever produced by the universe…a mere 380,000 years after the Big Bang, a time when the universe was less than one tenth of 1% its present age. But, as noted earlier, the scientists observed microwaves…not light. The reason: the waves of that very first light, were stretched out as the universe expanded. When wavelengths of light are increased, stretched out, their frequency is decreased and they are transformed from light into microwaves. These scientists had inadvertently discovered what came to be known as the Cosmic Background Radiation. It lent further credibility to the Big Bang as well as demonstrating that the universe was rapidly expanding, beginning first instant after the Big Bang. In tuning in the CBR, they were detecting the afterglow of the Big Bang. If you still have an old analog TV, the snow that appears on the screen when you tune to blank channels is also the cosmic background radiation.	<urn:uuid:06ba02b2-1d5b-4f00-934d-0adc7b3bfdf8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sciencenurworld.wordpress.com/2016/04/25/the-cosmic-background-radiation/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00435.warc.gz	en	0.982724	312	3.875	4	[ -0.2798351049423218, 0.07164137810468674, -0.2299756109714508, -0.13874094188213348, 0.10497666895389557, 0.2514694929122925, -0.104051373898983, 0.20936298370361328, 0.17699015140533447, 0.2238859385251999, 0.23782184720039368, -0.15260156989097595, -0.2727424204349518, 0.0202844887971878...	1	In 1964, two researchers from Bell Labs were monitoring the sky with their radio telescope. They were hoping to detect signals from gaseous nebulae, light years from earth, but instead they picked up something very strange. The signals were in the microwave portion of the spectrum, at frequencies much lower than they expected. How could this be? Gas clouds weren’t known to emanate microwaves. They wondered…where were these signals be coming from if not from gaseous nebulae? To make the long story short, the Bell investigators were witnessing the first light ever produced by the universe…a mere 380,000 years after the Big Bang, a time when the universe was less than one tenth of 1% its present age. But, as noted earlier, the scientists observed microwaves…not light. The reason: the waves of that very first light, were stretched out as the universe expanded. When wavelengths of light are increased, stretched out, their frequency is decreased and they are transformed from light into microwaves. These scientists had inadvertently discovered what came to be known as the Cosmic Background Radiation. It lent further credibility to the Big Bang as well as demonstrating that the universe was rapidly expanding, beginning first instant after the Big Bang. In tuning in the CBR, they were detecting the afterglow of the Big Bang. If you still have an old analog TV, the snow that appears on the screen when you tune to blank channels is also the cosmic background radiation.	312	ENGLISH	1
The soldiers of the 8th Virginia were, typically, Presbyterian or Lutheran--that is to say Irish or German. There were others, including Anglicans, German Reformed, Baptists, and a Jew. There were probably no Catholics, though they would serve under one (the Marquis de Lafayette) and by "Irish" we have to say "Scotch-Irish," "Irish Protestant," or "Ulster Irish" to distinguish these men from later Irish Catholic immigrants. At the time, though, they were usually just called "Irish," despite the Scotch heritage many of them had. When these soldiers or their parents first settled in the parts of today's Virginia, West Virginia and Pennsylvania that then made up the Virginia frontier, their respective churches helped them in their travels and new settlements. The "Great Philadelphia Wagon Road" was the "Oregon Trail" of the colonial era--immigrants arrived in boats at Philadelphia or the nearby Delaware ports of New Castle or Lewes and then, often with church support, headed west along a road that stretched through Lancaster and York into Pennsylvania's Cumberland Valley. That valley continues south to become the Shenandoah Valley in Virginia. The Wagon Road followed it and continued on, eventually all the way to Georgia. After the French and Indian War, the Forbes Road could be followed from the Cumberland Valley as far as Pittsburgh, though that wasn't strictly legal. In the 1770s, other settlers took another branch through the Cumberland Gap in southwest Virginia to Kentucky. (The Cumberland Valley and the Cumberland Gap are far from each other, but both are named for Prince William, the Duke of Cumberland--the youngest son of George II and the victor of the Battle of Culloden in 1746.) The Derry Church in what is now Hershey, Pennsylvania supported Scotch-Irish Presbyterian settlers as they headed west and seeded new churches for them as new communities formed. These new churches were often just log houses, but a number of them survive. It was precisely the same pattern of activity in the Lutheran Church that brought Peter Muhlenberg down the Wagon Road to Woodstock, Virginia in 1772. When he arrived, the Woodstock church was a simple log chapel in the middle of the central intersection. In 1774, land was given to build a new log church at the Southeast corner of the intersection--a project that was overseen by the young rector. It was from that new church that he gave his famous recruiting sermon in 1776. The central role of religion in history is sometimes overlooked or disregarded, especially by elite historians who look too cynically at it. Religious leaders, like Muhlenberg, were not just pastors but also pioneers, political leaders, and soldiers as well. That might seem strange to some people today, but it wasn't strange at all in the 18th and 19th centuries. is researching the history of the Revolutionary War's 8th Virginia Regiment. Its ten companies formed on the frontier, from the Cumberland Gap to Pittsburgh. © 2015-2020 Gabriel Neville	<urn:uuid:5110c354-1806-458c-bb22-777685902f3b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.8thvirginia.com/blog/archives/02-2019	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00494.warc.gz	en	0.980563	625	3.5	4	[ -0.10815293341875076, 0.2124330848455429, 0.12045899033546448, 0.019816648215055466, -0.020006215199828148, 0.06607469916343689, -0.10926838219165802, -0.2726740539073944, -0.22974269092082977, -0.029513053596019745, 0.014371233060956001, -0.08982254564762115, -0.2940574288368225, 0.092440...	16	The soldiers of the 8th Virginia were, typically, Presbyterian or Lutheran--that is to say Irish or German. There were others, including Anglicans, German Reformed, Baptists, and a Jew. There were probably no Catholics, though they would serve under one (the Marquis de Lafayette) and by "Irish" we have to say "Scotch-Irish," "Irish Protestant," or "Ulster Irish" to distinguish these men from later Irish Catholic immigrants. At the time, though, they were usually just called "Irish," despite the Scotch heritage many of them had. When these soldiers or their parents first settled in the parts of today's Virginia, West Virginia and Pennsylvania that then made up the Virginia frontier, their respective churches helped them in their travels and new settlements. The "Great Philadelphia Wagon Road" was the "Oregon Trail" of the colonial era--immigrants arrived in boats at Philadelphia or the nearby Delaware ports of New Castle or Lewes and then, often with church support, headed west along a road that stretched through Lancaster and York into Pennsylvania's Cumberland Valley. That valley continues south to become the Shenandoah Valley in Virginia. The Wagon Road followed it and continued on, eventually all the way to Georgia. After the French and Indian War, the Forbes Road could be followed from the Cumberland Valley as far as Pittsburgh, though that wasn't strictly legal. In the 1770s, other settlers took another branch through the Cumberland Gap in southwest Virginia to Kentucky. (The Cumberland Valley and the Cumberland Gap are far from each other, but both are named for Prince William, the Duke of Cumberland--the youngest son of George II and the victor of the Battle of Culloden in 1746.) The Derry Church in what is now Hershey, Pennsylvania supported Scotch-Irish Presbyterian settlers as they headed west and seeded new churches for them as new communities formed. These new churches were often just log houses, but a number of them survive. It was precisely the same pattern of activity in the Lutheran Church that brought Peter Muhlenberg down the Wagon Road to Woodstock, Virginia in 1772. When he arrived, the Woodstock church was a simple log chapel in the middle of the central intersection. In 1774, land was given to build a new log church at the Southeast corner of the intersection--a project that was overseen by the young rector. It was from that new church that he gave his famous recruiting sermon in 1776. The central role of religion in history is sometimes overlooked or disregarded, especially by elite historians who look too cynically at it. Religious leaders, like Muhlenberg, were not just pastors but also pioneers, political leaders, and soldiers as well. That might seem strange to some people today, but it wasn't strange at all in the 18th and 19th centuries. is researching the history of the Revolutionary War's 8th Virginia Regiment. Its ten companies formed on the frontier, from the Cumberland Gap to Pittsburgh. © 2015-2020 Gabriel Neville	645	ENGLISH	1
Neil Ms.Parkhurst Chemistry 10/3/2012 Law of Conservation of Mass Inquiry Lab Background In the 19th century, Antoine Lavoisier discovered the Law of Conservation of Mass, the Law of Conservation of Mass states that mass is neither created nor destroyed during ordinary chemical reactions or physical changes.A Closed System can not exchange any of heat, work, or matter with the surrounding. An Open System can exchange all of heat, work, or matter. It allows interactions between its internal elements and the environment. Purpose The purpose of this lab was to designed and complete a laboratory experiment that proves the law of conservation of mass. Procedure First of all, a flask was taking out and filled in with 15ml of water. The mass of the flask & water was determined and recorded. Then, an Alka Seltzer tablet was filled in the water. After a while, placed the flask & water & Alka Seltzer tablet on to the balance pan, the mass of the whole system was determined. This procedure was for the open system. For the close system, a flask was taking out and filled in with 15ml of water. The mass of the flask & water was determined and recorded. Then, an Alka Seltzer tablet was placed in a balloon, and put the balloon on the top of the flask, the Alka Seltzer tablet fell into the water. After the reaction was done, measured the mass of it, recorded it into the data table. IV. Data Table Data of Law of Conservation of Mass \| \|Mass \| \|Open system before \|126. 3g \| \|Open system after \|126. 09g \| \|Closed system before \|143. 65g \| \|Closed system after \|145. 21g \| Conclusion and Analysis The mass of the open system before was 126. 53g, and the mass of open system after was 126. 09g. The mass of closed system before was 143. 65g, after was 145. 21g. Both set of data were close enough to justify the law of conservation of mass which is the mass were about the same before and after a reaction. According to the reaction, which was H2O + NaHCO3 = CO2 + H2O + NaOH, showed that there were some gas which was CO2 were produced. According to the law of open and closed system, the CO2 were escaped from the open system, on the other hand, it were keep in the closed system. Because of that, the open system was missing some of the mass of gas, it made the first procedure differ from the second procedure.	<urn:uuid:955cda27-a6a6-4813-ac48-aa7b780f0963>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://phdessay.com/raccoon/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00411.warc.gz	en	0.98039	536	3.390625	3	[ -0.318350225687027, 0.21580463647842407, -0.08648271858692169, 0.010963412001729012, -0.28369587659835815, -0.1870276927947998, 0.4625728130340576, -0.029210135340690613, -0.10534921288490295, 0.0232730433344841, -0.35789570212364197, -0.6566953659057617, 0.02859083004295826, 0.08916923403...	1	Neil Ms.Parkhurst Chemistry 10/3/2012 Law of Conservation of Mass Inquiry Lab Background In the 19th century, Antoine Lavoisier discovered the Law of Conservation of Mass, the Law of Conservation of Mass states that mass is neither created nor destroyed during ordinary chemical reactions or physical changes.A Closed System can not exchange any of heat, work, or matter with the surrounding. An Open System can exchange all of heat, work, or matter. It allows interactions between its internal elements and the environment. Purpose The purpose of this lab was to designed and complete a laboratory experiment that proves the law of conservation of mass. Procedure First of all, a flask was taking out and filled in with 15ml of water. The mass of the flask & water was determined and recorded. Then, an Alka Seltzer tablet was filled in the water. After a while, placed the flask & water & Alka Seltzer tablet on to the balance pan, the mass of the whole system was determined. This procedure was for the open system. For the close system, a flask was taking out and filled in with 15ml of water. The mass of the flask & water was determined and recorded. Then, an Alka Seltzer tablet was placed in a balloon, and put the balloon on the top of the flask, the Alka Seltzer tablet fell into the water. After the reaction was done, measured the mass of it, recorded it into the data table. IV. Data Table Data of Law of Conservation of Mass \| \|Mass \| \|Open system before \|126. 3g \| \|Open system after \|126. 09g \| \|Closed system before \|143. 65g \| \|Closed system after \|145. 21g \| Conclusion and Analysis The mass of the open system before was 126. 53g, and the mass of open system after was 126. 09g. The mass of closed system before was 143. 65g, after was 145. 21g. Both set of data were close enough to justify the law of conservation of mass which is the mass were about the same before and after a reaction. According to the reaction, which was H2O + NaHCO3 = CO2 + H2O + NaOH, showed that there were some gas which was CO2 were produced. According to the law of open and closed system, the CO2 were escaped from the open system, on the other hand, it were keep in the closed system. Because of that, the open system was missing some of the mass of gas, it made the first procedure differ from the second procedure.	576	ENGLISH	1
In accordance with Madison Hemings, “It lived but a short while.” 1795 a child, Harriet Hemings, came to be. She passed away couple of years later on in 1797. 1798 A son, Beverly was created. He survived to adulthood, becoming a carpenter and fiddler. 1799 an daughter that is unnamed created and died. 1801 Harriet was created. She ended up being their just daughter that is surviving and had been a spinner in Jefferson’s textile factory. 1805 A son, Madison came to be. He survived to adulthood, becoming a joiner and carpenter. 1808 Son Eston was created. He additionally survived to be a carpenter and a musician. 1822 Beverly and Harriet Hemings had been permitted to leave Monticello without getting lawfully freed. Madison Hemings later stated that both passed into white culture and that neither their link with Monticello nor their blood that is“African ever found. 1826 Thomas Jefferson passed away. Sally Hemings ended up being never ever legitimately emancipated. Alternatively, she had been unofficially freed—or “given her time”—by Jefferson’s child Martha after his death. 1826 Jefferson’s will freed Hemings’s younger children, Madison and Eston. 1830 Sally Hemings and her sons Madison and Eston are detailed as free people that are white the 1830 census. 36 months later on, in a census that is special after the Nat Turner Rebellion of 1831, Hemings described by herself as a totally free mulatto that has resided in Charlottesville since 1826. 1835 Madison Hemings stated that their mother lived in Charlottesville with him along with his sibling Eston until her death in 1835. The place of her grave just isn’t understood. Why did a few of Sally Hemings’s children identify on their own as white among others as black colored? Madison resettled in southern Ohio into the late 1830s, where he worked at their trade and owned a farm. (más…)	<urn:uuid:dc27c32c-e327-46f4-96b6-5dfb279e37a6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://talleresdelosballesteros.com.mx/es/thai-mail-order-bride-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00458.warc.gz	en	0.985327	437	3.34375	3	[ -0.41949722170829773, 0.13936026394367218, 0.2266933023929596, -0.05184296891093254, -0.5206605792045593, 0.1631166785955429, -0.09566757082939148, 0.0021559225860983133, -0.22765521705150604, 0.15129320323467255, 0.5000871419906616, 0.09619338065385818, -0.215196430683136, 0.2976289391517...	2	In accordance with Madison Hemings, “It lived but a short while.” 1795 a child, Harriet Hemings, came to be. She passed away couple of years later on in 1797. 1798 A son, Beverly was created. He survived to adulthood, becoming a carpenter and fiddler. 1799 an daughter that is unnamed created and died. 1801 Harriet was created. She ended up being their just daughter that is surviving and had been a spinner in Jefferson’s textile factory. 1805 A son, Madison came to be. He survived to adulthood, becoming a joiner and carpenter. 1808 Son Eston was created. He additionally survived to be a carpenter and a musician. 1822 Beverly and Harriet Hemings had been permitted to leave Monticello without getting lawfully freed. Madison Hemings later stated that both passed into white culture and that neither their link with Monticello nor their blood that is“African ever found. 1826 Thomas Jefferson passed away. Sally Hemings ended up being never ever legitimately emancipated. Alternatively, she had been unofficially freed—or “given her time”—by Jefferson’s child Martha after his death. 1826 Jefferson’s will freed Hemings’s younger children, Madison and Eston. 1830 Sally Hemings and her sons Madison and Eston are detailed as free people that are white the 1830 census. 36 months later on, in a census that is special after the Nat Turner Rebellion of 1831, Hemings described by herself as a totally free mulatto that has resided in Charlottesville since 1826. 1835 Madison Hemings stated that their mother lived in Charlottesville with him along with his sibling Eston until her death in 1835. The place of her grave just isn’t understood. Why did a few of Sally Hemings’s children identify on their own as white among others as black colored? Madison resettled in southern Ohio into the late 1830s, where he worked at their trade and owned a farm. (más…)	450	ENGLISH	1
Scientists have discovered evidence that humans hunted and trapped woolly mammoths. Scientists just made a history-changing discovery. While researchers had once thought that long-ago humans did not attack woolly mammoths, they stand corrected. A human made trap was recently found in Mexico. “The first artificial traps for mammoths have been discovered in Tultepec, Mexico,” said Luis Cordoba Barradas, one of the archaeological rescue direction of the National Institute of Anthropology and Mexico History (INAH). Along with the trap, more than a dozen mammoth skeletons were also discovered. These were found in large pits apparently dug by hunters to capture and kill the animals 15,000 years ago. The prehistoric skeletons were uncovered in Tultepec, 25 miles north of Mexico City, preserved in clay. Archaeologists believe that the clay area originally surfaced when lake levels went down, which made it easier for hunters to construct traps. “The discovery represents a watershed, a touchstone on what we imagined until now was the interaction of hunter-gatherer bands with these enormous herbivores,” said Pedro Francisco Sánchez Nava, national coordinator of archaeology at INAH. Archaeologist Luis Cordoba Barradas, of INAH’s Directorate of Archaeological Rescue, added that the findings offer “a more complex and complete concept of how mammoth hunts were carried out.” He added, “The finding suggests that groups of between 20 and 30 hunters swept a herd of mammoths with torches and branches to divert some of the animals into the traps. Once there, they were killed, and their carcasses cut up. There was little evidence before that hunters attacked mammoths. It was thought they frightened them into getting stuck in swamps and then waited for them to die. This is evidence of direct attacks on mammoths. In Tultepec we can see there was the intention to hunt and make use of the mammoths.” An important clue to scientists that the pits were manmade and used for hunting was the discovery of intentional vertical cuts in the earth. Barradas said one skull also had what appeared to be a long-term fracture, indicating the animal had succumb to a battle with hunters. The bones were “ritually displayed,” which meant hunters “had to consider him brave, fierce, and showed him his respect in this way.” The process, according to Barradas, was to lure the creatures to the pits and, once they were stuck in the clay, the hunters waited for them to die. He explained, “It was thought they frightened them into getting stuck in swamps and then waited for them to die. This is evidence of direct attacks on mammoths.” The practice of hunting and trapping wholly mammoths could have also occurred in other parts of the world, but this is still unclear. Adam N. Rountrey, a collection manager at the University of Michigan Museum of Paleontology, said, “While there are numerous mammoth megasites in Eurasia and North America where humans have processed carcasses, here has been debate about whether the remains represent hunted animals or scavenged natural deaths.” He added that, until this point, none of these sites had been considered manmade. “We are looking forward to seeing a peer-reviewed publication that presents the evidence for human construction of the traps,” he said of the site in Mexico.	<urn:uuid:ac49a835-b8e4-4824-bacf-1ec65b754bdc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.legalreader.com/humans-hunted-wholly-mammoths-researchers-discover/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00018.warc.gz	en	0.98014	716	3.875	4	[ -0.29740825295448303, 0.44790154695510864, 0.3902842402458191, 0.25062060356140137, 0.21768274903297424, -0.09077030420303345, 0.13076430559158325, 0.04875018447637558, -0.06641745567321777, -0.10290241241455078, 0.3504825830459595, -0.42612147331237793, 0.10017013549804688, 0.125800415873...	8	Scientists have discovered evidence that humans hunted and trapped woolly mammoths. Scientists just made a history-changing discovery. While researchers had once thought that long-ago humans did not attack woolly mammoths, they stand corrected. A human made trap was recently found in Mexico. “The first artificial traps for mammoths have been discovered in Tultepec, Mexico,” said Luis Cordoba Barradas, one of the archaeological rescue direction of the National Institute of Anthropology and Mexico History (INAH). Along with the trap, more than a dozen mammoth skeletons were also discovered. These were found in large pits apparently dug by hunters to capture and kill the animals 15,000 years ago. The prehistoric skeletons were uncovered in Tultepec, 25 miles north of Mexico City, preserved in clay. Archaeologists believe that the clay area originally surfaced when lake levels went down, which made it easier for hunters to construct traps. “The discovery represents a watershed, a touchstone on what we imagined until now was the interaction of hunter-gatherer bands with these enormous herbivores,” said Pedro Francisco Sánchez Nava, national coordinator of archaeology at INAH. Archaeologist Luis Cordoba Barradas, of INAH’s Directorate of Archaeological Rescue, added that the findings offer “a more complex and complete concept of how mammoth hunts were carried out.” He added, “The finding suggests that groups of between 20 and 30 hunters swept a herd of mammoths with torches and branches to divert some of the animals into the traps. Once there, they were killed, and their carcasses cut up. There was little evidence before that hunters attacked mammoths. It was thought they frightened them into getting stuck in swamps and then waited for them to die. This is evidence of direct attacks on mammoths. In Tultepec we can see there was the intention to hunt and make use of the mammoths.” An important clue to scientists that the pits were manmade and used for hunting was the discovery of intentional vertical cuts in the earth. Barradas said one skull also had what appeared to be a long-term fracture, indicating the animal had succumb to a battle with hunters. The bones were “ritually displayed,” which meant hunters “had to consider him brave, fierce, and showed him his respect in this way.” The process, according to Barradas, was to lure the creatures to the pits and, once they were stuck in the clay, the hunters waited for them to die. He explained, “It was thought they frightened them into getting stuck in swamps and then waited for them to die. This is evidence of direct attacks on mammoths.” The practice of hunting and trapping wholly mammoths could have also occurred in other parts of the world, but this is still unclear. Adam N. Rountrey, a collection manager at the University of Michigan Museum of Paleontology, said, “While there are numerous mammoth megasites in Eurasia and North America where humans have processed carcasses, here has been debate about whether the remains represent hunted animals or scavenged natural deaths.” He added that, until this point, none of these sites had been considered manmade. “We are looking forward to seeing a peer-reviewed publication that presents the evidence for human construction of the traps,” he said of the site in Mexico.	693	ENGLISH	1
The book Night opens in the town of Signet where Elie Wiesel, the author , was born . He lived his child hood in the Signet, Transylvania . He had three sisters Hilda, Bea, and Tzipora. His father was an honored member of the Jewish community. He was a cultured man concerned about his community yet, he was not an emotional man. His parents were owners of a shop and his two oldest sisters worked for his parents. Elie was a school boy and interested in studying the Zohar “the cabbalistic books, the secrets of Jewish mysticism”(Wiesel 3). His teacher was a foreigner, Moshe the Beadle, a “poor barefoot of Signet”(Wiesel 3). He was Elie's teacher until he was forced to leave Signet by the Hungarians because he was a foreign Jew. After several months Elie saw Moshe the Beadle once again. Moshe the Beadle told his story about his journey that the Jews were forced to get out and dig grave which would become final resting places for prisoners who were killed. Luckily, Moshe the Beadle was able to escape. He pretended that he was dead in order to escape being killed. Not only did Moshe tell his story to Elie, he wanted to warn the Jews of Signet of what could happen to them. However, they only thought it was a vivid imagination speaking from his lips. No one wanted to believe his story and people lived life as usual. It was not until German troops would enter Hungarian territory that life would change for the Jews of Signet. At first the German soldiers did not seem like a threat. During the week of Passover things seemed to be going well. People were celebrating yet, it was not a complete celebration. On the seventh day of the Passover Jewish leaders of the community were arrested. After that rules were set by the Germans. Jews were confined to their homes for three days and they could no longer keep valuables such as gold, jewelry and other objects. The Germans took it all. Elie's father managed to bury the family's savings in the cellar. After the three days Jews had to wear a yellow star. After this more rules were set. Jews could not go to restaurants, travel on railways, go to synagogues, or go out after six o'clock. As if the rules and restrictions were not enough. Soon Jews would be placed in Ghettos. There were two gettos set up in Signet. These ghettos were fenced in with barbed wire and the windows of the houses facing the street were boarded up. The Jewish people of Signet tried to look at it positively and saw it as “A little Jewish Republic”(Wiesel 9). People tried to live as normal and felt they would remain in the ghetto until the end of the war. However this would not be the case. Elie's father brought news to his family that they would be deported and the ghetto was to be destroyed. They did not know where they were going , only that they would be leaving in the morning and could only take a few Fortunately for the Wiesel family their journey was postponed for a couple of days. When they heard the words...	<urn:uuid:bcd5e4a5-5ae2-4c4f-a253-0964292be687>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/elie-wiesel	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00164.warc.gz	en	0.994303	723	3.421875	3	[ -0.12335710972547531, 0.450242280960083, 0.03340888023376465, 0.2958177924156189, -0.26364657282829285, 0.21595340967178345, 0.18925806879997253, 0.030068283900618553, -0.10468371957540512, -0.17296373844146729, -0.035873960703611374, 0.08023262768983841, -0.22839905321598053, 0.0733005702...	1	The book Night opens in the town of Signet where Elie Wiesel, the author , was born . He lived his child hood in the Signet, Transylvania . He had three sisters Hilda, Bea, and Tzipora. His father was an honored member of the Jewish community. He was a cultured man concerned about his community yet, he was not an emotional man. His parents were owners of a shop and his two oldest sisters worked for his parents. Elie was a school boy and interested in studying the Zohar “the cabbalistic books, the secrets of Jewish mysticism”(Wiesel 3). His teacher was a foreigner, Moshe the Beadle, a “poor barefoot of Signet”(Wiesel 3). He was Elie's teacher until he was forced to leave Signet by the Hungarians because he was a foreign Jew. After several months Elie saw Moshe the Beadle once again. Moshe the Beadle told his story about his journey that the Jews were forced to get out and dig grave which would become final resting places for prisoners who were killed. Luckily, Moshe the Beadle was able to escape. He pretended that he was dead in order to escape being killed. Not only did Moshe tell his story to Elie, he wanted to warn the Jews of Signet of what could happen to them. However, they only thought it was a vivid imagination speaking from his lips. No one wanted to believe his story and people lived life as usual. It was not until German troops would enter Hungarian territory that life would change for the Jews of Signet. At first the German soldiers did not seem like a threat. During the week of Passover things seemed to be going well. People were celebrating yet, it was not a complete celebration. On the seventh day of the Passover Jewish leaders of the community were arrested. After that rules were set by the Germans. Jews were confined to their homes for three days and they could no longer keep valuables such as gold, jewelry and other objects. The Germans took it all. Elie's father managed to bury the family's savings in the cellar. After the three days Jews had to wear a yellow star. After this more rules were set. Jews could not go to restaurants, travel on railways, go to synagogues, or go out after six o'clock. As if the rules and restrictions were not enough. Soon Jews would be placed in Ghettos. There were two gettos set up in Signet. These ghettos were fenced in with barbed wire and the windows of the houses facing the street were boarded up. The Jewish people of Signet tried to look at it positively and saw it as “A little Jewish Republic”(Wiesel 9). People tried to live as normal and felt they would remain in the ghetto until the end of the war. However this would not be the case. Elie's father brought news to his family that they would be deported and the ghetto was to be destroyed. They did not know where they were going , only that they would be leaving in the morning and could only take a few Fortunately for the Wiesel family their journey was postponed for a couple of days. When they heard the words...	700	ENGLISH	1
Sad as it may sound, there were torture tools and methods for almost every crime in the medieval era, from a skull crusher for blasphemers to the pear of anguish for liars and adulterers. The depraved practice of using pain to extract information or punish social crimes was common almost all over the world. Inhuman as they were, these practices were generally accepted even by the church. Torturers perfected the tools that could inflict maximum pain till death to a level that still shocks the world today. It is hard to explain why our ancestors embraced such scary practices, but these 10 are just a shallow dive into what it meant to live a few centuries ago. The Brazen Bull This is a torture tool with a great story because both the man that commissioned it and the one that invented it were tortured in it — a bronze bull placed on the fire to roast the wrongdoer alive inflicting the worst pain imaginable. The inventor was Perillos of Athens between 570 and 554BC for the Sicilian tyrant Phalaris who was the ruler of Acragas. The bull was designed to be hollow enough to fit a person. It was also fitted with tubes that made the screams of the person being tortured to sound like the bellows of the bull. Phalaris put Perillos into the bull and lit a fire below it to test if the device was working correctly before throwing him down a cliff to his death. Phalaris himself was roasted in the bull when the city was finally conquered. This bull was used for many centuries afterward, chiefly to punish treason and blasphemy. The Pear of Anguish This was a tool popular during the dark ages used as the first punishment for liars, homosexuals, and women that performed abortions in Europe. It was merely an iron pear with four leaves that expanded outwards when the handle was turned. It would be inserted in the mouth or orifice depending on the type of crime committed. The torturer then turned the handle until the leaves expanded to their maximum ripping skin apart to cause extensive bleeding, which could lead to death or permanent damage. For homosexuals and blasphemers, this would be followed by stricter torture methods. This tool was also widely used in the witch hunts of Salem as witches were forced to confess. This tool led to one of the slowest and most painful deaths. It was merely a wagon wheel with widely spaced spokes that could accommodate human limbs and head. The offender was tied to the wheel after being flogged, clubbed, or stoned. On being turned, the spokes would break the offender,s limbs, causing an agonizing pain because bones would break at different points with each turn of the wheel. The saddest aspect is that extensive bleeding would happen internally and at a slower rate, meaning death was not easy to come by. This was a popular public execution method in Rome where the wheel could be turned by the torturer almost daily breaking limbs for days before the person died. It was mostly used on adulterous women, robbers, and blasphemers. The Head Crusher As the name suggests, this was not the type of tool you wanted anywhere near your head. The skull crusher was mostly used to extract information from deserters and treasonous offenders or enemy combatants. It was made of two metallic plates sometimes with spikes fitted on a vice that closed in on the skull when the offender,s head was put between them. The process is self-explanatory actually. As the plates closed in, the victim would either have to provide the needed information or their skulls would be crushed into a paste. Sometimes, even if the head was not crushed, permanent damage to the brain was done. Some skull crushers were actually designed to crush more than one head at a time, meaning the one with the biggest head was in the most trouble. The Judas Cradle The name of Jesus’ most despised disciple is also the name of the most gruesome seat of torture in history. This cradle was simply a pyramid-shaped spike mounted on a pole where the offender would sit. It was used to punish women that forced miscarriages, adulterers, and homosexuals. The offender would be perched on the cradle, sometimes with weights placed on their legs to increase the pain. The tip of the cradle would then be inserted into the offender,s orifice, anus for homosexuals and the vagina for women. The time spent on the cradle would largely depend on the nature of the crime. The longer you sat on it, the more damage it caused ripping skin apart and causing extensive bleeding that impaled skin. If you don’t die immediately, you could die from infection or suffer permanent damage. The Rat Box It is hard to imagine how rats can be used as a torture tool until you remember that under extreme starvation, rats will eat through anything, including human skin. In this case, rats would not eat the victim; they would instead dig through you in a bid to escape. This was also another method of interrogation, although it mostly resulted in the death of the victim. The process was quite simple, starved rats stuffed in a metal box or bucket would be tied onto the victim,s stomach. The rats would then be provoked by fire or noise introduced to the back of the bucket, causing the rats to seek a way out in a frenzy. They would eat through the victim,s stomach, causing the most excruciating pain. Death was also not quick because rats would not eat the heart and lungs, leaving the victim to bleed and struggle slowly till death. This was the most famous execution methods among Greeks and later the Romans for extreme criminals. Extreme in this case ranged from saying something nasty about the emperor to stealing. If you are a bible reader, you probably know that this was the method used to execute Jesus and though painful and gruesome, the process also led to a prolonged death. This was a public execution method which meant that the limbs of the offender would be nailed and then be lifted in the desert. They could die of anything from infection, bleeding to being torn apart by hungry birds. The pain was severe since most people were crucified after extreme flogging and torture. Death could take days as the victim endured the unimaginable pain. Hanged, Drawn & Quartered This was probably the worst way to die in all history. Sadly, this method was most widely used in England on people accused of high treason. It all began with the person being dragged through the streets by horses sustaining extensive bruises and broken bones. The process was painful, leading to screams as the crowds scoffed the offender. The person was then taken to the gallows and hanged but not to death. You were only hanged until you almost died then you would be lifted on your legs only to be hanged again, most of the time sustaining a broken neck. After the hanging, the executioner would then cut you into four equal parts while you were still alive. Your only hope would be to give in to your injuries during any of the earlier torturings. The Saw & the Rack These two were widely used across Europe either jointly or individually on a wide range of crimes. The rack was the most famous known to have been used to kill many early Christians. It involved being tied to a table or board; then your limbs would be pulled apart either by horses or using screws that simply stretched them outside, ripping them out of your body. As muscles and tendons were torn, the victim would experience a lot of pain and sometimes descend into shock and death from a heart attack if not the excessive bleeding or sawing that followed. The saw, on the other hand, was simply used to inflict a life-threatening cut by two cruel men. Then the victim would be left to bleed to death, something that could take a very long time. The Breast Ripper This one was too inhuman; it is even impossible to describe it. It was also called the iron spider or the adulterer,s iron. It was used for interrogation and punishment of women accused of heresy, adultery, abortion or of being a witch. It was a four-clawed iron tool shaped like tongs except for the four sharp claws at the tip. It was mostly heated before being attached to one, breast to rip it off. In most cases, this torture would be done in front of the woman,s family, including her children to send a warning to other people that may be tempted to commit her crimes. The pain and bleeding would lead to shock and finally, death. If the woman survived, she would be exposed to further torture or be left with permanent disfigurement.	<urn:uuid:c001558e-a1a9-46ae-b9ee-e1defafdb411>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://listgecko.com/gruesome-ancient-torture-tools-and-methods/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00377.warc.gz	en	0.981521	1,754	3.703125	4	[ -0.22532179951667786, 0.535781979560852, 0.2635648548603058, 0.26019686460494995, -0.06337043642997742, -0.29995453357696533, 0.34582388401031494, 0.01596050150692463, 0.1916005164384842, -0.1944495588541031, -0.13406091928482056, -0.1983112394809723, 0.1943598836660385, 0.2639482021331787...	4	Sad as it may sound, there were torture tools and methods for almost every crime in the medieval era, from a skull crusher for blasphemers to the pear of anguish for liars and adulterers. The depraved practice of using pain to extract information or punish social crimes was common almost all over the world. Inhuman as they were, these practices were generally accepted even by the church. Torturers perfected the tools that could inflict maximum pain till death to a level that still shocks the world today. It is hard to explain why our ancestors embraced such scary practices, but these 10 are just a shallow dive into what it meant to live a few centuries ago. The Brazen Bull This is a torture tool with a great story because both the man that commissioned it and the one that invented it were tortured in it — a bronze bull placed on the fire to roast the wrongdoer alive inflicting the worst pain imaginable. The inventor was Perillos of Athens between 570 and 554BC for the Sicilian tyrant Phalaris who was the ruler of Acragas. The bull was designed to be hollow enough to fit a person. It was also fitted with tubes that made the screams of the person being tortured to sound like the bellows of the bull. Phalaris put Perillos into the bull and lit a fire below it to test if the device was working correctly before throwing him down a cliff to his death. Phalaris himself was roasted in the bull when the city was finally conquered. This bull was used for many centuries afterward, chiefly to punish treason and blasphemy. The Pear of Anguish This was a tool popular during the dark ages used as the first punishment for liars, homosexuals, and women that performed abortions in Europe. It was merely an iron pear with four leaves that expanded outwards when the handle was turned. It would be inserted in the mouth or orifice depending on the type of crime committed. The torturer then turned the handle until the leaves expanded to their maximum ripping skin apart to cause extensive bleeding, which could lead to death or permanent damage. For homosexuals and blasphemers, this would be followed by stricter torture methods. This tool was also widely used in the witch hunts of Salem as witches were forced to confess. This tool led to one of the slowest and most painful deaths. It was merely a wagon wheel with widely spaced spokes that could accommodate human limbs and head. The offender was tied to the wheel after being flogged, clubbed, or stoned. On being turned, the spokes would break the offender,s limbs, causing an agonizing pain because bones would break at different points with each turn of the wheel. The saddest aspect is that extensive bleeding would happen internally and at a slower rate, meaning death was not easy to come by. This was a popular public execution method in Rome where the wheel could be turned by the torturer almost daily breaking limbs for days before the person died. It was mostly used on adulterous women, robbers, and blasphemers. The Head Crusher As the name suggests, this was not the type of tool you wanted anywhere near your head. The skull crusher was mostly used to extract information from deserters and treasonous offenders or enemy combatants. It was made of two metallic plates sometimes with spikes fitted on a vice that closed in on the skull when the offender,s head was put between them. The process is self-explanatory actually. As the plates closed in, the victim would either have to provide the needed information or their skulls would be crushed into a paste. Sometimes, even if the head was not crushed, permanent damage to the brain was done. Some skull crushers were actually designed to crush more than one head at a time, meaning the one with the biggest head was in the most trouble. The Judas Cradle The name of Jesus’ most despised disciple is also the name of the most gruesome seat of torture in history. This cradle was simply a pyramid-shaped spike mounted on a pole where the offender would sit. It was used to punish women that forced miscarriages, adulterers, and homosexuals. The offender would be perched on the cradle, sometimes with weights placed on their legs to increase the pain. The tip of the cradle would then be inserted into the offender,s orifice, anus for homosexuals and the vagina for women. The time spent on the cradle would largely depend on the nature of the crime. The longer you sat on it, the more damage it caused ripping skin apart and causing extensive bleeding that impaled skin. If you don’t die immediately, you could die from infection or suffer permanent damage. The Rat Box It is hard to imagine how rats can be used as a torture tool until you remember that under extreme starvation, rats will eat through anything, including human skin. In this case, rats would not eat the victim; they would instead dig through you in a bid to escape. This was also another method of interrogation, although it mostly resulted in the death of the victim. The process was quite simple, starved rats stuffed in a metal box or bucket would be tied onto the victim,s stomach. The rats would then be provoked by fire or noise introduced to the back of the bucket, causing the rats to seek a way out in a frenzy. They would eat through the victim,s stomach, causing the most excruciating pain. Death was also not quick because rats would not eat the heart and lungs, leaving the victim to bleed and struggle slowly till death. This was the most famous execution methods among Greeks and later the Romans for extreme criminals. Extreme in this case ranged from saying something nasty about the emperor to stealing. If you are a bible reader, you probably know that this was the method used to execute Jesus and though painful and gruesome, the process also led to a prolonged death. This was a public execution method which meant that the limbs of the offender would be nailed and then be lifted in the desert. They could die of anything from infection, bleeding to being torn apart by hungry birds. The pain was severe since most people were crucified after extreme flogging and torture. Death could take days as the victim endured the unimaginable pain. Hanged, Drawn & Quartered This was probably the worst way to die in all history. Sadly, this method was most widely used in England on people accused of high treason. It all began with the person being dragged through the streets by horses sustaining extensive bruises and broken bones. The process was painful, leading to screams as the crowds scoffed the offender. The person was then taken to the gallows and hanged but not to death. You were only hanged until you almost died then you would be lifted on your legs only to be hanged again, most of the time sustaining a broken neck. After the hanging, the executioner would then cut you into four equal parts while you were still alive. Your only hope would be to give in to your injuries during any of the earlier torturings. The Saw & the Rack These two were widely used across Europe either jointly or individually on a wide range of crimes. The rack was the most famous known to have been used to kill many early Christians. It involved being tied to a table or board; then your limbs would be pulled apart either by horses or using screws that simply stretched them outside, ripping them out of your body. As muscles and tendons were torn, the victim would experience a lot of pain and sometimes descend into shock and death from a heart attack if not the excessive bleeding or sawing that followed. The saw, on the other hand, was simply used to inflict a life-threatening cut by two cruel men. Then the victim would be left to bleed to death, something that could take a very long time. The Breast Ripper This one was too inhuman; it is even impossible to describe it. It was also called the iron spider or the adulterer,s iron. It was used for interrogation and punishment of women accused of heresy, adultery, abortion or of being a witch. It was a four-clawed iron tool shaped like tongs except for the four sharp claws at the tip. It was mostly heated before being attached to one, breast to rip it off. In most cases, this torture would be done in front of the woman,s family, including her children to send a warning to other people that may be tempted to commit her crimes. The pain and bleeding would lead to shock and finally, death. If the woman survived, she would be exposed to further torture or be left with permanent disfigurement.	1,755	ENGLISH	1
Exactly when whaling from shore began in New Zealand is a matter of debate. Ex-convict and sea captain John (Jacky) Guard claimed that he began whaling (for bone, not oil) in 1827 at Te Awaiti in Tory Channel. The date is disputed and it appears that Peter Williams established a whaling station at Preservation Inlet in 1828. Certainly by the following year both men were successfully hunting right whales for oil. Shore-based whaling took off in New Zealand almost 30 years after ships began whaling there, and 20 years after it started in Tasmania. There were a number of reasons for shore whaling: - British duties on colonial whale oil were reduced in 1823 from £8 8s to £1 a tun (955 litres) and in 1825 to a shilling a tun. - Sealers found that there were few seals left and were keen to transfer their energy and capital to a new venture. - The number of sperm whales fell, increasing the demand for the less valuable oil of right whales, which were caught close to shore. - The Greenland right whale fishery collapsed, making New Zealand whaling competitive. - Shore-based whaling was cheaper to establish than the purchase and supply of ships. It was also safer and the oil was fresher. Shore-based whalers hunted the black or right whale, which followed established migration routes around the New Zealand coast. In early winter females travelled up the east coast of the South Island. Some passed through Cook Strait, while others went on up the east coast. Along the way they sheltered in harbours such as Otago, Akaroa or Cloudy Bay to calve. Because right whales are big, relatively peaceful, do not usually sink once killed, and produce good quality oil, they were easy targets. Early whaling stations were usually located on the migration routes or in the calving harbours. Plentiful wood and water, a good harbour and land for growing food were also important. Cook Strait was a major centre, especially Tory Channel and Port Underwood. Jacky Guard moved to Port Underwood in 1829 and by 1836 there were six shore stations and 18 whaling ships at anchor. Further north, the Kāpiti region had six stations and 23 ships by 1839. In the far south a series of stations were established in the 1830s around the coast from Preservation Inlet in the west to Moeraki in Otago. Johnny Jones, a former convict and sealer, was an important figure in the area and at one stage employed 280 men on seven stations. In Otago Harbour the Weller brothers, like many early whalers originating in and financed from Sydney, established a station in 1831 called Otago (present-day Ōtākou). In 1835 the 85 men there killed 103 whales, producing 260 tuns (248,300 litres) of oil – despite competition from foreign bay whalers. Like other stations which survived for any time, Ōtākou doubled as a trading centre purchasing potatoes, pigs and flax from Māori for sale to Sydney merchants. But it was a precarious existence, and as catches declined in one area a new station would be established elsewhere. In 1841 Ōtākou closed after producing only 10 tuns (9,550 litres) of oil that year. By 1840 there were up to 1,000 whalers in New Zealand and whaling led the country’s economy. During that decade new areas for whaling were discovered. There was an expansion on Banks Peninsula where stations had been established at Little Port Cooper in 1836 and Peraki in 1837. Kaikōura saw a rush in the early 1840s as Guard (temporarily) and other Cloudy Bay whalers, including Robert Fyffe, moved there, financed by Wellington money. Another area of growth was the east coast of the North Island. Whaling began at Gisborne in 1837, and by 1847 there were 17 boats in Hawke’s Bay, with a particular concentration around Māhia. There were small ventures further north to Cape Runaway. Some east coast stations operated sporadically into the 1850s and 1860s, but by then the great days of shore-based whaling were over. More than 100 whaling stations had been set up and much wealth produced. Charles Heaphy claimed that of the £224,144 worth of whale oil exported from Sydney in 1840, more than half came from New Zealand. But the shore whalers’ methods were ruinous to a long-term industry. As the naturalist Ernst Dieffenbach wrote: ‘The shorewhalers, in hunting the animal in the season when it visits the shallow waters of the coast to bring forth the young, and suckle it in security, have felled the tree to obtain the fruit, and have taken the most certain means of destroying an otherwise profitable and important trade.’ 1	<urn:uuid:1a781c61-f284-4454-aff6-010aacda3eaf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://admin.teara.govt.nz/mi/whaling/page-2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00471.warc.gz	en	0.980639	1,042	3.78125	4	[ -0.13117125630378723, 0.2715148627758026, -0.21295203268527985, -0.2234974503517151, -0.05888334661722183, -0.1924481838941574, -0.012999052181839943, -0.055364012718200684, -0.29556623101234436, 0.23310363292694092, 0.14271707832813263, -0.8172315359115601, 0.21432681381702423, 0.50203043...	19	Exactly when whaling from shore began in New Zealand is a matter of debate. Ex-convict and sea captain John (Jacky) Guard claimed that he began whaling (for bone, not oil) in 1827 at Te Awaiti in Tory Channel. The date is disputed and it appears that Peter Williams established a whaling station at Preservation Inlet in 1828. Certainly by the following year both men were successfully hunting right whales for oil. Shore-based whaling took off in New Zealand almost 30 years after ships began whaling there, and 20 years after it started in Tasmania. There were a number of reasons for shore whaling: - British duties on colonial whale oil were reduced in 1823 from £8 8s to £1 a tun (955 litres) and in 1825 to a shilling a tun. - Sealers found that there were few seals left and were keen to transfer their energy and capital to a new venture. - The number of sperm whales fell, increasing the demand for the less valuable oil of right whales, which were caught close to shore. - The Greenland right whale fishery collapsed, making New Zealand whaling competitive. - Shore-based whaling was cheaper to establish than the purchase and supply of ships. It was also safer and the oil was fresher. Shore-based whalers hunted the black or right whale, which followed established migration routes around the New Zealand coast. In early winter females travelled up the east coast of the South Island. Some passed through Cook Strait, while others went on up the east coast. Along the way they sheltered in harbours such as Otago, Akaroa or Cloudy Bay to calve. Because right whales are big, relatively peaceful, do not usually sink once killed, and produce good quality oil, they were easy targets. Early whaling stations were usually located on the migration routes or in the calving harbours. Plentiful wood and water, a good harbour and land for growing food were also important. Cook Strait was a major centre, especially Tory Channel and Port Underwood. Jacky Guard moved to Port Underwood in 1829 and by 1836 there were six shore stations and 18 whaling ships at anchor. Further north, the Kāpiti region had six stations and 23 ships by 1839. In the far south a series of stations were established in the 1830s around the coast from Preservation Inlet in the west to Moeraki in Otago. Johnny Jones, a former convict and sealer, was an important figure in the area and at one stage employed 280 men on seven stations. In Otago Harbour the Weller brothers, like many early whalers originating in and financed from Sydney, established a station in 1831 called Otago (present-day Ōtākou). In 1835 the 85 men there killed 103 whales, producing 260 tuns (248,300 litres) of oil – despite competition from foreign bay whalers. Like other stations which survived for any time, Ōtākou doubled as a trading centre purchasing potatoes, pigs and flax from Māori for sale to Sydney merchants. But it was a precarious existence, and as catches declined in one area a new station would be established elsewhere. In 1841 Ōtākou closed after producing only 10 tuns (9,550 litres) of oil that year. By 1840 there were up to 1,000 whalers in New Zealand and whaling led the country’s economy. During that decade new areas for whaling were discovered. There was an expansion on Banks Peninsula where stations had been established at Little Port Cooper in 1836 and Peraki in 1837. Kaikōura saw a rush in the early 1840s as Guard (temporarily) and other Cloudy Bay whalers, including Robert Fyffe, moved there, financed by Wellington money. Another area of growth was the east coast of the North Island. Whaling began at Gisborne in 1837, and by 1847 there were 17 boats in Hawke’s Bay, with a particular concentration around Māhia. There were small ventures further north to Cape Runaway. Some east coast stations operated sporadically into the 1850s and 1860s, but by then the great days of shore-based whaling were over. More than 100 whaling stations had been set up and much wealth produced. Charles Heaphy claimed that of the £224,144 worth of whale oil exported from Sydney in 1840, more than half came from New Zealand. But the shore whalers’ methods were ruinous to a long-term industry. As the naturalist Ernst Dieffenbach wrote: ‘The shorewhalers, in hunting the animal in the season when it visits the shallow waters of the coast to bring forth the young, and suckle it in security, have felled the tree to obtain the fruit, and have taken the most certain means of destroying an otherwise profitable and important trade.’ 1	1,119	ENGLISH	1
I’m walking on the veranda of the Gorgas Building at Texas Southmost College in Brownsville. It’s named for the famous Army physician, William Gorgas, who was sent here to Fort Brown in 1882. This building was already here when he was. It was the hospital he ran. What he would learn here, and what would happen to him, would change the world. Gorgas was just 27 years old when arrived at Fort Brown. There was a full-blown yellow fever epidemic raging at the time. It was so named because it turned eyes and skin yellow. About half the people who came down with it, died. Yellow fever was not only deadly, it was quick. You could feel fine on Wednesday morning, have symptoms kick in that afternoon, and be dead by Saturday. Gorgas fought yellow fever head on. He didn’t yet know that mosquitoes spread it, but he did know that good sanitation and quarantining patients was useful. He launched public health measures that helped cut short the epidemic. Perhaps the best thing that happened to him during this time, and it will seem a strange thing to say, is that he came down with yellow fever himself, but it gave him lifelong immunity. He vowed to make fighting the disease his life’s work. His next significant posting in his war on yellow fever was to Cuba. It was there that the research of the Cuban doctor, Carlos Finlay, had laid out a convincing case for mosquitoes being responsible for transmitting the illness. Walter Reed, a name you likely recognize, tested Finlay’s theories and proved without a doubt that mosquitoes were responsible. Then Gorgas put the knowledge to practical use with fumigation, screening and outlawing open cisterns and standing water. Astoundingly, those efforts virtually wiped out yellow fever in Havana in a couple of years, reducing cases from thousands a year to fewer than 20. Then Dr. Gorgas made his big leap onto the world stage. You will remember the French had tried to dig the Panama Canal but failed miserably because they lost thousands of workers to yellow fever. Disease drove them out and silenced the steam shovels. The Americans, in a cannot-fail bid to do what the French couldn’t, resumed the dig. But in the first years, yellow fever and malaria threatened to drive the Americans out, too. Some said it would have taken 50 years and 80,000 lives to finish the canal under those conditions. Gorgas was brought in to solve the problem. But the political leaders in charge didn’t want to hear anything about his mosquito theory. They told him to keep that crazy theory to himself because “everyone knew that those tropical illnesses came from miasma – bad air.” Hell, the word “malaria” itself came from Italian, translating, verbatim, “mal” and “aria” – translation: bad air. Gorgas learned as Galileo did that getting the world, even scientists, to ditch a centuries old belief system in favor of a new one, has always been unfathomably difficult. Gorgas wanted to take what he had learned in Brownsville and Cuba and put it to work on a grand scale in Panama. He applied for a million dollars to protect Panama. The U.S. gave him $50,000. But with such poor funding, hundreds of workers were dying each month and the Americans risked being embarrassed by failure, just like the French. Teddy Roosevelt himself intervened and more or less said, “Give Gorgas what he wants.” So it was then that Gorgas screened all the houses, buildings and particularly the hospitals in the Canal Zone. This was essential because a patient could only get yellow fever from a mosquito that had bitten someone with yellow fever. Gorgas also had an army of fumigators at work across the isthmus every day. As he had in Cuba, Gorgas got rid of standing water and required covers on cisterns. He also drained swamps and treated undrainable waters with oil to keep larvae from forming. Within two years yellow fever had been completely eradicated from Panama. Gorgas was considered the medical hero of the canal because, without his work, the engineers and diggers and construction workers could never have done their work. Gorgas, without question, made the canal a reality. After Panama, Gorgas eventually became Surgeon General of the U.S. Army and was knighted by the King of England for his work in tropical diseases, from which the British greatly benefitted. So here I sit on the veranda of his old hospital at Fort Brown in Texas. The building still bears Gorgas’ name. I also admire the fact that his name has a place of honor 8,000 miles away on the side of the London School for Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Here at Texas Southmost College, funded from this very building, are many fine programs in nursing and health professions active today. I think Gorgas would be pleased.	<urn:uuid:b7444096-69f6-4784-b250-56abc1cf04a6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.texasstandard.org/stories/the-doctor-who-made-the-panama-canal-possible/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00112.warc.gz	en	0.985931	1,060	3.3125	3	[ -0.23332053422927856, 0.1292792558670044, 0.3456867039203644, 0.3833388686180115, 0.36938562989234924, -0.0020389414858072996, 0.6192412376403809, 0.3718845844268799, -0.3819117546081543, -0.22154802083969116, 0.1910223662853241, -0.14877349138259888, 0.001037975074723363, 0.36309224367141...	14	I’m walking on the veranda of the Gorgas Building at Texas Southmost College in Brownsville. It’s named for the famous Army physician, William Gorgas, who was sent here to Fort Brown in 1882. This building was already here when he was. It was the hospital he ran. What he would learn here, and what would happen to him, would change the world. Gorgas was just 27 years old when arrived at Fort Brown. There was a full-blown yellow fever epidemic raging at the time. It was so named because it turned eyes and skin yellow. About half the people who came down with it, died. Yellow fever was not only deadly, it was quick. You could feel fine on Wednesday morning, have symptoms kick in that afternoon, and be dead by Saturday. Gorgas fought yellow fever head on. He didn’t yet know that mosquitoes spread it, but he did know that good sanitation and quarantining patients was useful. He launched public health measures that helped cut short the epidemic. Perhaps the best thing that happened to him during this time, and it will seem a strange thing to say, is that he came down with yellow fever himself, but it gave him lifelong immunity. He vowed to make fighting the disease his life’s work. His next significant posting in his war on yellow fever was to Cuba. It was there that the research of the Cuban doctor, Carlos Finlay, had laid out a convincing case for mosquitoes being responsible for transmitting the illness. Walter Reed, a name you likely recognize, tested Finlay’s theories and proved without a doubt that mosquitoes were responsible. Then Gorgas put the knowledge to practical use with fumigation, screening and outlawing open cisterns and standing water. Astoundingly, those efforts virtually wiped out yellow fever in Havana in a couple of years, reducing cases from thousands a year to fewer than 20. Then Dr. Gorgas made his big leap onto the world stage. You will remember the French had tried to dig the Panama Canal but failed miserably because they lost thousands of workers to yellow fever. Disease drove them out and silenced the steam shovels. The Americans, in a cannot-fail bid to do what the French couldn’t, resumed the dig. But in the first years, yellow fever and malaria threatened to drive the Americans out, too. Some said it would have taken 50 years and 80,000 lives to finish the canal under those conditions. Gorgas was brought in to solve the problem. But the political leaders in charge didn’t want to hear anything about his mosquito theory. They told him to keep that crazy theory to himself because “everyone knew that those tropical illnesses came from miasma – bad air.” Hell, the word “malaria” itself came from Italian, translating, verbatim, “mal” and “aria” – translation: bad air. Gorgas learned as Galileo did that getting the world, even scientists, to ditch a centuries old belief system in favor of a new one, has always been unfathomably difficult. Gorgas wanted to take what he had learned in Brownsville and Cuba and put it to work on a grand scale in Panama. He applied for a million dollars to protect Panama. The U.S. gave him $50,000. But with such poor funding, hundreds of workers were dying each month and the Americans risked being embarrassed by failure, just like the French. Teddy Roosevelt himself intervened and more or less said, “Give Gorgas what he wants.” So it was then that Gorgas screened all the houses, buildings and particularly the hospitals in the Canal Zone. This was essential because a patient could only get yellow fever from a mosquito that had bitten someone with yellow fever. Gorgas also had an army of fumigators at work across the isthmus every day. As he had in Cuba, Gorgas got rid of standing water and required covers on cisterns. He also drained swamps and treated undrainable waters with oil to keep larvae from forming. Within two years yellow fever had been completely eradicated from Panama. Gorgas was considered the medical hero of the canal because, without his work, the engineers and diggers and construction workers could never have done their work. Gorgas, without question, made the canal a reality. After Panama, Gorgas eventually became Surgeon General of the U.S. Army and was knighted by the King of England for his work in tropical diseases, from which the British greatly benefitted. So here I sit on the veranda of his old hospital at Fort Brown in Texas. The building still bears Gorgas’ name. I also admire the fact that his name has a place of honor 8,000 miles away on the side of the London School for Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Here at Texas Southmost College, funded from this very building, are many fine programs in nursing and health professions active today. I think Gorgas would be pleased.	1,041	ENGLISH	1
While some people commend Spain’s gesture as a way to rectify historical violence, critics question the country’s motives Juan Hernandez-Villafuerte’s parents identified as Christian, so he didn’t understand why, by family tradition, they abstained from pork, washed their hands thoroughly before and after meals and covered the mirrors in the home after someone died. “You had to do it, but you never knew why,” he says at age 41. “I wasn’t aware of my Sephardic heritage at (any) point, even though I knew there was something different about us.” Before immigrating to Canada in 2012, he grew up in northeastern Mexico. His mother suspected they might have Jewish roots, so this fall, he left his home in Montreal and spent most of his vacation in the municipal archives of Mexico City. He found police and church records, as well as a yellowish paper — a property record from the year 1610 — bearing the name of his great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great grandfather. “I was actually able to touch it,” he says. “I always wanted to know who I was.” He was prompted to begin his research after the Spanish Parliament unanimously passed a law in 2015 to grant citizenship to the descendants of Sephardic Jews, meaning Jews with Iberian roots. The deadline for applications passed at the end of September, at which point the Ministry of Justice said it had received more than 130,000 applications, of which approximately 6,000 had been approved. Israel used to be that escape hatch, but now Israel is in as much chaos as the United States Spain’s initiative is part of a trend across Europe to repatriate Jewish families who faced persecution. Beginning in the 1300s, Sephardic Jews were forcibly converted to Catholicism, and during the Spanish Inquisition beginning the 1400s, the converts were investigated under suspicion that they may be continuing to practice judaism. Some historians estimate 2,000 converts were burned alive, while others faced different punishments, and after the Inquisition was established, an estimated 100,000 remaining Jews were expelled. Portugal also enacted a similar citizenship law in 2015, and countries including Germany, Austria and Poland have been granting citizenship to the descendants of Jews persecuted in the lead up to the Holocaust and during the Holocaust. Spain’s initiative has led people to discover their family identities, but many of them have spent $6,000 on the application process, and the program is politically and economically charged. While some people commend Spain’s gesture as a way to rectify historical violence — or at least a way to secure a passport to the European Union — critics point out the expense of the application and question the country’s motives. “They took everything from us — our identity, our possessions, any property that we had,” says Maria Apodaca, a Sephardic Jew who lives in Albuquerque, NM. “I don’t have $6,000 a pop to do this, and I don’t see how it would benefit me,” she says. “I was planted in the United States, and in the United States I’ll stay.” Applicants do not need to be practicing Jews, but they do need to prove Sephardic heritage with evidence such as census documents and records of birth, baptism, marriage and death. Applicants must have these records translated by a translator recognized by the Spanish government, and they must travel to Spain to sign with a Spanish notary. “It’s almost like a huge, many, many months-long scavenger hunt,” says Daniel Romano, a lawyer in Montreal who applied for citizenship with his wife. In his legal profession, he recently worked on an immigration case of a Venezuelan refugee, and he says her refugee claim was “100 times more simple” than his Spanish citizenship application. Romano has always identified as a Sephardic Jew, and he had a sense of duty to accept the Spanish government’s offer of reconciliation. “It’s odd, but I felt the need to reciprocate. They cannot make amends through our mutual ancestors … if the descendants do not take up the offer,” he says. Some applicants have sought rabbis to vouch for their heritage. Shlomo Gabay, the rabbi at Beth Hamidrash, a Sephardic synagogue in Vancouver, says he received eight or more requests per month to write letters for Spanish citizenship applications. The requests came mainly from South Americans, Mexicans and the occasional Canadian, with some people showing him original scripts from the time of the Inquisition. “People really, really took this seriously,” says Gabay. In Britain, some Jews have seen repatriation programs as a ticket to work, study and travel in the European Union after Brexit. Ben Shapiro, a 26-year-old man who works at an interfaith charity in London, considered applying for Spanish citizenship but instead applied for German citizenship because the process was easier given that his relative was already applying, and it achieves the same access to the E.U. “There’s definitely a lot of Jewish people that feel like their Spanish or Sephardic expression of Judaism is important to them, so being validated by Spain is something that’s pleasing,” says Shapiro, “but I think also Brexit is just having a big (impact on) young, liberal European-liking people who don’t want to give that up if they don’t have to.” Spain could be taking this measure as an effort to boost its population and economy. The country’s fertility rate is far below replacement level at 1.3 children per woman, and its population is predicted to decline by 9.4 million between 2000 and 2050, according to the United Nations Population Division in 2000. The country has introduced pro-natal policies to encourage Spaniards to have more children and has accepted increasing numbers of refugees. Since applicants for the Jewish repatriation program must pass a language and citizenship test — and in many cases must hire a lawyer and genealogist to help with their claim — the initiative could attract migrants of affluence, as could repatriation programs elsewhere in Europe. “There’s a sense certainly toward the Jews of some sort of historical debt, some sort of reckoning,” says Howard Adelman, an associate professor of history at Queen’s University, specializing in Jewish history, “but if I can be more cynical, I think there’s also an element of an attempt to bring people with assets and affluence to the countries and also to offset some of the refugees that are arriving at these countries.” He notes that Muslims also endured forcible conversion in Spain, and in the 1600s, he says, hundreds of thousands of converts, known as Moriscos, were expelled. Yet, “no country has it on the table to talk about repatriating Muslims.” Adelman says some Jews are disillusioned by antisemitism during the Trump administration, while some Jews are leaving Israel due to its unstable democracy. “Many of them are having an awakening that they have to have another place to go, and I think that Israel used to be that escape hatch, but now Israel is in as much chaos as the United States,” he says. Applications for Spanish citizenship surged at the time of Donald Trump’s election, says Schelly Talalay Dardashti, who works with the Spanish Citizenship Committee of the Jewish Federation of New Mexico, which received 50 to 75 calls per day before the deadline from people inquiring about Spanish citizenship. Some applicants have showed up at her office and cried, she says, having observed family customs all their lives but never having understood that the customs were Jewish. “That is a bombshell that goes off in someone’s head. That is a real identity crisis,” she says. “Citizenship is like getting this badge: yes, we are who we are.” When Dardashti meets with people, she asks them to write down family customs related to death, food and even cleaning the home, but many applicants get DNA testing and hire genealogists to help their claim. Dennis Maez, a genealogist in New Mexico, was so overwhelmed with requests from Sephardic applicants that he had to put on hold his day job, running businesses that sell cars and cattle. He researched family trees for approximately 250 applicants, tracing some families back as far as the year 910. As the deadline approached, he was “absolutely burnt out,” he says. “I would just work tremendous hours putting the (genealogies) together. I just finally had to quit.” In Montreal, Hernandez-Villafuerte did his genealogy research himself. Even if his application is approved, he never intends to live in Spain. “I think this is something I had to do for my ancestors,” he says. “They went through a lot of pain. They were expelled from their land … To me, it’s not about, What I can do with that citizenship? It’s more about restoring something that I love, or we loved, hundreds of years ago.”	<urn:uuid:703400e3-0f3d-4e51-85c2-002a44c90120>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://vancouversun.com/news/canada/the-scavenger-hunt-prize-for-sephardic-jews-descendants-of-the-inquisition-spanish-citizenship/wcm/10f9eacc-5667-47e4-8344-14c08ffd2e45	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00171.warc.gz	en	0.98112	1,974	3.296875	3	[ -0.07986953854560852, 0.6392802596092224, 0.13681873679161072, -0.3762476444244385, -0.01625611074268818, -0.0033111104276031256, -0.09526782482862473, 0.03330265358090401, 0.32514047622680664, -0.10038203001022339, 0.05528663098812103, 0.3046085834503174, -0.4548504054546356, -0.032214004...	1	While some people commend Spain’s gesture as a way to rectify historical violence, critics question the country’s motives Juan Hernandez-Villafuerte’s parents identified as Christian, so he didn’t understand why, by family tradition, they abstained from pork, washed their hands thoroughly before and after meals and covered the mirrors in the home after someone died. “You had to do it, but you never knew why,” he says at age 41. “I wasn’t aware of my Sephardic heritage at (any) point, even though I knew there was something different about us.” Before immigrating to Canada in 2012, he grew up in northeastern Mexico. His mother suspected they might have Jewish roots, so this fall, he left his home in Montreal and spent most of his vacation in the municipal archives of Mexico City. He found police and church records, as well as a yellowish paper — a property record from the year 1610 — bearing the name of his great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great grandfather. “I was actually able to touch it,” he says. “I always wanted to know who I was.” He was prompted to begin his research after the Spanish Parliament unanimously passed a law in 2015 to grant citizenship to the descendants of Sephardic Jews, meaning Jews with Iberian roots. The deadline for applications passed at the end of September, at which point the Ministry of Justice said it had received more than 130,000 applications, of which approximately 6,000 had been approved. Israel used to be that escape hatch, but now Israel is in as much chaos as the United States Spain’s initiative is part of a trend across Europe to repatriate Jewish families who faced persecution. Beginning in the 1300s, Sephardic Jews were forcibly converted to Catholicism, and during the Spanish Inquisition beginning the 1400s, the converts were investigated under suspicion that they may be continuing to practice judaism. Some historians estimate 2,000 converts were burned alive, while others faced different punishments, and after the Inquisition was established, an estimated 100,000 remaining Jews were expelled. Portugal also enacted a similar citizenship law in 2015, and countries including Germany, Austria and Poland have been granting citizenship to the descendants of Jews persecuted in the lead up to the Holocaust and during the Holocaust. Spain’s initiative has led people to discover their family identities, but many of them have spent $6,000 on the application process, and the program is politically and economically charged. While some people commend Spain’s gesture as a way to rectify historical violence — or at least a way to secure a passport to the European Union — critics point out the expense of the application and question the country’s motives. “They took everything from us — our identity, our possessions, any property that we had,” says Maria Apodaca, a Sephardic Jew who lives in Albuquerque, NM. “I don’t have $6,000 a pop to do this, and I don’t see how it would benefit me,” she says. “I was planted in the United States, and in the United States I’ll stay.” Applicants do not need to be practicing Jews, but they do need to prove Sephardic heritage with evidence such as census documents and records of birth, baptism, marriage and death. Applicants must have these records translated by a translator recognized by the Spanish government, and they must travel to Spain to sign with a Spanish notary. “It’s almost like a huge, many, many months-long scavenger hunt,” says Daniel Romano, a lawyer in Montreal who applied for citizenship with his wife. In his legal profession, he recently worked on an immigration case of a Venezuelan refugee, and he says her refugee claim was “100 times more simple” than his Spanish citizenship application. Romano has always identified as a Sephardic Jew, and he had a sense of duty to accept the Spanish government’s offer of reconciliation. “It’s odd, but I felt the need to reciprocate. They cannot make amends through our mutual ancestors … if the descendants do not take up the offer,” he says. Some applicants have sought rabbis to vouch for their heritage. Shlomo Gabay, the rabbi at Beth Hamidrash, a Sephardic synagogue in Vancouver, says he received eight or more requests per month to write letters for Spanish citizenship applications. The requests came mainly from South Americans, Mexicans and the occasional Canadian, with some people showing him original scripts from the time of the Inquisition. “People really, really took this seriously,” says Gabay. In Britain, some Jews have seen repatriation programs as a ticket to work, study and travel in the European Union after Brexit. Ben Shapiro, a 26-year-old man who works at an interfaith charity in London, considered applying for Spanish citizenship but instead applied for German citizenship because the process was easier given that his relative was already applying, and it achieves the same access to the E.U. “There’s definitely a lot of Jewish people that feel like their Spanish or Sephardic expression of Judaism is important to them, so being validated by Spain is something that’s pleasing,” says Shapiro, “but I think also Brexit is just having a big (impact on) young, liberal European-liking people who don’t want to give that up if they don’t have to.” Spain could be taking this measure as an effort to boost its population and economy. The country’s fertility rate is far below replacement level at 1.3 children per woman, and its population is predicted to decline by 9.4 million between 2000 and 2050, according to the United Nations Population Division in 2000. The country has introduced pro-natal policies to encourage Spaniards to have more children and has accepted increasing numbers of refugees. Since applicants for the Jewish repatriation program must pass a language and citizenship test — and in many cases must hire a lawyer and genealogist to help with their claim — the initiative could attract migrants of affluence, as could repatriation programs elsewhere in Europe. “There’s a sense certainly toward the Jews of some sort of historical debt, some sort of reckoning,” says Howard Adelman, an associate professor of history at Queen’s University, specializing in Jewish history, “but if I can be more cynical, I think there’s also an element of an attempt to bring people with assets and affluence to the countries and also to offset some of the refugees that are arriving at these countries.” He notes that Muslims also endured forcible conversion in Spain, and in the 1600s, he says, hundreds of thousands of converts, known as Moriscos, were expelled. Yet, “no country has it on the table to talk about repatriating Muslims.” Adelman says some Jews are disillusioned by antisemitism during the Trump administration, while some Jews are leaving Israel due to its unstable democracy. “Many of them are having an awakening that they have to have another place to go, and I think that Israel used to be that escape hatch, but now Israel is in as much chaos as the United States,” he says. Applications for Spanish citizenship surged at the time of Donald Trump’s election, says Schelly Talalay Dardashti, who works with the Spanish Citizenship Committee of the Jewish Federation of New Mexico, which received 50 to 75 calls per day before the deadline from people inquiring about Spanish citizenship. Some applicants have showed up at her office and cried, she says, having observed family customs all their lives but never having understood that the customs were Jewish. “That is a bombshell that goes off in someone’s head. That is a real identity crisis,” she says. “Citizenship is like getting this badge: yes, we are who we are.” When Dardashti meets with people, she asks them to write down family customs related to death, food and even cleaning the home, but many applicants get DNA testing and hire genealogists to help their claim. Dennis Maez, a genealogist in New Mexico, was so overwhelmed with requests from Sephardic applicants that he had to put on hold his day job, running businesses that sell cars and cattle. He researched family trees for approximately 250 applicants, tracing some families back as far as the year 910. As the deadline approached, he was “absolutely burnt out,” he says. “I would just work tremendous hours putting the (genealogies) together. I just finally had to quit.” In Montreal, Hernandez-Villafuerte did his genealogy research himself. Even if his application is approved, he never intends to live in Spain. “I think this is something I had to do for my ancestors,” he says. “They went through a lot of pain. They were expelled from their land … To me, it’s not about, What I can do with that citizenship? It’s more about restoring something that I love, or we loved, hundreds of years ago.”	1,903	ENGLISH	1
2015 年 78 巻 5 号 p. 467-472 This study was focused on modern fountains in the Japanese garden. The fountain has not previously been emphasized as a garden facility in Japan, and there are not many previous studies on this subject. So, we discussed the hi storical development of modern fountains in Japanese gardens from the Meiji period to the pre-war days of the Showa period. First, considering the examples of the vocabulary of fountain in the landscape architecture-related terms, its transition shows that the fountain which was new in the Meiji period was generalized after 1955 circa. And then, examining the examples of modern fountains in gardens of Japan as much as possible, and the development of garden modern fountains in Japan were considered historically. We collected 449 image materials of fountains and 36 newspaper and magazine articles. Through the analysis of those research material, the modern fountains of Japanese gardens were appeared in the mid of Meiji period. Those fountains were installed at the redeveloped park of precincts of temples and shrines. Also early examples of fountains were observed at the gardens of nobles and authority. Through Taisho and Showa periods, fountains of Japanese gardens were seems to be increasing. And then after the Pacific War era, fountains were getting popular but the fountains of the Japanese garden were losing its popularity.	<urn:uuid:0ab62a3e-b8aa-4fe8-b2a2-31f3139de9cb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jila/78/5/78_467/_article/-char/ja	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00466.warc.gz	en	0.981715	293	3.34375	3	[ 0.08047329634428024, -0.03493403643369675, 0.5658000111579895, -0.10378330945968628, 0.17317095398902893, 0.27261415123939514, -0.1647460162639618, 0.03698351979255676, 0.2852413058280945, 0.18919159471988678, 0.0029240448493510485, -0.41366201639175415, 0.1048499196767807, 0.4162884056568...	1	2015 年 78 巻 5 号 p. 467-472 This study was focused on modern fountains in the Japanese garden. The fountain has not previously been emphasized as a garden facility in Japan, and there are not many previous studies on this subject. So, we discussed the hi storical development of modern fountains in Japanese gardens from the Meiji period to the pre-war days of the Showa period. First, considering the examples of the vocabulary of fountain in the landscape architecture-related terms, its transition shows that the fountain which was new in the Meiji period was generalized after 1955 circa. And then, examining the examples of modern fountains in gardens of Japan as much as possible, and the development of garden modern fountains in Japan were considered historically. We collected 449 image materials of fountains and 36 newspaper and magazine articles. Through the analysis of those research material, the modern fountains of Japanese gardens were appeared in the mid of Meiji period. Those fountains were installed at the redeveloped park of precincts of temples and shrines. Also early examples of fountains were observed at the gardens of nobles and authority. Through Taisho and Showa periods, fountains of Japanese gardens were seems to be increasing. And then after the Pacific War era, fountains were getting popular but the fountains of the Japanese garden were losing its popularity.	298	ENGLISH	1
Playwright Anton Chekhov Wade Bradford : Born in 1860, Anton Chekhov grew up in the Russian town of Taganrog. He spent much of his childhood quietly sitting in his fatherâ€™s fledgling grocery store. He watched the customers and listened to their gossip, their hopes, and their complaints. Early on, he learned to observe the everyday lives of humans. His ability to listen would become one of his most valuable skills as a storyteller. His father, Paul Chekhov, grew up in an impoverished family. Anton's grandfather was actually a serf in Czarist Russia, but through hard work and thriftiness, he purchased his familyâ€™s freedom. Young Antonâ€™s father became a self-employed grocer, but the business never prospered and eventually fell apart. Monetary woes dominated Chekhovâ€™s childhood. As a result, financial conflicts are prominent in his plays and fiction. Despite economic hardship, Chekhov was a talented student. In 1879, he left Taganrog to attend medical school in Moscow. At this time, he felt the pressure of being the head of the household. His father was no longer earning a living. Chekhov needed a way to make money without abandoning school. Writing stories provided a solution. He began writing humorous stories for local newspapers and journals. At first the stories paid very little. However, Chekhov was a quick and prolific humorist. By the time he was in his fourth year of medical school, he had caught the attention of several editors. By 1883, his stories were earning him money. Chekhovâ€™s literary purpose As a writer, Chekhov did not subscribe to a particular religion or political affiliation. He wanted to satirize, not preach. At the time, artists and scholars debated the purpose of literature. Some felt that literature should offer â€˜life instructions.â€™ Others felt that art should simply exist to please. For the most part, Chekhov agreed with the latter view. Anton Chekhov said, â€œThe artist must be not the judge of his characters and of what they say, but merely a dispassionate observer.â€ Chekhov, the playwright Because of his fondness for dialogue, Chekhov felt drawn to the theatre. His early plays such as Ivanov and The Wood Demon artistically dissatisfied him. In 1895, he began working on a rather original theatrical project: The Seagull. It was a play that defied many of the traditional elements of common stage productions. It lacked plot and it focused on many interesting yet emotionally static characters. In 1896, The Seagull received a disastrous response on opening night. The audience actually booed during the first act. Fortunately, innovative directors Konstantin Stanislavski and Vladimir Nemirovich-Danechenko believed in Chekhovâ€™s work. Their new approach to drama invigorated audiences. The Moscow Art Theatre restaged The Seagull and created a triumphant crowd-pleaser. Soon after, the Moscow Art Theatre, led by Stanislavski and Nemirovich-Danechenko, produced the rest of Chekhovâ€™s masterpieces: Uncle Vanya (1899), The Three Sisters (1900), The Cherry Orchard (1904). The Russian storyteller played with themes of romance and marriage, but throughout most of his life he did not take love seriously. He had occasional affairs, but he did not fall in love until he met Olga Knipper, an up-and-coming Russian actress. They were very discreetly married in 1901. Olga not only starred in Chekhovâ€™s plays, she also deeply understood them. More than anyone in Chekhovâ€™s circle, she interpreted the subtle meanings within the plays. For example, Stanislavski thought The Cherry Orchard was a â€˜tragedy of Russian life.â€™ Olga instead knew that Chekhov intended it to be a â€˜gay comedy,â€™ one that almost touched upon farce. Olga and Chekhov were kindred spirits, though they did not spend much time together. Their letters indicate that they were very affectionate to one another. Sadly, their marriage would not last very long, due to Chekhovâ€™s failing health. Chekhovâ€™s final days At the age of 24, Chekhov began showing signs of tuberculosis. He tried to ignore this condition; however by his early 30s his health had deterorated beyond denial. When The Cherry Orchard opened in 1904, tuberculosis had ravaged his lungs. His body was visibly weakened. Most of his friends and family knew the end was near. Opening night of The Cherry Orchard became a tribute filled with speeches and heartfelt thanks. It was of saying goodbye to Russiaâ€™s greatest playwright. On July 14, 1904, Chekhov stayed up late working on yet another short story. After going to bed, he suddenly awoke and summoned a doctor. The physician could do nothing for him. He breathed his last.	<urn:uuid:a798928c-8223-4e98-b25c-44a7c280cd9e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://m.thedailynewnation.com/news/222592	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00281.warc.gz	en	0.98406	1,089	3.328125	3	[ 0.26857948303222656, -0.1795164793729782, 0.25919944047927856, -0.05290916934609413, -0.15371721982955933, -0.3211519718170166, 0.12691807746887207, 0.4159952998161316, 0.01068099308758974, -0.23712581396102905, -0.04236920177936554, 0.314700722694397, -0.13025689125061035, 0.5165568590164...	3	Playwright Anton Chekhov Wade Bradford : Born in 1860, Anton Chekhov grew up in the Russian town of Taganrog. He spent much of his childhood quietly sitting in his fatherâ€™s fledgling grocery store. He watched the customers and listened to their gossip, their hopes, and their complaints. Early on, he learned to observe the everyday lives of humans. His ability to listen would become one of his most valuable skills as a storyteller. His father, Paul Chekhov, grew up in an impoverished family. Anton's grandfather was actually a serf in Czarist Russia, but through hard work and thriftiness, he purchased his familyâ€™s freedom. Young Antonâ€™s father became a self-employed grocer, but the business never prospered and eventually fell apart. Monetary woes dominated Chekhovâ€™s childhood. As a result, financial conflicts are prominent in his plays and fiction. Despite economic hardship, Chekhov was a talented student. In 1879, he left Taganrog to attend medical school in Moscow. At this time, he felt the pressure of being the head of the household. His father was no longer earning a living. Chekhov needed a way to make money without abandoning school. Writing stories provided a solution. He began writing humorous stories for local newspapers and journals. At first the stories paid very little. However, Chekhov was a quick and prolific humorist. By the time he was in his fourth year of medical school, he had caught the attention of several editors. By 1883, his stories were earning him money. Chekhovâ€™s literary purpose As a writer, Chekhov did not subscribe to a particular religion or political affiliation. He wanted to satirize, not preach. At the time, artists and scholars debated the purpose of literature. Some felt that literature should offer â€˜life instructions.â€™ Others felt that art should simply exist to please. For the most part, Chekhov agreed with the latter view. Anton Chekhov said, â€œThe artist must be not the judge of his characters and of what they say, but merely a dispassionate observer.â€ Chekhov, the playwright Because of his fondness for dialogue, Chekhov felt drawn to the theatre. His early plays such as Ivanov and The Wood Demon artistically dissatisfied him. In 1895, he began working on a rather original theatrical project: The Seagull. It was a play that defied many of the traditional elements of common stage productions. It lacked plot and it focused on many interesting yet emotionally static characters. In 1896, The Seagull received a disastrous response on opening night. The audience actually booed during the first act. Fortunately, innovative directors Konstantin Stanislavski and Vladimir Nemirovich-Danechenko believed in Chekhovâ€™s work. Their new approach to drama invigorated audiences. The Moscow Art Theatre restaged The Seagull and created a triumphant crowd-pleaser. Soon after, the Moscow Art Theatre, led by Stanislavski and Nemirovich-Danechenko, produced the rest of Chekhovâ€™s masterpieces: Uncle Vanya (1899), The Three Sisters (1900), The Cherry Orchard (1904). The Russian storyteller played with themes of romance and marriage, but throughout most of his life he did not take love seriously. He had occasional affairs, but he did not fall in love until he met Olga Knipper, an up-and-coming Russian actress. They were very discreetly married in 1901. Olga not only starred in Chekhovâ€™s plays, she also deeply understood them. More than anyone in Chekhovâ€™s circle, she interpreted the subtle meanings within the plays. For example, Stanislavski thought The Cherry Orchard was a â€˜tragedy of Russian life.â€™ Olga instead knew that Chekhov intended it to be a â€˜gay comedy,â€™ one that almost touched upon farce. Olga and Chekhov were kindred spirits, though they did not spend much time together. Their letters indicate that they were very affectionate to one another. Sadly, their marriage would not last very long, due to Chekhovâ€™s failing health. Chekhovâ€™s final days At the age of 24, Chekhov began showing signs of tuberculosis. He tried to ignore this condition; however by his early 30s his health had deterorated beyond denial. When The Cherry Orchard opened in 1904, tuberculosis had ravaged his lungs. His body was visibly weakened. Most of his friends and family knew the end was near. Opening night of The Cherry Orchard became a tribute filled with speeches and heartfelt thanks. It was of saying goodbye to Russiaâ€™s greatest playwright. On July 14, 1904, Chekhov stayed up late working on yet another short story. After going to bed, he suddenly awoke and summoned a doctor. The physician could do nothing for him. He breathed his last.	1,097	ENGLISH	1
Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Birth Place : Discoverer of the radiation phenomenon known as the Cherenkov radiation, Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov was a Nobel Prize-winning physicist from Russia. His most important discovery was the radiation emitted by highly energetic atomic particles moving with velocities faster than light in a given medium. Cherenkov discovered the omission of blue light when this phenomenon takes place. Pavel Cherenkov was a pioneering physicist in his lifetime, contributing a lot to research on cosmic rays and nuclear physics in Russia. For his contribution, apart from the Nobel Prize, he won two Stalin prizes – a highly recognized award for scientists in Russia. Childhood and early life Pavel Cherenkov was born on July 28, 1904, in a small village called Novaya Chigla in South Russia. His parents were Alexey Cherenkov and Maria Cherenkova. His star sign was Leo. The family had a poor background. Cherenkov did not have a pleasant childhood – his mother passed away when he was only two years old. His father remarried and produced more children. Living with eight brothers and sisters, Cherenkov grew up in poor living conditions and was forced to do labour jobs at just 13 years of age. He did not receive a lot of primary education because of this. When Pavel Cherenkov was 16, a Soviet secondary school was started in his village. Excited, he joined the school and continued to work as a manual labourer. He went to the State University without finishing secondary education as he was old enough. He studied physics and mathematics and graduated in 1928. Pavel Cherenkov understood the importance of education as he was denied the privilege. So after graduating, he started teaching science in evening classes to laborers like him in the in Kozlov, Camberwell province. In 1930, Cherenkov joined Lebedev Physical Institute as a researcher. It is one of the oldest research institutes in Russia. There he worked under S.I. Vavilov on nuclear radiation studying radioactive elements that were bombarded with highly energetic gamma rays. In 1934, while experimenting, Pavel Cherenkov observed a bluish light coming from a substance that was brought into an excited state. This unique electromagnetic radiation was emitted by atomic particles traveling with a velocity faster than light in the given media. This discovery was an especially important one as it paved the path for research on cosmic rays and further nuclear physics. For his contribution, he was awarded the Nobel Prize. Pavel Cherenkov continued working on the Cherenkov radiation and discovered the real cause of this phenomenon.Cherenkov continued his studies on the side, and in 1940 he became the doctor of Physio mathematical sciences. Cherenkov assisted in the development of particle accelerators – like the Cherenkov counter – that could excite particles near to the speed of light. Along with Wexler, he was awarded the Stalin prize for building up a two 50 million electron would MeV synchrotron. Pavel Cherenkov continued to teach as a professor at the Moscow Institute of physical engineers for close to 25 years. He also helped to build the Cherenkov detector, which was installed in SputnikIII to observe the presence and velocity of particles moving at really high speeds in space. Pavel Cherenkov was also elected as a member of the US National Academy of Sciences in 1985. Cherenkov was a lifelong researcher and continued to work until his death. Pavel Cherenkov received the Nobel Prize in physics in the year 1958 - 24 years after his discovery of the bluish radiation that we now know as the Cherenkov radiation in his honor. Cherenkov was also awarded the Stalin prize twice for his contributions towards the development of physics in Russia. In 1977, he was also awarded the USSR State Prize. He also got the honorable title of Hero of Socialist Labour from the Soviet Union in 1984. Pavel Cherenkov married in 1930 to Maria Putintseva who was the daughter of a Russian literature professor A. M. Putintsev. They produced two children – a son Alex and a daughter Yelena. Both of them grew up to become well-known scientists. Pavel Cherenkov died an old man on January 6, 1990, in Moscow. He was 85 years old. Arthur Leonard Schawlow Martin Lewis Perl Robert Sanderson Mulliken	<urn:uuid:18bad953-9cd9-4bc7-98d0-ee7bcaea5f82>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/pavel-alekseyevich-cherenkov/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00347.warc.gz	en	0.980689	935	3.421875	3	[ -0.167911559343338, 0.4615601897239685, -0.17166480422019958, -0.09114544093608856, -0.0022487426176667213, -0.40990161895751953, 0.4239804744720459, 0.3122919201850891, -0.1334783285856247, 0.16783374547958374, 0.27480465173721313, -0.6675889492034912, -0.15864518284797668, 0.003487598150...	1	Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Birth Place : Discoverer of the radiation phenomenon known as the Cherenkov radiation, Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov was a Nobel Prize-winning physicist from Russia. His most important discovery was the radiation emitted by highly energetic atomic particles moving with velocities faster than light in a given medium. Cherenkov discovered the omission of blue light when this phenomenon takes place. Pavel Cherenkov was a pioneering physicist in his lifetime, contributing a lot to research on cosmic rays and nuclear physics in Russia. For his contribution, apart from the Nobel Prize, he won two Stalin prizes – a highly recognized award for scientists in Russia. Childhood and early life Pavel Cherenkov was born on July 28, 1904, in a small village called Novaya Chigla in South Russia. His parents were Alexey Cherenkov and Maria Cherenkova. His star sign was Leo. The family had a poor background. Cherenkov did not have a pleasant childhood – his mother passed away when he was only two years old. His father remarried and produced more children. Living with eight brothers and sisters, Cherenkov grew up in poor living conditions and was forced to do labour jobs at just 13 years of age. He did not receive a lot of primary education because of this. When Pavel Cherenkov was 16, a Soviet secondary school was started in his village. Excited, he joined the school and continued to work as a manual labourer. He went to the State University without finishing secondary education as he was old enough. He studied physics and mathematics and graduated in 1928. Pavel Cherenkov understood the importance of education as he was denied the privilege. So after graduating, he started teaching science in evening classes to laborers like him in the in Kozlov, Camberwell province. In 1930, Cherenkov joined Lebedev Physical Institute as a researcher. It is one of the oldest research institutes in Russia. There he worked under S.I. Vavilov on nuclear radiation studying radioactive elements that were bombarded with highly energetic gamma rays. In 1934, while experimenting, Pavel Cherenkov observed a bluish light coming from a substance that was brought into an excited state. This unique electromagnetic radiation was emitted by atomic particles traveling with a velocity faster than light in the given media. This discovery was an especially important one as it paved the path for research on cosmic rays and further nuclear physics. For his contribution, he was awarded the Nobel Prize. Pavel Cherenkov continued working on the Cherenkov radiation and discovered the real cause of this phenomenon.Cherenkov continued his studies on the side, and in 1940 he became the doctor of Physio mathematical sciences. Cherenkov assisted in the development of particle accelerators – like the Cherenkov counter – that could excite particles near to the speed of light. Along with Wexler, he was awarded the Stalin prize for building up a two 50 million electron would MeV synchrotron. Pavel Cherenkov continued to teach as a professor at the Moscow Institute of physical engineers for close to 25 years. He also helped to build the Cherenkov detector, which was installed in SputnikIII to observe the presence and velocity of particles moving at really high speeds in space. Pavel Cherenkov was also elected as a member of the US National Academy of Sciences in 1985. Cherenkov was a lifelong researcher and continued to work until his death. Pavel Cherenkov received the Nobel Prize in physics in the year 1958 - 24 years after his discovery of the bluish radiation that we now know as the Cherenkov radiation in his honor. Cherenkov was also awarded the Stalin prize twice for his contributions towards the development of physics in Russia. In 1977, he was also awarded the USSR State Prize. He also got the honorable title of Hero of Socialist Labour from the Soviet Union in 1984. Pavel Cherenkov married in 1930 to Maria Putintseva who was the daughter of a Russian literature professor A. M. Putintsev. They produced two children – a son Alex and a daughter Yelena. Both of them grew up to become well-known scientists. Pavel Cherenkov died an old man on January 6, 1990, in Moscow. He was 85 years old. Arthur Leonard Schawlow Martin Lewis Perl Robert Sanderson Mulliken	969	ENGLISH	1
for all the things you do... The buffalo nickel (also known as the Indian head nickel) was produced from 1913 through 1938 and was designed by James Earle Fraser. It is actually a bison, not a buffalo, on the reverse but more on that later. Early in 1911, Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh's son wrote to him suggesting that there be a new design on the five-cent piece. The son had read the law which stipulated a coin design could not be changed more often than every 25 years. The 25 year "waiting" period for the Liberty nickel has passed back in February of 1908. MacVeagh had assumed office under President William Howard Taft in March 1909, and missed all the excitement when President Theodore Roosevelt managed to get several top artists to redesign the cent and gold coins. Fraser's artistic ability earned the undying respect of a dying Augustus Saint-Gaudens, who recommended Fraser to President Theodore Roosevelt to sculpture the official presidential bust. Roosevelt and Fraser quickly became friends. Despite the fact that William Howard Taft was president in 1912, Roosevelt recommended that Fraser be chosen to design the copper-nickel 5-cent coin. It is interesting to note that the Philadelphia mint was kept in the dark for quite some time during the initial design change discussions. Though not proven, it is widely speculated that this was done because of previous issues with Charles E. Barber over the double eagle design by Augustus Saint-Gaudens in 1908. Barber was still the chief engraver and believed that he should have all authority of engraving and coin design and since he designed the nickel that was still in production, he was probably not in any big hurry to change it. The obverse design for the Indian Head 5-cent coin, commonly called a "Buffalo nickel," depicts a large, powerful portrait of an Indian, facing right. The appearance is rough looking, unlike the smooth cheeks and other facial features that typify the many versions of Lady Liberty that have been on U.S Coins. The portrait is believed to be a composite of three Indian chiefs, although the identities of the models have been disputed. A few Native Americans laid claim to be the model for the coin. The artist himself identified two of the models as Chief Iron Tail, a Sioux and Chief Two Moons, a Cheyenne. Unfortunately, Fraser had trouble remembering the names of his models. He had been asked the question so many times, that it was evident he was growing tired of the whole issue rather than set the record straight. In an undated letter to Mint Director George E. Roberts believed to be from 1913, suggests that Fraser considered the Indian design represented a type, rather than a direct portrait. He said he could recall Two Moons and Iron Tail as having served as his inspiration and possibly "one or two others". In alter years he dropped the number of possible "other" models to one. The one Indian originally believed to be the third model was Chief Two Guns White Calf, a Blackfoot. His claim lost a great deal of validity when in 1931, Fraser denied having used him as a model. In a letter dated June 10, 1931, from Fraser to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs of the U.S. Department of Interior, and later released to the press on July 12, 1931, Fraser is quoted as saying: "The Indian head on the Buffalo nickel is not a direct portrait of any particular Indian, but was made from several portrait busts which I did not Indians. As a matter of fact, I used three different Indian heads; I remember two of the men. One was Irontail, the best Indian head I can remember; the other one was Two Moons, and the third I cannot recall. I have never seen Two Guns Whitecalf nor used him in any way, although he has a magnificent head. I can easily understand how he was mistaken in thinking that he posed for me. A great many artists have modeled and drawn him, and it was only natural for him to believe that one of them was the designer of the nickel. I am particularly interested in Indian affairs, having as a boy lived in South Dakota before the Indians were so carefully guarded in their agencies. Later, the Crow Creek agency was formed at Chamberlain, but I always feel that I have seen the Indian in this natural habitat, with the finest costumes being worn. I hope their affairs are progressing favorably." Through the years the search for the third model continued although many still believe it was Two Guns. Another Indian, Chief John Big Tree claimed he was the third model. There are many inconsistencies in his story/claim as well. Chief John Big Tree was also an actor. While we may never know for sure the identity of the third person, we do know a little about the model on the reverse The American bison serves as the reverse of the coin. Yes, it is a bison on the nickel, not a buffalo. Technically, buffaloes are found mostly in India and Africa, not in the United States. When the first settlers came to America and happened upon the Bison - they did not know what they were. The only animals they could relate them to were the Asian Water Buffalo. They started calling them buffalo for lack of a correct name, and the name stuck for many, many years. So, the American Buffalo is not a true buffalo. Its closest relative is the European Bison or Wisent and the Canadian Woods Bison, not the buffalo of Asia or Africa, such as the Cape Buffalo or Water Buffalo. Scientifically, the American Buffalo is named Bison and belongs to Bovidae family of mammals, as do domestic cattle. Because our history has so ingrained in us the name "Buffalo", we still use it, although "Bison" and "Buffalo" are used interchangeably. As just stated, our American Bison and the Water Buffalos are not even related. (There are actually two types of Bison as well. The Plains Bison and the Woods Bison - one being smaller and darker than the other and having populated different regions of the US in the early years) However, since so many people are familiar with their own learned definition of a "buffalo" you'll find we still sometimes use that term when referring to a bison. As such, the term buffalo will be used when referring to the reverse of the coin. Anyway... To Be Continued!!! Keith Scott has been a collector for over 30 years and owns a small internet-based coin store at www.mountainviewcoins.com. Visit his website www.mountainviewcoins.com for a history of US coins, metal market updates and news about your favorite coins.	<urn:uuid:ab1af689-323e-4dc6-8caf-9b1881f00079>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.hobbizine.com/page0025.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00059.warc.gz	en	0.982768	1,369	3.3125	3	[ -0.35830405354499817, -0.015382420271635056, 0.267252653837204, -0.09532646834850311, -0.3286703824996948, 0.03518151119351387, 0.5815407633781433, 0.005187781527638435, -0.38241034746170044, 0.16626553237438202, 0.14944468438625336, -0.19235074520111084, -0.03869527950882912, -0.006915804...	5	for all the things you do... The buffalo nickel (also known as the Indian head nickel) was produced from 1913 through 1938 and was designed by James Earle Fraser. It is actually a bison, not a buffalo, on the reverse but more on that later. Early in 1911, Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh's son wrote to him suggesting that there be a new design on the five-cent piece. The son had read the law which stipulated a coin design could not be changed more often than every 25 years. The 25 year "waiting" period for the Liberty nickel has passed back in February of 1908. MacVeagh had assumed office under President William Howard Taft in March 1909, and missed all the excitement when President Theodore Roosevelt managed to get several top artists to redesign the cent and gold coins. Fraser's artistic ability earned the undying respect of a dying Augustus Saint-Gaudens, who recommended Fraser to President Theodore Roosevelt to sculpture the official presidential bust. Roosevelt and Fraser quickly became friends. Despite the fact that William Howard Taft was president in 1912, Roosevelt recommended that Fraser be chosen to design the copper-nickel 5-cent coin. It is interesting to note that the Philadelphia mint was kept in the dark for quite some time during the initial design change discussions. Though not proven, it is widely speculated that this was done because of previous issues with Charles E. Barber over the double eagle design by Augustus Saint-Gaudens in 1908. Barber was still the chief engraver and believed that he should have all authority of engraving and coin design and since he designed the nickel that was still in production, he was probably not in any big hurry to change it. The obverse design for the Indian Head 5-cent coin, commonly called a "Buffalo nickel," depicts a large, powerful portrait of an Indian, facing right. The appearance is rough looking, unlike the smooth cheeks and other facial features that typify the many versions of Lady Liberty that have been on U.S Coins. The portrait is believed to be a composite of three Indian chiefs, although the identities of the models have been disputed. A few Native Americans laid claim to be the model for the coin. The artist himself identified two of the models as Chief Iron Tail, a Sioux and Chief Two Moons, a Cheyenne. Unfortunately, Fraser had trouble remembering the names of his models. He had been asked the question so many times, that it was evident he was growing tired of the whole issue rather than set the record straight. In an undated letter to Mint Director George E. Roberts believed to be from 1913, suggests that Fraser considered the Indian design represented a type, rather than a direct portrait. He said he could recall Two Moons and Iron Tail as having served as his inspiration and possibly "one or two others". In alter years he dropped the number of possible "other" models to one. The one Indian originally believed to be the third model was Chief Two Guns White Calf, a Blackfoot. His claim lost a great deal of validity when in 1931, Fraser denied having used him as a model. In a letter dated June 10, 1931, from Fraser to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs of the U.S. Department of Interior, and later released to the press on July 12, 1931, Fraser is quoted as saying: "The Indian head on the Buffalo nickel is not a direct portrait of any particular Indian, but was made from several portrait busts which I did not Indians. As a matter of fact, I used three different Indian heads; I remember two of the men. One was Irontail, the best Indian head I can remember; the other one was Two Moons, and the third I cannot recall. I have never seen Two Guns Whitecalf nor used him in any way, although he has a magnificent head. I can easily understand how he was mistaken in thinking that he posed for me. A great many artists have modeled and drawn him, and it was only natural for him to believe that one of them was the designer of the nickel. I am particularly interested in Indian affairs, having as a boy lived in South Dakota before the Indians were so carefully guarded in their agencies. Later, the Crow Creek agency was formed at Chamberlain, but I always feel that I have seen the Indian in this natural habitat, with the finest costumes being worn. I hope their affairs are progressing favorably." Through the years the search for the third model continued although many still believe it was Two Guns. Another Indian, Chief John Big Tree claimed he was the third model. There are many inconsistencies in his story/claim as well. Chief John Big Tree was also an actor. While we may never know for sure the identity of the third person, we do know a little about the model on the reverse The American bison serves as the reverse of the coin. Yes, it is a bison on the nickel, not a buffalo. Technically, buffaloes are found mostly in India and Africa, not in the United States. When the first settlers came to America and happened upon the Bison - they did not know what they were. The only animals they could relate them to were the Asian Water Buffalo. They started calling them buffalo for lack of a correct name, and the name stuck for many, many years. So, the American Buffalo is not a true buffalo. Its closest relative is the European Bison or Wisent and the Canadian Woods Bison, not the buffalo of Asia or Africa, such as the Cape Buffalo or Water Buffalo. Scientifically, the American Buffalo is named Bison and belongs to Bovidae family of mammals, as do domestic cattle. Because our history has so ingrained in us the name "Buffalo", we still use it, although "Bison" and "Buffalo" are used interchangeably. As just stated, our American Bison and the Water Buffalos are not even related. (There are actually two types of Bison as well. The Plains Bison and the Woods Bison - one being smaller and darker than the other and having populated different regions of the US in the early years) However, since so many people are familiar with their own learned definition of a "buffalo" you'll find we still sometimes use that term when referring to a bison. As such, the term buffalo will be used when referring to the reverse of the coin. Anyway... To Be Continued!!! Keith Scott has been a collector for over 30 years and owns a small internet-based coin store at www.mountainviewcoins.com. Visit his website www.mountainviewcoins.com for a history of US coins, metal market updates and news about your favorite coins.	1,401	ENGLISH	1
Hus’s fiery determination to stand up for truth laid a foundation that led directly to the Reformation. The last words of John Hus were that, “in 100 years, God will raise up a man whose calls for reform cannot be suppressed.” It was almost exactly 100 years later, in 1517, when Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses of Contention onto the church door at Wittenberg. Because of the prophecy of Jan Hus, (whose name means ‘goose’), a swan is the traditional symbol of many Lutheran congregations, although, Luther’s Rose is also popular. Hus’s early years Jan Hus was born in the village of Husinec click here in southern Bohemia (today part of the Czech Republic) from which he took his name. In Czech the word “hus” means “goose.” His parents were peasants—nameless and unknown. His mother taught Jan to pray and, as he grew older, influenced him toward a career as a priest. Hus the student Hus started his studies at Charles University in Prague in 1390. In 1393 he became a bachelor of arts and a year later a master of liberal arts. Hus recounts his poverty while studying at the university in Prague: “When I was a hungry young student, I used to make a spoon out of bread in order to eat peas with it. Then I ate the spoon as well.” Hus the priest / Hus and Wycliffe Meanwhile, King Wenceslas’ sister, Anne, married Richard II of England in 1382. When Hus’s hotheaded friend Jerome of Prague returned from Oxford University, he brought many of Wycliffe’s writings. They struck a chord with Hus and he hand copied many of these writings for his personal study. He agreed with Wycliffe that all people should be able to read the Bible in their own language. At that time, the Roman church threatened to execute anyone found reading the Bible in anything but Latin. Hus became a priest in 1400 and began preaching in Czech at Bethlehem Chapel in 1402. He was a popular preacher and the congregation was often more than 3,000 people. He preached godliness and openly criticized the clergy, saying, “These priests…are drunks whose bellies growl with great drinking and are gluttons whose stomachs are overfilled until their double chins hang down.” On December 20, 1409 the Pope issued a bull ordering all of Wycliffe’s books to be burned and forbidding his teachings. The Czech people were incensed and there was an uprising. Hus continued to preach and his support grew, despite the entire city being excommunicated. Hus in exile In 1412. after the papal ban, Hus left Prague voluntarily and preached in the countryside and in small village churches, visiting towns such as Sezimovo Usti. Hus was not without his supporters, notably the Czech king Vaclav IV. During this time he published his most famous work De Ecclesia (concerning the church). In this work he stressed that Christ is the head of the Church, not Peter. He also challenged the power and authority of the pope and cardinals. On October 14, 1414 he began his journey to Constance joined by 30 riders. He had been promised safe passage by the Emperor Sigismund. He arrived on November 3, 1414. Three weeks later, however, he was arrested and taken to a dank dungeon where he remained in chains for seventy-three days. His cell was next to a sewer and he spent those weeks in hunger and poor health. It was only when the pope’s physician visited, that he was moved to a better cell. The first trial was on June 5, 1415 at the Franciscan monastery. On July 6, 1415 he was led into the Cathedral. A total of 30 charges were leveled against him, mostly false, including the charge that he’d referred to himself as the fourth person of the godhead. Repeatedly asked to recant, he refused unless convinced by scripture of his errors. His priests vestments were put on him, then ripped of and destroyed, as the priests declared that they were committing his soul to the devil. He was given a paper hat with pictures of the devil to wear, with the inscription ‘haeresiarcha’ ( One who originates or is the chief proponent of a heresy or heretical movement). The Council of Constance also condemned Jerome of Prague and John Wycliffe. On July 6, 1414, Hus’s hands were tied behind his back with ropes and a chain was placed around his neck. Wood and straw were placed all around him. Wycliffe’s writings were used as kindling for the fire. Before the fire was lit, Count Palatine gave him one last chance to recant. He responded, “God is my witness that the evidence against me is false. I have never thought nor preached except with the one intention of winning men, if possible, from their sins. Today I will gladly die.” As the flames began, he sang in Latin, “Christ, thou Son of the living God, have mercy upon me.” His ashes were scattered in the Rhine river.	<urn:uuid:fb6a61e8-fc64-42c9-a340-61d3f6d967bd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://reformationtours.com/jan-hus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00430.warc.gz	en	0.989097	1,112	3.375	3	[ -0.23978275060653687, 0.6480685472488403, -0.3905351758003235, 0.04792322963476181, -0.030231591314077377, 0.15289928019046783, 0.04901392012834549, -0.09151466935873032, 0.03270508348941803, 0.01835557445883751, -0.20149771869182587, -0.2897486388683319, 0.4217809736728668, -0.30523529648...	2	Hus’s fiery determination to stand up for truth laid a foundation that led directly to the Reformation. The last words of John Hus were that, “in 100 years, God will raise up a man whose calls for reform cannot be suppressed.” It was almost exactly 100 years later, in 1517, when Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses of Contention onto the church door at Wittenberg. Because of the prophecy of Jan Hus, (whose name means ‘goose’), a swan is the traditional symbol of many Lutheran congregations, although, Luther’s Rose is also popular. Hus’s early years Jan Hus was born in the village of Husinec click here in southern Bohemia (today part of the Czech Republic) from which he took his name. In Czech the word “hus” means “goose.” His parents were peasants—nameless and unknown. His mother taught Jan to pray and, as he grew older, influenced him toward a career as a priest. Hus the student Hus started his studies at Charles University in Prague in 1390. In 1393 he became a bachelor of arts and a year later a master of liberal arts. Hus recounts his poverty while studying at the university in Prague: “When I was a hungry young student, I used to make a spoon out of bread in order to eat peas with it. Then I ate the spoon as well.” Hus the priest / Hus and Wycliffe Meanwhile, King Wenceslas’ sister, Anne, married Richard II of England in 1382. When Hus’s hotheaded friend Jerome of Prague returned from Oxford University, he brought many of Wycliffe’s writings. They struck a chord with Hus and he hand copied many of these writings for his personal study. He agreed with Wycliffe that all people should be able to read the Bible in their own language. At that time, the Roman church threatened to execute anyone found reading the Bible in anything but Latin. Hus became a priest in 1400 and began preaching in Czech at Bethlehem Chapel in 1402. He was a popular preacher and the congregation was often more than 3,000 people. He preached godliness and openly criticized the clergy, saying, “These priests…are drunks whose bellies growl with great drinking and are gluttons whose stomachs are overfilled until their double chins hang down.” On December 20, 1409 the Pope issued a bull ordering all of Wycliffe’s books to be burned and forbidding his teachings. The Czech people were incensed and there was an uprising. Hus continued to preach and his support grew, despite the entire city being excommunicated. Hus in exile In 1412. after the papal ban, Hus left Prague voluntarily and preached in the countryside and in small village churches, visiting towns such as Sezimovo Usti. Hus was not without his supporters, notably the Czech king Vaclav IV. During this time he published his most famous work De Ecclesia (concerning the church). In this work he stressed that Christ is the head of the Church, not Peter. He also challenged the power and authority of the pope and cardinals. On October 14, 1414 he began his journey to Constance joined by 30 riders. He had been promised safe passage by the Emperor Sigismund. He arrived on November 3, 1414. Three weeks later, however, he was arrested and taken to a dank dungeon where he remained in chains for seventy-three days. His cell was next to a sewer and he spent those weeks in hunger and poor health. It was only when the pope’s physician visited, that he was moved to a better cell. The first trial was on June 5, 1415 at the Franciscan monastery. On July 6, 1415 he was led into the Cathedral. A total of 30 charges were leveled against him, mostly false, including the charge that he’d referred to himself as the fourth person of the godhead. Repeatedly asked to recant, he refused unless convinced by scripture of his errors. His priests vestments were put on him, then ripped of and destroyed, as the priests declared that they were committing his soul to the devil. He was given a paper hat with pictures of the devil to wear, with the inscription ‘haeresiarcha’ ( One who originates or is the chief proponent of a heresy or heretical movement). The Council of Constance also condemned Jerome of Prague and John Wycliffe. On July 6, 1414, Hus’s hands were tied behind his back with ropes and a chain was placed around his neck. Wood and straw were placed all around him. Wycliffe’s writings were used as kindling for the fire. Before the fire was lit, Count Palatine gave him one last chance to recant. He responded, “God is my witness that the evidence against me is false. I have never thought nor preached except with the one intention of winning men, if possible, from their sins. Today I will gladly die.” As the flames began, he sang in Latin, “Christ, thou Son of the living God, have mercy upon me.” His ashes were scattered in the Rhine river.	1,128	ENGLISH	1
The difficulties of BND in its first years were just one facet of a larger bank crisis on the northern Great Plains. After North Dakota’s political subdivisions were released from the obligation to deposit their funds in BND in November 1920, the Bank could only remain solvent by calling in funds it had redeposited in commercial banks throughout the state. Many of those banks were unable to meet those demands. The Bank had no choice but to press for repayment, which would lead to the collapse of a number of marginal commercial banks. Between 1921 (the date of the recall election) and 1924, North Dakota lost almost a third of its commercial banks. Their failure put enormous strain on the state bank. By the end of 1924, BND had more than $1.5 million tied up in closed banks, with little or no hope of recovery. The problems, particular to North Dakota agricultural life, were now compounded by a regional and even national credit crisis.	<urn:uuid:3a2e4833-fd0e-482f-89b6-32dbd1830ff1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thebndstory.nd.gov/years-of-desperation/banking-in-crisis-mode/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00344.warc.gz	en	0.985985	195	3.453125	3	[ 0.03038681671023369, -0.2053837776184082, -0.047816116362810135, -0.3028475344181061, 0.21782022714614868, -0.06057168170809746, -0.27200889587402344, 0.24908360838890076, -0.3349669873714447, -0.2827543020248413, -0.13605904579162598, -0.06555023044347763, 0.3494173288345337, 0.2389170527...	7	The difficulties of BND in its first years were just one facet of a larger bank crisis on the northern Great Plains. After North Dakota’s political subdivisions were released from the obligation to deposit their funds in BND in November 1920, the Bank could only remain solvent by calling in funds it had redeposited in commercial banks throughout the state. Many of those banks were unable to meet those demands. The Bank had no choice but to press for repayment, which would lead to the collapse of a number of marginal commercial banks. Between 1921 (the date of the recall election) and 1924, North Dakota lost almost a third of its commercial banks. Their failure put enormous strain on the state bank. By the end of 1924, BND had more than $1.5 million tied up in closed banks, with little or no hope of recovery. The problems, particular to North Dakota agricultural life, were now compounded by a regional and even national credit crisis.	206	ENGLISH	1
3 stages of the Holocaust Essay The Holocaust systematically murdered 11 million people across Europe, more than half of those people were Jewish. The Jews were blamed for the German’s failures, such as World War I. As a result, Hitler established anti-Semitism throughout his army and the majority of Europe. The Holocaust consisted of three phases to annihilate the Jews. The phases did not create racial purity and they did not successfully annihilate all of the Jews as the Nazi party planned. The first phase began when the Nuremburg Laws were passed in 1935. These laws stripped Jews of their German citizenship, property, and jobs. Jews were required to wear a bright yellow Star of David attached to their clothing to make it easy for Nazis to identify them. The Nuremberg Laws, as they became known, did not define a, “Jew”, as someone with particular religious beliefs. Instead, anyone who had three or four Jewish grandparents were defined as a Jew, regardless of whether that individual identified himself or herself as a Jew or belonged to the Jewish religious community. Many Germans who had not practiced Judaism for years found themselves caught in the grip of Nazi terror. The Nuremberg Laws also prohibited marriage between Aryans, which were considered Hitler’s master race and Jews. Hitler implemented these laws to ostracize, discriminate and expel Jews from German society. Hitler’s obsession to rid Europe of Jewish people created the, “Final Solution”. This phase was the implementation of committing mass genocide of the Jewish people. To preserve Hitler’s, “master race”, the Nazis condemned to slavery and death not only the Jews but also other groups that they viewed as inferior or unworthy were considered enemies of the state. The Nazis silenced all of their political opponents regardless of their political affiliation. Many Jews were re-located into ghettos. Ghettos were segregated areas where Jews lived. Life inside the ghetto was a living hell. The Jews were forced to work in German industry factories that were built alongside the ghettos. There bodies of dead Jewish victims that littered the streets. The ghettos were filthy, and had very poor sanitation. Extreme overcrowding forced many people to share rooms. Disease was rampant and staying warm was difficult during the bitter cold winters. Lack of adequate clothing, heating fuel and food were in short supply. This lack of supplies caused many Jews to starve to death. The first phase of the holocaust did not successfully identify and relocate all of the Jews. The law prohibiting marriages between Jews and Germans failed to determine exactly who should be considered a Jew. Many Jews were able to get around the Nuremberg Laws. Therefore, if they were not identified as a Jew they would not be re-located into the ghettos. The second phase of the holocaust was relocation from ghettos to concentration camps or labor camps. Jews would be relocated to concentration camps during ghetto liquidation day. Ghetto liquidation day was when the Nazis would empty the ghettos by force. Anyone who refused to leave the ghetto or resisted the Nazi soldiers would be shot. All personal belongings would be left behind. Life in the concentration camps was a continuous cycle of hunger, humiliation, and work that almost always ended up in death. The prisoners were crammed into crude wooden barracks that held up to a thousand people each. Prisoners shared their crowded quarters and meager meals, with rats and fleas. Hunger was so intense that a survivor recalled, “That if a bit of soup spilled over, prisoners would converge on the spot, dig their spoons into the mud and stuff the mess into their mouths.” Inmates on the camp worked from dawn to dusk, seven day a week until they collapsed. Those too weak to work would be killed. Jews were killed and severely beaten everyday at concentration camps. They were forced to wear striped uniforms and armbands or labels to identify the type of prisoners that they were. The different colors of the bands represented different groups of people. The second phase of the holocaust was not as successful as the Nazi party had planned because not all of the Jews were relocated to the concentration camps from the ghettos. Some of the Jews were able to hide out in the ghettos. Others were able to escape from the concentration camps. In some cases organized resistance was formed in the ghettos amongst the Jews. For example, in the Polish capitol of Warsaw, individual Jews continued to hide themselves in the ghetto ruins for many months after they were forcefully told to leave by the Nazis. These resistance fighters often attacked German police officials on patrol. Approximately 20,000 Warsaw Jews continued to live in hiding in Warsaw long after the liquidation of the ghetto. The third phase of the holocaust was known as the final stage. In 1942 at a meeting held in Wannsee Poland, Hitler’s top officials agreed to begin a new phase of the mass murder of Jews. In addition to mass slaughter and starvation they would add a third method of killing. This third method was committing murder by poisonous gas. As deadly as overwork, starvation, beatings, and bullets were, they did not kill fast enough to satisfy the Nazis. The Germans built six death camps in Poland. The first, Chelmno began operating in 1941, before the meeting at Wannsee. Each camp had several large gas chambers in which as many as 12,000 people could be killed a day. Auschwitz was the largest of the death camps. The Jews were told to undress because they would be taking a shower. They would then enter the gas chamber and cyanide gas would spew from the vents in the wall killing everyone within the chamber. At first the bodies were buried in huge pits, but the decaying corpse gave off a stench that could be smelt for miles around. The mass graves also left evidence of the mass murder. At some camps the Nazis installed huge crematoriums, or ovens to burn the dead. At other camps, the bodies were thrown into a pit and simply set on fire. Gassing was not the only method of extermination. Prisoners were also hanged, shot, or injected with poison. Some died from medical experiments carried out by camp doctors. The victims were injected with deadly germs in order to study the effects of the disease. The third phase of the holocaust was not as successful as the Nazi party planned it to be. Not everyone died in the death camps and there were survivors. Six million Jews died in the death camps. Some Jews had miraculously escaped. Sometimes ordinary people helped the Jews because they were appalled by the Nazis’ treatment of Jews. Other Jews survived because they never lost hope. Though the holocaust killed an estimated six million Jews, Hitler and the Nazi party had a goal of a much higher number. When Germany was forced to surrender there were still Jews that either survived the camps or were able to hide or escape. Therefore the three phases of the holocaust did not completely exterminate the Jews. Hitler was not able to successfully create his “master race” of only blue eyed, blonde haired ethnic Germans. Cite this 3 stages of the Holocaust Essay 3 stages of the Holocaust Essay. (2016, Aug 17). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/3-stages-of-the-holocaust/	<urn:uuid:9f680579-e8f0-4e1a-9bfd-390d41a60004>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://graduateway.com/3-stages-of-the-holocaust/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00205.warc.gz	en	0.98687	1,509	3.296875	3	[ -0.15934064984321594, 0.4646078646183014, -0.09357571601867676, -0.0590318888425827, -0.06128823012113571, 0.5426831245422363, -0.14892680943012238, 0.15512649714946747, 0.1769198626279831, -0.12705975770950317, 0.3074173927307129, -0.09092001616954803, -0.3503337502479553, 0.1696529835462...	1	3 stages of the Holocaust Essay The Holocaust systematically murdered 11 million people across Europe, more than half of those people were Jewish. The Jews were blamed for the German’s failures, such as World War I. As a result, Hitler established anti-Semitism throughout his army and the majority of Europe. The Holocaust consisted of three phases to annihilate the Jews. The phases did not create racial purity and they did not successfully annihilate all of the Jews as the Nazi party planned. The first phase began when the Nuremburg Laws were passed in 1935. These laws stripped Jews of their German citizenship, property, and jobs. Jews were required to wear a bright yellow Star of David attached to their clothing to make it easy for Nazis to identify them. The Nuremberg Laws, as they became known, did not define a, “Jew”, as someone with particular religious beliefs. Instead, anyone who had three or four Jewish grandparents were defined as a Jew, regardless of whether that individual identified himself or herself as a Jew or belonged to the Jewish religious community. Many Germans who had not practiced Judaism for years found themselves caught in the grip of Nazi terror. The Nuremberg Laws also prohibited marriage between Aryans, which were considered Hitler’s master race and Jews. Hitler implemented these laws to ostracize, discriminate and expel Jews from German society. Hitler’s obsession to rid Europe of Jewish people created the, “Final Solution”. This phase was the implementation of committing mass genocide of the Jewish people. To preserve Hitler’s, “master race”, the Nazis condemned to slavery and death not only the Jews but also other groups that they viewed as inferior or unworthy were considered enemies of the state. The Nazis silenced all of their political opponents regardless of their political affiliation. Many Jews were re-located into ghettos. Ghettos were segregated areas where Jews lived. Life inside the ghetto was a living hell. The Jews were forced to work in German industry factories that were built alongside the ghettos. There bodies of dead Jewish victims that littered the streets. The ghettos were filthy, and had very poor sanitation. Extreme overcrowding forced many people to share rooms. Disease was rampant and staying warm was difficult during the bitter cold winters. Lack of adequate clothing, heating fuel and food were in short supply. This lack of supplies caused many Jews to starve to death. The first phase of the holocaust did not successfully identify and relocate all of the Jews. The law prohibiting marriages between Jews and Germans failed to determine exactly who should be considered a Jew. Many Jews were able to get around the Nuremberg Laws. Therefore, if they were not identified as a Jew they would not be re-located into the ghettos. The second phase of the holocaust was relocation from ghettos to concentration camps or labor camps. Jews would be relocated to concentration camps during ghetto liquidation day. Ghetto liquidation day was when the Nazis would empty the ghettos by force. Anyone who refused to leave the ghetto or resisted the Nazi soldiers would be shot. All personal belongings would be left behind. Life in the concentration camps was a continuous cycle of hunger, humiliation, and work that almost always ended up in death. The prisoners were crammed into crude wooden barracks that held up to a thousand people each. Prisoners shared their crowded quarters and meager meals, with rats and fleas. Hunger was so intense that a survivor recalled, “That if a bit of soup spilled over, prisoners would converge on the spot, dig their spoons into the mud and stuff the mess into their mouths.” Inmates on the camp worked from dawn to dusk, seven day a week until they collapsed. Those too weak to work would be killed. Jews were killed and severely beaten everyday at concentration camps. They were forced to wear striped uniforms and armbands or labels to identify the type of prisoners that they were. The different colors of the bands represented different groups of people. The second phase of the holocaust was not as successful as the Nazi party had planned because not all of the Jews were relocated to the concentration camps from the ghettos. Some of the Jews were able to hide out in the ghettos. Others were able to escape from the concentration camps. In some cases organized resistance was formed in the ghettos amongst the Jews. For example, in the Polish capitol of Warsaw, individual Jews continued to hide themselves in the ghetto ruins for many months after they were forcefully told to leave by the Nazis. These resistance fighters often attacked German police officials on patrol. Approximately 20,000 Warsaw Jews continued to live in hiding in Warsaw long after the liquidation of the ghetto. The third phase of the holocaust was known as the final stage. In 1942 at a meeting held in Wannsee Poland, Hitler’s top officials agreed to begin a new phase of the mass murder of Jews. In addition to mass slaughter and starvation they would add a third method of killing. This third method was committing murder by poisonous gas. As deadly as overwork, starvation, beatings, and bullets were, they did not kill fast enough to satisfy the Nazis. The Germans built six death camps in Poland. The first, Chelmno began operating in 1941, before the meeting at Wannsee. Each camp had several large gas chambers in which as many as 12,000 people could be killed a day. Auschwitz was the largest of the death camps. The Jews were told to undress because they would be taking a shower. They would then enter the gas chamber and cyanide gas would spew from the vents in the wall killing everyone within the chamber. At first the bodies were buried in huge pits, but the decaying corpse gave off a stench that could be smelt for miles around. The mass graves also left evidence of the mass murder. At some camps the Nazis installed huge crematoriums, or ovens to burn the dead. At other camps, the bodies were thrown into a pit and simply set on fire. Gassing was not the only method of extermination. Prisoners were also hanged, shot, or injected with poison. Some died from medical experiments carried out by camp doctors. The victims were injected with deadly germs in order to study the effects of the disease. The third phase of the holocaust was not as successful as the Nazi party planned it to be. Not everyone died in the death camps and there were survivors. Six million Jews died in the death camps. Some Jews had miraculously escaped. Sometimes ordinary people helped the Jews because they were appalled by the Nazis’ treatment of Jews. Other Jews survived because they never lost hope. Though the holocaust killed an estimated six million Jews, Hitler and the Nazi party had a goal of a much higher number. When Germany was forced to surrender there were still Jews that either survived the camps or were able to hide or escape. Therefore the three phases of the holocaust did not completely exterminate the Jews. Hitler was not able to successfully create his “master race” of only blue eyed, blonde haired ethnic Germans. Cite this 3 stages of the Holocaust Essay 3 stages of the Holocaust Essay. (2016, Aug 17). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/3-stages-of-the-holocaust/	1,505	ENGLISH	1
play Hamlet by William Shakespeare depicts th... play Hamlet by William Shakespeare depicts the theme of revenge in a very wide and clear manner. Different characters throughout the play show actions and movements aimed at revenge on each other. Hamlet in this play is expected to revenge against his uncle Claudius who killed Hamlet’s father to take the throne and remarry Hamlet’s mother. Apparently, Hamlet delays for a long time the action to kill Claudius. The playwright technically uses this delay to create more drama and sustain the play. This is because were it not for hamlet’s hesitation to seek revenge, the play would not be there. The cause of this delay could have been caused by several factors. This paper discusses some of the reasons why Hamlet delayed the killing of Claudius. critics of the play have tried to find an explanation for this delay. Most of them connect Hamlet’s hesitation to psychological reasons such as fear, uncertainty, and depression among others. However, the critics have not been able to come up with a reason that is universally accepted. According to Shaw (2002), depression could be one of the reasons for the delay. Though according to this critic, it is hard to accord a clinical diagnosis since the character Hamlet is just an imagined character. However, there are signs of depression in his actions. Hamlet appears to be suffering from a depressive illness whose signs include reduced energy, anhedonia, low mood, negative beliefs; this is evident when Hamlet refers to himself as melancholic. has not fully accepted the fact that he has lost his father. This is another factor that really disturbs hamlet and causes his delay to act. This is one of the reasons he feigns to madness, showing his grief and mourning the death of his father. This leads to him suffering the inability to love, losing interest in worldly matters, lowering his feelings on self-regard, painful objections as well as expectations of punishment (Cameron, 2014). to Eileen Cameron (2014), Hamlet is seen going through the inner struggles within himself. Though it is clear that Hamlet has feelings of hostility and hatred against his uncle Claudius and the ghost of his father further compels him to kill Claudius, there is evidence of unconscious conflicts as well as the loyalty to his own father. In Hamlet’s case, there is a conflict between evil and good based on a moral standpoint. Though it was morally offensive for Claudius to kill King Hamlet in order to take his throne and his wife, for Hamlet, it was not morally upright to kill him for revenge. The logic thinking and for Hamlet are also simultaneously disrupted by the appearance of the ghost. This also distorts his thoughts about is another cause of Hamlet's hesitation to kill his uncle. Although the ghost of his father has revealed to him that Claudius was responsible for the death of King Hamlet, Hamlet is privately cynical about the reliability of the ghost. Hamlet is also shown as a very skeptical and meditative character who always thinks before acting. This notably explains why he must wait until he is sure that Claudius actually killed his father before he can act on him. He, therefore, must wait until he has evidence and assurance on the killing of his father. It is also argued that Hamlet delayed the revenge because he wanted to make Claudius’ death very painful and ruthless, causing him to always postpone it. ("Essay Examples: Why Hamlet Delays in Avenging his Father's reason why Hamlet could have delayed revenging for his father is the unfortunate fact that he possessed some intellectual, psychological or emotional flaw. This causes failure to act without delay. To regain the status quo, Hamlet had a legitimate duty to revenge the killing of his father. Considering the fact that Claudius was sovereign, the only option that Hamlet was left with was to take the law into his hands and kill Claudius. However, his reluctance was also restrained by the desire for Gertrude, his mother. By killing Claudius, who is now the new lover for his mother, he would exterminate the image of his secretive Oedipal self. This would also be a very wild justice (Ryan, 2016). conclusion, though Hamlet finally succeeds to kill Claudius, he does so in a manner that suggests that he had not planned to do it at the moment. This shows that Hamlet had failed to accomplish his role of being a loyal avenging son which seems forgotten for him. However, his failure can be seen to be caused by so many forces acting against him.	<urn:uuid:ef146956-4be7-4ca5-94ae-9c41c8c35906>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mypaperhub.com/blog-post.php?id_blog_post=903	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00441.warc.gz	en	0.983226	1,022	3.9375	4	[ -0.07555540651082993, 0.07691477239131927, 0.4836289882659912, -0.0117058539763093, -0.34328657388687134, 0.2607969343662262, 0.2735052704811096, 0.18096336722373962, 0.12935450673103333, -0.4199696183204651, 0.25892794132232666, -0.12590837478637695, -0.24457304179668427, 0.23921430110931...	1	play Hamlet by William Shakespeare depicts th... play Hamlet by William Shakespeare depicts the theme of revenge in a very wide and clear manner. Different characters throughout the play show actions and movements aimed at revenge on each other. Hamlet in this play is expected to revenge against his uncle Claudius who killed Hamlet’s father to take the throne and remarry Hamlet’s mother. Apparently, Hamlet delays for a long time the action to kill Claudius. The playwright technically uses this delay to create more drama and sustain the play. This is because were it not for hamlet’s hesitation to seek revenge, the play would not be there. The cause of this delay could have been caused by several factors. This paper discusses some of the reasons why Hamlet delayed the killing of Claudius. critics of the play have tried to find an explanation for this delay. Most of them connect Hamlet’s hesitation to psychological reasons such as fear, uncertainty, and depression among others. However, the critics have not been able to come up with a reason that is universally accepted. According to Shaw (2002), depression could be one of the reasons for the delay. Though according to this critic, it is hard to accord a clinical diagnosis since the character Hamlet is just an imagined character. However, there are signs of depression in his actions. Hamlet appears to be suffering from a depressive illness whose signs include reduced energy, anhedonia, low mood, negative beliefs; this is evident when Hamlet refers to himself as melancholic. has not fully accepted the fact that he has lost his father. This is another factor that really disturbs hamlet and causes his delay to act. This is one of the reasons he feigns to madness, showing his grief and mourning the death of his father. This leads to him suffering the inability to love, losing interest in worldly matters, lowering his feelings on self-regard, painful objections as well as expectations of punishment (Cameron, 2014). to Eileen Cameron (2014), Hamlet is seen going through the inner struggles within himself. Though it is clear that Hamlet has feelings of hostility and hatred against his uncle Claudius and the ghost of his father further compels him to kill Claudius, there is evidence of unconscious conflicts as well as the loyalty to his own father. In Hamlet’s case, there is a conflict between evil and good based on a moral standpoint. Though it was morally offensive for Claudius to kill King Hamlet in order to take his throne and his wife, for Hamlet, it was not morally upright to kill him for revenge. The logic thinking and for Hamlet are also simultaneously disrupted by the appearance of the ghost. This also distorts his thoughts about is another cause of Hamlet's hesitation to kill his uncle. Although the ghost of his father has revealed to him that Claudius was responsible for the death of King Hamlet, Hamlet is privately cynical about the reliability of the ghost. Hamlet is also shown as a very skeptical and meditative character who always thinks before acting. This notably explains why he must wait until he is sure that Claudius actually killed his father before he can act on him. He, therefore, must wait until he has evidence and assurance on the killing of his father. It is also argued that Hamlet delayed the revenge because he wanted to make Claudius’ death very painful and ruthless, causing him to always postpone it. ("Essay Examples: Why Hamlet Delays in Avenging his Father's reason why Hamlet could have delayed revenging for his father is the unfortunate fact that he possessed some intellectual, psychological or emotional flaw. This causes failure to act without delay. To regain the status quo, Hamlet had a legitimate duty to revenge the killing of his father. Considering the fact that Claudius was sovereign, the only option that Hamlet was left with was to take the law into his hands and kill Claudius. However, his reluctance was also restrained by the desire for Gertrude, his mother. By killing Claudius, who is now the new lover for his mother, he would exterminate the image of his secretive Oedipal self. This would also be a very wild justice (Ryan, 2016). conclusion, though Hamlet finally succeeds to kill Claudius, he does so in a manner that suggests that he had not planned to do it at the moment. This shows that Hamlet had failed to accomplish his role of being a loyal avenging son which seems forgotten for him. However, his failure can be seen to be caused by so many forces acting against him.	1,009	ENGLISH	1
On Dec. 7, 1941, Japan declared war on the US followed by Germany and Italy on Dec. 11. Germany immediately began submarine attacks on US shipping, concentrating on the sealanes along our East Coast. The results were catastrophic for the movement of oil from Gulf of Mexico ports to the northeast and for shipment of supplies to our European Allies. In January 1942, 12 vessels were sunk along the coast. In March 42 went down, and by May the toll was so high that no figures were released to the public. The US military did not have enough ships and planes to combat the German menace. Fortunately, one organization could take significant action to help limit the attacks–the Civil Air Patrol. Organized a week before Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor and placed under the Office of Civilian Defense, CAP was composed of private pilots and support personnel who believed that war lay just over the horizon and knew they could perform many services to help the military. Its members, who ranged from millionaires to mechanics, served in units throughout the country, personally providing many of the aircraft and spare parts. Before the war ended, CAP numbered 100,000 men and women from 18 years of age to more than 50. In February 1942, CAP requested–and finally was granted–permission to conduct submarine patrols in aircraft of at least 90 horsepower. Their function was to find enemy submarines, then call in military aircraft and ships to sink them. Funds were provided for two bases, at Atlantic City, N.J., and Rehoboth, Del. Eventually 21 CAP bases would dot the coast. CAP volunteers were paid from five to eight dollars per day to cover their expenses. Submarine patrol was hazardous duty. Few of the pilots had any overwater flying experience, but their patrol areas lay from 20 to 100 miles offshore. They flew at 300 feet, too low to use parachutes. Patrols often were carried out in weather below Army and Navy minimums. Their light planes were not designed to survive ditching, which could be fatal, especially in winter. Because of these perils, female CAP pilots were not allowed to volunteer for submarine duty, but they flew in other capacities. CAP located more than 150 submarines, many of which were given the coup de grâce by the Army or Navy. Eventually the light planes capable of carrying two 100-pound bombs or a depth charge were armed and single-handedly sank at least one submarine, damaging several more. German captains soon learned that the appearance of a light plane meant that heavy help was on the way and that a crash dive was in order. As time passed, the combination of CAP and military might drove the submarines further and further from shore with a drastic reduction in US and Allied shipping losses. There were many acts of heroism by CAP sea-patrol crews. One in particular deserves telling, not only because of the valor displayed by the crew but also because it earned the first two of more than 800 Air Medals awarded to CAP members. On the afternoon of July 21, 1942, a CAP Fairchild aircraft went down about 20 miles at sea from the CAP base at Rehoboth. A radio call from the crashed plane’s sister ship gave the location. CAP Maj. Hugh R. Sharp Jr., commander of the base, and CAP Lt. Edmond I. Edwards immediately took off in an old Sikorsky amphibian, bucking a strong northeast wind. When they reached the crash scene, the left wing float of the amphibian was damaged while landing on the rough sea and was taking on water. Edwards climbed out on the hull and located Henry Cross, the pilot of the downed plane, who at first was hidden by ten-foot swells. His observer had disappeared and never was found. From his precarious perch on the hull, Edwards threw a rope to Cross, who appeared to be paralyzed. With great difficulty, the Sikorsky was maneuvered close enough for Edwards to reach Cross and pull him aboard, where it was apparent that his back had been broken. Now, as the sun set, the challenge was to get the injured man ashore and to a hospital, but the listing amphibian could not take off in its damaged condition, let alone withstand the rough sea. It would have to be taxied to shore. To keep the plane on an even keel, Edwards crawled out on the right wing and clung there until a Coast Guard ship arrived and towed them to shore. A chilled and soaking Edwards had been on the wing for more than seven hours when the rescue was completed. Henry Cross recovered and returned to duty with CAP but was not able to return to flying. For this feat of skill and courage, the first Air Medals awarded to CAP members were presented to Major Sharp and Lieutenant Edwards by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in a ceremony at the White House. These were the only Air Medals awarded to CAP members for specific actions. The other 800 were for sustained operations in hazardous conditions. When CAP ended its patrol missions, its antisubmarine units had flown nearly 87,000 missions totaling some 24 million miles over water, helped defeat the submarine menace, and rescued many survivors at sea. Other units continued to assist the military in many ways. According to Gen. H. H. “Hap” Arnold, 50 CAP members lost their lives serving the country during World War II. CAP became an auxiliary of the Air Force in 1948. Its members serve the US today as they have for more than half a century, flying 90 percent of landbased search-and-rescue missions for civilian aircraft, conducting counterdrug surveillance, training cadets, and participating in aviation education. CAP is a resource that far outweighs its modest cost. Published April 1996. For presentation on this web site, some Valor articles have been amended for accuracy.	<urn:uuid:bb66fc36-42a5-4825-aff6-483940f90246>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.airforcemag.com/article/valor-a-cap-for-the-sub-threat/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00286.warc.gz	en	0.984563	1,186	3.515625	4	[ -0.23651213943958282, 0.3153948187828064, 0.07039046287536621, -0.5119940042495728, 0.05861927568912506, 0.26186805963516235, 0.0034024310298264027, 0.39902904629707336, -0.06117136776447296, -0.24479356408119202, 0.35299932956695557, -0.10928384214639664, 0.24437732994556427, 0.4822432994...	9	On Dec. 7, 1941, Japan declared war on the US followed by Germany and Italy on Dec. 11. Germany immediately began submarine attacks on US shipping, concentrating on the sealanes along our East Coast. The results were catastrophic for the movement of oil from Gulf of Mexico ports to the northeast and for shipment of supplies to our European Allies. In January 1942, 12 vessels were sunk along the coast. In March 42 went down, and by May the toll was so high that no figures were released to the public. The US military did not have enough ships and planes to combat the German menace. Fortunately, one organization could take significant action to help limit the attacks–the Civil Air Patrol. Organized a week before Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor and placed under the Office of Civilian Defense, CAP was composed of private pilots and support personnel who believed that war lay just over the horizon and knew they could perform many services to help the military. Its members, who ranged from millionaires to mechanics, served in units throughout the country, personally providing many of the aircraft and spare parts. Before the war ended, CAP numbered 100,000 men and women from 18 years of age to more than 50. In February 1942, CAP requested–and finally was granted–permission to conduct submarine patrols in aircraft of at least 90 horsepower. Their function was to find enemy submarines, then call in military aircraft and ships to sink them. Funds were provided for two bases, at Atlantic City, N.J., and Rehoboth, Del. Eventually 21 CAP bases would dot the coast. CAP volunteers were paid from five to eight dollars per day to cover their expenses. Submarine patrol was hazardous duty. Few of the pilots had any overwater flying experience, but their patrol areas lay from 20 to 100 miles offshore. They flew at 300 feet, too low to use parachutes. Patrols often were carried out in weather below Army and Navy minimums. Their light planes were not designed to survive ditching, which could be fatal, especially in winter. Because of these perils, female CAP pilots were not allowed to volunteer for submarine duty, but they flew in other capacities. CAP located more than 150 submarines, many of which were given the coup de grâce by the Army or Navy. Eventually the light planes capable of carrying two 100-pound bombs or a depth charge were armed and single-handedly sank at least one submarine, damaging several more. German captains soon learned that the appearance of a light plane meant that heavy help was on the way and that a crash dive was in order. As time passed, the combination of CAP and military might drove the submarines further and further from shore with a drastic reduction in US and Allied shipping losses. There were many acts of heroism by CAP sea-patrol crews. One in particular deserves telling, not only because of the valor displayed by the crew but also because it earned the first two of more than 800 Air Medals awarded to CAP members. On the afternoon of July 21, 1942, a CAP Fairchild aircraft went down about 20 miles at sea from the CAP base at Rehoboth. A radio call from the crashed plane’s sister ship gave the location. CAP Maj. Hugh R. Sharp Jr., commander of the base, and CAP Lt. Edmond I. Edwards immediately took off in an old Sikorsky amphibian, bucking a strong northeast wind. When they reached the crash scene, the left wing float of the amphibian was damaged while landing on the rough sea and was taking on water. Edwards climbed out on the hull and located Henry Cross, the pilot of the downed plane, who at first was hidden by ten-foot swells. His observer had disappeared and never was found. From his precarious perch on the hull, Edwards threw a rope to Cross, who appeared to be paralyzed. With great difficulty, the Sikorsky was maneuvered close enough for Edwards to reach Cross and pull him aboard, where it was apparent that his back had been broken. Now, as the sun set, the challenge was to get the injured man ashore and to a hospital, but the listing amphibian could not take off in its damaged condition, let alone withstand the rough sea. It would have to be taxied to shore. To keep the plane on an even keel, Edwards crawled out on the right wing and clung there until a Coast Guard ship arrived and towed them to shore. A chilled and soaking Edwards had been on the wing for more than seven hours when the rescue was completed. Henry Cross recovered and returned to duty with CAP but was not able to return to flying. For this feat of skill and courage, the first Air Medals awarded to CAP members were presented to Major Sharp and Lieutenant Edwards by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in a ceremony at the White House. These were the only Air Medals awarded to CAP members for specific actions. The other 800 were for sustained operations in hazardous conditions. When CAP ended its patrol missions, its antisubmarine units had flown nearly 87,000 missions totaling some 24 million miles over water, helped defeat the submarine menace, and rescued many survivors at sea. Other units continued to assist the military in many ways. According to Gen. H. H. “Hap” Arnold, 50 CAP members lost their lives serving the country during World War II. CAP became an auxiliary of the Air Force in 1948. Its members serve the US today as they have for more than half a century, flying 90 percent of landbased search-and-rescue missions for civilian aircraft, conducting counterdrug surveillance, training cadets, and participating in aviation education. CAP is a resource that far outweighs its modest cost. Published April 1996. For presentation on this web site, some Valor articles have been amended for accuracy.	1,243	ENGLISH	1
Picasso is not just a man and his work. Picasso is always a legend, indeed almost a myth. In the public view he has long since been the personification of genius in modern art. Picasso is an idol, one of those rare creatures who act as crucibles in which the diverse and often chaotic phenomena of culture are focussed, who seem to body forth the artistic life of their age in one person. The same thing happens in politics, science, sport. And it happens in art. Born in Malaga, Spain, in October of 1881, he was the first child born in the family. His father worked as an artist, and was also a professor at the school of fine arts; he also worked as a curator for the museum in Malaga. Pablo Picasso studied under his father for one year, then went to the Academy of Arts for one year, prior to moving to Paris. In 1901 he went to Paris, which he found as the ideal place to practice new styles, and experiment with a variety of art forms. It was during these initial visits, which he began his work in surrealism and cubism style, which he was the founder of, and created many distinct pieces which were influenced by these art forms. Updates in style During his stay in Paris, Pablo Picasso was constantly updating his style; he did work from the blue period, the rose period, African influenced style, to cubism, surrealism, and realism. Not only did he master these styles, he was a pioneer in each of these movements, and influenced the styles to follow throughout the 20th century, from the initial works he created. In addition to the styles he introduced to the art world, he also worked through the many different styles which appeared, while working in Paris. Not only did he continually improve his style, and the works he created, he is well known because of the fact that he had the ability to create in any style which was prominent during the time. In 1917, Pablo Picasso joined the Russian Ballet, which toured in Rome; during this time he met Olga Khoklova, who was a ballerina; the couple eventually wed in 1918, upon returning to Paris. The couple eventually separated in 1935; Olga came from nobility,	<urn:uuid:aa4dec65-bb1b-40da-b19c-a0c37944d239>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theapplegallery.co.uk/single-post/2017/06/21/Pablo-Picasso	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00154.warc.gz	en	0.992197	469	3.3125	3	[ 0.1138560101389885, 0.529708981513977, 0.1282431036233902, -0.042725734412670135, -0.4211385250091553, 0.2639731764793396, 0.4406355321407318, -0.004569940734654665, 0.08738552778959274, 0.17529556155204773, 0.3437102138996124, -0.019522126764059067, -0.020622702315449715, 0.61893087625503...	1	Picasso is not just a man and his work. Picasso is always a legend, indeed almost a myth. In the public view he has long since been the personification of genius in modern art. Picasso is an idol, one of those rare creatures who act as crucibles in which the diverse and often chaotic phenomena of culture are focussed, who seem to body forth the artistic life of their age in one person. The same thing happens in politics, science, sport. And it happens in art. Born in Malaga, Spain, in October of 1881, he was the first child born in the family. His father worked as an artist, and was also a professor at the school of fine arts; he also worked as a curator for the museum in Malaga. Pablo Picasso studied under his father for one year, then went to the Academy of Arts for one year, prior to moving to Paris. In 1901 he went to Paris, which he found as the ideal place to practice new styles, and experiment with a variety of art forms. It was during these initial visits, which he began his work in surrealism and cubism style, which he was the founder of, and created many distinct pieces which were influenced by these art forms. Updates in style During his stay in Paris, Pablo Picasso was constantly updating his style; he did work from the blue period, the rose period, African influenced style, to cubism, surrealism, and realism. Not only did he master these styles, he was a pioneer in each of these movements, and influenced the styles to follow throughout the 20th century, from the initial works he created. In addition to the styles he introduced to the art world, he also worked through the many different styles which appeared, while working in Paris. Not only did he continually improve his style, and the works he created, he is well known because of the fact that he had the ability to create in any style which was prominent during the time. In 1917, Pablo Picasso joined the Russian Ballet, which toured in Rome; during this time he met Olga Khoklova, who was a ballerina; the couple eventually wed in 1918, upon returning to Paris. The couple eventually separated in 1935; Olga came from nobility,	481	ENGLISH	1
Samantha Eckert World History IWomen in History Many men have taken the roles of being leaders and taking charge. Queen Victoria showed that it was not just men that could take charge and make big changes. Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland made huge improvements and impacts during her time in control. She made many advances and decisions to better her people and the country. Born May 24, 1819, Alexandrina Victoria was born at Kensington Palace. Little did she know, in eighteen soon years her life would change dramatically by becoming Queen of her country. She grew up with her brother and sister. Young princess Victoria also kept a diary which she frequently wrote in. In her teenage years she spent some time with her parents finding a possible suitor and future king. Princess Victoria married Prince Albert. She liked to ask and get advice from him on the elements of state. They soon became parents and had nine children together. Queen, wife, and mother describe Queen Victoria, all very important and necessary roles. Women during this time led very private lives and were seen as emotional. They could not own land or be a participant in legal events. In the Victorian Era, named after Queen Victoria herself, the highest job women could have were teachers. Queen Victoria stopped women and kids from working in mines. Harmful gases were released which caused the mines to be unsanitary and unhealthy. This is a good act that helped the women and children to stay healthy. In this time marriage was usually arranged by parents for political gain. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert had real feelings for eachother. It was royal tradition that one could not propose to a king or queen, but Queen Victoria actually proposed to Prince Albert. By doing this action, Queen Victoria showed she can make decisions for herself and she had independence, which shows her leader-like qualities.The event that helped shape and change Queen Victoria was becoming queen! She helped her country increase in size by almost two times the previous size. She felt very linked together with her people around the Earth. She was the Empress of the subcontinent of India, which she was most proud of. It was her role and duty of queen to have her people’s trust. Although she was a great Queen, she faced some obstacles, in which some helped her learn. These interferences include, grieving for ten years after her husband died. She very rarely appeared in her public duties for a long time and was depressed. Before Prince Albert died, The Great Famine hit in 1845 that killed many. Queen Victoria had to deal with many upset people trying to cope with their losses of loved ones and finding solutions to these problems. Queen Victoria survived eight assassination attempts, most of which occured in her open carriage. Imagine almost being killed while trying to remain calm. Many of these obstacles helped her learn and become a better queen.Being remembered for the right things is important, and that is just what Queen Victoria is remembered for. She made many advances in science, industry, communications, and infrastructure. Her long reign and being throned young at the age of 18 is already incredible. The building of railways and underground sewage systems showed development and advancement in the country. Queen Victoria was a leader. She was very independent, even as a child and was inspired herself mostly. Her family also inspired her to do her best. To this day Queen Victoria continues to inspire modern day women. She showed it is possible to make an impact as young as eighteen years old. She was remembered for the influential things.Queen Victoria died peacefully with her family January 22, 1901. She was remembered the way she would want because of all the tremendous work she has done for her country. She showed that women can take any role men can. Many of her accomplishments and changes she made displayed that her role was very important and a crucial job to maintain.	<urn:uuid:ed599ae9-9c92-4533-a50d-4556bd9db8e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://houghtonlakeboard.org/samantha-most-proud-of-it-was-her-role/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00540.warc.gz	en	0.991737	780	3.390625	3	[ -0.2415684461593628, 0.25479748845100403, 0.8334673643112183, 0.10157600045204163, 0.14712505042552948, 0.28969806432724, 0.2014741748571396, -0.014101177453994751, 0.007711087819188833, 0.07831116765737534, 0.4144670069217682, -0.19237300753593445, 0.19135260581970215, 0.17724664509296417...	3	Samantha Eckert World History IWomen in History Many men have taken the roles of being leaders and taking charge. Queen Victoria showed that it was not just men that could take charge and make big changes. Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland made huge improvements and impacts during her time in control. She made many advances and decisions to better her people and the country. Born May 24, 1819, Alexandrina Victoria was born at Kensington Palace. Little did she know, in eighteen soon years her life would change dramatically by becoming Queen of her country. She grew up with her brother and sister. Young princess Victoria also kept a diary which she frequently wrote in. In her teenage years she spent some time with her parents finding a possible suitor and future king. Princess Victoria married Prince Albert. She liked to ask and get advice from him on the elements of state. They soon became parents and had nine children together. Queen, wife, and mother describe Queen Victoria, all very important and necessary roles. Women during this time led very private lives and were seen as emotional. They could not own land or be a participant in legal events. In the Victorian Era, named after Queen Victoria herself, the highest job women could have were teachers. Queen Victoria stopped women and kids from working in mines. Harmful gases were released which caused the mines to be unsanitary and unhealthy. This is a good act that helped the women and children to stay healthy. In this time marriage was usually arranged by parents for political gain. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert had real feelings for eachother. It was royal tradition that one could not propose to a king or queen, but Queen Victoria actually proposed to Prince Albert. By doing this action, Queen Victoria showed she can make decisions for herself and she had independence, which shows her leader-like qualities.The event that helped shape and change Queen Victoria was becoming queen! She helped her country increase in size by almost two times the previous size. She felt very linked together with her people around the Earth. She was the Empress of the subcontinent of India, which she was most proud of. It was her role and duty of queen to have her people’s trust. Although she was a great Queen, she faced some obstacles, in which some helped her learn. These interferences include, grieving for ten years after her husband died. She very rarely appeared in her public duties for a long time and was depressed. Before Prince Albert died, The Great Famine hit in 1845 that killed many. Queen Victoria had to deal with many upset people trying to cope with their losses of loved ones and finding solutions to these problems. Queen Victoria survived eight assassination attempts, most of which occured in her open carriage. Imagine almost being killed while trying to remain calm. Many of these obstacles helped her learn and become a better queen.Being remembered for the right things is important, and that is just what Queen Victoria is remembered for. She made many advances in science, industry, communications, and infrastructure. Her long reign and being throned young at the age of 18 is already incredible. The building of railways and underground sewage systems showed development and advancement in the country. Queen Victoria was a leader. She was very independent, even as a child and was inspired herself mostly. Her family also inspired her to do her best. To this day Queen Victoria continues to inspire modern day women. She showed it is possible to make an impact as young as eighteen years old. She was remembered for the influential things.Queen Victoria died peacefully with her family January 22, 1901. She was remembered the way she would want because of all the tremendous work she has done for her country. She showed that women can take any role men can. Many of her accomplishments and changes she made displayed that her role was very important and a crucial job to maintain.	791	ENGLISH	1
On January 12, 2010, Haiti is devastated by a massive earthquake. It drew an outpouring of support from around the globe but the small nation has yet to fully recover. Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, due largely to its history of colonization, occupation and exploitation by Spain, France and the United States. It also has a history of seismic activity—devastating earthquakes were recorded there in 1751, 1770, 1842 and 1946. The island of Hispaniola, which Haiti shares with the Dominican Republic, lies mostly between two large tectonic plates, the North American and the Caribbean. The Haitian capital of Port-au-Prince practically straddles this fault-line. Despite this knowledge and warnings from seismologists that another earthquake was likely in the near future, the country's poverty meant that infrastructure and emergency services were not prepared to handle the effects of a natural disaster. The 2010 earthquake struck just before 5 pm. The tremor was felt as far away as Cuba and Venezuela, but the epicenter of the 7.0-magnitude quake was just 16 miles away from Port-au-Prince. Eight aftershocks followed the same day, and at least 52 were recorded over the next two weeks. The effects were catastrophic. All of the capital’s hospitals, as well as three facilities run by Doctors Without Borders, sustained serious damage, as did Port-au-Prince's airport and its seaport, which was rendered inoperable. Telecoms services were greatly affected, major roads were rendered impassible and close to 300,000 buildings, most of which were residences, were damaged beyond repair. The National Assembly building and Port-au-Prince Cathedral were also destroyed. The human toll was horrific and remains incalculable. Some estimates put the number of deaths around 40-50,000, while the Haitian government estimated that over 316,000 died, but all authorities acknowledge that the death toll is impossible to truly count. Something approaching 1 million people were displaced. News and images of the quake, including photos of the heavily-damaged National Palace, quickly activated a massive humanitarian response. The Dominican Republic and Dominican Red Cross responded immediately with emergency supplies and airlifts to Dominican hospitals. Nations from every continent contributed money, supplies, and manpower. Port-au-Prince's airport operated around the clock but could not accommodate all the arrivals. Foreign air forces, including those of the United States and Great Britain, airlifted survivors to hospital ships off the coast, and some supplies were dropped to the island by parachute. The "Hope for Haiti" telethon on January 22nd broke records by raising $58 million in one day. Though the humanitarian response was immediate and overwhelming, Haiti's crippled infrastructure made the delivery of aid difficult. The situation was still classified as an emergency six months after the earthquake. A million people on the island lived in tents, and a cholera epidemic that began in October claimed over 3,300 more lives. Whether or not Haiti has yet recovered is a matter of debate, but the effects of the earthquake were palpable for the next decade.	<urn:uuid:dc954bd8-996b-4694-a13d-8e26e66e7623>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/massive-earthquake-strikes-haiti	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00452.warc.gz	en	0.982128	641	3.734375	4	[ 0.022973742336034775, -0.07941706478595734, 0.4370914697647095, -0.03126735985279083, 0.5106784701347351, 0.14819581806659698, -0.443421870470047, 0.33120808005332947, -0.02512899599969387, 0.20441867411136627, 0.3243109881877899, 0.09983690828084946, 0.18749837577342987, 0.417279422283172...	4	On January 12, 2010, Haiti is devastated by a massive earthquake. It drew an outpouring of support from around the globe but the small nation has yet to fully recover. Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, due largely to its history of colonization, occupation and exploitation by Spain, France and the United States. It also has a history of seismic activity—devastating earthquakes were recorded there in 1751, 1770, 1842 and 1946. The island of Hispaniola, which Haiti shares with the Dominican Republic, lies mostly between two large tectonic plates, the North American and the Caribbean. The Haitian capital of Port-au-Prince practically straddles this fault-line. Despite this knowledge and warnings from seismologists that another earthquake was likely in the near future, the country's poverty meant that infrastructure and emergency services were not prepared to handle the effects of a natural disaster. The 2010 earthquake struck just before 5 pm. The tremor was felt as far away as Cuba and Venezuela, but the epicenter of the 7.0-magnitude quake was just 16 miles away from Port-au-Prince. Eight aftershocks followed the same day, and at least 52 were recorded over the next two weeks. The effects were catastrophic. All of the capital’s hospitals, as well as three facilities run by Doctors Without Borders, sustained serious damage, as did Port-au-Prince's airport and its seaport, which was rendered inoperable. Telecoms services were greatly affected, major roads were rendered impassible and close to 300,000 buildings, most of which were residences, were damaged beyond repair. The National Assembly building and Port-au-Prince Cathedral were also destroyed. The human toll was horrific and remains incalculable. Some estimates put the number of deaths around 40-50,000, while the Haitian government estimated that over 316,000 died, but all authorities acknowledge that the death toll is impossible to truly count. Something approaching 1 million people were displaced. News and images of the quake, including photos of the heavily-damaged National Palace, quickly activated a massive humanitarian response. The Dominican Republic and Dominican Red Cross responded immediately with emergency supplies and airlifts to Dominican hospitals. Nations from every continent contributed money, supplies, and manpower. Port-au-Prince's airport operated around the clock but could not accommodate all the arrivals. Foreign air forces, including those of the United States and Great Britain, airlifted survivors to hospital ships off the coast, and some supplies were dropped to the island by parachute. The "Hope for Haiti" telethon on January 22nd broke records by raising $58 million in one day. Though the humanitarian response was immediate and overwhelming, Haiti's crippled infrastructure made the delivery of aid difficult. The situation was still classified as an emergency six months after the earthquake. A million people on the island lived in tents, and a cholera epidemic that began in October claimed over 3,300 more lives. Whether or not Haiti has yet recovered is a matter of debate, but the effects of the earthquake were palpable for the next decade.	678	ENGLISH	1
Martial law was introduced on 13 December 1981 by the communist government. Overnight, military tanks and armed soldiers appeared on the streets of major Polish towns, a curfew was introduced, and borders were sealed. Communication was also drastically restricted, with phone lines disconnected and post being reviewed by censors. Executive power was taken by the Military Council of National Salvation (WRON), with General Wojciech Jaruzelski, the First Secretary of the ruling Polish United Workers’ Party, as its head. Pro-democracy movements, such as Solidarity, were banned and thousands of opposition activists – including leaders such as Lech Wałęsa, who two years later received a Nobel Peace Prize for his opposition to the regime – were jailed. Military courts were introduced to accelerate trials of opposition figures. Some tried to protest, at times with fatal consequences: during the whole period of martial law, which lasted until 22 July 1983, over 90 people were killed, according to findings of an independent parliamentary commission after 1989. Coal miners from Wujek staged a protest in direct response to the introduction of martial law, and were brutally pacified by ZOMO forces (paramilitary police groups), who killed nine of the protesting miners. WRON imposed major price rises, resulting in the rationing of basic food products and materials. The consequent economic crisis continued beyond the end of martial law. Those Poles that had the opportunity to migrated to the West. The overall number that fled Poland in the period between 1981 and 1989 is estimated at 700,000. To mark today’s anniversary, we are presenting photos from the period of martial law captured by photographer Jerzy Ochoński. More of his images are available here. Funeral of a 20-year old shot by the secret police Bogdan Włosik, a 20-year-old worker at the Nowa Huta steel mill in Kraków, was shot by secret police during a demonstration on 20 October 1982. Street demonstrations in Nowa Huta, 1982 Commemorating the anniversary of Poland’s independence All images copyright of Jerzy Ochoński. More of Jerzy Ochoński’s work can be found on his website, which offers a wide variety of images of different aspects of life in Poland, as well as photo services.	<urn:uuid:6b3e81ab-4376-4127-acd8-528c69e07ccc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://notesfrompoland.com/2019/12/13/polands-martial-law-in-pictures/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00129.warc.gz	en	0.980946	488	3.28125	3	[ -0.8596771955490112, 0.4281406104564667, 0.18968169391155243, 0.13092826306819916, 0.23295298218727112, 0.21644863486289978, 0.027397044003009796, -0.14307482540607452, -0.4410901367664337, 0.046802349388599396, 0.16550657153129578, 0.1512611210346222, -0.07708005607128143, 0.1876496076583...	3	Martial law was introduced on 13 December 1981 by the communist government. Overnight, military tanks and armed soldiers appeared on the streets of major Polish towns, a curfew was introduced, and borders were sealed. Communication was also drastically restricted, with phone lines disconnected and post being reviewed by censors. Executive power was taken by the Military Council of National Salvation (WRON), with General Wojciech Jaruzelski, the First Secretary of the ruling Polish United Workers’ Party, as its head. Pro-democracy movements, such as Solidarity, were banned and thousands of opposition activists – including leaders such as Lech Wałęsa, who two years later received a Nobel Peace Prize for his opposition to the regime – were jailed. Military courts were introduced to accelerate trials of opposition figures. Some tried to protest, at times with fatal consequences: during the whole period of martial law, which lasted until 22 July 1983, over 90 people were killed, according to findings of an independent parliamentary commission after 1989. Coal miners from Wujek staged a protest in direct response to the introduction of martial law, and were brutally pacified by ZOMO forces (paramilitary police groups), who killed nine of the protesting miners. WRON imposed major price rises, resulting in the rationing of basic food products and materials. The consequent economic crisis continued beyond the end of martial law. Those Poles that had the opportunity to migrated to the West. The overall number that fled Poland in the period between 1981 and 1989 is estimated at 700,000. To mark today’s anniversary, we are presenting photos from the period of martial law captured by photographer Jerzy Ochoński. More of his images are available here. Funeral of a 20-year old shot by the secret police Bogdan Włosik, a 20-year-old worker at the Nowa Huta steel mill in Kraków, was shot by secret police during a demonstration on 20 October 1982. Street demonstrations in Nowa Huta, 1982 Commemorating the anniversary of Poland’s independence All images copyright of Jerzy Ochoński. More of Jerzy Ochoński’s work can be found on his website, which offers a wide variety of images of different aspects of life in Poland, as well as photo services.	506	ENGLISH	1
The meteorite is the phenomenon when a meteor (a solid body of alien origin) enters Earth's atmosphere. The occurrence of such phenomena did not go unnoticed and even the people of ancient times tried to explain these strange events in their own way, connecting them with religion. In some cultures, for example, they saw the pieces of meteorite rock that they found on the planet's surface as gifts from the angels. Others considered them as proof of the angered gods' fury. In the period around the 17th century, it's as if the concept of their emergence began to change. New theories surfaced - that they fell from the sky after thunderstorms. Scientists then remained skeptical of these theories and looked condescendingly on the idea that these objects could come from the clouds or somewhere in the sky. Among the peoples who had their own theories about meteorites were the Native Americans. A tribe once inhabiting the territory of today's state of Montana believed that with the appearance of a meteor their society would be afflicted by disease or that the chieftain would suffer misfortune. A tribe inhabiting the lands of present-day California also considers the emergence of a meteor a bad omen. According to another tribe, a meteor was the spirit of one of their deceased shamans. Among these was the Wintu tribe of Northern California. Its members believed that meteors were the spirits of their shamans, who were headed for the afterlife. A different Californian tribe had a similar conception of the phenomenon. Its people were convinced that meteors were in fact deceased who were making their way toward the afterlife. The Luiseño community had its own outlook. Its members believed that these were stars, plain and simple, which had moved unexpectedly. According to the Eastern Pomo, another California tribe, meteors were fire coming down from the sky. One of the most widespread beliefs pertaining to meteors might seem quite curious and unexpected to us. Some cultures believed that meteors were in fact the feces of the stars. Similar convictions were also highly common among some eskimo tribes. But many of these beliefs were at times ascribed to comets and other celestial bodies, making it sometimes difficult for scientists to figure out whether the subjects of the stories of these tribes were actually meteors.See more	<urn:uuid:6cc4e7ce-60b6-42c1-810b-b7c0682823fa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mysteries24.com/n3-64815-Native_American_Superstitions_about_Meteors	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00343.warc.gz	en	0.987054	469	3.640625	4	[ -0.2615619897842407, 0.1759413629770279, -0.06398005038499832, 0.15600989758968353, 0.0015931552043184638, -0.024859508499503136, 0.6440332531929016, 0.05938485637307167, -0.22618688642978668, 0.1252538412809372, 0.022213570773601532, -0.10156827419996262, -0.13624435663223267, 0.279562205...	3	The meteorite is the phenomenon when a meteor (a solid body of alien origin) enters Earth's atmosphere. The occurrence of such phenomena did not go unnoticed and even the people of ancient times tried to explain these strange events in their own way, connecting them with religion. In some cultures, for example, they saw the pieces of meteorite rock that they found on the planet's surface as gifts from the angels. Others considered them as proof of the angered gods' fury. In the period around the 17th century, it's as if the concept of their emergence began to change. New theories surfaced - that they fell from the sky after thunderstorms. Scientists then remained skeptical of these theories and looked condescendingly on the idea that these objects could come from the clouds or somewhere in the sky. Among the peoples who had their own theories about meteorites were the Native Americans. A tribe once inhabiting the territory of today's state of Montana believed that with the appearance of a meteor their society would be afflicted by disease or that the chieftain would suffer misfortune. A tribe inhabiting the lands of present-day California also considers the emergence of a meteor a bad omen. According to another tribe, a meteor was the spirit of one of their deceased shamans. Among these was the Wintu tribe of Northern California. Its members believed that meteors were the spirits of their shamans, who were headed for the afterlife. A different Californian tribe had a similar conception of the phenomenon. Its people were convinced that meteors were in fact deceased who were making their way toward the afterlife. The Luiseño community had its own outlook. Its members believed that these were stars, plain and simple, which had moved unexpectedly. According to the Eastern Pomo, another California tribe, meteors were fire coming down from the sky. One of the most widespread beliefs pertaining to meteors might seem quite curious and unexpected to us. Some cultures believed that meteors were in fact the feces of the stars. Similar convictions were also highly common among some eskimo tribes. But many of these beliefs were at times ascribed to comets and other celestial bodies, making it sometimes difficult for scientists to figure out whether the subjects of the stories of these tribes were actually meteors.See more	470	ENGLISH	1
Allia: name of a little river, northeast of Rome, where the Romans suffered a severe military defeat against the Celtic Senones in 387 or 386 BCE. In 387 or 386 BCE (or 390 according to the Varronian chronology), an army of Celtic (or Gallic) mercenaries that was allied to the tyrant of Syracuse, Dionysius I, marched through the valley of the Tiber. The Romans tried to repel them at a brook called Allia, but they were not accustomed to the "shock and awe" way of fighting of the Gauls. Almost immediately after the two armies had made contact, the Roman commanders ordered the retreat. This is how the Roman historian Livy describes the fight: The consular tribunes had secured no position for their camp, had constructed no entrenchments behind which to retire, and had shown as much disregard of the gods as of the enemy, for they formed their order of battle without having obtained favorable auspices. They extended their line on either wing to prevent their being outflanked, but even so they could not make their front equal to the enemy's, whilst by thus thinning their line they weakened the centre so that it could hardly keep in touch. On their right was a small eminence which they decided to hold with reserves, and this disposition, though it was the beginning of the panic and flight, proved to be the only means of safety to the fugitives. For Brennus, the Gaulish chieftain, fearing some ruse in the scanty numbers of the enemy, and thinking that the rising ground was occupied in order that the reserves might attack the flank and rear of the Gauls while their front was engaged with the legions, directed his attack upon the reserves, feeling quite certain that if he drove them from their position, his overwhelming numbers would give him an easy victory on the level ground. So not only Fortune but tactics also were on the side of the barbarians. In the other army there was nothing to remind one of Romans either amongst the generals or the private soldiers. They were terrified, and all they thought about was flight, and so utterly had they lost their heads that a far greater number fled to Veii, a hostile city, though the Tiber lay in their way, than by the direct road to Rome, to their wives and children.note[Livy, History of Rome since its Foundation 5.38; tr. Rev. Canon Roberts] Since Rome was too big to have a city wall, the soldiers went to nearby Veii, which was not a hostile city, as Livy implies, but a town already captured by the Romans. It had a strong wall. As a result of this withdrawal, the city was occupied by the Gauls, who tried to capture the Capitol. According to a famous story, the hill was saved by geese, which woke up the guards, who had fallen asleep. After a siege of seven months, the Roman garrison bought its freedom for 1000 pounds of gold. The battle was less disastrous than later Roman historians assumed, but nevertheless, the "day of the Allia" (18 July) was considered to be an unlucky one for centuries to come.	<urn:uuid:39d5c8b5-6034-4072-a556-20197cebcaf1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.livius.org/articles/battle/allia/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00511.warc.gz	en	0.988437	656	3.578125	4	[ -0.2339416742324829, 0.5257198810577393, 0.19586630165576935, 0.43716806173324585, -0.22604897618293762, -0.43327632546424866, -0.13804754614830017, 0.34505921602249146, 0.022782783955335617, -0.2577537000179291, -0.2228579968214035, -0.6516531705856323, 0.03989521041512489, 0.380716353654...	12	Allia: name of a little river, northeast of Rome, where the Romans suffered a severe military defeat against the Celtic Senones in 387 or 386 BCE. In 387 or 386 BCE (or 390 according to the Varronian chronology), an army of Celtic (or Gallic) mercenaries that was allied to the tyrant of Syracuse, Dionysius I, marched through the valley of the Tiber. The Romans tried to repel them at a brook called Allia, but they were not accustomed to the "shock and awe" way of fighting of the Gauls. Almost immediately after the two armies had made contact, the Roman commanders ordered the retreat. This is how the Roman historian Livy describes the fight: The consular tribunes had secured no position for their camp, had constructed no entrenchments behind which to retire, and had shown as much disregard of the gods as of the enemy, for they formed their order of battle without having obtained favorable auspices. They extended their line on either wing to prevent their being outflanked, but even so they could not make their front equal to the enemy's, whilst by thus thinning their line they weakened the centre so that it could hardly keep in touch. On their right was a small eminence which they decided to hold with reserves, and this disposition, though it was the beginning of the panic and flight, proved to be the only means of safety to the fugitives. For Brennus, the Gaulish chieftain, fearing some ruse in the scanty numbers of the enemy, and thinking that the rising ground was occupied in order that the reserves might attack the flank and rear of the Gauls while their front was engaged with the legions, directed his attack upon the reserves, feeling quite certain that if he drove them from their position, his overwhelming numbers would give him an easy victory on the level ground. So not only Fortune but tactics also were on the side of the barbarians. In the other army there was nothing to remind one of Romans either amongst the generals or the private soldiers. They were terrified, and all they thought about was flight, and so utterly had they lost their heads that a far greater number fled to Veii, a hostile city, though the Tiber lay in their way, than by the direct road to Rome, to their wives and children.note[Livy, History of Rome since its Foundation 5.38; tr. Rev. Canon Roberts] Since Rome was too big to have a city wall, the soldiers went to nearby Veii, which was not a hostile city, as Livy implies, but a town already captured by the Romans. It had a strong wall. As a result of this withdrawal, the city was occupied by the Gauls, who tried to capture the Capitol. According to a famous story, the hill was saved by geese, which woke up the guards, who had fallen asleep. After a siege of seven months, the Roman garrison bought its freedom for 1000 pounds of gold. The battle was less disastrous than later Roman historians assumed, but nevertheless, the "day of the Allia" (18 July) was considered to be an unlucky one for centuries to come.	675	ENGLISH	1
After the Revolt of 1857, the British started to build the city of New Delhi, and Shahjahanabad fell under neglect. The famous canals, wells and drainage systems got damaged during the 19th century. The end of the 19th century also saw the decline of many havelis, which were splendid mansions where the Mughal aristocrats lived during the 17th and the 18th centuries. The British rule was making it difficult for the rich Mughals to maintain the havelis, and so, many of them were subdivided and sold off. While the rich Mughals stayed in havelis, the British stayed in colonial bungalows meant just for one nuclear family. These bungalows were huge, single-storied constructions with inclined roofs and set in an open ground. In 1888 Robert Clarke planned an extension scheme, called the Lahore Gate Improvement scheme to decongest the walled city. However, the scheme remained incomplete. In 1936, Delhi Improvement Trust was established. A census conducted in 1931 revealed that Shahjahanabad was horribly crowded. The partition of India in 1947 led to a large number of people crossing the new border on both the sides increasing the population of Delhi. Streams of Muslims from Delhi left for Pakistan, and an equal number of Hindu and Sikh refugees arrived in Delhi from Pakistan. Many new colonies, schools, colleges and shops also came up in the city during this time. The city of old Delhi saw a marked change during the 19th and the 20th centuries. The social environment of Delhi changed with the arrival of new migrants, and the Urdu culture, which was once prevalent, was replaced by new tastes in dress, food and the arts.	<urn:uuid:e8628b25-a684-4d08-ab3a-67c37a0dc01c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nextgurukul.in/wiki/concept/cbse/class-8/history/colonialism-and-the-city-the-story-of-an-imperial-capital/the-old-city-of-delhi/3959683	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00114.warc.gz	en	0.98044	353	3.671875	4	[ 0.10415519773960114, 0.11384588479995728, 0.3207326829433441, 0.17427511513233185, -0.2633751928806305, 0.019872276112437248, 0.0029253135435283184, -0.07072895765304565, -0.18077661097049713, -0.12008687853813171, 0.0765562355518341, -0.22406676411628723, 0.024476826190948486, -0.00141925...	3	After the Revolt of 1857, the British started to build the city of New Delhi, and Shahjahanabad fell under neglect. The famous canals, wells and drainage systems got damaged during the 19th century. The end of the 19th century also saw the decline of many havelis, which were splendid mansions where the Mughal aristocrats lived during the 17th and the 18th centuries. The British rule was making it difficult for the rich Mughals to maintain the havelis, and so, many of them were subdivided and sold off. While the rich Mughals stayed in havelis, the British stayed in colonial bungalows meant just for one nuclear family. These bungalows were huge, single-storied constructions with inclined roofs and set in an open ground. In 1888 Robert Clarke planned an extension scheme, called the Lahore Gate Improvement scheme to decongest the walled city. However, the scheme remained incomplete. In 1936, Delhi Improvement Trust was established. A census conducted in 1931 revealed that Shahjahanabad was horribly crowded. The partition of India in 1947 led to a large number of people crossing the new border on both the sides increasing the population of Delhi. Streams of Muslims from Delhi left for Pakistan, and an equal number of Hindu and Sikh refugees arrived in Delhi from Pakistan. Many new colonies, schools, colleges and shops also came up in the city during this time. The city of old Delhi saw a marked change during the 19th and the 20th centuries. The social environment of Delhi changed with the arrival of new migrants, and the Urdu culture, which was once prevalent, was replaced by new tastes in dress, food and the arts.	378	ENGLISH	1
The history of drug abuse in Canada started around 1850. Although Opium has been around for a very long time dating back to at least the Neolithic age, recreational use of Opium began in China in the 15th Century. To understand the history of drug abuse in Canada, we go back to the 19th century where migrants from China reached British Columbia and started settling there. They established opium dens in their communities that were usually remote. Opium had (has) medicinal qualities specifically to relief from pain. These settlers from China were also a cheap labor sources in Canada so it became incredibly easy to produce in these communities. The government viewed opium consumption (a lot of medical reasons) as another easy source to earn revenue. So it imposed a tax on opium factories in 1871. The First Legal Act against Drugs The Minister of Labor, Mackenzie King was concerned with the growing number of opium users. The following year, the government enacted the Opium Act of 1908. Under this Act, it was illegal to import, manufacture, or sell opium. But opiates were still widely used through patent medicines. This causes the government to pass another act called the Proprietary and Patent Medicine Act that prohibited the use of cocaine in medicines. Pharmaceutical companies also had to label products that contained morphine, opium or heroin. Drug Offenders and Penalties With the imposition of the Opium Act, a black market for opium began to emerge. Officers thought that the only way to stop this black market was through rigorous imprisonment. Parliament passed the Opium and Drugs act 1911. Under this Act, Offenders would get harsher penalties for violation of the law. In addition, the list of prohibited drugs expanded. In 1921, the penalties for drug offenders were expanded for a seven-year prison sentence. By the end of 1923, more prohibited drugs were included in the list such as morphine, cocaine and cannabis. Strict Legal Action against Drug Offenders The 1920s drug policy was totally different from the present day. Drug users and offenders were considered more as criminals than as those with an illness. Besides, most of the convicted under the 1911 Drug Act were Chinese. This led many Canadians to believe that drug laws were not for them, but for immigrants only. In view of that, the Opium and Narcotic Drug Act was enacted in 1929 with more penalties for drug offenders. This remained the main drug regulation in Canada until 1960. During the same time, the media published sensational reports of drug use among youths. In 1961, the government made firm action and made the Narcotic Act stricter than before. Schedules I to VIII The drug laws remained unchanged between 1969 and 1973. However, in 1996, the Drugs and Substance Act was passed. Under this Act, drugs were classified into eight schedules I to VIII. Punishment for trafficking illicit drugs was included in schedule I and II. Under the schedule I and II, offenders would get a maximum of life imprisonment. On the other hand, penalties for the possession of drugs were included in schedule VIII. Tough sentencing minimized the number of drug users. But, it had negative effects on the health, employment and relationships of constant users. In 2001, Canada became the first country to use cannabis legally for terminally ill patients. However, due to the enforcement of stricter Acts, the street price of cocaine in Canada is much higher than in South American and East Asian countries. Recently, drug courts in Canada have gained popularity. The aim of these drug courts is to divert those who violate drug regulations from prisons into treatment programs. Now addicts have access to Toronto drug rehab centres and alcoholics can go to Toronto alcohol rehab centres. This has remarkably decreased prison overcrowding. However, this has caused people with all types of tendencies to go unmonitored in treatment centres that raises concerns for many. The answer to a high quality treatment without a crowded treatment program has thus become a private rehab.	<urn:uuid:f2c0f0af-14e5-4e1e-b866-6316c330fa69>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://canadiancentreforaddictions.org/history-of-drug-abuse-in-canada/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00554.warc.gz	en	0.980443	795	3.46875	3	[ -0.2011866271495819, 0.1285700798034668, 0.5149716734886169, -0.14052444696426392, -0.03174547478556633, 0.12729649245738983, 0.3730686902999878, 0.1113666445016861, -0.26375019550323486, 0.19976100325584412, 0.328201025724411, 0.24693161249160767, 0.1658337414264679, 0.34966298937797546, ...	3	The history of drug abuse in Canada started around 1850. Although Opium has been around for a very long time dating back to at least the Neolithic age, recreational use of Opium began in China in the 15th Century. To understand the history of drug abuse in Canada, we go back to the 19th century where migrants from China reached British Columbia and started settling there. They established opium dens in their communities that were usually remote. Opium had (has) medicinal qualities specifically to relief from pain. These settlers from China were also a cheap labor sources in Canada so it became incredibly easy to produce in these communities. The government viewed opium consumption (a lot of medical reasons) as another easy source to earn revenue. So it imposed a tax on opium factories in 1871. The First Legal Act against Drugs The Minister of Labor, Mackenzie King was concerned with the growing number of opium users. The following year, the government enacted the Opium Act of 1908. Under this Act, it was illegal to import, manufacture, or sell opium. But opiates were still widely used through patent medicines. This causes the government to pass another act called the Proprietary and Patent Medicine Act that prohibited the use of cocaine in medicines. Pharmaceutical companies also had to label products that contained morphine, opium or heroin. Drug Offenders and Penalties With the imposition of the Opium Act, a black market for opium began to emerge. Officers thought that the only way to stop this black market was through rigorous imprisonment. Parliament passed the Opium and Drugs act 1911. Under this Act, Offenders would get harsher penalties for violation of the law. In addition, the list of prohibited drugs expanded. In 1921, the penalties for drug offenders were expanded for a seven-year prison sentence. By the end of 1923, more prohibited drugs were included in the list such as morphine, cocaine and cannabis. Strict Legal Action against Drug Offenders The 1920s drug policy was totally different from the present day. Drug users and offenders were considered more as criminals than as those with an illness. Besides, most of the convicted under the 1911 Drug Act were Chinese. This led many Canadians to believe that drug laws were not for them, but for immigrants only. In view of that, the Opium and Narcotic Drug Act was enacted in 1929 with more penalties for drug offenders. This remained the main drug regulation in Canada until 1960. During the same time, the media published sensational reports of drug use among youths. In 1961, the government made firm action and made the Narcotic Act stricter than before. Schedules I to VIII The drug laws remained unchanged between 1969 and 1973. However, in 1996, the Drugs and Substance Act was passed. Under this Act, drugs were classified into eight schedules I to VIII. Punishment for trafficking illicit drugs was included in schedule I and II. Under the schedule I and II, offenders would get a maximum of life imprisonment. On the other hand, penalties for the possession of drugs were included in schedule VIII. Tough sentencing minimized the number of drug users. But, it had negative effects on the health, employment and relationships of constant users. In 2001, Canada became the first country to use cannabis legally for terminally ill patients. However, due to the enforcement of stricter Acts, the street price of cocaine in Canada is much higher than in South American and East Asian countries. Recently, drug courts in Canada have gained popularity. The aim of these drug courts is to divert those who violate drug regulations from prisons into treatment programs. Now addicts have access to Toronto drug rehab centres and alcoholics can go to Toronto alcohol rehab centres. This has remarkably decreased prison overcrowding. However, this has caused people with all types of tendencies to go unmonitored in treatment centres that raises concerns for many. The answer to a high quality treatment without a crowded treatment program has thus become a private rehab.	857	ENGLISH	1
A Historical Homecoming and “Traditional” Independence Day Celebration Writer / Janelle Morrison Traversing through the county roads in northern Hamilton and Boone County, Indiana, one could easily pass by without knowing the epic history of the land they are cruising through. For instance, a lone white chapel that sits on a parcel surrounded by farms marks where a vast, free black settlement once dominated upwards of 2,000 acres of that part of the county. In 1835 African-American pioneers Elijah Roberts, Hansel Roberts and Micajah Walden purchased homesteads in northern Hamilton County, 30 miles north of Indianapolis, Indiana. Land was fertile and affordable at $1.25 per acre. The families of these men settled permanently on these homesteads, establishing what would be known as Roberts Settlement. By 1840, Roberts Settlement was home to approximately 10 families and 900 acres of land that neighbored Quaker homesteads. These early pioneers purposely settled near Quaker establishments, as they were known to be accepting of free blacks and were supportive neighbors. The families of Roberts Settlement were people of mixed African, Native American, and European descent. They had lived in eastern North Carolina as free landowners prior to the American Revolution. In fact, many of these men served in the Continental Army in the Revolutionary War. As slavery became more prevalent in the United States and racial tensions ensued in the 1800s, the free blacks were subjected to harsh treatment and suspicion from the white landowners and steadily their rights would become jeopardized. Dr. Stephen A. Vincent, a Hamilton County, Indiana, native and author of Southern Seed, Northern Soil, has conducted extensive research on the history of Roberts and Beech Settlements in Indiana. His book is a combination of 20 years of research and interviews with descendants of the Roberts and Beech Settlement families. A documentary based upon his book has recently been produced and is currently being screened by historical societies and related organizations. Many Roberts Settlement residents first settled in the Beech Settlement in Rush County, Indiana, prior to moving north to Hamilton County. Dr. Vincent described the deteriorating conditions and the impending threat to the free blacks’ freedom that prompted them to gather their belongings in ox-pulled wagons, amid the unknown perils along the path to the north. “By the 1820s, conditions had gotten to the point where it was becoming increasingly difficult to make a living because of the lack of tolerance of most whites around them,” Dr. Vincent explained. “The only thing that separates the free blacks from slavery is a legal piece of paper that indicates that they are free. However, an unscrupulous white could simply take that document and rip it up and move them to three or four counties over where nobody knows them and sells them as slaves.” You may have seen a depiction of this on the big screen in the Academy Award–winning movie, Twelve Years a Slave. In 1831, the Nat Turner Rebellion, one of the three largest and most violent slave uprisings, occurred within 100 miles of their homes. Elijah Roberts, Hansel Roberts and Micajah Walden decided it was time to lead their families to the northern frontier and re-establish their lives in hopes of prosperity and safety. The formative years of Roberts Settlement were not spared any challenges. The nation suffered an economic downturn and depression that lasted from the late 1830s through the early 1940s, stifling the early development of the settlement. As the nation’s economic health improved, the growth of the settlement increased. By 1850, there were 16 families and 112 residents. While relations with their neighboring Quaker families were favorable, the degradation and intolerance from “outsiders” intensified as negative views of African-Americans were propagated and the nation became divided over slavery. The State of Indiana ratified its constitution and passed Article XIII that prohibited further black settlement within the state. Although the Roberts families were vulnerable to the intolerance of people outside of their community and were keenly aware of the possibility of kidnappings and angry mobs, the families would persevere and enjoy an era of prosperity from the 1850s through the 1870s. The opening of the Peru and Indianapolis railroad line in 1853 provided easier access to markets and a litany of products to the families. New farm equipment was purchased, and stick frame houses replaced the early log cabins, amid a civil war that was testing the nation’s resolve during 1861 through 1865. Legislators repealed the state’s most restrictive racial laws, granted voting rights to African-American men and provided funding for African-American schools. In the late 1870s, Roberts Settlement included 300 residents and had acquired approximately 2,000 acres of land. The Roberts families had embraced their neighboring Wesleyan religion and became part of the Wesleyan circuit that included several area churches, often worshiping and teaching along with their white neighbors. A school was erected after 1870 and a white clapboard building with a steeple replaced the settlement’s earlier log chapel in 1858. The community was well known for its middle class ideals and emphasis on moral improvement, refinement and respectability. Residents William Roberts and Elijah Gilliam were the first to become politically involved in their local Republican Party and were elected as township constables. Elijah Gilliam was the son of Moody Gilliam who was the first free black to settle in Boone County, Indiana. Their settlement was on the border of Marion and Union Township, east of Lebanon. Moody’s daughter, Sarah Jane (Moody) Walden, was the first free black child born in Boone County and she married Peterson Walden, son of Micajah Walden, co-founder of Roberts Settlement. Moody was well known throughout Boone County and was highly respected by his neighbors and friends. At the time of Moody’s death in 1884, he had 21 children, 41 grandchildren and 5 great-grandchildren, of which many settled in either the Roberts or Beech Settlements in the surrounding counties. By the turn of the last century, opportunities at Roberts Settlement were diminishing like many other rural communities and the population had decreased by half. Only 150 residents occupied the Settlement in 1900 and less than 50 by 1920. Many of the residents pursued higher education and professional lives outside of the settlement. Many became ministers, educators, or doctors, and gained local or state recognition, often holding high positions within their professions. Reverend Cyrus W. Roberts served 50 years as a Wesleyan, and later, an A.M.E., minister in the Midwest. Dr. Carl G. Roberts was a prominent surgeon in Chicago and was president of the Negro Medical Association; and Reverend Dolphin P. Roberts became the nation’s highest appointed official as Recorder of Deeds. In the 1920s, former Roberts Settlement residents organized annual homecoming reunions as a way to preserve the heritage of the Roberts families. Residents gathered at the settlement close to the 4th of July holiday to reminisce and worship together, a tradition that continues today. The Roberts Settlement will be celebrating its 90th Roberts Settlement Annual Homecoming celebration this 4th of July weekend. Descendants of the Roberts families from all over the country will congregate and celebrate their families, values and history. Paula Gilliam, a Noblesville resident and president of Roberts Settlement Homecoming and Burial Association, established in 1924, discussed the upcoming Homecoming’s program and its importance. “They always met as a family after church and had gatherings way before it became an official homecoming,” Paula said. “Friday night is the start of the homecoming celebration. We’ve had well over 100, almost 200 with the kids and their parents. This should be a special year because the 4th of July is on a Friday. This year we’ll start at 6:30 p.m. and show the documentary to the people who haven’t seen it yet. At 7 p.m. we’ll have hayrides and a weenie roast. For the last 43 years we’ve also had fireworks.” Saturday they have a golf outing and start gathering around 1 p.m., then they will eat together and reminisce. They have a program where they talk about who’s passed on and family announcements. Sundays they close with a church service at 9 a.m. and have blessing. “It’s ingrained in our blood and we’ve got to keep it up,” Paula said. “We’ve heard it and lived it through our parents. I promised my dad that as long as I’m living, we’ll keep this going and teach our kids and next generations after us, that they have to keep this going.” Tonja White Goodloe, Carmel resident and a descendant of Roberts Settlement, recited from a letter written by her great-grandmother, Alzadia Roberts Windburn: “To all I would say, be inspired with the legacy left to us by our ancestors. We are doing a great work and we cannot come down. May we go forward to attain a higher realm of life and at last, reach the end of a perfect day.” Tonja concluded, “I think that sums up what each of us has responsibility of doing: carrying on that legacy and passing on that important history to the generations beyond us.” Teresa Newsom Granger, from Noblesville, commented, “Even at my age now, it has become much more significant to me. For the first 16 years of my life, I lived here. The church was the community for me and to those who lived here. We remember the good times and the kids we grew up with and went to school and church with. Those you didn’t see but once a year.” The second oldest living descendent, Maize White Glover of Noblesville, recalled that she didn’t care much for country life and had little to no appreciation for visiting the settlement until after she was older. “I had to come,” she recalled humorously and reluctantly. “I wasn’t happy about it—this was the country to me and I was a city girl. After I graduated high school, I went to live with my uncle who was a surgeon in Chicago, but I got so homesick that I only stayed five months. I came home on the Monon every other week and met my parents at the station in Sheridan. I didn’t like living in Chicago; I was just so homesick. After I married and had children, I changed and realized how important and how significant this place here in the country is, but as a teenager I certainly didn’t think so.” Maize’s son, Bryan Glover, a Noblesville resident who, along with Dr. Stephen Vincent, contributed their research and time toward this article, spoke about his long-term vision and dream for Robert’s Settlement. He worked with Dr. Vincent on the recent documentary. “We’ve had four or five community conversations around Hamilton County with various historical societies like Carmel, Noblesville, Sheridan and Arcadia, and the local libraries, and have screened the film to more than 250 people on those five occasions. We arranged to have a screening at the Eiteljorg Museum and did it as part of their regular monthly meeting for their genealogy group. There were a few descendants of Beech Settlement from Rush County and they had heard about the film and were curious. Now we’ve been able to make contact with part of our genealogy with the Jeffries families who have a strong connection with many of the Roberts people who ultimately came to Hamilton County. We plan on doing this longer film on African- American pioneers and we want to include much more on the Beech Settlement and have been able to make contact with a family.” Regarding the artifacts from Roberts Settlement, Bryan stated simply, “If history isn’t preserved, it’s lost. Artifacts get spread out and get lost, so it seems to me that we should capitalize on the momentum we have and think about how to preserve the history and artifacts we have and how to share them. I have hope that we’ll find a suitable place on Roberts Settlement and put the story together in a way that we can share with the public and find our appropriate place in Indiana and in American history.” To learn more, visit robertssettlement.org.	<urn:uuid:4ffbec11-318d-40a5-a8a8-ab553d6c71d3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.townepost.com/indiana/carmel/a-historical-homecoming-and-traditional-independence-day-celebration/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00108.warc.gz	en	0.98019	2,588	3.515625	4	[ -0.42887425422668457, 0.17499208450317383, 0.00715063139796257, 0.09380553662776947, -0.14560958743095398, -0.6144965887069702, -0.1181071326136589, -0.4301711320877075, -0.18119071424007416, 0.3312273323535919, 0.12281911820173264, 0.028665533289313316, -0.02175520360469818, 0.29562634229...	5	A Historical Homecoming and “Traditional” Independence Day Celebration Writer / Janelle Morrison Traversing through the county roads in northern Hamilton and Boone County, Indiana, one could easily pass by without knowing the epic history of the land they are cruising through. For instance, a lone white chapel that sits on a parcel surrounded by farms marks where a vast, free black settlement once dominated upwards of 2,000 acres of that part of the county. In 1835 African-American pioneers Elijah Roberts, Hansel Roberts and Micajah Walden purchased homesteads in northern Hamilton County, 30 miles north of Indianapolis, Indiana. Land was fertile and affordable at $1.25 per acre. The families of these men settled permanently on these homesteads, establishing what would be known as Roberts Settlement. By 1840, Roberts Settlement was home to approximately 10 families and 900 acres of land that neighbored Quaker homesteads. These early pioneers purposely settled near Quaker establishments, as they were known to be accepting of free blacks and were supportive neighbors. The families of Roberts Settlement were people of mixed African, Native American, and European descent. They had lived in eastern North Carolina as free landowners prior to the American Revolution. In fact, many of these men served in the Continental Army in the Revolutionary War. As slavery became more prevalent in the United States and racial tensions ensued in the 1800s, the free blacks were subjected to harsh treatment and suspicion from the white landowners and steadily their rights would become jeopardized. Dr. Stephen A. Vincent, a Hamilton County, Indiana, native and author of Southern Seed, Northern Soil, has conducted extensive research on the history of Roberts and Beech Settlements in Indiana. His book is a combination of 20 years of research and interviews with descendants of the Roberts and Beech Settlement families. A documentary based upon his book has recently been produced and is currently being screened by historical societies and related organizations. Many Roberts Settlement residents first settled in the Beech Settlement in Rush County, Indiana, prior to moving north to Hamilton County. Dr. Vincent described the deteriorating conditions and the impending threat to the free blacks’ freedom that prompted them to gather their belongings in ox-pulled wagons, amid the unknown perils along the path to the north. “By the 1820s, conditions had gotten to the point where it was becoming increasingly difficult to make a living because of the lack of tolerance of most whites around them,” Dr. Vincent explained. “The only thing that separates the free blacks from slavery is a legal piece of paper that indicates that they are free. However, an unscrupulous white could simply take that document and rip it up and move them to three or four counties over where nobody knows them and sells them as slaves.” You may have seen a depiction of this on the big screen in the Academy Award–winning movie, Twelve Years a Slave. In 1831, the Nat Turner Rebellion, one of the three largest and most violent slave uprisings, occurred within 100 miles of their homes. Elijah Roberts, Hansel Roberts and Micajah Walden decided it was time to lead their families to the northern frontier and re-establish their lives in hopes of prosperity and safety. The formative years of Roberts Settlement were not spared any challenges. The nation suffered an economic downturn and depression that lasted from the late 1830s through the early 1940s, stifling the early development of the settlement. As the nation’s economic health improved, the growth of the settlement increased. By 1850, there were 16 families and 112 residents. While relations with their neighboring Quaker families were favorable, the degradation and intolerance from “outsiders” intensified as negative views of African-Americans were propagated and the nation became divided over slavery. The State of Indiana ratified its constitution and passed Article XIII that prohibited further black settlement within the state. Although the Roberts families were vulnerable to the intolerance of people outside of their community and were keenly aware of the possibility of kidnappings and angry mobs, the families would persevere and enjoy an era of prosperity from the 1850s through the 1870s. The opening of the Peru and Indianapolis railroad line in 1853 provided easier access to markets and a litany of products to the families. New farm equipment was purchased, and stick frame houses replaced the early log cabins, amid a civil war that was testing the nation’s resolve during 1861 through 1865. Legislators repealed the state’s most restrictive racial laws, granted voting rights to African-American men and provided funding for African-American schools. In the late 1870s, Roberts Settlement included 300 residents and had acquired approximately 2,000 acres of land. The Roberts families had embraced their neighboring Wesleyan religion and became part of the Wesleyan circuit that included several area churches, often worshiping and teaching along with their white neighbors. A school was erected after 1870 and a white clapboard building with a steeple replaced the settlement’s earlier log chapel in 1858. The community was well known for its middle class ideals and emphasis on moral improvement, refinement and respectability. Residents William Roberts and Elijah Gilliam were the first to become politically involved in their local Republican Party and were elected as township constables. Elijah Gilliam was the son of Moody Gilliam who was the first free black to settle in Boone County, Indiana. Their settlement was on the border of Marion and Union Township, east of Lebanon. Moody’s daughter, Sarah Jane (Moody) Walden, was the first free black child born in Boone County and she married Peterson Walden, son of Micajah Walden, co-founder of Roberts Settlement. Moody was well known throughout Boone County and was highly respected by his neighbors and friends. At the time of Moody’s death in 1884, he had 21 children, 41 grandchildren and 5 great-grandchildren, of which many settled in either the Roberts or Beech Settlements in the surrounding counties. By the turn of the last century, opportunities at Roberts Settlement were diminishing like many other rural communities and the population had decreased by half. Only 150 residents occupied the Settlement in 1900 and less than 50 by 1920. Many of the residents pursued higher education and professional lives outside of the settlement. Many became ministers, educators, or doctors, and gained local or state recognition, often holding high positions within their professions. Reverend Cyrus W. Roberts served 50 years as a Wesleyan, and later, an A.M.E., minister in the Midwest. Dr. Carl G. Roberts was a prominent surgeon in Chicago and was president of the Negro Medical Association; and Reverend Dolphin P. Roberts became the nation’s highest appointed official as Recorder of Deeds. In the 1920s, former Roberts Settlement residents organized annual homecoming reunions as a way to preserve the heritage of the Roberts families. Residents gathered at the settlement close to the 4th of July holiday to reminisce and worship together, a tradition that continues today. The Roberts Settlement will be celebrating its 90th Roberts Settlement Annual Homecoming celebration this 4th of July weekend. Descendants of the Roberts families from all over the country will congregate and celebrate their families, values and history. Paula Gilliam, a Noblesville resident and president of Roberts Settlement Homecoming and Burial Association, established in 1924, discussed the upcoming Homecoming’s program and its importance. “They always met as a family after church and had gatherings way before it became an official homecoming,” Paula said. “Friday night is the start of the homecoming celebration. We’ve had well over 100, almost 200 with the kids and their parents. This should be a special year because the 4th of July is on a Friday. This year we’ll start at 6:30 p.m. and show the documentary to the people who haven’t seen it yet. At 7 p.m. we’ll have hayrides and a weenie roast. For the last 43 years we’ve also had fireworks.” Saturday they have a golf outing and start gathering around 1 p.m., then they will eat together and reminisce. They have a program where they talk about who’s passed on and family announcements. Sundays they close with a church service at 9 a.m. and have blessing. “It’s ingrained in our blood and we’ve got to keep it up,” Paula said. “We’ve heard it and lived it through our parents. I promised my dad that as long as I’m living, we’ll keep this going and teach our kids and next generations after us, that they have to keep this going.” Tonja White Goodloe, Carmel resident and a descendant of Roberts Settlement, recited from a letter written by her great-grandmother, Alzadia Roberts Windburn: “To all I would say, be inspired with the legacy left to us by our ancestors. We are doing a great work and we cannot come down. May we go forward to attain a higher realm of life and at last, reach the end of a perfect day.” Tonja concluded, “I think that sums up what each of us has responsibility of doing: carrying on that legacy and passing on that important history to the generations beyond us.” Teresa Newsom Granger, from Noblesville, commented, “Even at my age now, it has become much more significant to me. For the first 16 years of my life, I lived here. The church was the community for me and to those who lived here. We remember the good times and the kids we grew up with and went to school and church with. Those you didn’t see but once a year.” The second oldest living descendent, Maize White Glover of Noblesville, recalled that she didn’t care much for country life and had little to no appreciation for visiting the settlement until after she was older. “I had to come,” she recalled humorously and reluctantly. “I wasn’t happy about it—this was the country to me and I was a city girl. After I graduated high school, I went to live with my uncle who was a surgeon in Chicago, but I got so homesick that I only stayed five months. I came home on the Monon every other week and met my parents at the station in Sheridan. I didn’t like living in Chicago; I was just so homesick. After I married and had children, I changed and realized how important and how significant this place here in the country is, but as a teenager I certainly didn’t think so.” Maize’s son, Bryan Glover, a Noblesville resident who, along with Dr. Stephen Vincent, contributed their research and time toward this article, spoke about his long-term vision and dream for Robert’s Settlement. He worked with Dr. Vincent on the recent documentary. “We’ve had four or five community conversations around Hamilton County with various historical societies like Carmel, Noblesville, Sheridan and Arcadia, and the local libraries, and have screened the film to more than 250 people on those five occasions. We arranged to have a screening at the Eiteljorg Museum and did it as part of their regular monthly meeting for their genealogy group. There were a few descendants of Beech Settlement from Rush County and they had heard about the film and were curious. Now we’ve been able to make contact with part of our genealogy with the Jeffries families who have a strong connection with many of the Roberts people who ultimately came to Hamilton County. We plan on doing this longer film on African- American pioneers and we want to include much more on the Beech Settlement and have been able to make contact with a family.” Regarding the artifacts from Roberts Settlement, Bryan stated simply, “If history isn’t preserved, it’s lost. Artifacts get spread out and get lost, so it seems to me that we should capitalize on the momentum we have and think about how to preserve the history and artifacts we have and how to share them. I have hope that we’ll find a suitable place on Roberts Settlement and put the story together in a way that we can share with the public and find our appropriate place in Indiana and in American history.” To learn more, visit robertssettlement.org.	2,586	ENGLISH	1
The diagram depicts how milk is made from cows and processed into cheese,cream and butter and packaged for sale to customers Overall, it is clear that there are 8 primary stages in the manufacture of milk, starting with when the cows graze at the grass, to when milk is put into container for sale The process begins with cows graze in the field before they are milked by a machine two times a day. After that, the milk is stored in a refrigerator, after which it is delivered to a tanker, ready to be transported to the dairy. The next step is divided into two sections, one is to convert milk into dairy products such as cheese, cream and butter, the other is to pasteurize and put them into containers. Once the milk has been pasteurized and packaged, it is subsequently brought to supermarkets and shops, ready for consumers to purchase.	<urn:uuid:73e84fda-fac1-477d-bf50-0dbbeeb320ea>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://chuawritingmienphi.com/index.php/9713/mi-ngui-giup-em-cha-bai-writing-task-1-process-v-milk-production-vi	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00324.warc.gz	en	0.983079	177	3.671875	4	[ 0.26079419255256653, -0.4185026288032532, 0.3234107196331024, -0.16897942125797272, -0.004915942903608084, -0.11355222016572952, -0.14084115624427795, 0.3854641616344452, 0.17696891725063324, 0.08971969783306122, -0.22188754379749298, -0.7079875469207764, 0.1854282021522522, 0.014180457219...	2	The diagram depicts how milk is made from cows and processed into cheese,cream and butter and packaged for sale to customers Overall, it is clear that there are 8 primary stages in the manufacture of milk, starting with when the cows graze at the grass, to when milk is put into container for sale The process begins with cows graze in the field before they are milked by a machine two times a day. After that, the milk is stored in a refrigerator, after which it is delivered to a tanker, ready to be transported to the dairy. The next step is divided into two sections, one is to convert milk into dairy products such as cheese, cream and butter, the other is to pasteurize and put them into containers. Once the milk has been pasteurized and packaged, it is subsequently brought to supermarkets and shops, ready for consumers to purchase.	178	ENGLISH	1
Pope John IX FREE Catholic Classes Not only is the date of John's birth unknown, but the date of his election as pope, and that of his death are alike uncertain. He became pope in the early part of 898, and died in the beginning of the year 900. He was a native of Tivoli, and the son of Rampoald. Becoming a Benedictine, he was ordained priest by Pope Formosus. At this period factions filled the city of Rome, and one of them tried to force their candidate, Sergius, afterwards Sergius III, on the papal throne in opposition to John. Perhaps because he was favoured by the ducal House of Spoleto, John was able to maintain his position, and Sergius was driven from the city and excommunicated. With a view to diminish the violence of faction in Rome, John, who is acknowledged to have been both intelligent and moderate, held several synods in Rome and elsewhere (898). In them the ghastly synod of Stephen (VI) VII was condemned, and its Acts were burnt. Re-ordinations were forbidden, and those of the clergy who had been degraded by Stephen were restored to the ranks from which he had deposed them. The barbarous custom of plundering the palaces of bishops or popes on their death was ordered to be put down both by the spiritual and temporal authorities. The Synod of Rome also declared itself for Emperor Lambert and against his rival Bérenger, and at the same time decided that the pope -elect was not to be consecrated except in the presence of the imperial envoys. This canon was decreed in the hope that it might lessen the evils caused by the Roman factions. A synod which John held at Ravenna decreed that steps should be taken to put an end to the deeds of violence which were being perpetrated everywhere. To keep their independence, which was threatened by the Germans, the Slavs of Moravia appealed to John to let them have a hierarchy of their own. Not heeding the hectoring letters with which some of the German bishops endeavoured to dissuade him from hearkening to the Moravians, John sanctioned the consecration of a metropolitan and three bishops for the Church of the Moravians. On John's coins the name of the emperor (Lambert) figures along with his own. He was buried just outside St. Peter's. Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	<urn:uuid:ed54bac6-fef5-4586-a8e1-df4fdda6866e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=6362	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00545.warc.gz	en	0.983948	636	3.421875	3	[ -0.2641109228134155, 0.5051788091659546, 0.08637694269418716, -0.2634144425392151, -0.18506771326065063, 0.08092974126338959, -0.38567638397216797, 0.1469913125038147, 0.4039607346057892, -0.22561442852020264, -0.46171247959136963, -0.10192073881626129, -0.21597276628017426, 0.069857649505...	1	Pope John IX FREE Catholic Classes Not only is the date of John's birth unknown, but the date of his election as pope, and that of his death are alike uncertain. He became pope in the early part of 898, and died in the beginning of the year 900. He was a native of Tivoli, and the son of Rampoald. Becoming a Benedictine, he was ordained priest by Pope Formosus. At this period factions filled the city of Rome, and one of them tried to force their candidate, Sergius, afterwards Sergius III, on the papal throne in opposition to John. Perhaps because he was favoured by the ducal House of Spoleto, John was able to maintain his position, and Sergius was driven from the city and excommunicated. With a view to diminish the violence of faction in Rome, John, who is acknowledged to have been both intelligent and moderate, held several synods in Rome and elsewhere (898). In them the ghastly synod of Stephen (VI) VII was condemned, and its Acts were burnt. Re-ordinations were forbidden, and those of the clergy who had been degraded by Stephen were restored to the ranks from which he had deposed them. The barbarous custom of plundering the palaces of bishops or popes on their death was ordered to be put down both by the spiritual and temporal authorities. The Synod of Rome also declared itself for Emperor Lambert and against his rival Bérenger, and at the same time decided that the pope -elect was not to be consecrated except in the presence of the imperial envoys. This canon was decreed in the hope that it might lessen the evils caused by the Roman factions. A synod which John held at Ravenna decreed that steps should be taken to put an end to the deeds of violence which were being perpetrated everywhere. To keep their independence, which was threatened by the Germans, the Slavs of Moravia appealed to John to let them have a hierarchy of their own. Not heeding the hectoring letters with which some of the German bishops endeavoured to dissuade him from hearkening to the Moravians, John sanctioned the consecration of a metropolitan and three bishops for the Church of the Moravians. On John's coins the name of the emperor (Lambert) figures along with his own. He was buried just outside St. Peter's. Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	653	ENGLISH	1
The from 1999 to 2002 have jumped The first thing you have to know is what baby boomers are and what ADEA is all about. First of all, baby boomers are people who were born during the period of increased birth rate. In the United States, baby boomers were born during the time after the World War II conflict and before the Vietnam War. This means that there is more than one generation of baby boomers during this period of time.Today, baby boomers are now in the age of 40’s to 50’s. ADEA means Age Discrimination in Employment Act. This means that it protects everyone from age discrimination especially people who are in their 40’s to 50’s. This means that if you are a part of the baby boomers population, you have to realize that you still have your rights in the workplace. This means that you shouldn’t be a victim of unemployment just because of your age.Many people in their 40’s and 50’s find it hard to find a job in the United States just because of their age. If this happens to you, you should file a complaint in the EEOC or the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. In fact, more and more people are now filing complaints about age discrimination in the workplace. The total complaints from 1999 to 2002 have jumped up to 41 percent and are continually increasing.This is because many employers or companies today are hiring people by not only basing on qualification but also basing on age. This means that even if you are qualified to do the job than other applicants, the chances for you to get hired by the company are slim just because you were born in the baby boomers era.Baby boomers were born on the post World War II era and before the Vietnam War. This means that baby boomers came of age during the time where they fought for civil rights in the United States. This will mean that you, as a part of the baby boomers population, know well enough about your rights as a citizen of the United States.Age discrimination is one of the growing problems of the country today. In the workplace, people who are in their 40s and 50s are being discriminated by their coworkers and also by their employers. Some baby boomers lost their jobs just because they were growing old and some are alienated by fellow workers.The EEOC administers the ADEA. You should know that since 1967, age discrimination against workers who are in their 40s is prohibited and is illegal. You should know that it is your right to have equal employment opportunity.You have to realize the fact that the slow moving economy and age bias has a connection. This means that when the opportunities go down, the age discrimination goes up. It is important to remember that no one should be discriminated about anything when it comes to employment. People in the United States have suffered a lot of discrimination.Some were discriminated because of their gender, some were discriminated because of their race, some were discriminated because of their creed and some were discriminated because of their age. All of these forms of discrimination are deemed unethical and illegal. Under the EEOC and the civil law in the United States, everyone should have an equal employment opportunity regardless of gender, race, creed, and age.	<urn:uuid:4a3ba3ca-10ff-4fa9-af32-f1cdd1e42a51>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/the-from-1999-to-2002-have-jumped/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00487.warc.gz	en	0.987629	665	3.421875	3	[ -0.32738614082336426, 0.0717056393623352, -0.24214789271354675, -0.18422222137451172, 0.04440077021718025, 0.322738379240036, 0.3691665530204773, -0.23146896064281464, -0.2218727022409439, 0.2330896258354187, 0.38486868143081665, 0.3177432715892792, -0.2493748962879181, 0.09188521653413773...	1	The from 1999 to 2002 have jumped The first thing you have to know is what baby boomers are and what ADEA is all about. First of all, baby boomers are people who were born during the period of increased birth rate. In the United States, baby boomers were born during the time after the World War II conflict and before the Vietnam War. This means that there is more than one generation of baby boomers during this period of time.Today, baby boomers are now in the age of 40’s to 50’s. ADEA means Age Discrimination in Employment Act. This means that it protects everyone from age discrimination especially people who are in their 40’s to 50’s. This means that if you are a part of the baby boomers population, you have to realize that you still have your rights in the workplace. This means that you shouldn’t be a victim of unemployment just because of your age.Many people in their 40’s and 50’s find it hard to find a job in the United States just because of their age. If this happens to you, you should file a complaint in the EEOC or the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. In fact, more and more people are now filing complaints about age discrimination in the workplace. The total complaints from 1999 to 2002 have jumped up to 41 percent and are continually increasing.This is because many employers or companies today are hiring people by not only basing on qualification but also basing on age. This means that even if you are qualified to do the job than other applicants, the chances for you to get hired by the company are slim just because you were born in the baby boomers era.Baby boomers were born on the post World War II era and before the Vietnam War. This means that baby boomers came of age during the time where they fought for civil rights in the United States. This will mean that you, as a part of the baby boomers population, know well enough about your rights as a citizen of the United States.Age discrimination is one of the growing problems of the country today. In the workplace, people who are in their 40s and 50s are being discriminated by their coworkers and also by their employers. Some baby boomers lost their jobs just because they were growing old and some are alienated by fellow workers.The EEOC administers the ADEA. You should know that since 1967, age discrimination against workers who are in their 40s is prohibited and is illegal. You should know that it is your right to have equal employment opportunity.You have to realize the fact that the slow moving economy and age bias has a connection. This means that when the opportunities go down, the age discrimination goes up. It is important to remember that no one should be discriminated about anything when it comes to employment. People in the United States have suffered a lot of discrimination.Some were discriminated because of their gender, some were discriminated because of their race, some were discriminated because of their creed and some were discriminated because of their age. All of these forms of discrimination are deemed unethical and illegal. Under the EEOC and the civil law in the United States, everyone should have an equal employment opportunity regardless of gender, race, creed, and age.	698	ENGLISH	1
The Mayflower Compact was signed on November 11, 1620 on board the vessel Mayflower. The Mayflower Compact was signed by forty-one men on board the ship. The person primarily responsible for this was William Bradford. He stated the two reasons for writing the Compact was that he was afraid of mutiny, and he thought they needed a form of self-government. This document was the first colonial agreement that formed a government by consent of the governed. The compact gave the settlers a plan to frame and enact laws for the general good of the organized settlement. Most of the Pilgrims were members of the Separatist congregation that had split from the Church of England. However, some were not, and these people sought independence from the Separatists. To prevent this, Separatist leaders wrote the Compact, which was formed after the covenant that had established their Separatist faith. Each male adult signed the document. The signers agreed to follow all "just and equal" laws that the settlers enacted and to be ruled by the will of majority. Plymouth Colony did not receive an English royal charter, and so the compact determined governmental authority in the colony until it became part of the Massachusetts colony in 1691. They thought that they needed to this to survive, because they needed rules. Without this they might have ended up killing each other. People thought with Brown 2 this it would give equal power to the separatist and the people who was against them. Was also good because it kept mutiny contained. The Pilgrims had many reasons for writing the Mayflower Compact. The Pilgrims declared their purposes for writing and forming the colony and the compact was "for the glory of God and advancement of the Christian faith". Following by what the compact says, they declared that they had the authority " to enact constitute and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts". Following by what the compact says that they had to authority to create "constitutions and offices from time to time, as shall be thought most convenient for the general good of the Colony".	<urn:uuid:3fc3c4e1-64a8-4d49-8355-3e8aef5e2be8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/43855.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00059.warc.gz	en	0.987638	416	4.59375	5	[ -0.0961286649107933, -0.07122822850942612, 0.5484276413917542, -0.593198835849762, -0.23369663953781128, -0.050044648349285126, -0.08741382509469986, 0.20445552468299866, -0.012166493572294712, 0.26235055923461914, -0.19644536077976227, -0.10085809230804443, -0.18145975470542908, -0.037592...	2	The Mayflower Compact was signed on November 11, 1620 on board the vessel Mayflower. The Mayflower Compact was signed by forty-one men on board the ship. The person primarily responsible for this was William Bradford. He stated the two reasons for writing the Compact was that he was afraid of mutiny, and he thought they needed a form of self-government. This document was the first colonial agreement that formed a government by consent of the governed. The compact gave the settlers a plan to frame and enact laws for the general good of the organized settlement. Most of the Pilgrims were members of the Separatist congregation that had split from the Church of England. However, some were not, and these people sought independence from the Separatists. To prevent this, Separatist leaders wrote the Compact, which was formed after the covenant that had established their Separatist faith. Each male adult signed the document. The signers agreed to follow all "just and equal" laws that the settlers enacted and to be ruled by the will of majority. Plymouth Colony did not receive an English royal charter, and so the compact determined governmental authority in the colony until it became part of the Massachusetts colony in 1691. They thought that they needed to this to survive, because they needed rules. Without this they might have ended up killing each other. People thought with Brown 2 this it would give equal power to the separatist and the people who was against them. Was also good because it kept mutiny contained. The Pilgrims had many reasons for writing the Mayflower Compact. The Pilgrims declared their purposes for writing and forming the colony and the compact was "for the glory of God and advancement of the Christian faith". Following by what the compact says, they declared that they had the authority " to enact constitute and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts". Following by what the compact says that they had to authority to create "constitutions and offices from time to time, as shall be thought most convenient for the general good of the Colony".	424	ENGLISH	1
Divorce was not permitted by the Catholic Church. The king asked for a special request for a divorce, which was denied. The king ordered the Archbishop of Canterbury to Get Full Essay Get access to this section to get all help you need with your essay and educational issues. The Catholic Church in England owned much of the land and had amassed much wealth. King Henry was married and wanted his marriage annulled so he could marry another woman, but the Pope would not grant this annulment; Henry created his own church and appointed himself as the head of his new church so that he could grant himself an annulment. One reason for the reformation was the wealth of the Catholic Church; the Catholic Church owned and controlled vast amounts of land and wealth. Henry saw a break from Rome as an opportunity to pay for his expensive wars. During the mid 16th century, Henry destroyed and confiscated the monasteries and other lands of the church. The lands that he confiscated were sold to the nobility and middle classes. The money from these land sales went to pay for the war effort. Religious groups, such as the Lollards, had been pushing for reform in the church for several centuries prior to the English reformation. Other than this, the English Catholic Church was strong and healthy. The English clergy were very well educated and had a lot of authority and respect from the people of England. InKing Henry requested an annulment from Pope Clement, claiming that his marriage with Catherine of Aragon would cause a civil war because a woman would inherit the throne. When the pope refused to grant Henry an annulment, Henry issued the Act in Restraint of Appeals which said that the king was the supreme judicial authority in England. This established the crown as the head legal authority in England. The Supremacy Act came a year later and caused a direct split from Rome, establishing the king to be the head of the church in England. The consequences of the English Reformation were many and long lasting. When he died, he left the throne to his step sister Mary Tudor. Mary was a devout Catholic like her mother, with which whom she had been raised, and she briefly tried to turn England back to Catholicism. Many Protestants fled England during her reign, and many were also executed by Mary. She had been raised Protestant and mixed the two religions together. Elizabeth implemented a religious tolerance in England creating a stability that had not occurred since before the English Reformation. Another of the consequences of the English Reformation, was that Ireland also turned Protestant. This happened because King Henry wanted more political control in the region. The English Reformation occurred for three reasons. First, religious grounds were a minor factor but it still played its part. More essays like this:The Protestant Reformation in Scotland in contrast was a Reformation that was prompted by the Scots people from below rather than by the government as in England. Protestantism in Scotland was more radical than in England. Although there was a certain theological confluence, primarily in opposition to Papal indulgences, Henry's issues had to do (1) with his own divorce and (2) English control over church. The English Reformation started in the reign of Henry VIII. The English Reformation was to have far reaching consequences in Tudor England. Henry VIII decided to rid himself of his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, after she had failed to produce a male heir to the throne. After the tumultuous, horrible times of the Middle Ages, it was time for society to be reborn. The age of "rebirth" in European society occurred between the 14th and 17th centuries, at . In this essay I will explain the term Reformation, give the reasons why it happened, and explain what the Reformation meant for England and Wales. The English Reformation was the series of events in 16th-century England by which the Church of England first broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. The English Reformation began a period of religious instability in England that would last until Elizabeth claimed the throne in When Henry’s son took the throne for the five years that he ruled, he was strongly Protestant like his father.	<urn:uuid:116a71d8-136f-464a-be84-4f8207046b69>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gilihacuvidakolud.pfmlures.com/why-was-there-a-reformation-in-england-essay-help-35674sh.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00171.warc.gz	en	0.989194	866	3.71875	4	[ -0.08954591304063797, 0.3041241466999054, 0.13376924395561218, -0.11481838673353195, -0.03455295413732529, -0.26802563667297363, -0.20797696709632874, -0.1419934332370758, 0.29275405406951904, -0.1302574723958969, -0.24276044964790344, -0.14536342024803162, 0.20669876039028168, 0.169467151...	1	Divorce was not permitted by the Catholic Church. The king asked for a special request for a divorce, which was denied. The king ordered the Archbishop of Canterbury to Get Full Essay Get access to this section to get all help you need with your essay and educational issues. The Catholic Church in England owned much of the land and had amassed much wealth. King Henry was married and wanted his marriage annulled so he could marry another woman, but the Pope would not grant this annulment; Henry created his own church and appointed himself as the head of his new church so that he could grant himself an annulment. One reason for the reformation was the wealth of the Catholic Church; the Catholic Church owned and controlled vast amounts of land and wealth. Henry saw a break from Rome as an opportunity to pay for his expensive wars. During the mid 16th century, Henry destroyed and confiscated the monasteries and other lands of the church. The lands that he confiscated were sold to the nobility and middle classes. The money from these land sales went to pay for the war effort. Religious groups, such as the Lollards, had been pushing for reform in the church for several centuries prior to the English reformation. Other than this, the English Catholic Church was strong and healthy. The English clergy were very well educated and had a lot of authority and respect from the people of England. InKing Henry requested an annulment from Pope Clement, claiming that his marriage with Catherine of Aragon would cause a civil war because a woman would inherit the throne. When the pope refused to grant Henry an annulment, Henry issued the Act in Restraint of Appeals which said that the king was the supreme judicial authority in England. This established the crown as the head legal authority in England. The Supremacy Act came a year later and caused a direct split from Rome, establishing the king to be the head of the church in England. The consequences of the English Reformation were many and long lasting. When he died, he left the throne to his step sister Mary Tudor. Mary was a devout Catholic like her mother, with which whom she had been raised, and she briefly tried to turn England back to Catholicism. Many Protestants fled England during her reign, and many were also executed by Mary. She had been raised Protestant and mixed the two religions together. Elizabeth implemented a religious tolerance in England creating a stability that had not occurred since before the English Reformation. Another of the consequences of the English Reformation, was that Ireland also turned Protestant. This happened because King Henry wanted more political control in the region. The English Reformation occurred for three reasons. First, religious grounds were a minor factor but it still played its part. More essays like this:The Protestant Reformation in Scotland in contrast was a Reformation that was prompted by the Scots people from below rather than by the government as in England. Protestantism in Scotland was more radical than in England. Although there was a certain theological confluence, primarily in opposition to Papal indulgences, Henry's issues had to do (1) with his own divorce and (2) English control over church. The English Reformation started in the reign of Henry VIII. The English Reformation was to have far reaching consequences in Tudor England. Henry VIII decided to rid himself of his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, after she had failed to produce a male heir to the throne. After the tumultuous, horrible times of the Middle Ages, it was time for society to be reborn. The age of "rebirth" in European society occurred between the 14th and 17th centuries, at . In this essay I will explain the term Reformation, give the reasons why it happened, and explain what the Reformation meant for England and Wales. The English Reformation was the series of events in 16th-century England by which the Church of England first broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. The English Reformation began a period of religious instability in England that would last until Elizabeth claimed the throne in When Henry’s son took the throne for the five years that he ruled, he was strongly Protestant like his father.	859	ENGLISH	1
Vietnam tunnel rats – these weren’t some vermin soldiers encountered during the Vietnam War. Instead, Vietnam tunnel rats were an elite group of soldiers during the Vietnam War who probably had one of the most daring jobs. Vietnam War Tunnel Rats The Vietnam War tunnel rats were a group of soldiers from the United States, Australia, and New Zealand whose job it was to search out underground tunnels to flush out or kill any Viet Cong, gather intelligence, recover arms, and then destroy the tunnels. It was a small group of men made up of soldiers from the US 3rd Infantry Brigade, the 173rd Airborne, and the 1st Infantry Division as well as the 1st Royal Australian Regiment, which had two companies from the Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment. There weren’t generally more than 100 tunnel rats on the ground at any given time. The Vietnam War tunnel rats were created in an effort to take down the Viet Cong. Military intelligence indicated that the Viet Cong were operating out of a large underground bunker. The tunnel rats’ first operation was part of Operation Crimp, carried out in January 1966, designed to destroy the bunker. In the end, not much of importance was found but the Viet Cong continuously hit troops with small surprise attacks. The Viet Cong would seem to appear and then disappear very quickly. It was soon discovered that the enemy troops had a very complex network of underground tunnels. At that point, the Vietnam tunnel rats’ role became much more involved. Background on the Tunnels The tunnels had actually been around since the First Indochina War against the French, which Vietnam fought from 1946 to 1954. The Viet Minh commissioned volunteer villagers to dig the tunnels using hoes and baskets. The clay where the tunnels were constructed was soft and easy to work with during the wet season and dried rock hard during the dry season making it an ideal environment for tunnels. During the First Indochina War the tunnels were a fairly basic system but they evolved into a very complex tunnel system during the Vietnam War. Some tunnels were as much as 18-feet below ground and the system stretched for 200 miles, all the way to the border of Cambodia. Fully Functional Tunnels Despite being many feet underground, the tunnels were fully functional. It’s even believed the tunnels could hold up to 5,000 men for several months. Eventually, the tunnel complexes included hospitals, storage facilities, barracks, training areas, kitchens, first aid stations, and headquarters. The tunnels had several levels with a trap door separating each level. Because of the trap doors, the Viet Cong could seal off the rest of the tunnel system from dangers such as gas and flooding. The trap doors were also very well camouflaged making it very easy for the enemy to escape undetected. When the United States and its allies realized the complexities of the tunnels and the operations the Viet Cong could carry out, it became their mission to find, clear, and destroy the tunnels. This job fell on the Vietnam War tunnel rats. Dangers for Tunnel Rats Destroying the tunnels wouldn’t be easy. For starters, the tunnels were barely big enough for a 5’6” man to fit in so not just any soldier could do the job. The tunnels also required someone with a lot of courage since there was a high possibility the Viet Cong would find the tunnel rats before the tunnel rats found them. The construction of the tunnels themselves made for a challenging job for the tunnel rats. The tunnels weren’t constructed in straight lines but with corners that had between a 60-degree and 120-degree turn. This made shooting at the enemy impossible and also made grenades fairly ineffective. It didn’t take long to figure out that the odds of a tunnel rat dying were much higher than a soldier carrying out regular operations. The Vietnam tunnel rats faced a casualty rate of around 30% compared to a casualty rate of 10% (for United States troops) for soldiers in regular combat. Here’s a look at some of the other dangers Vietnam tunnel rats faced: - Booby traps - Pressure release bombs - Punji stakes - Snake traps - Bat swarms - Vietnamese fire ants Some of these dangers are self-explanatory but let’s take a look at some of the others. Booby traps were an unfortunate danger for tunnel rats. Some tunnels had special holes in the wall where Viet Cong would wait for soldiers and then thrust stakes through the hole impaling the troops. Viet Cong would also wait for a soldier to come out a trap door then kill them with stakes, guns, or knives. Punji stakes were spikes made out of wood or bamboo, which was then sharpened and heated. The stakes were placed in the tunnels and camouflaged so soldiers wouldn’t see them. Sometimes stakes were also coated in poison from plants or animals or human feces. This meant that while the strike from the punji stake might not be fatal, the infection from a coating could kill. Snake traps were a particularly surprising attack. Viet Cong would tie a bamboo pit viper to the ceiling or bushes and it would strike and bite troops in the neck, face, or hand as they walked by. Its bite was usually deadly. Soldiers quickly learned to scan the ceilings with their flashlights. Bat Swarms, Spiders, Vietnamese Fire Ants While bat swarms, spiders, and Vietnamese fire ants were not fatal, they were a very frequent and unwelcome nuisance in an already dangerous task. In addition to trying to avoid surprise attacks and booby traps, Vietnam tunnel rats also had to avoid getting lost in the myriad of tunnels. Needless to say, it was a dangerous job that only a special group of soldiers could handle. Clearing the Tunnels Any time ground troops found a suspicious hole, the Vietnam War tunnel rats were called in and it was their job to investigate, collect information, and then destroy the tunnel. Before entering, a grenade was usually thrown into the tunnel entrance to kill any Viet Cong that may be near the top. Then, the first tunnel rat would be lowered head first into the tunnel by his feet. He was always secured to a rope in case he needed to be pulled out in an emergency. The tunnel rat would look, as best he could, for any enemy troops and then feel for any booby traps or mines. Once he cleared that area, the second tunnel rat was sent in. The tunnel rat in front was always the one who had to look for booby traps or enemies. The second tunnel rat’s job was to note the soil and other measurements required for demolition later. After the tunnel was searched, the tunnel rats would go back in with explosives and place them at tunnel bends and other strong points. They would move out a safe distance and detonate the explosives. Tunnel Rat Weapons All tunnel rats were combat engineers, soldiers trained to perform construction and demolition tasks in combat. In addition to their regular role, tunnel rats had to be extremely good at hand-to-hand combat. This was because they couldn’t fit through the tunnel heavily armed. Generally, tunnel rats were armed with pistols, bayonets, flashlights, and sometimes explosives. Their standard military pistols weren’t ideal because the blast was so loud it would deafen them momentarily after firing. In the dark tunnels, Vietnam War tunnel rats needed every one of their senses so they had to settle for lesser quality pistols. Even with pistols, the tunnel rats had to follow certain guidelines to try to stay alive. Soldiers couldn’t fire off more than three shots in a row because Viet Cong would know that you were empty and had to reload after six shots. Sometimes, tunnel rats would run into Viet Cong in such close proximity that you couldn’t use your weapons and instead had to use hand-to-hand combat. The experience for tunnel rats was intense. One tunnel rat wrote in an article, “In the tunnels, your adrenalin was pumping like a river. I swear I could hear my heart beating.” –Jack Flowers, “Rat Six”, 1st Infantry Division The work was constant. One tunnel rat wrote that it wasn’t unusual to destroy more than 100 enemy bunkers during each operation. It also wasn’t unusual for a tunnel rat to quit after a few runs because it was just too intense. Despite their extreme work during the Vietnam War, the tunnel rats are not a very well-known group but their job was one that made a huge difference during the war.	<urn:uuid:d2b13a0c-7ed4-44bd-bc87-cd687b8e3995>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ourmilitary.com/vietnam-tunnel-rats/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00139.warc.gz	en	0.982485	1,774	3.5	4	[ -0.22407318651676178, 0.1337420642375946, 0.30639782547950745, -0.05891247093677521, -0.006885808892548084, 0.3693469166755676, 0.4402163624763489, -0.027079211547970772, -0.36983808875083923, 0.11768067628145218, 0.09898380190134048, -0.35907143354415894, 0.39544132351875305, 0.5909051299...	6	Vietnam tunnel rats – these weren’t some vermin soldiers encountered during the Vietnam War. Instead, Vietnam tunnel rats were an elite group of soldiers during the Vietnam War who probably had one of the most daring jobs. Vietnam War Tunnel Rats The Vietnam War tunnel rats were a group of soldiers from the United States, Australia, and New Zealand whose job it was to search out underground tunnels to flush out or kill any Viet Cong, gather intelligence, recover arms, and then destroy the tunnels. It was a small group of men made up of soldiers from the US 3rd Infantry Brigade, the 173rd Airborne, and the 1st Infantry Division as well as the 1st Royal Australian Regiment, which had two companies from the Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment. There weren’t generally more than 100 tunnel rats on the ground at any given time. The Vietnam War tunnel rats were created in an effort to take down the Viet Cong. Military intelligence indicated that the Viet Cong were operating out of a large underground bunker. The tunnel rats’ first operation was part of Operation Crimp, carried out in January 1966, designed to destroy the bunker. In the end, not much of importance was found but the Viet Cong continuously hit troops with small surprise attacks. The Viet Cong would seem to appear and then disappear very quickly. It was soon discovered that the enemy troops had a very complex network of underground tunnels. At that point, the Vietnam tunnel rats’ role became much more involved. Background on the Tunnels The tunnels had actually been around since the First Indochina War against the French, which Vietnam fought from 1946 to 1954. The Viet Minh commissioned volunteer villagers to dig the tunnels using hoes and baskets. The clay where the tunnels were constructed was soft and easy to work with during the wet season and dried rock hard during the dry season making it an ideal environment for tunnels. During the First Indochina War the tunnels were a fairly basic system but they evolved into a very complex tunnel system during the Vietnam War. Some tunnels were as much as 18-feet below ground and the system stretched for 200 miles, all the way to the border of Cambodia. Fully Functional Tunnels Despite being many feet underground, the tunnels were fully functional. It’s even believed the tunnels could hold up to 5,000 men for several months. Eventually, the tunnel complexes included hospitals, storage facilities, barracks, training areas, kitchens, first aid stations, and headquarters. The tunnels had several levels with a trap door separating each level. Because of the trap doors, the Viet Cong could seal off the rest of the tunnel system from dangers such as gas and flooding. The trap doors were also very well camouflaged making it very easy for the enemy to escape undetected. When the United States and its allies realized the complexities of the tunnels and the operations the Viet Cong could carry out, it became their mission to find, clear, and destroy the tunnels. This job fell on the Vietnam War tunnel rats. Dangers for Tunnel Rats Destroying the tunnels wouldn’t be easy. For starters, the tunnels were barely big enough for a 5’6” man to fit in so not just any soldier could do the job. The tunnels also required someone with a lot of courage since there was a high possibility the Viet Cong would find the tunnel rats before the tunnel rats found them. The construction of the tunnels themselves made for a challenging job for the tunnel rats. The tunnels weren’t constructed in straight lines but with corners that had between a 60-degree and 120-degree turn. This made shooting at the enemy impossible and also made grenades fairly ineffective. It didn’t take long to figure out that the odds of a tunnel rat dying were much higher than a soldier carrying out regular operations. The Vietnam tunnel rats faced a casualty rate of around 30% compared to a casualty rate of 10% (for United States troops) for soldiers in regular combat. Here’s a look at some of the other dangers Vietnam tunnel rats faced: - Booby traps - Pressure release bombs - Punji stakes - Snake traps - Bat swarms - Vietnamese fire ants Some of these dangers are self-explanatory but let’s take a look at some of the others. Booby traps were an unfortunate danger for tunnel rats. Some tunnels had special holes in the wall where Viet Cong would wait for soldiers and then thrust stakes through the hole impaling the troops. Viet Cong would also wait for a soldier to come out a trap door then kill them with stakes, guns, or knives. Punji stakes were spikes made out of wood or bamboo, which was then sharpened and heated. The stakes were placed in the tunnels and camouflaged so soldiers wouldn’t see them. Sometimes stakes were also coated in poison from plants or animals or human feces. This meant that while the strike from the punji stake might not be fatal, the infection from a coating could kill. Snake traps were a particularly surprising attack. Viet Cong would tie a bamboo pit viper to the ceiling or bushes and it would strike and bite troops in the neck, face, or hand as they walked by. Its bite was usually deadly. Soldiers quickly learned to scan the ceilings with their flashlights. Bat Swarms, Spiders, Vietnamese Fire Ants While bat swarms, spiders, and Vietnamese fire ants were not fatal, they were a very frequent and unwelcome nuisance in an already dangerous task. In addition to trying to avoid surprise attacks and booby traps, Vietnam tunnel rats also had to avoid getting lost in the myriad of tunnels. Needless to say, it was a dangerous job that only a special group of soldiers could handle. Clearing the Tunnels Any time ground troops found a suspicious hole, the Vietnam War tunnel rats were called in and it was their job to investigate, collect information, and then destroy the tunnel. Before entering, a grenade was usually thrown into the tunnel entrance to kill any Viet Cong that may be near the top. Then, the first tunnel rat would be lowered head first into the tunnel by his feet. He was always secured to a rope in case he needed to be pulled out in an emergency. The tunnel rat would look, as best he could, for any enemy troops and then feel for any booby traps or mines. Once he cleared that area, the second tunnel rat was sent in. The tunnel rat in front was always the one who had to look for booby traps or enemies. The second tunnel rat’s job was to note the soil and other measurements required for demolition later. After the tunnel was searched, the tunnel rats would go back in with explosives and place them at tunnel bends and other strong points. They would move out a safe distance and detonate the explosives. Tunnel Rat Weapons All tunnel rats were combat engineers, soldiers trained to perform construction and demolition tasks in combat. In addition to their regular role, tunnel rats had to be extremely good at hand-to-hand combat. This was because they couldn’t fit through the tunnel heavily armed. Generally, tunnel rats were armed with pistols, bayonets, flashlights, and sometimes explosives. Their standard military pistols weren’t ideal because the blast was so loud it would deafen them momentarily after firing. In the dark tunnels, Vietnam War tunnel rats needed every one of their senses so they had to settle for lesser quality pistols. Even with pistols, the tunnel rats had to follow certain guidelines to try to stay alive. Soldiers couldn’t fire off more than three shots in a row because Viet Cong would know that you were empty and had to reload after six shots. Sometimes, tunnel rats would run into Viet Cong in such close proximity that you couldn’t use your weapons and instead had to use hand-to-hand combat. The experience for tunnel rats was intense. One tunnel rat wrote in an article, “In the tunnels, your adrenalin was pumping like a river. I swear I could hear my heart beating.” –Jack Flowers, “Rat Six”, 1st Infantry Division The work was constant. One tunnel rat wrote that it wasn’t unusual to destroy more than 100 enemy bunkers during each operation. It also wasn’t unusual for a tunnel rat to quit after a few runs because it was just too intense. Despite their extreme work during the Vietnam War, the tunnel rats are not a very well-known group but their job was one that made a huge difference during the war.	1,742	ENGLISH	1
Stone Arch Railroad Bridge in Vernon, Indiana was one of the many tunnels slaves would use to escape during the early 1800s to gain freedom. Vernon and Madison Indiana's underground railroads systems were one of the many places slaves would evade of being took captive. Built of stone and brick in the year of 1837 the stone arch is one of the oldest railroad overpasses built in the state of Indiana. Known as the culvert many locals of Vernon would assist slaves to help them flee north through this underpass. The town of Vernon fought against injustice slavery by sheltering them and aiding them from Confederates. During 1837 and 1847 the underground railroad in Madison, Indiana was built during the civil war. The railroad system spanned from Indiana, Ohio,Kentucky and Iowa. This allowed a perfect get away for slaves who were fleeing from their owners. The Stone Arch Railroad Bridge in Vernon, Indiana was part of the underground system and the underpass below it served as one of the many tunnels slaves would use to hide or pass through while on the run. The Stone Arch Railroad Bridge was built in 1837. The bridge is one of the oldest bridges ever built in the state of Indiana. The bridge was constructed of stone and brick. The builders of the site are unknown. The locals of Vernon call the stone arch the culvert. The citizen's of Vernon played a big role in history because they would aid/shelter slaves and help them flee north. The underground railroad and underpasses were key factors on slaves gaining freedom.	<urn:uuid:6e52727e-911a-47d9-ba2b-c05e465c3844>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/68595	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00415.warc.gz	en	0.982844	320	3.578125	4	[ -0.3855931758880615, 0.0997723937034607, 0.06834004819393158, 0.09669150412082672, -0.7388899326324463, -0.10067015886306763, -0.033979419618844986, -0.34668847918510437, -0.33780723810195923, -0.18045493960380554, 0.19705094397068024, 0.015157181769609451, -0.05897102877497673, 0.32323437...	2	Stone Arch Railroad Bridge in Vernon, Indiana was one of the many tunnels slaves would use to escape during the early 1800s to gain freedom. Vernon and Madison Indiana's underground railroads systems were one of the many places slaves would evade of being took captive. Built of stone and brick in the year of 1837 the stone arch is one of the oldest railroad overpasses built in the state of Indiana. Known as the culvert many locals of Vernon would assist slaves to help them flee north through this underpass. The town of Vernon fought against injustice slavery by sheltering them and aiding them from Confederates. During 1837 and 1847 the underground railroad in Madison, Indiana was built during the civil war. The railroad system spanned from Indiana, Ohio,Kentucky and Iowa. This allowed a perfect get away for slaves who were fleeing from their owners. The Stone Arch Railroad Bridge in Vernon, Indiana was part of the underground system and the underpass below it served as one of the many tunnels slaves would use to hide or pass through while on the run. The Stone Arch Railroad Bridge was built in 1837. The bridge is one of the oldest bridges ever built in the state of Indiana. The bridge was constructed of stone and brick. The builders of the site are unknown. The locals of Vernon call the stone arch the culvert. The citizen's of Vernon played a big role in history because they would aid/shelter slaves and help them flee north. The underground railroad and underpasses were key factors on slaves gaining freedom.	324	ENGLISH	1
A coal fired navigation beacon was established on Beacon Hill at Newcastle in the early days of settlement as a warning and guide to mariners. Historian H.W.H. Huntington records that it was during Commandant William Lawson's twelve months rule that a flagstaff and coal-fired beacon were first established; other sources estimate the first beacon was built during Commandant Skottowe's tenure. Lieut. Edward Close A new flagstaff, signal station and coal-fired beacon were constructed in 1821 soon after Lieutenant Edward C. Close was appointed Engineer of Public Works at Newcastle. The beacon probably replaced the earlier construction - Some of Lieutenant Close's first improvements as Engineer of Public Works were connected with the safety of navigation of the port. He was the first to put down mooring chains in the harbour, and removed some dangerous shoals. Near the signal station that was earlier established he built a fort on which he mounted seven guns. On the top of a mound near the signal station he built a pagoda house for the signalman, and constructed a large iron beacon-stand a few feet above the surface, on which there was a large coal fire lighted every evening at sunset. This beacon light consumed half a ton of coal per night, giving a large and clear light, visible in fine weather about 20 miles at sea. (1) Difficulties of the Coal Fired Beacon The beacon light was not without its problems; it was estimated to cost £240 per year to run. Sometimes government funding was hard to come by and there were calls for private subscriptions to be forthcoming; and in wet and windy weather it was difficult to keep alight or control. Nevertheless the beacon was kept for thirty five years, finally ceasing existence on the night of the 31st December 1857 when Nobbys lighthouse showed its first light for the guidance of mariners. (1) Extract from the Newcastle Morning Herald in April 1913 - The lighthouse on Nobbys, at the entrance to Newcastle Harbour, has a history all its own, although one that is intimately bound up in that of the port to which it has rendered such valuable service over a long course of years. Few people now living are able to take their minds back to the time when there was no Nobbys lighthouse. One who can do so, however, is Mr. Hugh Gilmour, who for many years past lived in a cottage in Reid-street, or Reid's-lane, as it is often called. The old gentleman has now reached the age of 95; but his recollections of the early days of Newcastle are remarkably clear and lucid. He was employed for a number of years in the harbour service, and for that reason is well qualified to speak as to the early development of the port. Mr. Gilmour says he well remembers the time the present lighthouse was built in the 1850's. But even before that, there was a light to guide the anxious mariner into his desired haven, though it could hardly be termed a lighthouse. It consisted of a huge coal fire, which was located on Signal Hill, and when there was anything like a breeze blowing, the flames reared fiercely up skyward, making a lurid glare visible for many miles across the water. The signal station then was in charge of James Royle, whose duty it also was to see the coal fire was maintained uninterrupted, night after night, from year's end to year's end. In this he was assisted by a man named Murphy. The trade of Newcastle, comparatively speaking, was then insignificant. The vessels using the port were mostly ketches and schooners, which regularly made the 60-mile trip between Newcastle and Sydney, and a few brigs and small barques employed in the carrying of coal to Melbourne, Adelaide, Hobart and New Zealand. For such small craft, creeping cautiously along the coast, the blaze of the coal fire so conspicuously placed, served its purpose fairly well-at least, in fine weather. If can readily be imagined however, that the weather conditions frequently were such as to render it almost, if not quite useless, and this at times when an effective guiding light was more than ever necessary. Lighthouse in 1850's As the trade of the port developed, and the vessels arriving at and leaving it increased steadily both in number and size, the urgent need of a less primitive mode of lighting the way in at night was realised, and steps were taken to meet it. So it was that the present lighthouse on Nobbys was placed in position, as already mentioned. It was built by Messrs. Wright and Randell, the firm which also carried out the contract for the construction of the railway from Honeysuckle Point to Maitland, at the same time. When the lighthouse was put into commission, it was placed in charge of Mr. Jesse Hannell, a brother of, Mr. James Hannell, who became the first Mayor of Newcastle on its incorporation in 1850, and who, also was the Parliamentary representative of the city for some years. The duties of the lighthouse keeper included also those of signal master, and in this work Mr. Hannell was assisted by Mr. Isaac Lee. Some nine years later, the latter was succeeded in the position of assistant lighthouse keeper by 'Dunbar' Johnson, the sole survivor from the wreck of the famous clipper ship at The Gap, near South Head, Sydney. At that time Nobbys was separated from the mainland by a narrow strip of sand, which was sub- merged at high water. Mr. Gilmour played an important part in connection with the building up of the breakwater between the Signal Hill and Nobbys. For the purpose of obtaining the necessary supply of stone for this work, he was entrusted with the task of opening up a quarry at Waratah. Prior to that he had been engaged in running a steam lighter called the Powerful, which had been brought up from Sydney in 1857, for the purpose of taking ballast from the ships' sides, and transporting it to the breakwater to help towards the building up of the isthmus. The construction of the breakwater was carried on by prisoners under the supervision of Captain John Edward Newell Bull, the Commandant, and subsequently under that of Col. Ewen Macpherson. When first established, the lighthouse had an ordinary oil lantern, and the means of refraction were not utilised in the most scientific way. In course of time, however, various improvements were effected. Some years have elapsed since the necessary apparatus for lighting up the tower by means of incandescent kerosene vapour was installed, and since then a bright, steady light, visible for many miles to seaward, has always been in evidence between, sunset and sunrise to beckon wandering mariners into their desired haven. The illumination of the flames itself was equivalent to 1000 candle- power, but when this had gained added brilliance from the effects of the prisms, the light shining through the lenses represented fully three million candle-power. ........ Newcastle Morning Herald 5 April 1913 Notes and Links 1). Correspondence re Supply of Coals for the Beacon: To the Editor of the Sydney Herald For the benefit of the owners of trading vessels to this Port, I would suggest their entering into a subscription to assist the Colonial government to purchase fuel for the Beacon here, rather than endanger their property. The government authorities having neglected to keep a supply of coals, and the person who has lately carted coals for that establishment is in doubt of being paid, and refuses to continue without authority in writing. The Harbour Master states when asked by a looker on, how he neglects his duty - shrugs his shoulders - declares he is not to blame - he has reported it to the head of his department - more he cannot do. In fact, Mr. Editor, the mode and manner of payment by the Colonial Government is far from being convenient to the people, and they prefer idleness to a promise to pay. Pray move, if possible, the great folk, for charity sake, to save life and property, Your obedient servant, C. Newcastle October. 4, 1837. (The Sydney Herald 17 October 1837) 2). A cottage was built for the harbour master Mr. Allen in 1869 on the site of the old pagoda that had been constructed during Lieut. Close's time - NMH 13 September 1911 3). Beacon Light, Newcastle........ Keeper of the Light at £8 a month - £96 Coals for the Beacon at £8 a month - £240 -Votes and Proceedings, Volume 2 By New South Wales. Parliament. Legislative Council 1857 4). Nobbys Lighthouse from the first was under the control of the Colonial Architect's Department and Mr. Mortimer W. Lewis, the local representative of the department attended to all alterations and repairs. In 1890 the Lighthouse was transferred to the Harbours and Rivers Department. Newcastle Morning Herald and Miners' Advocate (NSW : 1876 - 1954) Wed 26 Nov 1890	<urn:uuid:059e04a1-deb3-488d-98b6-8e5153ed468e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://jenwilletts.com/coal_fired_beacon_at_newcastle.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00218.warc.gz	en	0.982128	1,866	3.28125	3	[ -0.08438540250062943, 0.08250461518764496, 0.018236031755805016, -0.050481006503105164, -0.09704264253377914, 0.20981717109680176, -0.06448175013065338, -0.12328790128231049, -0.38141244649887085, 0.050632622092962265, 0.3204624056816101, -0.5143288373947144, -0.3206726014614105, 0.2815429...	5	A coal fired navigation beacon was established on Beacon Hill at Newcastle in the early days of settlement as a warning and guide to mariners. Historian H.W.H. Huntington records that it was during Commandant William Lawson's twelve months rule that a flagstaff and coal-fired beacon were first established; other sources estimate the first beacon was built during Commandant Skottowe's tenure. Lieut. Edward Close A new flagstaff, signal station and coal-fired beacon were constructed in 1821 soon after Lieutenant Edward C. Close was appointed Engineer of Public Works at Newcastle. The beacon probably replaced the earlier construction - Some of Lieutenant Close's first improvements as Engineer of Public Works were connected with the safety of navigation of the port. He was the first to put down mooring chains in the harbour, and removed some dangerous shoals. Near the signal station that was earlier established he built a fort on which he mounted seven guns. On the top of a mound near the signal station he built a pagoda house for the signalman, and constructed a large iron beacon-stand a few feet above the surface, on which there was a large coal fire lighted every evening at sunset. This beacon light consumed half a ton of coal per night, giving a large and clear light, visible in fine weather about 20 miles at sea. (1) Difficulties of the Coal Fired Beacon The beacon light was not without its problems; it was estimated to cost £240 per year to run. Sometimes government funding was hard to come by and there were calls for private subscriptions to be forthcoming; and in wet and windy weather it was difficult to keep alight or control. Nevertheless the beacon was kept for thirty five years, finally ceasing existence on the night of the 31st December 1857 when Nobbys lighthouse showed its first light for the guidance of mariners. (1) Extract from the Newcastle Morning Herald in April 1913 - The lighthouse on Nobbys, at the entrance to Newcastle Harbour, has a history all its own, although one that is intimately bound up in that of the port to which it has rendered such valuable service over a long course of years. Few people now living are able to take their minds back to the time when there was no Nobbys lighthouse. One who can do so, however, is Mr. Hugh Gilmour, who for many years past lived in a cottage in Reid-street, or Reid's-lane, as it is often called. The old gentleman has now reached the age of 95; but his recollections of the early days of Newcastle are remarkably clear and lucid. He was employed for a number of years in the harbour service, and for that reason is well qualified to speak as to the early development of the port. Mr. Gilmour says he well remembers the time the present lighthouse was built in the 1850's. But even before that, there was a light to guide the anxious mariner into his desired haven, though it could hardly be termed a lighthouse. It consisted of a huge coal fire, which was located on Signal Hill, and when there was anything like a breeze blowing, the flames reared fiercely up skyward, making a lurid glare visible for many miles across the water. The signal station then was in charge of James Royle, whose duty it also was to see the coal fire was maintained uninterrupted, night after night, from year's end to year's end. In this he was assisted by a man named Murphy. The trade of Newcastle, comparatively speaking, was then insignificant. The vessels using the port were mostly ketches and schooners, which regularly made the 60-mile trip between Newcastle and Sydney, and a few brigs and small barques employed in the carrying of coal to Melbourne, Adelaide, Hobart and New Zealand. For such small craft, creeping cautiously along the coast, the blaze of the coal fire so conspicuously placed, served its purpose fairly well-at least, in fine weather. If can readily be imagined however, that the weather conditions frequently were such as to render it almost, if not quite useless, and this at times when an effective guiding light was more than ever necessary. Lighthouse in 1850's As the trade of the port developed, and the vessels arriving at and leaving it increased steadily both in number and size, the urgent need of a less primitive mode of lighting the way in at night was realised, and steps were taken to meet it. So it was that the present lighthouse on Nobbys was placed in position, as already mentioned. It was built by Messrs. Wright and Randell, the firm which also carried out the contract for the construction of the railway from Honeysuckle Point to Maitland, at the same time. When the lighthouse was put into commission, it was placed in charge of Mr. Jesse Hannell, a brother of, Mr. James Hannell, who became the first Mayor of Newcastle on its incorporation in 1850, and who, also was the Parliamentary representative of the city for some years. The duties of the lighthouse keeper included also those of signal master, and in this work Mr. Hannell was assisted by Mr. Isaac Lee. Some nine years later, the latter was succeeded in the position of assistant lighthouse keeper by 'Dunbar' Johnson, the sole survivor from the wreck of the famous clipper ship at The Gap, near South Head, Sydney. At that time Nobbys was separated from the mainland by a narrow strip of sand, which was sub- merged at high water. Mr. Gilmour played an important part in connection with the building up of the breakwater between the Signal Hill and Nobbys. For the purpose of obtaining the necessary supply of stone for this work, he was entrusted with the task of opening up a quarry at Waratah. Prior to that he had been engaged in running a steam lighter called the Powerful, which had been brought up from Sydney in 1857, for the purpose of taking ballast from the ships' sides, and transporting it to the breakwater to help towards the building up of the isthmus. The construction of the breakwater was carried on by prisoners under the supervision of Captain John Edward Newell Bull, the Commandant, and subsequently under that of Col. Ewen Macpherson. When first established, the lighthouse had an ordinary oil lantern, and the means of refraction were not utilised in the most scientific way. In course of time, however, various improvements were effected. Some years have elapsed since the necessary apparatus for lighting up the tower by means of incandescent kerosene vapour was installed, and since then a bright, steady light, visible for many miles to seaward, has always been in evidence between, sunset and sunrise to beckon wandering mariners into their desired haven. The illumination of the flames itself was equivalent to 1000 candle- power, but when this had gained added brilliance from the effects of the prisms, the light shining through the lenses represented fully three million candle-power. ........ Newcastle Morning Herald 5 April 1913 Notes and Links 1). Correspondence re Supply of Coals for the Beacon: To the Editor of the Sydney Herald For the benefit of the owners of trading vessels to this Port, I would suggest their entering into a subscription to assist the Colonial government to purchase fuel for the Beacon here, rather than endanger their property. The government authorities having neglected to keep a supply of coals, and the person who has lately carted coals for that establishment is in doubt of being paid, and refuses to continue without authority in writing. The Harbour Master states when asked by a looker on, how he neglects his duty - shrugs his shoulders - declares he is not to blame - he has reported it to the head of his department - more he cannot do. In fact, Mr. Editor, the mode and manner of payment by the Colonial Government is far from being convenient to the people, and they prefer idleness to a promise to pay. Pray move, if possible, the great folk, for charity sake, to save life and property, Your obedient servant, C. Newcastle October. 4, 1837. (The Sydney Herald 17 October 1837) 2). A cottage was built for the harbour master Mr. Allen in 1869 on the site of the old pagoda that had been constructed during Lieut. Close's time - NMH 13 September 1911 3). Beacon Light, Newcastle........ Keeper of the Light at £8 a month - £96 Coals for the Beacon at £8 a month - £240 -Votes and Proceedings, Volume 2 By New South Wales. Parliament. Legislative Council 1857 4). Nobbys Lighthouse from the first was under the control of the Colonial Architect's Department and Mr. Mortimer W. Lewis, the local representative of the department attended to all alterations and repairs. In 1890 the Lighthouse was transferred to the Harbours and Rivers Department. Newcastle Morning Herald and Miners' Advocate (NSW : 1876 - 1954) Wed 26 Nov 1890	1,938	ENGLISH	1
View This Storyboard as a Slide Show! Create your own! Copy this storyboard Like What You See? This storyboard was created with This is Confucius, he was born around 551-479 BC and he had one of the most powerful golden rules which was to do to others want you want to be done to you. Confucius would practice this many times and he would practice this to teach kids to respect there elders and just to teach people to be kind and to just respect the people around you. He would also right lots of things about himself in the books that he had. He usually also focused on one of the things called ren which is basically loving others he had many many rules, some of the rules included being loving, respectful, and just being kind to others because if you dont want something bad to happen to you dont do something bad to someone sadly he died on November 21, 479 BC during one of the biggest wars. He was always remembered and was never forgotten He influenced many people thought chine, japan, Korea and Vietnam. These influences really helped them and it helped there community become bigger and nicer now! Over 12 Million Create My First Storyboard	<urn:uuid:6228f0c8-213f-4c5a-94ee-9f1aebf72fd2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/3c292092/confucuis-project	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00290.warc.gz	en	0.987129	254	3.734375	4	[ -0.31210052967071533, 0.1337984800338745, 0.7119494676589966, -0.4641116261482239, -0.49129825830459595, 0.28722167015075684, 0.3612423539161682, 0.39130255579948425, -0.04191819950938225, 0.021948793902993202, 0.0825711116194725, -0.2651212215423584, 0.49098315834999084, 0.294728755950927...	1	View This Storyboard as a Slide Show! Create your own! Copy this storyboard Like What You See? This storyboard was created with This is Confucius, he was born around 551-479 BC and he had one of the most powerful golden rules which was to do to others want you want to be done to you. Confucius would practice this many times and he would practice this to teach kids to respect there elders and just to teach people to be kind and to just respect the people around you. He would also right lots of things about himself in the books that he had. He usually also focused on one of the things called ren which is basically loving others he had many many rules, some of the rules included being loving, respectful, and just being kind to others because if you dont want something bad to happen to you dont do something bad to someone sadly he died on November 21, 479 BC during one of the biggest wars. He was always remembered and was never forgotten He influenced many people thought chine, japan, Korea and Vietnam. These influences really helped them and it helped there community become bigger and nicer now! Over 12 Million Create My First Storyboard	254	ENGLISH	1
Most Beautiful Colorized Images In History When you place a colorized image next to one that is black and white, it becomes evident that color adds a depth of contextual visualization to photos. One may wonder why colors add so many differences to images, especially in throwing more illumination to past visuals. You will discover that the following color images that once lacked colors are now easier to understand. All thanks to a group of committed digital editors who were able to transform the original photos. These early 20th-century images, in their original black and white form, could reveal only little about past events. However, adding color to the photos now helps viewers to gain more insights about the past, leading to an increased appreciation of historical figures or significant world events. Check how Richard James Molloy colorized world-famous pictures and how different they look now. 1907: The Royal group (with Kaiser Wilhelm II and Edward VII) at Windsor Castle The photo shows the “who is who” in Europe seven years before the world war resulting from the assassination of Arch Duke Ferdinand. The English and Russian royal families are well represented in the photo. Notable among them are King Edward VII, Princess Beatrice of Great Britain, German leader Kaiser Wilhelm II, and Grand Duke Vladimir of Russia. The Crimson Drawing-Room hangout of both royal families could not have been free from tension considering that some people were at loggerheads. However, most of them had to stand wholly to allow the photographer to take the photo. 1881: Constructing the Statue of Liberty In the early 19th century, the president of the French Anti-Slavery Society, Édouard René de Laboulaye proposed the construction of the US Statue of Liberty. It took several decades to finish the statue, which was to serve as a memorial to the United States’ independence. In a bid to unite the countries, the workers that built the statue were from the US and France. The figure chosen for the statue is Columbia combined with Libertas known as the goddess of freedom. On completing the building of the statue in France, it was moved to America via a steamer. It was in America that other pieces were constructed to form the actual statue that several tourists visit today. 1963: Separated by The Berlin Wall, two german brothers are reunited The Berlin Wall of 1961 cannot be forgotten so soon, at least not by those it severely impacted. In the photo, are two brothers that were separated for two years by the wall. The original motive of the wall was to curb a significant crisis between places in Germany controlled by the Soviet Union and West Berlin. However, the fact that many members of different families were separated from one another because no one could pass the checkpoints left the wall without fans. In 1963, a border pass agreement was put in place after many complaints. Thus, people who lived in the West were able to travel to the East to see their relatives. It was not until many decades later that the wall was finally put down. 1955: Walt Disney and a map of "Disneyland", his first theme park Have you ever thought of the brain behind the famous "Disneyland"? Well, we have got Walt Disney to credit for it. He decided to create a safe space for families after noticing that alcohol and other unsafe things were common in most amusement parks in the '50s. Building the park around Disney characters like Donald Duck and Mickey was reasonable since they were famous in the '40s and still are till date. Disney used those characters in a way kids find interesting with parents not left out of the fun all over the park. "The one thing for me... the important thing... is the family, and keeping the family together with things. That's been the backbone of our whole business, catering to families… The park means a lot to me. It's something that will never be finished, something I can keep developing". 1956: The smallest man in the world, Henry Behrens, with his pet cat Although 2-foot tall Henry Behrens happens to be the smallest man worldwide in 1956, comparing his height with the 30-inch standing height of the cat shows that the cat is huge. In the 1950s, smaller people had few ways they could make money like being part of a midget troupe. Behrens was part of the "Burton Lester's midget troupe" then. Behrens' huge cat complimented his shenanigans lifestyle. His small stature did not deny him from enjoying life like other people. Apart from cooking, he was able to clean like us. He referred to himself as "Colonel Peewee." 1947: Danish explorer Peter Freuchen and wife Dagmar Cohn People who look cool tend to have a mind-blowing underlining story. The image shows Peter Freuchen, a man born in 1886 in Denmark. His childhood days were just like that of any other child at that time. However, things began to look different when he could no longer pursue his medical career and sought adventure. Arriving in Greenland in 1906, Freuchen embarked on a dogsled hunt of 600 miles and also traded with Inuits. One of the polar bears he killed on the hunt was used to make the perfectly-fitted coat he's wearing in the picture. Freuchen lectured about Inuit culture in 1910 before embarking on another journey across Greenland, one where he got buried in the snow. But, he was able to dig himself out using his special knife made from feces. It is why dinner with him is second to nothing. 1906: Boat races at Palm Beach, Miami According to Lloyd E. Brown, the second annual Palm Beach Regata was the most successful winter racing event. At the event which held from January 30 to February 2, 1906, many fans of boating hung maxed while they watched the long racing weekend. Brown later wrote: The closing day of the regatta was by far the most successful, bringing out the best that was in the speedy flyers. The contest for the Dewar Shield was the main feature of the day, it being won by H. L. Bowden's Mercedes, victor in both heats, although her time was a disappointment to those gathered at the carnival and expectant for new world's records. 1957: Norman Rockwell After the Prom Norman Rockwell’s exceptional painting skills and eye for detail immediately come to mind when you look closely at the “After the Prom” reference photo. The realistic nature of his paintings makes it difficult to differentiate this photo from the painting. Despite his outstanding talent, he was never considered an artist in his lifetime. Instead, his peers thought of him as an illustrator. From the photo, you will agree that apart from being interested in displaying the simplicity of American life, he also focused on making it look real. This practice and ability make his work valuable even after his death. 1964: Malcolm X and Muhammad Ali Many a time, we make mistakes that we wish never was. One person who made such a mistake is Muhammad Ali, initially called Cassius Clay. Not long after the famous boxer became a Muslim in 1964, he had to end his friendship with Malcolm X because Malcolm decided to separate from Elijah Muhammad. Unfortunately, Malcolm was assassinated on February 21, 1965, when he was delivering a speech in Harlem. It was after Malcolm's assassination that Ali realized that his decision to end their friendship was not the best. But, it was too late to reconcile. In Malcolm's autobiography, Ali wrote: Turning my back on Malcolm was one of the mistakes that I regret most in my life. I wish I’d been able to tell Malcolm I was sorry, that he was right about so many things. But he was killed before I got the chance… Malcolm and I were so close and had been through so much. 1912: Austrian-born French tailor, Franz Reichelt, before his fateful jump It is never a crime to dream big, especially when realizing such a dream can make living better for everyone. But, it is important to take meaningful steps to achieve one's goal. In doing this, some people have taken unbelievable steps that still amazes many people today. One such person is Franz Reichelt, who understood early enough that saving the lives of several people will in the future depend on the harnessing of air resistance. In the early 20th century, Franz Reichelt designed and created foldable silk wings sequel to the offering of 10,000 francs prize money by Colonel Lalance of the Aéro-Club de France. The prize money was for anyone who could produce a usable parachute at a time when air travel was becoming very popular. Reichelt's silk wings called "parachute-suit" were similar to the flight suit used then but had extra features like canopy and rubber lining. “On the morning of February 4th, 1912 Reichelt revealed that he would jump from the Eiffel Tower to prove the efficiency of his parachute-suit, saying, “I want to try the experiment myself and without trickery, as I intend to prove the worth of my invention.” At 8:22 am he leaped from the Eiffel Tower and sank through the air like a stone.” 1863: Union Soldiers taking a break This photo evokes a memory about the past. Imagine seeing more snapshots of events like the Civil War era in natural color. Such will give a new look at history and help us understand more about the events that would have escaped the reach of the millennial. The Union soldiers had already divided the southern army at the time this picture was taken. They had gained control of the Mississippi River after a series of bloody battles with the Confederates two years before the Civil War. Just before the War, there were technological advancements giving room for the production of tintypes. They also enabled the viewing of photos from the war to be a regular experience. After an exhibit of the war photography, the New York Times wrote: The photographer] has done something to bring home to us the terrible reality and earnestness of war. If he has not brought bodies and laid them in our dooryards and along the streets, he has done something very like it. Unloading supplies on Omaha for the break-out from Normandy A barrage balloon is used to raise cables that create a collision risk for enemy soldiers, making an approach problematic. Although setting the barrage balloons is not with its disadvantages. Even with the 320th Antiaircraft Balloon set up to slow down Luftwaffe’s attack at Omaha beach, German artillery fighters were still able to bombard the ships with gunfire. It was a fierce battle as the soldiers had cut their kites loose to give the long-range fighters of the German a less easy target. Many of the soldiers working on these massive kite balloons worked so hard to keep things under control. 1935: Construction of the Hoover Dam Looking at the Hoover Dam, one is tempted to find out about those who conceived and perfected such a masterpiece. A closer look at the image suggests that a building of that sort would have required collective efforts, and that is just the case. Thousands of workers built the Hoover Dam located on the border of Arizona and Nevada in the 1930s. These workers had migrated to the area at the time of the Great Depression, hoping to make ends meet while working extremely hard. A large amount of workforce ensured that the dam’s construction was ahead of the scheduled completion time. Pouring a total of 3,250,000 cubic yards of concrete was concluded as early as May 29, 1935. Meanwhile, the dedication of the dam was on September 30, 1935. Sometimes, it is difficult to believe that Dolly Parton hailed from a wretched Appalachian family, considering that she became the world's top country music star. She is indeed one of the best performers to have lived in the 20th century. Just after she changed from singing country music to pop in 1977, her songs became top hits. It was to the extent that she won the Grammy a year later with "Here You Come Again." Not only did she showcase her musical talent during shows in the '70s, but she also displayed her comedy skills. In 1980, she got her biggest hit after performing the theme song Nine to Five. The song was ranked top on the country and two adult-contemporary charts. 1945: Lee Miller in Adolf Hitler’s bathtub The person in the photo is Lee Miller, who happens to be a renowned fashion model in New York City before becoming a photojournalist. Back in Paris before World War II, she worked in places like Man Ray and Cocteau but later decided to have a different experience with the camera. Attached to the 83rd Infantry Division of the US Army, Miller took shots of the atrocities at Dachau Concentration Camp before heading for Hitler's Munich apartment. Dachau concentration camp mud covered her boot in the photo and it turned the whole surreal image thing to one big F You to the Third Reich leader. She spent the majority of her life after the war in her farm located in Sussex, England. As she grew weak, friends like Pablo Picasso enjoyed her company, especially with her surreal meals that resemble blue spaghetti and green chicken present. 1912: The RMS Titanic Who has not heard of the Titanic? Even many of the 21st-century kids would have seen the movie made of the iconic ship. Constructed in 1909, the Titanic was assumed unsinkable, and it was a home from home for the wealthiest people in the world. The sister ship to the Olympic had amenities second to no other ships with its send class accommodation were just as good if not superior to the first-class sections of other boats. The ship was not considered seaworthy until April 1912 even though it was launched since May 31, 1911. Titanic weighed 52,000 tons when displaced, and it took its historic debutant voyage on April 10, 1912. 1950: US Marine Dwayne L. Boice at Wolmido Island burning out a weapon's emplacement War has always left unpleasant memories behind, and the Korea war of 1950 was not different. As the war, which was ripping the country in two halves was ongoing, the United Nations (UN) supported South Korea as against the famous communists North Korea. The image is that of a US soldier burning a weapon’s emplacement at Wolmido Island on Sept. 10, 1950. Early 1960s: "The Rat Pack" in New York The Rat Pack popular in the ‘60s both on and offstage. Apart from their shows, which they put up together, they also hang out together. It is said that no one knows what is next when they are together, especially on a Las Vegas night. The group comprising of four men performed spontaneously during shows. The truth is that most people today will stay away from the type of trouble the group got itself into then because of the prevalence of cameras everywhere. Frank was the leader of the group, and he had the full support of the rest of the group members – Jean Martin, Sammy Davis Jr., and Peter Lawford. 1960: Clint Eastwood and his 1958 Jag XK 120 The name Eastwood would always ring a bell, especially if you are conversant with the Hollywood. The photo is that of Eastwood in his swanky ride some years before he made it big time in Hollywood. After appearing in films like Lafayette Escadrille as a second fiddle to Tab Hunter and b-movies like Tarantula, he proceeded to Italy to have his major hit in the movie “A Fistful of Dollars.” Apart from film appearances, Eastwood was also known to be the anchor for Rawhide and Death Valley Days (both were television western). Apparently, he made a lot of money from TV, an explanation for the expensive ride in the picture. 1943: Major Donald James Matthew Blakeslee, Ohio The way some photos feel so real, you will be tempted to want to touch whoever is in it. An example of such a picture is the colorized photo of Major Blakeslee in his cockpit back in 1943. He was at that time flying a P-47 Thunderbolt attached to the 335th Fighter Squadron. His records show that he flew 240 combat hours with RAF and that he had three confirmed victories. Blakeslee often joked about his love of combat flying. 1898: Otto von Bismarck One can draw several inferences from Bismarck’s look in the picture. His look reveals that he has seen it all in life. It is a true statement because he spent lots of time in battle relative to the time spent at home. Not only was Bismarck a genius in foreign affairs, but he also founded and served as the first Chancellor of the German Empire. The style of Bismarck’s rule revealed that he was an authoritarian. Voted out of power in 1890, he chose to resign instead of piloting the country into a civil war. Despite being in affluence, the government that took over from Bismarck received several terse rebuttals from him. A room aboard the Titanic Hardly will the name Titanic be mentioned and it will be strange to anyone. Many people who initially knew nothing about the beast were in the know after watching the movie. Unlike other liners, which have rooms similar to tiny prison rooms, Titanic was in a class of its own. The photo shows one of the rooms in the gigantic sea beast. You will agree that the masterpiece was exceptional. Examining any of the rooms in the first-class section, you might have mistaken it for a palace. The interior of Titanic was carefully crafted to give riders a different experience while they floated. The fact that some wealthy riders on board could open the interconnecting doors to form a suite is unimaginable. 1940: Albert Einstein in his Princeton, New Jersey home Before the death of Albert Einstein in 1955, he settled and lived in Princeton, New Jersey. He lived there for his last 22 years alive. The decision to live there was after comparing Princeton to Pasadena in California. Originally, he lived in Germany but faced extreme racism, making him move to the US. Einstein is one of the most intelligent persons that lived in the 20th century. He worked at the "Institute of Advanced Study" in Princeton before his death. Early 1900s: New York City New York City was long known as the center of the western world. The city was filled with aristocrats and individuals looking to make their way in the world back in the day. Although people in the city still made use of gas lamps and local equipment in the 1900s, with time, the place changed from residential streets into a city full of skyscrapers. Many office buildings were erected across the city and in the Lower Broadway especially. They tower over the many old buildings that had rocked the city for generations. Even though New Yorkers were unsure about the modern buildings springing up at that time, they have fast turned into the way of life of the city dwellers. 1944: 101st Airborne Troops taking off to Normandy, France for “Operation Chicago" In the heat of World War II, soldiers knew that any mission they go for could as well be their last. The soldiers in the photo did not have a different opinion. They were all ready for "Operation Chicago," which happened to be one of the three missions assigned to 101st Airborne Division. The mission was meant to bring more troops into Normandy as well as more firepower. At around 4 am, the soldiers arrived at France haven entered through Dakota C-47s and Waco gliders. No doubt, the operation was successful though not without the loss of General Pratt and about 499 other soldiers. General Pratt was the then second in command of the division. The infantry division carried out another successful operation the next day. 1965: Singer Bob Dylan in New York 1965 was a remarkable year for Bob Dylan who spent so much time writing and performing at the peak of artistry career. The stardom headlined the Newport Folk Festival that same year where he played three songs with his first live electric set. Bob also released the cue card laden video for Subterranean Homesick Blues and recorded many other songs in 1965. Before the year ran out, Bob Dylan was exhausted by the attention he received from the media for being the nation’s poet. He later disappeared from the public eye for eight years after a mysterious motorcycle incident. 1944: German commando disguised in American uniform preparing for execution Only a few things that can be as excruciating as dying by the firing squad. The photo is that of a German soldier caught dressed in American soldiers' uniform and prepared to be executed. After World War II ended, German troops did whatever was necessary to help them avert capture in Europe. So, many of them hid by dressing as American soldiers. However, the unlucky ones were caught and executed. On suspecting anyone, questions like state capitals and sports trivia that only American troops would know were asked. Nobel Prize Laureate & "Father of Chemical Warfare ", Fritz Haber Fritz Haber was busy throughout World War 1 preparing deadly chemicals weapons for the army. As the leading physical chemist in Germany, Haber was called to create crazier weapons for the German military as the fighting kept increasing. The chemist was proactive in the development of tear gas at the time the army needed one. He even found a way of turning chlorine gas into a deadly weapon for the military. It is not a surprise that Haber received the Nobel Peace Prize for his work following the end of the war. He had worked on nitrogen fixation which helped create a weapon for the war and as well produced fertilizers. 1930s: Amelia Earhart The woman in the photo, Amelia Earhart is not just a cautionary tale like some people believe. She happens to have been more important than that being the sixteenth woman to obtain a pilot license. In 1928, she eventually became the first woman pilot to over the Atlantic Ocean and the 1st pilot to fly across both Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. She disappeared in 1937 during one of her adventurous flight, specifically the one where she was trying to circumnavigate the world. Many researchers believe she ran out of fuel around 35-100 miles from Howland Island during the trip. Lots of people, especially adventurers remember her today. 1963: Lee Harvey Oswald mugshot If the final days of Lee Harvey Oswald weren’t so tragic, one would have referred to it as a whirlwind. Lee Harvey murdered President John F. Kennedy as he rode in an open-care motorcade through Dallas on November 22, 1963. After Lee Harvey escaped the book depository he used as a vantage point, he shot a policeman before he snuck into a theatre. One would have thought he’s such a master of disguise; however, the killer was caught just thirty minutes later. While he was being transferred from Dallas to a more secure jail, Lee Harvey was shot by Jack Ruby, the owner of a strip joint in Dallas. Although many still believe that many theories are surrounding the death of the killer. 1923: Charles Lindbergh at Lambert Field, St. Louis, Missouri This photo is not about the kidnapping of the Lindbergh baby even though that's what comes to mind when the name Lindbergh is mentioned. The picture shows Charles Lindbergh preparing for his first-ever solo flight in 1923 nearly ten years after the kidnapping incident. On successfully making the flight, he was hired to perform at fairs across the country as one of the daredevil pilots. He joined the US Army in 1924 and trained as an Army Air Service Reserve pilot. Exactly four years after he posed to take this photo, he became the 1st pilot to fly from New York to Paris without stopping on the way. More than 100,000 people were present to greet Lindbergh on arrival after flying over 3,600 miles. 1960s: The Beatles in Hamburg, Germany The Beatles were five in numbers before they had to make the tough professional decision of dropping drummer Pete Best. As at then, they accepted gigs to perform in Germany since Liverpool was industrialized. They also continued to work on their sound, figuring roles for each member of the group. After the exit of Pete, the group became the Fab Four. The decision to drop Pete was necessitated after they auditioned at EMI Studios owned by George Martin in London. According to Paul McCartney, dropping Pete was a difficult decision they were not happy about. 1938: Frank Sinatra mugshot A mugshot is never desired by anyone, but Frank Sinatra, unfortunately, could not avoid posing for one in 1938. Sinatra's mugshot is from his arrest for sleeping with a noblewoman under the guise that he would marry her. Obviously, colorizing it unravels more findings of the old blue eyes myth.The case against Sinatra took a new turn when it was discovered that the woman was not unmarried when she was messing around with the singer. The case, just like similar past ones, further amplified Sinatra's mythology instead of dampening it. 1967: Boston Strangler Albert DeSalvo being taken into custody The terror of Boston Strangler was all over Boston, Massachusetts from 1962 to 1964. The fear of the silk stocking murder gripped the city that no one knew the next time he would act. What surprises people about the activities of Boston Strangler is that he often leaves no sign of forced entry into the homes of victims. Many victims were found strangled with household items like nylon stocking found around their neck. Although the DNA of DeSalvo matched with one that of the strangler’s last victim, there are theories which believed the more than one person could be linked to the crimes committed. But in the end, the murder stopped sequel to the arrest of DeSalvo. He admitted to the killings when arrested by the Boston police division. 1965: Flight attendants in colorful outfits The cigarette smoke drenched flights were best known for the mod-inspired outfits in the 1960s. Ladies wore these outfits that depicted the space age to important events and even on travels. The ice cream color skirts and their head wraps were suitable for female as they combine them with the go-go boots in the 1960s. For the men, the sucked down martins suit was the most celebrated outfit for a cross country work trip. Modern wears have outwitted these old fashion clothing, but many have still considered these 1960 outfits as a style of class. 1943: A soldier and his wife saying their goodbyes at Penn. Station, New York Soldiers are trained to keep their head straight even at the most turbulent times. Even when leaving home for war, some soldiers are ready for the possibility of not returning. World War II was the most deadly war of the 20th century, and things were tough for the fact that people could not communicate with their friends and families. Katharine Phillips, a war correspondent for the Mobile Register, told PBS: The most worries we had about the war was just death. We just never knew when we’d lose someone that we loved. Our best friend. The boy that was the brother of your best friend. We lived in constant fear of the telegrams. Each day we would read the lists in the newspaper to see if we could identify the names that were there. 1937: The statue of Lady Justice - The Old Bailey - London Looking at the photo, one might not realize that it was colorized. The Lady Justice statue in the picture stands atop the Old Bailey and hangs up to 200 feet above the road. F. W. Pomeroy sculpted it in 1907 before it was added to the Old Bailey due to massive renovation resulting from a fire incident. The height the statue hangs from is high enough to give viewers that awe-inspiring sensation. Unlike many of its counterparts across the globe, this particular Lady Justice is not blindfolded. Perhaps, justice is not blind in England. Date Unkown: Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock, 'The Master of Suspense' That is a photo of Alfred Hitchcock, a one-time director of dozens of films. Starting from the 1920s, he directed films like Number 13, Rear Window, Strangers on a Train, and Psycho. His films either focused on crime and false accusations or good people turning bad. He was always working such that he passed away while still working on a script he called The Short Night. The cause of Hitchcock's unfortunate death that was on April 29, 1980, in Bel was kidney failure. 1948: Mafia boss Charles 'Lucky' Luciano in exile in Sicily, Italy Luciano had to find a way in helping the US to keep himself out of Jail. The imprisoned crime boss was asked to help the US government with the war effort. While Luciano worked with the US military to keep the New York dock safe, the military enacted ‘Operation Underworld.’ The purpose of the law was to keep off Italian and German agents from entering the US via the New York waterfronts; 1943: Actress Susan Peters Here is Susan Peters in 1943 at the time she was making an appearance in movies like Andy Hardy's Double Life, and Assignment in Brittany. This picture was taken nine years before the death of Susan, who died due to chronic infection and pneumonia. Before her death, Susan grabbed discharged a shotgun into her abdomen while on a hunting trip with her husband. The bullet penetrated her spinal column making her spend the rest of her life on a wheelchair. However, Susan did not stop acting on projects that allowed her to work with her paralysis. 1940s: Lucille Ball Lucille Ball was a fascinating starlet in Hollywood who was different from other top actors. Ball appeared in comedies by the Marx Brothers and took part in RKO pictures before she changed the landscape of comedy with I Love Lucy. She was persisted in what might have discouraged a lot of people in a career. Ball later explained that handwork and persistent were essential factors that made her reach a mountain top in her career. 1940: Dining with Hans von Luck High ranking officers in the military are often the ones behind the game theory of wars. They would rather discuss and strategize on how to win the war than stay in the middle of the war to experience the muck. Of course, every soldier would have that wish too; but for World War II, all hands have to be on deck. For Hans-Ulrich Freiherr von Luck und Witten also known as Hans von Luck, his first start in the German army was in 1929, and by the beginning of the World War II, he was already commanding a unit in the 7th Panzer Division. Hans von Luck rose to the position of captain of the 3rd Panzer Group of Army Group Center on June 1940 where he served in Moscow for a while. Following the cold condition in Russia, he was permitted to leave for Africa after lodging his complaints about the weather of Moscow. Hans von Luck enjoyed a ceasefire with the British troops until 1945 before he was transferred back to Russia where the Soviet army captured him. The soldier spent five years as a prisoner of war. 1912: A busy photographer in Jersey Shore How do you feel today traveling back in time where you have to rely on photographers to capture your best moments? Such was the case of the 20th-century folks. A day at the beach is a cherished moment for anyone. But back in the day, you will need to part with some cash to get photographers to capture your memorable events like a time out at the beach. Anyone who wanted to have his photo back then would wait for a few minutes for the pictures to be processed and printed. Today, we could capture thousands of memories with just a flash from our mobile devices. 1894: Queen Victoria and King Edward VII with their family at a wedding in Coburg, Germany The world politics was further strengthened by the wedding of Princess Victoia Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha on April 19, 1984. Dignitaries including Grand Duke Vladimir of Russia, King Edward VII, and Queen Victoria came together for the grand 19th-century wedding. This picture is one of the rare photos that showed the happy coexistence of the entire European family before erupting in World War 1. After the wedding, Queen Victoria wrote in her journal: The whole of our large family party was photographed by English, as well as German photographers. Many groups were taken, & some of me with Vicky & my three sons, & William. 1944: 190A-8, Melsbroek, Belgium This airplane has spent some good time with military war activities. The abandoned craft must have got its propeller damaged from a crash landing or at least a horrible fall. Colorizing the plane seems an odd job since the original paint of the craft looks sepia-tone already. But what becomes of pilots that survive such a nasty crash? Do they walk away or try to understand the world around them for a few moments? But from this photo, most of the plane looks pretty intact. Whoever was piloting the craft must have escaped the crash or probably took this photo. 1908: An 11-year-old coal miner While the coal industry was booming in the late 19th century, a lot of organizations made use of children in coal exploration. At that time, there were no laws restricting corporations from hiring children. So, if a child could hold a shovel or a pickaxe, he’s considered fit to dig in the mines. About 2 million children were working in coal mines in 1910 because of the cheap labor they offer organizations. Things began to change when lots of people showed their distaste in the act when NCLC started circulating pictures of young boys working out themselves in coal mines. The Child Labour Acts took a while before they were enacted. They were not put in place until 1916 after which, working in the mines required a minimum age and maximum shift length for workers. 1939: Vivien Leigh taking a break during the filming of “Gone with the Wind” Scarlet O’Hara, the southern belle, was the heart of the film Gone with the Wind. One would have thought that the whole movie was cast around Vivian Leigh; although that was not far from the truth since she played the role with so much brass. Leigh was the character that portrayed Scarlet O’Hara in the movie, but in the real sense, the actress was the last of the cast to join the film crew. She almost lost the position because she used her natural English accent during her first audition rather than the southern accent. George Cukor, the film’s initial director, explained: She began reading this thing very sweetly, and very, very clipped... So I struck her across the face with the rudest thing I could say. She screamed with laughter. That was the beginning of our most tender, wonderful friendship. 1948: Christopher Robin and his fiancee, Lesley de Selincourt Christopher Robin inspired the work of his father in the Winnie The Pooh. Robin had a tough time growing up under his famous father A.A Milne who often mined his life for stories. The boy was the basis of his father's remarkable story in the Winnie The Pooh. It was not uncommon for his father to be found at the Garrick Club while his mother dresses him up in girlish clothes explained Robin. He grew up by the day distasting the character who shared his name in his father books. He said: At home I still liked him, indeed felt at times quite proud that I shared his name and was able to bask in some of his glory. At school, however, I began to dislike him, and I found myself disliking him more and more the older I got. 1940: Flight-Lieutenant R H A Lee and Flying Officer K H Blair One must be brave and courageous in service to win the DSO and DFC military decorations of the United Kingdom. Richard Hugh Antony Lee joined 85 Squadron of the RAF in 1938 and was dispatched to France as soon as war broke out. Sequel to the victory of his Squadron he belonged in 1939, he was decorated with the DSO award and later got the DFC award on May 10, 1940, after controlling Hs126 successfully. The tough soldier escaped from the German forces after he was shot down on May 11, 1940. He made his return to his squad after escaping before embarking on his final mission with the 85 Squadron in bringing down the enemy soldiers. Details about Lee were not specific after then, but some presumed he was shot down on August 18. 1855: Construction of the Cologne Cathedral How would Cologne Cathedral foundation builders have known they would not conclude the building would not be completed in their lifetime? The foundation stones of south tower building were laid in 1248 but took a lot of years before the conclusion. Cologne Cathedral building could not continue not until the Protestant Prussian Court decided to work on the façade unto completion. It took 632 years from the date construction started to complete Germany’s largest cathedral in 1473. South tower building remains the tallest building in the world before the Construction of Washington Monument building.	<urn:uuid:510d3e64-8988-441c-b7d0-741156598d91>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://eng.amomama.com/167479-most-beautiful-colorized-images-in-histo.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00439.warc.gz	en	0.982649	7,739	3.375	3	[ -0.12445194274187088, 0.17212755978107452, 0.08051293343305588, 0.13230979442596436, 0.06097573786973953, 0.19960343837738037, 0.14250393211841583, -0.07989257574081421, -0.09170471131801605, 0.16530339419841766, 0.2800599932670593, 0.014998874627053738, -0.09267856180667877, 0.59048974514...	1	Most Beautiful Colorized Images In History When you place a colorized image next to one that is black and white, it becomes evident that color adds a depth of contextual visualization to photos. One may wonder why colors add so many differences to images, especially in throwing more illumination to past visuals. You will discover that the following color images that once lacked colors are now easier to understand. All thanks to a group of committed digital editors who were able to transform the original photos. These early 20th-century images, in their original black and white form, could reveal only little about past events. However, adding color to the photos now helps viewers to gain more insights about the past, leading to an increased appreciation of historical figures or significant world events. Check how Richard James Molloy colorized world-famous pictures and how different they look now. 1907: The Royal group (with Kaiser Wilhelm II and Edward VII) at Windsor Castle The photo shows the “who is who” in Europe seven years before the world war resulting from the assassination of Arch Duke Ferdinand. The English and Russian royal families are well represented in the photo. Notable among them are King Edward VII, Princess Beatrice of Great Britain, German leader Kaiser Wilhelm II, and Grand Duke Vladimir of Russia. The Crimson Drawing-Room hangout of both royal families could not have been free from tension considering that some people were at loggerheads. However, most of them had to stand wholly to allow the photographer to take the photo. 1881: Constructing the Statue of Liberty In the early 19th century, the president of the French Anti-Slavery Society, Édouard René de Laboulaye proposed the construction of the US Statue of Liberty. It took several decades to finish the statue, which was to serve as a memorial to the United States’ independence. In a bid to unite the countries, the workers that built the statue were from the US and France. The figure chosen for the statue is Columbia combined with Libertas known as the goddess of freedom. On completing the building of the statue in France, it was moved to America via a steamer. It was in America that other pieces were constructed to form the actual statue that several tourists visit today. 1963: Separated by The Berlin Wall, two german brothers are reunited The Berlin Wall of 1961 cannot be forgotten so soon, at least not by those it severely impacted. In the photo, are two brothers that were separated for two years by the wall. The original motive of the wall was to curb a significant crisis between places in Germany controlled by the Soviet Union and West Berlin. However, the fact that many members of different families were separated from one another because no one could pass the checkpoints left the wall without fans. In 1963, a border pass agreement was put in place after many complaints. Thus, people who lived in the West were able to travel to the East to see their relatives. It was not until many decades later that the wall was finally put down. 1955: Walt Disney and a map of "Disneyland", his first theme park Have you ever thought of the brain behind the famous "Disneyland"? Well, we have got Walt Disney to credit for it. He decided to create a safe space for families after noticing that alcohol and other unsafe things were common in most amusement parks in the '50s. Building the park around Disney characters like Donald Duck and Mickey was reasonable since they were famous in the '40s and still are till date. Disney used those characters in a way kids find interesting with parents not left out of the fun all over the park. "The one thing for me... the important thing... is the family, and keeping the family together with things. That's been the backbone of our whole business, catering to families… The park means a lot to me. It's something that will never be finished, something I can keep developing". 1956: The smallest man in the world, Henry Behrens, with his pet cat Although 2-foot tall Henry Behrens happens to be the smallest man worldwide in 1956, comparing his height with the 30-inch standing height of the cat shows that the cat is huge. In the 1950s, smaller people had few ways they could make money like being part of a midget troupe. Behrens was part of the "Burton Lester's midget troupe" then. Behrens' huge cat complimented his shenanigans lifestyle. His small stature did not deny him from enjoying life like other people. Apart from cooking, he was able to clean like us. He referred to himself as "Colonel Peewee." 1947: Danish explorer Peter Freuchen and wife Dagmar Cohn People who look cool tend to have a mind-blowing underlining story. The image shows Peter Freuchen, a man born in 1886 in Denmark. His childhood days were just like that of any other child at that time. However, things began to look different when he could no longer pursue his medical career and sought adventure. Arriving in Greenland in 1906, Freuchen embarked on a dogsled hunt of 600 miles and also traded with Inuits. One of the polar bears he killed on the hunt was used to make the perfectly-fitted coat he's wearing in the picture. Freuchen lectured about Inuit culture in 1910 before embarking on another journey across Greenland, one where he got buried in the snow. But, he was able to dig himself out using his special knife made from feces. It is why dinner with him is second to nothing. 1906: Boat races at Palm Beach, Miami According to Lloyd E. Brown, the second annual Palm Beach Regata was the most successful winter racing event. At the event which held from January 30 to February 2, 1906, many fans of boating hung maxed while they watched the long racing weekend. Brown later wrote: The closing day of the regatta was by far the most successful, bringing out the best that was in the speedy flyers. The contest for the Dewar Shield was the main feature of the day, it being won by H. L. Bowden's Mercedes, victor in both heats, although her time was a disappointment to those gathered at the carnival and expectant for new world's records. 1957: Norman Rockwell After the Prom Norman Rockwell’s exceptional painting skills and eye for detail immediately come to mind when you look closely at the “After the Prom” reference photo. The realistic nature of his paintings makes it difficult to differentiate this photo from the painting. Despite his outstanding talent, he was never considered an artist in his lifetime. Instead, his peers thought of him as an illustrator. From the photo, you will agree that apart from being interested in displaying the simplicity of American life, he also focused on making it look real. This practice and ability make his work valuable even after his death. 1964: Malcolm X and Muhammad Ali Many a time, we make mistakes that we wish never was. One person who made such a mistake is Muhammad Ali, initially called Cassius Clay. Not long after the famous boxer became a Muslim in 1964, he had to end his friendship with Malcolm X because Malcolm decided to separate from Elijah Muhammad. Unfortunately, Malcolm was assassinated on February 21, 1965, when he was delivering a speech in Harlem. It was after Malcolm's assassination that Ali realized that his decision to end their friendship was not the best. But, it was too late to reconcile. In Malcolm's autobiography, Ali wrote: Turning my back on Malcolm was one of the mistakes that I regret most in my life. I wish I’d been able to tell Malcolm I was sorry, that he was right about so many things. But he was killed before I got the chance… Malcolm and I were so close and had been through so much. 1912: Austrian-born French tailor, Franz Reichelt, before his fateful jump It is never a crime to dream big, especially when realizing such a dream can make living better for everyone. But, it is important to take meaningful steps to achieve one's goal. In doing this, some people have taken unbelievable steps that still amazes many people today. One such person is Franz Reichelt, who understood early enough that saving the lives of several people will in the future depend on the harnessing of air resistance. In the early 20th century, Franz Reichelt designed and created foldable silk wings sequel to the offering of 10,000 francs prize money by Colonel Lalance of the Aéro-Club de France. The prize money was for anyone who could produce a usable parachute at a time when air travel was becoming very popular. Reichelt's silk wings called "parachute-suit" were similar to the flight suit used then but had extra features like canopy and rubber lining. “On the morning of February 4th, 1912 Reichelt revealed that he would jump from the Eiffel Tower to prove the efficiency of his parachute-suit, saying, “I want to try the experiment myself and without trickery, as I intend to prove the worth of my invention.” At 8:22 am he leaped from the Eiffel Tower and sank through the air like a stone.” 1863: Union Soldiers taking a break This photo evokes a memory about the past. Imagine seeing more snapshots of events like the Civil War era in natural color. Such will give a new look at history and help us understand more about the events that would have escaped the reach of the millennial. The Union soldiers had already divided the southern army at the time this picture was taken. They had gained control of the Mississippi River after a series of bloody battles with the Confederates two years before the Civil War. Just before the War, there were technological advancements giving room for the production of tintypes. They also enabled the viewing of photos from the war to be a regular experience. After an exhibit of the war photography, the New York Times wrote: The photographer] has done something to bring home to us the terrible reality and earnestness of war. If he has not brought bodies and laid them in our dooryards and along the streets, he has done something very like it. Unloading supplies on Omaha for the break-out from Normandy A barrage balloon is used to raise cables that create a collision risk for enemy soldiers, making an approach problematic. Although setting the barrage balloons is not with its disadvantages. Even with the 320th Antiaircraft Balloon set up to slow down Luftwaffe’s attack at Omaha beach, German artillery fighters were still able to bombard the ships with gunfire. It was a fierce battle as the soldiers had cut their kites loose to give the long-range fighters of the German a less easy target. Many of the soldiers working on these massive kite balloons worked so hard to keep things under control. 1935: Construction of the Hoover Dam Looking at the Hoover Dam, one is tempted to find out about those who conceived and perfected such a masterpiece. A closer look at the image suggests that a building of that sort would have required collective efforts, and that is just the case. Thousands of workers built the Hoover Dam located on the border of Arizona and Nevada in the 1930s. These workers had migrated to the area at the time of the Great Depression, hoping to make ends meet while working extremely hard. A large amount of workforce ensured that the dam’s construction was ahead of the scheduled completion time. Pouring a total of 3,250,000 cubic yards of concrete was concluded as early as May 29, 1935. Meanwhile, the dedication of the dam was on September 30, 1935. Sometimes, it is difficult to believe that Dolly Parton hailed from a wretched Appalachian family, considering that she became the world's top country music star. She is indeed one of the best performers to have lived in the 20th century. Just after she changed from singing country music to pop in 1977, her songs became top hits. It was to the extent that she won the Grammy a year later with "Here You Come Again." Not only did she showcase her musical talent during shows in the '70s, but she also displayed her comedy skills. In 1980, she got her biggest hit after performing the theme song Nine to Five. The song was ranked top on the country and two adult-contemporary charts. 1945: Lee Miller in Adolf Hitler’s bathtub The person in the photo is Lee Miller, who happens to be a renowned fashion model in New York City before becoming a photojournalist. Back in Paris before World War II, she worked in places like Man Ray and Cocteau but later decided to have a different experience with the camera. Attached to the 83rd Infantry Division of the US Army, Miller took shots of the atrocities at Dachau Concentration Camp before heading for Hitler's Munich apartment. Dachau concentration camp mud covered her boot in the photo and it turned the whole surreal image thing to one big F You to the Third Reich leader. She spent the majority of her life after the war in her farm located in Sussex, England. As she grew weak, friends like Pablo Picasso enjoyed her company, especially with her surreal meals that resemble blue spaghetti and green chicken present. 1912: The RMS Titanic Who has not heard of the Titanic? Even many of the 21st-century kids would have seen the movie made of the iconic ship. Constructed in 1909, the Titanic was assumed unsinkable, and it was a home from home for the wealthiest people in the world. The sister ship to the Olympic had amenities second to no other ships with its send class accommodation were just as good if not superior to the first-class sections of other boats. The ship was not considered seaworthy until April 1912 even though it was launched since May 31, 1911. Titanic weighed 52,000 tons when displaced, and it took its historic debutant voyage on April 10, 1912. 1950: US Marine Dwayne L. Boice at Wolmido Island burning out a weapon's emplacement War has always left unpleasant memories behind, and the Korea war of 1950 was not different. As the war, which was ripping the country in two halves was ongoing, the United Nations (UN) supported South Korea as against the famous communists North Korea. The image is that of a US soldier burning a weapon’s emplacement at Wolmido Island on Sept. 10, 1950. Early 1960s: "The Rat Pack" in New York The Rat Pack popular in the ‘60s both on and offstage. Apart from their shows, which they put up together, they also hang out together. It is said that no one knows what is next when they are together, especially on a Las Vegas night. The group comprising of four men performed spontaneously during shows. The truth is that most people today will stay away from the type of trouble the group got itself into then because of the prevalence of cameras everywhere. Frank was the leader of the group, and he had the full support of the rest of the group members – Jean Martin, Sammy Davis Jr., and Peter Lawford. 1960: Clint Eastwood and his 1958 Jag XK 120 The name Eastwood would always ring a bell, especially if you are conversant with the Hollywood. The photo is that of Eastwood in his swanky ride some years before he made it big time in Hollywood. After appearing in films like Lafayette Escadrille as a second fiddle to Tab Hunter and b-movies like Tarantula, he proceeded to Italy to have his major hit in the movie “A Fistful of Dollars.” Apart from film appearances, Eastwood was also known to be the anchor for Rawhide and Death Valley Days (both were television western). Apparently, he made a lot of money from TV, an explanation for the expensive ride in the picture. 1943: Major Donald James Matthew Blakeslee, Ohio The way some photos feel so real, you will be tempted to want to touch whoever is in it. An example of such a picture is the colorized photo of Major Blakeslee in his cockpit back in 1943. He was at that time flying a P-47 Thunderbolt attached to the 335th Fighter Squadron. His records show that he flew 240 combat hours with RAF and that he had three confirmed victories. Blakeslee often joked about his love of combat flying. 1898: Otto von Bismarck One can draw several inferences from Bismarck’s look in the picture. His look reveals that he has seen it all in life. It is a true statement because he spent lots of time in battle relative to the time spent at home. Not only was Bismarck a genius in foreign affairs, but he also founded and served as the first Chancellor of the German Empire. The style of Bismarck’s rule revealed that he was an authoritarian. Voted out of power in 1890, he chose to resign instead of piloting the country into a civil war. Despite being in affluence, the government that took over from Bismarck received several terse rebuttals from him. A room aboard the Titanic Hardly will the name Titanic be mentioned and it will be strange to anyone. Many people who initially knew nothing about the beast were in the know after watching the movie. Unlike other liners, which have rooms similar to tiny prison rooms, Titanic was in a class of its own. The photo shows one of the rooms in the gigantic sea beast. You will agree that the masterpiece was exceptional. Examining any of the rooms in the first-class section, you might have mistaken it for a palace. The interior of Titanic was carefully crafted to give riders a different experience while they floated. The fact that some wealthy riders on board could open the interconnecting doors to form a suite is unimaginable. 1940: Albert Einstein in his Princeton, New Jersey home Before the death of Albert Einstein in 1955, he settled and lived in Princeton, New Jersey. He lived there for his last 22 years alive. The decision to live there was after comparing Princeton to Pasadena in California. Originally, he lived in Germany but faced extreme racism, making him move to the US. Einstein is one of the most intelligent persons that lived in the 20th century. He worked at the "Institute of Advanced Study" in Princeton before his death. Early 1900s: New York City New York City was long known as the center of the western world. The city was filled with aristocrats and individuals looking to make their way in the world back in the day. Although people in the city still made use of gas lamps and local equipment in the 1900s, with time, the place changed from residential streets into a city full of skyscrapers. Many office buildings were erected across the city and in the Lower Broadway especially. They tower over the many old buildings that had rocked the city for generations. Even though New Yorkers were unsure about the modern buildings springing up at that time, they have fast turned into the way of life of the city dwellers. 1944: 101st Airborne Troops taking off to Normandy, France for “Operation Chicago" In the heat of World War II, soldiers knew that any mission they go for could as well be their last. The soldiers in the photo did not have a different opinion. They were all ready for "Operation Chicago," which happened to be one of the three missions assigned to 101st Airborne Division. The mission was meant to bring more troops into Normandy as well as more firepower. At around 4 am, the soldiers arrived at France haven entered through Dakota C-47s and Waco gliders. No doubt, the operation was successful though not without the loss of General Pratt and about 499 other soldiers. General Pratt was the then second in command of the division. The infantry division carried out another successful operation the next day. 1965: Singer Bob Dylan in New York 1965 was a remarkable year for Bob Dylan who spent so much time writing and performing at the peak of artistry career. The stardom headlined the Newport Folk Festival that same year where he played three songs with his first live electric set. Bob also released the cue card laden video for Subterranean Homesick Blues and recorded many other songs in 1965. Before the year ran out, Bob Dylan was exhausted by the attention he received from the media for being the nation’s poet. He later disappeared from the public eye for eight years after a mysterious motorcycle incident. 1944: German commando disguised in American uniform preparing for execution Only a few things that can be as excruciating as dying by the firing squad. The photo is that of a German soldier caught dressed in American soldiers' uniform and prepared to be executed. After World War II ended, German troops did whatever was necessary to help them avert capture in Europe. So, many of them hid by dressing as American soldiers. However, the unlucky ones were caught and executed. On suspecting anyone, questions like state capitals and sports trivia that only American troops would know were asked. Nobel Prize Laureate & "Father of Chemical Warfare ", Fritz Haber Fritz Haber was busy throughout World War 1 preparing deadly chemicals weapons for the army. As the leading physical chemist in Germany, Haber was called to create crazier weapons for the German military as the fighting kept increasing. The chemist was proactive in the development of tear gas at the time the army needed one. He even found a way of turning chlorine gas into a deadly weapon for the military. It is not a surprise that Haber received the Nobel Peace Prize for his work following the end of the war. He had worked on nitrogen fixation which helped create a weapon for the war and as well produced fertilizers. 1930s: Amelia Earhart The woman in the photo, Amelia Earhart is not just a cautionary tale like some people believe. She happens to have been more important than that being the sixteenth woman to obtain a pilot license. In 1928, she eventually became the first woman pilot to over the Atlantic Ocean and the 1st pilot to fly across both Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. She disappeared in 1937 during one of her adventurous flight, specifically the one where she was trying to circumnavigate the world. Many researchers believe she ran out of fuel around 35-100 miles from Howland Island during the trip. Lots of people, especially adventurers remember her today. 1963: Lee Harvey Oswald mugshot If the final days of Lee Harvey Oswald weren’t so tragic, one would have referred to it as a whirlwind. Lee Harvey murdered President John F. Kennedy as he rode in an open-care motorcade through Dallas on November 22, 1963. After Lee Harvey escaped the book depository he used as a vantage point, he shot a policeman before he snuck into a theatre. One would have thought he’s such a master of disguise; however, the killer was caught just thirty minutes later. While he was being transferred from Dallas to a more secure jail, Lee Harvey was shot by Jack Ruby, the owner of a strip joint in Dallas. Although many still believe that many theories are surrounding the death of the killer. 1923: Charles Lindbergh at Lambert Field, St. Louis, Missouri This photo is not about the kidnapping of the Lindbergh baby even though that's what comes to mind when the name Lindbergh is mentioned. The picture shows Charles Lindbergh preparing for his first-ever solo flight in 1923 nearly ten years after the kidnapping incident. On successfully making the flight, he was hired to perform at fairs across the country as one of the daredevil pilots. He joined the US Army in 1924 and trained as an Army Air Service Reserve pilot. Exactly four years after he posed to take this photo, he became the 1st pilot to fly from New York to Paris without stopping on the way. More than 100,000 people were present to greet Lindbergh on arrival after flying over 3,600 miles. 1960s: The Beatles in Hamburg, Germany The Beatles were five in numbers before they had to make the tough professional decision of dropping drummer Pete Best. As at then, they accepted gigs to perform in Germany since Liverpool was industrialized. They also continued to work on their sound, figuring roles for each member of the group. After the exit of Pete, the group became the Fab Four. The decision to drop Pete was necessitated after they auditioned at EMI Studios owned by George Martin in London. According to Paul McCartney, dropping Pete was a difficult decision they were not happy about. 1938: Frank Sinatra mugshot A mugshot is never desired by anyone, but Frank Sinatra, unfortunately, could not avoid posing for one in 1938. Sinatra's mugshot is from his arrest for sleeping with a noblewoman under the guise that he would marry her. Obviously, colorizing it unravels more findings of the old blue eyes myth.The case against Sinatra took a new turn when it was discovered that the woman was not unmarried when she was messing around with the singer. The case, just like similar past ones, further amplified Sinatra's mythology instead of dampening it. 1967: Boston Strangler Albert DeSalvo being taken into custody The terror of Boston Strangler was all over Boston, Massachusetts from 1962 to 1964. The fear of the silk stocking murder gripped the city that no one knew the next time he would act. What surprises people about the activities of Boston Strangler is that he often leaves no sign of forced entry into the homes of victims. Many victims were found strangled with household items like nylon stocking found around their neck. Although the DNA of DeSalvo matched with one that of the strangler’s last victim, there are theories which believed the more than one person could be linked to the crimes committed. But in the end, the murder stopped sequel to the arrest of DeSalvo. He admitted to the killings when arrested by the Boston police division. 1965: Flight attendants in colorful outfits The cigarette smoke drenched flights were best known for the mod-inspired outfits in the 1960s. Ladies wore these outfits that depicted the space age to important events and even on travels. The ice cream color skirts and their head wraps were suitable for female as they combine them with the go-go boots in the 1960s. For the men, the sucked down martins suit was the most celebrated outfit for a cross country work trip. Modern wears have outwitted these old fashion clothing, but many have still considered these 1960 outfits as a style of class. 1943: A soldier and his wife saying their goodbyes at Penn. Station, New York Soldiers are trained to keep their head straight even at the most turbulent times. Even when leaving home for war, some soldiers are ready for the possibility of not returning. World War II was the most deadly war of the 20th century, and things were tough for the fact that people could not communicate with their friends and families. Katharine Phillips, a war correspondent for the Mobile Register, told PBS: The most worries we had about the war was just death. We just never knew when we’d lose someone that we loved. Our best friend. The boy that was the brother of your best friend. We lived in constant fear of the telegrams. Each day we would read the lists in the newspaper to see if we could identify the names that were there. 1937: The statue of Lady Justice - The Old Bailey - London Looking at the photo, one might not realize that it was colorized. The Lady Justice statue in the picture stands atop the Old Bailey and hangs up to 200 feet above the road. F. W. Pomeroy sculpted it in 1907 before it was added to the Old Bailey due to massive renovation resulting from a fire incident. The height the statue hangs from is high enough to give viewers that awe-inspiring sensation. Unlike many of its counterparts across the globe, this particular Lady Justice is not blindfolded. Perhaps, justice is not blind in England. Date Unkown: Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock, 'The Master of Suspense' That is a photo of Alfred Hitchcock, a one-time director of dozens of films. Starting from the 1920s, he directed films like Number 13, Rear Window, Strangers on a Train, and Psycho. His films either focused on crime and false accusations or good people turning bad. He was always working such that he passed away while still working on a script he called The Short Night. The cause of Hitchcock's unfortunate death that was on April 29, 1980, in Bel was kidney failure. 1948: Mafia boss Charles 'Lucky' Luciano in exile in Sicily, Italy Luciano had to find a way in helping the US to keep himself out of Jail. The imprisoned crime boss was asked to help the US government with the war effort. While Luciano worked with the US military to keep the New York dock safe, the military enacted ‘Operation Underworld.’ The purpose of the law was to keep off Italian and German agents from entering the US via the New York waterfronts; 1943: Actress Susan Peters Here is Susan Peters in 1943 at the time she was making an appearance in movies like Andy Hardy's Double Life, and Assignment in Brittany. This picture was taken nine years before the death of Susan, who died due to chronic infection and pneumonia. Before her death, Susan grabbed discharged a shotgun into her abdomen while on a hunting trip with her husband. The bullet penetrated her spinal column making her spend the rest of her life on a wheelchair. However, Susan did not stop acting on projects that allowed her to work with her paralysis. 1940s: Lucille Ball Lucille Ball was a fascinating starlet in Hollywood who was different from other top actors. Ball appeared in comedies by the Marx Brothers and took part in RKO pictures before she changed the landscape of comedy with I Love Lucy. She was persisted in what might have discouraged a lot of people in a career. Ball later explained that handwork and persistent were essential factors that made her reach a mountain top in her career. 1940: Dining with Hans von Luck High ranking officers in the military are often the ones behind the game theory of wars. They would rather discuss and strategize on how to win the war than stay in the middle of the war to experience the muck. Of course, every soldier would have that wish too; but for World War II, all hands have to be on deck. For Hans-Ulrich Freiherr von Luck und Witten also known as Hans von Luck, his first start in the German army was in 1929, and by the beginning of the World War II, he was already commanding a unit in the 7th Panzer Division. Hans von Luck rose to the position of captain of the 3rd Panzer Group of Army Group Center on June 1940 where he served in Moscow for a while. Following the cold condition in Russia, he was permitted to leave for Africa after lodging his complaints about the weather of Moscow. Hans von Luck enjoyed a ceasefire with the British troops until 1945 before he was transferred back to Russia where the Soviet army captured him. The soldier spent five years as a prisoner of war. 1912: A busy photographer in Jersey Shore How do you feel today traveling back in time where you have to rely on photographers to capture your best moments? Such was the case of the 20th-century folks. A day at the beach is a cherished moment for anyone. But back in the day, you will need to part with some cash to get photographers to capture your memorable events like a time out at the beach. Anyone who wanted to have his photo back then would wait for a few minutes for the pictures to be processed and printed. Today, we could capture thousands of memories with just a flash from our mobile devices. 1894: Queen Victoria and King Edward VII with their family at a wedding in Coburg, Germany The world politics was further strengthened by the wedding of Princess Victoia Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha on April 19, 1984. Dignitaries including Grand Duke Vladimir of Russia, King Edward VII, and Queen Victoria came together for the grand 19th-century wedding. This picture is one of the rare photos that showed the happy coexistence of the entire European family before erupting in World War 1. After the wedding, Queen Victoria wrote in her journal: The whole of our large family party was photographed by English, as well as German photographers. Many groups were taken, & some of me with Vicky & my three sons, & William. 1944: 190A-8, Melsbroek, Belgium This airplane has spent some good time with military war activities. The abandoned craft must have got its propeller damaged from a crash landing or at least a horrible fall. Colorizing the plane seems an odd job since the original paint of the craft looks sepia-tone already. But what becomes of pilots that survive such a nasty crash? Do they walk away or try to understand the world around them for a few moments? But from this photo, most of the plane looks pretty intact. Whoever was piloting the craft must have escaped the crash or probably took this photo. 1908: An 11-year-old coal miner While the coal industry was booming in the late 19th century, a lot of organizations made use of children in coal exploration. At that time, there were no laws restricting corporations from hiring children. So, if a child could hold a shovel or a pickaxe, he’s considered fit to dig in the mines. About 2 million children were working in coal mines in 1910 because of the cheap labor they offer organizations. Things began to change when lots of people showed their distaste in the act when NCLC started circulating pictures of young boys working out themselves in coal mines. The Child Labour Acts took a while before they were enacted. They were not put in place until 1916 after which, working in the mines required a minimum age and maximum shift length for workers. 1939: Vivien Leigh taking a break during the filming of “Gone with the Wind” Scarlet O’Hara, the southern belle, was the heart of the film Gone with the Wind. One would have thought that the whole movie was cast around Vivian Leigh; although that was not far from the truth since she played the role with so much brass. Leigh was the character that portrayed Scarlet O’Hara in the movie, but in the real sense, the actress was the last of the cast to join the film crew. She almost lost the position because she used her natural English accent during her first audition rather than the southern accent. George Cukor, the film’s initial director, explained: She began reading this thing very sweetly, and very, very clipped... So I struck her across the face with the rudest thing I could say. She screamed with laughter. That was the beginning of our most tender, wonderful friendship. 1948: Christopher Robin and his fiancee, Lesley de Selincourt Christopher Robin inspired the work of his father in the Winnie The Pooh. Robin had a tough time growing up under his famous father A.A Milne who often mined his life for stories. The boy was the basis of his father's remarkable story in the Winnie The Pooh. It was not uncommon for his father to be found at the Garrick Club while his mother dresses him up in girlish clothes explained Robin. He grew up by the day distasting the character who shared his name in his father books. He said: At home I still liked him, indeed felt at times quite proud that I shared his name and was able to bask in some of his glory. At school, however, I began to dislike him, and I found myself disliking him more and more the older I got. 1940: Flight-Lieutenant R H A Lee and Flying Officer K H Blair One must be brave and courageous in service to win the DSO and DFC military decorations of the United Kingdom. Richard Hugh Antony Lee joined 85 Squadron of the RAF in 1938 and was dispatched to France as soon as war broke out. Sequel to the victory of his Squadron he belonged in 1939, he was decorated with the DSO award and later got the DFC award on May 10, 1940, after controlling Hs126 successfully. The tough soldier escaped from the German forces after he was shot down on May 11, 1940. He made his return to his squad after escaping before embarking on his final mission with the 85 Squadron in bringing down the enemy soldiers. Details about Lee were not specific after then, but some presumed he was shot down on August 18. 1855: Construction of the Cologne Cathedral How would Cologne Cathedral foundation builders have known they would not conclude the building would not be completed in their lifetime? The foundation stones of south tower building were laid in 1248 but took a lot of years before the conclusion. Cologne Cathedral building could not continue not until the Protestant Prussian Court decided to work on the façade unto completion. It took 632 years from the date construction started to complete Germany’s largest cathedral in 1473. South tower building remains the tallest building in the world before the Construction of Washington Monument building.	8,039	ENGLISH	1
These notes were contributed by members of the GradeSaver community. We are thankful for their contributions and encourage you to make your own. Written by Micola Magdalena In the first chapter, the narrator describes the railroads that came to the area in the 19th century. While some people were quick to accept them, thinking that it will improve their lives, other saw them as something evil, the product of the devil. The way in which the railroads are described in the first chapter is important because the idea transmitted is that many believed that way. Thus, taking this into consideration, it is no wonder that so many opposed the railways being constructed and coming into the areas they lived all their lives. The big city Mrs. Lafirme was born and married in the countryside and she knew no other life for herself. For her, the land she owned was everything for her and she could not imagine a life elsewhere. She sometimes mentions life in the big city and how it must be completely different from the life in the countryside. The life in the city is described as being exciting, filled with activities and wonderful people. The life many have in the countryside is quite the opposite, slow and quite monotonous. Despite this, none of the characters are willing to give up their life in the countryside for a life in the big city. An important image in the book is the way in which beautiful women are portrayed. The narrator describes time and time again a beautiful woman and in all cases the images are similar. For the narrator, a fair skin, unblemished by sun and not suntanned is desirable. Also, women had to have a full figure and so many female characters wish they had a few more pounds. The reason why beautiful women are described in such a manner is because this image transmits the idea of wealth. Thus, beauty meant a proper representation of the money a woman had. The black people working in the fields Another important image presents black people working in the fields. The narrator makes a point in explaining that women, men and children were all working side by side picking cotton. The way the black people are described transmits the idea that for the white masters, the slaves were not humans but rather machines to work the fields. Thus, this image shows how the black slaves were degraded by the white owners. Update this section! You can help us out by revising, improving and updating	<urn:uuid:64e48938-6e56-47f1-8fe9-d06496406ac5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gradesaver.com/at-fault/study-guide/imagery	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00203.warc.gz	en	0.98194	496	3.65625	4	[ -0.12030968815088272, -0.020814768970012665, 0.13690568506717682, 0.16180168092250824, -0.07195913046598434, -0.12491175532341003, -0.0754990205168724, -0.19291678071022034, -0.2741391658782959, -0.0965413823723793, -0.013293354772031307, -0.25329506397247314, -0.08395382761955261, 0.14660...	1	These notes were contributed by members of the GradeSaver community. We are thankful for their contributions and encourage you to make your own. Written by Micola Magdalena In the first chapter, the narrator describes the railroads that came to the area in the 19th century. While some people were quick to accept them, thinking that it will improve their lives, other saw them as something evil, the product of the devil. The way in which the railroads are described in the first chapter is important because the idea transmitted is that many believed that way. Thus, taking this into consideration, it is no wonder that so many opposed the railways being constructed and coming into the areas they lived all their lives. The big city Mrs. Lafirme was born and married in the countryside and she knew no other life for herself. For her, the land she owned was everything for her and she could not imagine a life elsewhere. She sometimes mentions life in the big city and how it must be completely different from the life in the countryside. The life in the city is described as being exciting, filled with activities and wonderful people. The life many have in the countryside is quite the opposite, slow and quite monotonous. Despite this, none of the characters are willing to give up their life in the countryside for a life in the big city. An important image in the book is the way in which beautiful women are portrayed. The narrator describes time and time again a beautiful woman and in all cases the images are similar. For the narrator, a fair skin, unblemished by sun and not suntanned is desirable. Also, women had to have a full figure and so many female characters wish they had a few more pounds. The reason why beautiful women are described in such a manner is because this image transmits the idea of wealth. Thus, beauty meant a proper representation of the money a woman had. The black people working in the fields Another important image presents black people working in the fields. The narrator makes a point in explaining that women, men and children were all working side by side picking cotton. The way the black people are described transmits the idea that for the white masters, the slaves were not humans but rather machines to work the fields. Thus, this image shows how the black slaves were degraded by the white owners. Update this section! You can help us out by revising, improving and updating	490	ENGLISH	1
Speaking of what came naturally leads to concern for the other religious force that Crane Brinton denominated the religion of the Enlightenment with a Big 'E'. While members of the various churches could fight at each other's side and demonize the king and the British, they did not share enough premises to enable them to devise the sets of common purposes that would be needed for nation-building. Here, fortuitously or providentially, this new Enlightened philosophy held sufficient sway among leaders who articulated visions and formulated laws. They were able to transcend sectarian boundaries. The first traces of the new language that spoke of the God of Nature or the God of Reason were heard among some educated British troops during the colonial wars, around 1758. Never did the advocates who spoke that language attract congregations or large followings. Their ranks were peopled by attorneys and merchants, many of whom had graduated from Harvard and Yale in the north, Princeton in the middle colonies, and William and Mary in the south. Others received some of their education in England, and there picked up the nuances and claims of this religion. They began to apply these in the American colonies. In the Anglican Church some of these liberalizing viewpoints were called Arminian, accenting, as we have noted, the benevolence of a God who dealt genially and generously with humans who were devoted to virtue. Beyond the church, in most cases, in the circle of religiously minded philosophers, some called themselves deists. Thomas Jefferson would be classified a deist, while Philadelphia patriot and founder Benjamin Franklin, a printer and scientist, though nominally a Presbyterian, paid little attention to the Calvinist creed and, when he did do so he was critical. Let it be noted, however, that as a promoter of virtue Franklin could support the work but not the message of Was this article helpful?	<urn:uuid:62b51d46-eb6b-4218-916e-37f8e425f2b4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wilmingtonfavs.com/french-revolution/the-religion-of-the-enlightenment.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00259.warc.gz	en	0.981511	378	3.34375	3	[ -0.1323254406452179, 0.09437646716833115, -0.05138252303004265, -0.21775013208389282, -0.05396929755806923, 0.06482554227113724, 0.3783363997936249, 0.1456362009048462, -0.021452151238918304, -0.1391170769929886, -0.1800222396850586, -0.040745850652456284, -0.02678048051893711, -0.00378964...	1	Speaking of what came naturally leads to concern for the other religious force that Crane Brinton denominated the religion of the Enlightenment with a Big 'E'. While members of the various churches could fight at each other's side and demonize the king and the British, they did not share enough premises to enable them to devise the sets of common purposes that would be needed for nation-building. Here, fortuitously or providentially, this new Enlightened philosophy held sufficient sway among leaders who articulated visions and formulated laws. They were able to transcend sectarian boundaries. The first traces of the new language that spoke of the God of Nature or the God of Reason were heard among some educated British troops during the colonial wars, around 1758. Never did the advocates who spoke that language attract congregations or large followings. Their ranks were peopled by attorneys and merchants, many of whom had graduated from Harvard and Yale in the north, Princeton in the middle colonies, and William and Mary in the south. Others received some of their education in England, and there picked up the nuances and claims of this religion. They began to apply these in the American colonies. In the Anglican Church some of these liberalizing viewpoints were called Arminian, accenting, as we have noted, the benevolence of a God who dealt genially and generously with humans who were devoted to virtue. Beyond the church, in most cases, in the circle of religiously minded philosophers, some called themselves deists. Thomas Jefferson would be classified a deist, while Philadelphia patriot and founder Benjamin Franklin, a printer and scientist, though nominally a Presbyterian, paid little attention to the Calvinist creed and, when he did do so he was critical. Let it be noted, however, that as a promoter of virtue Franklin could support the work but not the message of Was this article helpful?	379	ENGLISH	1
New research has found that some of the Middle East's ancient geoglyphs, which are giant stone structures that take the forms of various geometric shapes, date back to prehistoric times, according to Live Science . The research has confirmed the speculation that some of these structures, which have been known as the "works of the old men" by native Bedouins, are older than the world's most famous geoglyphs, the ancient Nazca Lines in Peru which take the forms of various animals. Many of the Middle East's ancient stone structures, which are found throughout the desert of the Arabian Peninsula from Jordan and Syria to Saudi Arabia, take the form of wheels that often have spokes radiating out from the center. Using the archaeological dating technique known as optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), two giant wheels in Jordan's Wadi Wisad were found to be prehistoric. One was found to be 8,500 years old and the other was estimated to have been built about 8,500 years ago and then possibly repaired or remodeled around 5,500 years ago. The new findings, which were recently published in the Journal of Archaeological Science and Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, have also highlighted some mysterious qualities about the ancient structures. One such quality is that the structures are almost invisible on the ground and appear as just random piles of stones, yet they are clearly seen from the air as the giant geometrical structures that they really are. Another quality is that some of the wheels could have possibly been built to align with the sun, as analysis of one cluster of wheels in Jordan's Azraq Oasis found that their spokes are oriented in a southeast-northwest direction which points to where the sun rises during the winter solstice. The use of these wheels are also among the mysteries, but the researchers suggest that they could have possibly been used in burial customs due to the occasional presence of cairns, which are man-made piles of stones that were used as burial monuments in prehistory. Other research has identified uses for some of the other stone structures in the Middle East, as structures known as desert kites, which consist of long walls that converge into a confined space, are believed to have been used in hunting to trap wild animals. The Middle East's structures were first noticed by pilots during World War I, after which Royal Air Force lieutenant Percy Maitland described them in a report that was published in the journal Antiquity in 1927. The mysterious designs have since intrigued and baffled researchers due to their close similarity to Peru's famous Nazca Lines.	<urn:uuid:322b765d-abb4-4f35-8b50-0fcf095b0621>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://stepfeed.com/giant-stone-structures-in-the-middle-east-found-to-be-prehistoric-4830	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00544.warc.gz	en	0.983335	530	3.796875	4	[ -0.3213162422180176, 0.25267481803894043, 0.42348822951316833, 0.38237830996513367, -0.20407995581626892, 0.21264953911304474, -0.07206118106842041, -0.027517659589648247, -0.1400897204875946, 0.031471528112888336, 0.056827038526535034, -0.18860124051570892, 0.168476402759552, 0.3635114431...	2	New research has found that some of the Middle East's ancient geoglyphs, which are giant stone structures that take the forms of various geometric shapes, date back to prehistoric times, according to Live Science . The research has confirmed the speculation that some of these structures, which have been known as the "works of the old men" by native Bedouins, are older than the world's most famous geoglyphs, the ancient Nazca Lines in Peru which take the forms of various animals. Many of the Middle East's ancient stone structures, which are found throughout the desert of the Arabian Peninsula from Jordan and Syria to Saudi Arabia, take the form of wheels that often have spokes radiating out from the center. Using the archaeological dating technique known as optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), two giant wheels in Jordan's Wadi Wisad were found to be prehistoric. One was found to be 8,500 years old and the other was estimated to have been built about 8,500 years ago and then possibly repaired or remodeled around 5,500 years ago. The new findings, which were recently published in the Journal of Archaeological Science and Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, have also highlighted some mysterious qualities about the ancient structures. One such quality is that the structures are almost invisible on the ground and appear as just random piles of stones, yet they are clearly seen from the air as the giant geometrical structures that they really are. Another quality is that some of the wheels could have possibly been built to align with the sun, as analysis of one cluster of wheels in Jordan's Azraq Oasis found that their spokes are oriented in a southeast-northwest direction which points to where the sun rises during the winter solstice. The use of these wheels are also among the mysteries, but the researchers suggest that they could have possibly been used in burial customs due to the occasional presence of cairns, which are man-made piles of stones that were used as burial monuments in prehistory. Other research has identified uses for some of the other stone structures in the Middle East, as structures known as desert kites, which consist of long walls that converge into a confined space, are believed to have been used in hunting to trap wild animals. The Middle East's structures were first noticed by pilots during World War I, after which Royal Air Force lieutenant Percy Maitland described them in a report that was published in the journal Antiquity in 1927. The mysterious designs have since intrigued and baffled researchers due to their close similarity to Peru's famous Nazca Lines.	532	ENGLISH	1
The Korean War uk Korea became a center of interest for several countries after the World War II with countries such as China, Japan, Union Soviet and United States of America showing a lot of determination to control this small country. It should be noted that the World War II had left many countries both politically and economically unstable. Korea being rich in minerals such as coal was one of the major reasons that made countries that had survived World War II to have interest in Korea’s resources in order to improve their economy and political performances. United States of America is one of the countries that shown a lot of interest on Far East countries immediately after the World War II. US had emerged a super power after the war and it felt that it was important to let its economic and military superiority be felt by other states. US also wanted to control affairs of other states that appeared influential to its policies and benefits as a superpower. This factor made the United States to have cold war immediately after the 2nd World War due to long time disagreement between the two states. United Nation was in favor of capitalism and Soviet Union believed in communism. How do American and Korean perspective on the Korean War differ? Considering all the information about the Korean War, it is evident that America and Korea had totally opposing views. Generally, Koreans wanted to be united as one country instead of dividing into north and South Korea and with one legitimate government. It is worth noting that Korean people had been a colony of Japan for 45 years and becoming a sovereign united state was a reason enough to make it enter into war with their colonizers and political enemies. The Korean believed that it was worth losing their lives fighting for the unison of their country other than allowing other countries to split then into two regions in order to quench their political and economic thirst just as the US and Soviet Union were doing. Therefore, Koreans, viewed war as the only way fight for their unity since diplomacy had proven futile. Some of the Koreans especially those from the north who had already been introduced into communism viewed the Korean War as an indication of the American aggressiveness and imperialism especially after the World War II. They felt that the war had immense negative effects to Korea domestic affairs since those from the north were not allowed to mingle freely with those from the south. This was evidenced by the US support of the establishment of the 38th degree latitude to separate northern and southern Korea. On the other hand, Koreans from the south believed that USA was there to help them fight their long time enemies and take control of their country. This was evidence by the US reorganization of the Korean government in exile and its support to Chiang Kai-shek’s Guomindang in the region of Taiwan that China considered as there’s. Buy The Korean War essay paper online * Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system. Additionally, the Korean perspective on the aggressive nature of the Americans in handling the Korean War was denoted by the aircraft carriers that belonged to the seventh US-fleet straight to the Taiwan Strait. This was especially the consideration that Taiwan was an inner-Chinese affair and the notion was upheld by the Communist China. When the US led the UN troops in crossing the 38th degree latitude and saw the North Korean Army being forced to retreat and move back to river Yalu which is situated in Chinese-Korean border, the Korean perceived that their security interest to re-unite their country had been achieved during the war since crossing of the 38th latitude by US troops was a an indication that Korea was about to be re- united. This made Koreans from south to be more withstanding to the war unlike their brothers and sisters from north who felt that the war was meant to destroy their relationship with their neighboring countries since US was using it to invade them. The northern people viewed the War as an indirect strategy by the Americans to go into war with PR China. To them the US support to Guomindang, A South Korean leader, was just a preemptive strike that was imposed on the aggressiveness of the intentions of the Americans. On the other hand, the American had a totally different perspective point of view on the Korean War. It is worth noting that the Americans wanted to continue controlling Korea from the standpoint of trusteeship. This is evident from the fact that The American president Truman and his counterpart from the Soviet Union intentions to grant Korean independence were based on undetermined future date. They both agreed that Korea was not stable enough to take control of its affairs. The Americans did not want the Soviet Union to take control of the entire Korean as a united nation showing that they too had interest in this resourceful country. Therefore, to the Americans, the Korean War was a tool to scatter the Koreans more in order to take control of their resources. They used war to achieve divide and rule policy that is common to political leaders. They knew that presence of the war would make Korean weaker both economically and politically making it easier for them to come in disguised as helpers. The Americans also viewed the Korean War as a threat to the superiority that they had previously acquired during the 2nd World War. They favored capitalistic economy while most of the Asian countries led by Soviet Union were for communism. To the Americans, their involvement in the Korean War was a substantial effort to ensure that their policies on capitalism acquired more global reorganization. According to the senator of the Republican by then, Joseph McCarthy, US used the Korean War to exercise its malicious campaign against communist growth in the government and the entire public at large. More so, the US had not recovered from the shock after losing China territory to communists and they were not ready to take chances. The Truman government had received criticism for being lenient to communism and it was left with no option other than using the war to prevent similar occurrence in Korea and other parts of Asia that were under its control. Basically, the Americans viewed the Korean War as an opportunity to establish its strategy against the superfluous advancement of communism in Asian countries. The American believed that the fight of the Ho Chi Mins in Vietnam against the French men the acceptance Soviet Union by the Vietnam people and later China entering into a treat with the government of Soviet Union was an aggressive attempt by the international world to spread communism. When North Korea attacked South Korea, the US found a good chance to intervene and defend it capitalistic policies. Its involvement in the Korean War aimed at establishing a protective belt in the Asian territory and silence communistic politics that were popular in USSR after 1949. Generally, the American viewed the Korean War as the right situation to prove to the Asian countries its political and military prowess after the 2nd World War, and its ability to influence international decisions especially those of the United Nations. Why do they differ? Considering the American and the Korean viewpoint of the Korean War, it is obvious that the two parties had to differ since they were two totally different mind sets based on different interests. To the Koreans, going into the war was the only means for attaining their independence since diplomacy could no longer work. On the other hand, the American’s intention was to continue controlling Korea, just like its former colonizers, arguing that it was not yet ready to rule itself. Therefore, the Korean went into war hoping that if they emerge victorious they would then become a sovereign state. This evidenced by the fact that they had their own government in exile that could resume responsibilities of controlling the country immediately after the war. Korea was surrounded by strong countries and they all wanted a share of its land and resources. They included, Soviet Union that had taken North Korea, China that wanted to expand it borders near the region of Taiwan and river Yalu and it former colonizers Japan. When the US and UN troops came in to support Korean especially Chiang Kai-shek’s Guomindang in the region of Taiwan, Koreans welcomed them and felt that the war could be much easier and shorter. An opinion poll taken by the US Military Government in Korea in August 1946 showed that 14% of 8,453 Koreans polled, favored capitalism, 70% favored socialism, 7% Communism and 8% non-committal. Majority of the Korean people were in favor of socialism and this was against the American policies that favored capitalism resulting to more differences between the two countries. Contrary to the Koreans expectations, Americans had different hidden goals that they wanted to achieve during the war. Though they appeared in favor of the Koreans, the Intentions of the Americans were to ensure that Koreans remained under their control for a longer time. They therefore entered into an agreement with Soviet Union, Korean enemies by then, leading to establishment of the 38th latitude that separated Korea into Northern and Southern regions. The Koreans thought that presence of US in the war could result to their unity but they were divided into two regions without freedom of movement. However, the American’s intention in the war was to weaken powers vested to countries in favor of communism in order to maintain it superpower nature. The fact that Americans took control of the southern part is clear evidence that their core reason for joining the Korean War was not to help but to get a share of this small country in order to extend their capitalistic policies to the Asian countries. It is therefore clear that Koreans and the Americans were in the same war but with totally different motives hence resulting to differences. What is the consequence of the different national perspective? Different national viewpoint of the Korean War between the Americans and the Koreans had several consequences to both countries. Generally, consequences of the war were beneficial to the Americans unlike the Koreans who lost lives and their country to foreigners as a result of the war. Initially, Koreans thought that American’s intentions were to help them fight their enemies in order to gain independence as united country. However, this goal could not be achieved since Americans too had their own intention for participating in the Korean War. One of the major consequences of this difference was the inability of the Koreans to govern themselves after the 2nd World War since the Americans and the Soviet Union could not let them. Korean government remained unstable since the America did not offer it full support and this enabled the Soviet Union to extend its communism ideology throughout the region leading to socialism in Korea. The Americans and the Soviet Union felt that Korea was not in a position to govern itself and this led to them not granting it independence in time. They divided it into two parts using latitude 38° in order to protect their own interests. This was a big blow to the Koreans because they wanted self-rule so that they could control the future of their country without influence from foreigners. When the Koreans realized that Americans were no different from their other enemies, they were very annoyed making the trusteeship that they had entered with the American meaningless. This difference also made Koreans to consider the intervention of the US in the Korean War as an act of idealism and altruism. Consequently, a state of anti-Americanism began in South Korea and the relationship between the Americans and the Koreans in the south became sour. Nationalist movements such as that of Chejudo people were then formed to fight for basic human rights and to end US imperialistic domination of Korea in order to achieve self government. Native Americans were therefore killed in the process by the Koreans resulting to killing of civilians as the US forces responded to defend its people. This created antagonism between the Americans and the Koreans that is experienced even today. Is it useful to characterize the Korean War as forgotten, limited or police actions? The Korean War is referred by historians as the “Forgotten War” and it is not given much emphasizes when addressing historic wars that have been experienced in different parts of the world. Most historians view it as it as a forgotten war since most countries did not care much about its occurrence. They viewed it as an internal issue that could be solved by only the Koreans without intervention of other countries. They had witnessed or heard about severe wars such as the 1st World War annd 2nd World War which involve more parts of the world and more lives were lost. To the rest of the world, the Korean War was characterized as the “Forgotten War” because they had fresh memories of severe and great wars such as the 2nd World War and that of Vietnam. Victors and victims of these two great wars were still recovering from their severity and had little or no time to focus on the Korean War. However it should be noted that the Korean War was not a state issue just like many people and historians argued. The war had no major difference with great wars such as that of Vietnam, 1st and 2nd World War and it is not justifiable to perceive it as “Forgotten War”. The war was not purely about policing in Korean and therefore it cannot be characterized as an internal state affair. Considering the impact of the war, the Korean War led to loss of lives, property, division of Korean country and antagonism among major influential countries result to instability in east and middle Asia countries. The war also involved Great War personalities such as Mc Arthur, Stalin of Soviet Union, Mao from China and Truman from the USA. Most of the participants in the Korean War had played major roles in the 2nd World War and they were known to be subjects of fatal wars that had taken place in their countries during their regimes. More so, the impacts of the Korean War are still felt today and are the reason for hostility that exists between western countries and those from Asia. The Koreans had never recovered fully from the severity of this war and therefore it is not useful to characterize the Korean War as forgotten, limited or even police actions as majority of the Historians view it. What are the Key developments from 1947-1954? There are several key developments that took place between 1947 and 1954 that will be remembered by the Koreans for many years to come. These occurrences are responsible for the current situation in Korea today. In 1948, elections were held in South Korea and President Rhee emerged the winner. His core goal was to unite North and South Korea into one country. This led to withdrawal of the American troops in 1949 leaving South Korea without military backup. Consequently, on June 1950, South Korea was invaded very easily and it was captured together with the Americans residing there. Later in the year China and Soviet Union declared that they were willing to help North Korean in fighting South Korea and this made the president of America by then, Truman, to commit US military forces in South Korea in 1950. The UN resolution was written in the same year in order to send international forces from 16 countries to South Korea. Out of the 300000 UN troops that were sent to South Korea, 260000 were Americans. During 1950 and 1951, the international society had felt the impact of the Korean War and peaceful negotiations were already in progress. In July 1950, the UN Army, led by General MacArthur, went to Korea, drove back the North Koreans and recaptured South Korea. 125,000 NKPA prisoners were captured as the Americans invaded North Korea and advanced as far as the Chinese border. Negotiations took longer than usual and most of the parties involved started lacking patience but eventually, peaceful agreement was signed in July 1953 bringing the Korean War to end with approximately 10 million people having lost their lives in the in the war. This was made possible by election of Eisenhower as the new president of USA. Peace talks continued in 1954 in order to ensure that the warring sides had no reasons at all to go back to war. How these issues are treated in the film “The Korean War”? The film on the Korean War portrays clearly all the issues and operations that took place in Korea immediately after the Second World War up to the time of the Korean War. Generally, the film is more over a chronological representation of the developments that took place in Korea between 1947 and 1954. The film tries to show the world that the war was not a forgotten one as viewed by historians by illustrating on the events that took place during that period. It is clear from the film that the intentions of the Americans in participating in the Korean War were not purely to help South Korea but to maintain their political superiority and continue to have control over its subjects. The film illustrates clearly that it was Truman who extended the duration after which Korea was to be granted independence in order to protect his political interest. Truman policies were strongly rejected by the Koreans and the film show clearly that the Korean and the American had totally a different perspective of the war since the Korean were fighting for their independence whereas the American participated in the war in order to protect it superiority and prevent spreading of communism that was overpowering its capitalistic policies. According to the film, Korean War was unpopular in America as they were concentrating in fighting communism. However, over 330,000 Americans lost their lives and many families were torn apart by the war. Many Koreans too lost their lives and others were held as prisoners without access to basic human rights. According to the film, Truman, who had no knowhow in handling foreign affairs, took control of every aspect of peace negotiations from Washington DC making it personal hence prolonging the war. It is the threats of using atomic bombs in the war that provoked other powerful countries such as United Kingdom to call for peace negotiations that led to the end of war. The behavior of the Koreans as portrayed in the film shows that the native people had nothing to show out of their country and they only participated in the war in order to survive. The film connects developments that took place before and after the war. It shows why Korea was split into two regions, South and North Korea and why other countries such as China and Soviet Union had interest in Korea. Generally, the film illustrates how different actions by different parties that participated in the war influenced declaration of Korea as an independent country. It also show that, Korean War was as a result of economic and political misunderstanding among the superpower countries after the 2nd World War and not a police action in Korean as viewed by historians. Related history essays - The Venerable Bede (672-735) - The Revolution of 1800 - Cold War Presidencies - History Paper - Socio History of the U.S from 1920-1963 - President Eisenhowers Nuclear Policy - The Panic of 1819 in the United States - A Besieged Roman Empire - History: Black Mammy - Japan, China, India, Response to Western Imperialism Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:e73632fe-0849-4f4d-a35d-a548737f3dca>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://primewritings.co.uk/essays/history/the-korean-war.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00458.warc.gz	en	0.985604	3,749	4	4	[ -0.14134839177131653, 0.3108247220516205, 0.6506017446517944, -0.47509393095970154, 0.5338771343231201, 0.0644354298710823, 0.18042825162410736, 0.1205463856458664, -0.27977895736694336, -0.059376344084739685, 0.34457147121429443, 0.12245086580514908, 0.3799094557762146, 0.2545765638351440...	2	The Korean War uk Korea became a center of interest for several countries after the World War II with countries such as China, Japan, Union Soviet and United States of America showing a lot of determination to control this small country. It should be noted that the World War II had left many countries both politically and economically unstable. Korea being rich in minerals such as coal was one of the major reasons that made countries that had survived World War II to have interest in Korea’s resources in order to improve their economy and political performances. United States of America is one of the countries that shown a lot of interest on Far East countries immediately after the World War II. US had emerged a super power after the war and it felt that it was important to let its economic and military superiority be felt by other states. US also wanted to control affairs of other states that appeared influential to its policies and benefits as a superpower. This factor made the United States to have cold war immediately after the 2nd World War due to long time disagreement between the two states. United Nation was in favor of capitalism and Soviet Union believed in communism. How do American and Korean perspective on the Korean War differ? Considering all the information about the Korean War, it is evident that America and Korea had totally opposing views. Generally, Koreans wanted to be united as one country instead of dividing into north and South Korea and with one legitimate government. It is worth noting that Korean people had been a colony of Japan for 45 years and becoming a sovereign united state was a reason enough to make it enter into war with their colonizers and political enemies. The Korean believed that it was worth losing their lives fighting for the unison of their country other than allowing other countries to split then into two regions in order to quench their political and economic thirst just as the US and Soviet Union were doing. Therefore, Koreans, viewed war as the only way fight for their unity since diplomacy had proven futile. Some of the Koreans especially those from the north who had already been introduced into communism viewed the Korean War as an indication of the American aggressiveness and imperialism especially after the World War II. They felt that the war had immense negative effects to Korea domestic affairs since those from the north were not allowed to mingle freely with those from the south. This was evidenced by the US support of the establishment of the 38th degree latitude to separate northern and southern Korea. On the other hand, Koreans from the south believed that USA was there to help them fight their long time enemies and take control of their country. This was evidence by the US reorganization of the Korean government in exile and its support to Chiang Kai-shek’s Guomindang in the region of Taiwan that China considered as there’s. Buy The Korean War essay paper online * Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system. Additionally, the Korean perspective on the aggressive nature of the Americans in handling the Korean War was denoted by the aircraft carriers that belonged to the seventh US-fleet straight to the Taiwan Strait. This was especially the consideration that Taiwan was an inner-Chinese affair and the notion was upheld by the Communist China. When the US led the UN troops in crossing the 38th degree latitude and saw the North Korean Army being forced to retreat and move back to river Yalu which is situated in Chinese-Korean border, the Korean perceived that their security interest to re-unite their country had been achieved during the war since crossing of the 38th latitude by US troops was a an indication that Korea was about to be re- united. This made Koreans from south to be more withstanding to the war unlike their brothers and sisters from north who felt that the war was meant to destroy their relationship with their neighboring countries since US was using it to invade them. The northern people viewed the War as an indirect strategy by the Americans to go into war with PR China. To them the US support to Guomindang, A South Korean leader, was just a preemptive strike that was imposed on the aggressiveness of the intentions of the Americans. On the other hand, the American had a totally different perspective point of view on the Korean War. It is worth noting that the Americans wanted to continue controlling Korea from the standpoint of trusteeship. This is evident from the fact that The American president Truman and his counterpart from the Soviet Union intentions to grant Korean independence were based on undetermined future date. They both agreed that Korea was not stable enough to take control of its affairs. The Americans did not want the Soviet Union to take control of the entire Korean as a united nation showing that they too had interest in this resourceful country. Therefore, to the Americans, the Korean War was a tool to scatter the Koreans more in order to take control of their resources. They used war to achieve divide and rule policy that is common to political leaders. They knew that presence of the war would make Korean weaker both economically and politically making it easier for them to come in disguised as helpers. The Americans also viewed the Korean War as a threat to the superiority that they had previously acquired during the 2nd World War. They favored capitalistic economy while most of the Asian countries led by Soviet Union were for communism. To the Americans, their involvement in the Korean War was a substantial effort to ensure that their policies on capitalism acquired more global reorganization. According to the senator of the Republican by then, Joseph McCarthy, US used the Korean War to exercise its malicious campaign against communist growth in the government and the entire public at large. More so, the US had not recovered from the shock after losing China territory to communists and they were not ready to take chances. The Truman government had received criticism for being lenient to communism and it was left with no option other than using the war to prevent similar occurrence in Korea and other parts of Asia that were under its control. Basically, the Americans viewed the Korean War as an opportunity to establish its strategy against the superfluous advancement of communism in Asian countries. The American believed that the fight of the Ho Chi Mins in Vietnam against the French men the acceptance Soviet Union by the Vietnam people and later China entering into a treat with the government of Soviet Union was an aggressive attempt by the international world to spread communism. When North Korea attacked South Korea, the US found a good chance to intervene and defend it capitalistic policies. Its involvement in the Korean War aimed at establishing a protective belt in the Asian territory and silence communistic politics that were popular in USSR after 1949. Generally, the American viewed the Korean War as the right situation to prove to the Asian countries its political and military prowess after the 2nd World War, and its ability to influence international decisions especially those of the United Nations. Why do they differ? Considering the American and the Korean viewpoint of the Korean War, it is obvious that the two parties had to differ since they were two totally different mind sets based on different interests. To the Koreans, going into the war was the only means for attaining their independence since diplomacy could no longer work. On the other hand, the American’s intention was to continue controlling Korea, just like its former colonizers, arguing that it was not yet ready to rule itself. Therefore, the Korean went into war hoping that if they emerge victorious they would then become a sovereign state. This evidenced by the fact that they had their own government in exile that could resume responsibilities of controlling the country immediately after the war. Korea was surrounded by strong countries and they all wanted a share of its land and resources. They included, Soviet Union that had taken North Korea, China that wanted to expand it borders near the region of Taiwan and river Yalu and it former colonizers Japan. When the US and UN troops came in to support Korean especially Chiang Kai-shek’s Guomindang in the region of Taiwan, Koreans welcomed them and felt that the war could be much easier and shorter. An opinion poll taken by the US Military Government in Korea in August 1946 showed that 14% of 8,453 Koreans polled, favored capitalism, 70% favored socialism, 7% Communism and 8% non-committal. Majority of the Korean people were in favor of socialism and this was against the American policies that favored capitalism resulting to more differences between the two countries. Contrary to the Koreans expectations, Americans had different hidden goals that they wanted to achieve during the war. Though they appeared in favor of the Koreans, the Intentions of the Americans were to ensure that Koreans remained under their control for a longer time. They therefore entered into an agreement with Soviet Union, Korean enemies by then, leading to establishment of the 38th latitude that separated Korea into Northern and Southern regions. The Koreans thought that presence of US in the war could result to their unity but they were divided into two regions without freedom of movement. However, the American’s intention in the war was to weaken powers vested to countries in favor of communism in order to maintain it superpower nature. The fact that Americans took control of the southern part is clear evidence that their core reason for joining the Korean War was not to help but to get a share of this small country in order to extend their capitalistic policies to the Asian countries. It is therefore clear that Koreans and the Americans were in the same war but with totally different motives hence resulting to differences. What is the consequence of the different national perspective? Different national viewpoint of the Korean War between the Americans and the Koreans had several consequences to both countries. Generally, consequences of the war were beneficial to the Americans unlike the Koreans who lost lives and their country to foreigners as a result of the war. Initially, Koreans thought that American’s intentions were to help them fight their enemies in order to gain independence as united country. However, this goal could not be achieved since Americans too had their own intention for participating in the Korean War. One of the major consequences of this difference was the inability of the Koreans to govern themselves after the 2nd World War since the Americans and the Soviet Union could not let them. Korean government remained unstable since the America did not offer it full support and this enabled the Soviet Union to extend its communism ideology throughout the region leading to socialism in Korea. The Americans and the Soviet Union felt that Korea was not in a position to govern itself and this led to them not granting it independence in time. They divided it into two parts using latitude 38° in order to protect their own interests. This was a big blow to the Koreans because they wanted self-rule so that they could control the future of their country without influence from foreigners. When the Koreans realized that Americans were no different from their other enemies, they were very annoyed making the trusteeship that they had entered with the American meaningless. This difference also made Koreans to consider the intervention of the US in the Korean War as an act of idealism and altruism. Consequently, a state of anti-Americanism began in South Korea and the relationship between the Americans and the Koreans in the south became sour. Nationalist movements such as that of Chejudo people were then formed to fight for basic human rights and to end US imperialistic domination of Korea in order to achieve self government. Native Americans were therefore killed in the process by the Koreans resulting to killing of civilians as the US forces responded to defend its people. This created antagonism between the Americans and the Koreans that is experienced even today. Is it useful to characterize the Korean War as forgotten, limited or police actions? The Korean War is referred by historians as the “Forgotten War” and it is not given much emphasizes when addressing historic wars that have been experienced in different parts of the world. Most historians view it as it as a forgotten war since most countries did not care much about its occurrence. They viewed it as an internal issue that could be solved by only the Koreans without intervention of other countries. They had witnessed or heard about severe wars such as the 1st World War annd 2nd World War which involve more parts of the world and more lives were lost. To the rest of the world, the Korean War was characterized as the “Forgotten War” because they had fresh memories of severe and great wars such as the 2nd World War and that of Vietnam. Victors and victims of these two great wars were still recovering from their severity and had little or no time to focus on the Korean War. However it should be noted that the Korean War was not a state issue just like many people and historians argued. The war had no major difference with great wars such as that of Vietnam, 1st and 2nd World War and it is not justifiable to perceive it as “Forgotten War”. The war was not purely about policing in Korean and therefore it cannot be characterized as an internal state affair. Considering the impact of the war, the Korean War led to loss of lives, property, division of Korean country and antagonism among major influential countries result to instability in east and middle Asia countries. The war also involved Great War personalities such as Mc Arthur, Stalin of Soviet Union, Mao from China and Truman from the USA. Most of the participants in the Korean War had played major roles in the 2nd World War and they were known to be subjects of fatal wars that had taken place in their countries during their regimes. More so, the impacts of the Korean War are still felt today and are the reason for hostility that exists between western countries and those from Asia. The Koreans had never recovered fully from the severity of this war and therefore it is not useful to characterize the Korean War as forgotten, limited or even police actions as majority of the Historians view it. What are the Key developments from 1947-1954? There are several key developments that took place between 1947 and 1954 that will be remembered by the Koreans for many years to come. These occurrences are responsible for the current situation in Korea today. In 1948, elections were held in South Korea and President Rhee emerged the winner. His core goal was to unite North and South Korea into one country. This led to withdrawal of the American troops in 1949 leaving South Korea without military backup. Consequently, on June 1950, South Korea was invaded very easily and it was captured together with the Americans residing there. Later in the year China and Soviet Union declared that they were willing to help North Korean in fighting South Korea and this made the president of America by then, Truman, to commit US military forces in South Korea in 1950. The UN resolution was written in the same year in order to send international forces from 16 countries to South Korea. Out of the 300000 UN troops that were sent to South Korea, 260000 were Americans. During 1950 and 1951, the international society had felt the impact of the Korean War and peaceful negotiations were already in progress. In July 1950, the UN Army, led by General MacArthur, went to Korea, drove back the North Koreans and recaptured South Korea. 125,000 NKPA prisoners were captured as the Americans invaded North Korea and advanced as far as the Chinese border. Negotiations took longer than usual and most of the parties involved started lacking patience but eventually, peaceful agreement was signed in July 1953 bringing the Korean War to end with approximately 10 million people having lost their lives in the in the war. This was made possible by election of Eisenhower as the new president of USA. Peace talks continued in 1954 in order to ensure that the warring sides had no reasons at all to go back to war. How these issues are treated in the film “The Korean War”? The film on the Korean War portrays clearly all the issues and operations that took place in Korea immediately after the Second World War up to the time of the Korean War. Generally, the film is more over a chronological representation of the developments that took place in Korea between 1947 and 1954. The film tries to show the world that the war was not a forgotten one as viewed by historians by illustrating on the events that took place during that period. It is clear from the film that the intentions of the Americans in participating in the Korean War were not purely to help South Korea but to maintain their political superiority and continue to have control over its subjects. The film illustrates clearly that it was Truman who extended the duration after which Korea was to be granted independence in order to protect his political interest. Truman policies were strongly rejected by the Koreans and the film show clearly that the Korean and the American had totally a different perspective of the war since the Korean were fighting for their independence whereas the American participated in the war in order to protect it superiority and prevent spreading of communism that was overpowering its capitalistic policies. According to the film, Korean War was unpopular in America as they were concentrating in fighting communism. However, over 330,000 Americans lost their lives and many families were torn apart by the war. Many Koreans too lost their lives and others were held as prisoners without access to basic human rights. According to the film, Truman, who had no knowhow in handling foreign affairs, took control of every aspect of peace negotiations from Washington DC making it personal hence prolonging the war. It is the threats of using atomic bombs in the war that provoked other powerful countries such as United Kingdom to call for peace negotiations that led to the end of war. The behavior of the Koreans as portrayed in the film shows that the native people had nothing to show out of their country and they only participated in the war in order to survive. The film connects developments that took place before and after the war. It shows why Korea was split into two regions, South and North Korea and why other countries such as China and Soviet Union had interest in Korea. Generally, the film illustrates how different actions by different parties that participated in the war influenced declaration of Korea as an independent country. It also show that, Korean War was as a result of economic and political misunderstanding among the superpower countries after the 2nd World War and not a police action in Korean as viewed by historians. Related history essays - The Venerable Bede (672-735) - The Revolution of 1800 - Cold War Presidencies - History Paper - Socio History of the U.S from 1920-1963 - President Eisenhowers Nuclear Policy - The Panic of 1819 in the United States - A Besieged Roman Empire - History: Black Mammy - Japan, China, India, Response to Western Imperialism Most popular orders	3,838	ENGLISH	1
Arthur and his knights were devoted Christians. For the Romans had not only made good roads and built strong walls and forts in Britain , but they had also brought the Christian religion into the island. And at about the time of the Saxon invasion St. Patrick was founding churches and monasteries in Ireland , and was baptizing whole clans of the Irish at a time. It is said that he baptized 12, 000 persons with his own hand. Missionaries were sent out by the Irish Church to convert the wild Picts of Scotland and at a later day the distant barbarians of Germany and Switzerland . The Saxons, Angles, and Jutes believed in the old Norse gods, and Tiew and Woden, Thor and Friga, or Frija, were worshiped on the soil of Britain for more than a hundred years. The Britons tried to convert their conquerors, but the invaders did not care to be taught religion by those whom they had conquered; so the British missionaries found the work unusually hard. Aid came to them in a singular way. At some time near the year 575 A.D., the Saxons quarreled and fought with their friends, the Angles. They took some Angles prisoners and carried them to Rome to be sold in the great slave-market there. A monk named Gregory passed one day through the market and saw these captives. He asked the dealer who they were. "Angles, " was the answer. "Oh, " said the monk, "they would be ANGELS instead of ANGLES if they were only Christians; for they certainly have the faces of angels." Years after, when that monk was the Pope of Rome, he remembered this conversation and sent the monk Augustine (Au-gus'-tine) to England to teach the Christian religion to the savage but angel-faced Angles. Augustine and the British missionaries converted the Anglo-Saxons two hundred years before the German Saxons were converted. Still, though both Angles and Saxons called themselves Christians, they were seldom at peace; and for more than two hundred years they frequently fought. Various chiefs tried to make themselves kings; and at length there came to be no less than seven small kingdoms in South Britain . In 784 Egbert claimed to be heir of the kingdom called Wessex ; but the people elected another man and Egbert had to flee for his life. He went to the court of Charlemagne, and was with the great king of the Franks in Rome on Christmas Day, 800, when the Pope placed the crown on Charles' head and proclaimed him emperor. Soon after this a welcome message came to Egbert. The mind of the people in Wessex had changed and they had elected him king. So bidding farewell to Charlemagne, he hurried to England . Egbert had seen how Charlemagne had compelled the different quarreling tribes of Germany to yield allegiance to him and how after uniting his empire he had ruled it well. Egbert did in England what Charlemagne had done in Germany . He either persuaded the various petty kingdoms of the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes to recognize him as their ruler, or forced them to do so; and thus under him all England became one united kingdom . But Egbert did even better than this. He did much to harmonize the different tribes by his wise conciliation. The name "England" is a memorial of this; for though Egbert himself was a Saxon, he advised that to please the Angles the country should be called Anglia (An'-gli-a), that is, Angleland or England, the land of the Angles, instead of Saxonia (Sax-on-i'-a), or Saxonland.	<urn:uuid:edb76bc1-894a-4969-9f8f-04ed87e46a11>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/49/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00166.warc.gz	en	0.985546	778	3.484375	3	[ -0.1911313533782959, 0.2794928252696991, 0.03635074943304062, -0.247842475771904, -0.21408440172672272, -0.24906563758850098, -0.08015214651823044, -0.09590741991996765, 0.025218166410923004, 0.03004894219338894, -0.3547220230102539, -0.5170398950576782, 0.01614382676780224, -0.08465085923...	1	Arthur and his knights were devoted Christians. For the Romans had not only made good roads and built strong walls and forts in Britain , but they had also brought the Christian religion into the island. And at about the time of the Saxon invasion St. Patrick was founding churches and monasteries in Ireland , and was baptizing whole clans of the Irish at a time. It is said that he baptized 12, 000 persons with his own hand. Missionaries were sent out by the Irish Church to convert the wild Picts of Scotland and at a later day the distant barbarians of Germany and Switzerland . The Saxons, Angles, and Jutes believed in the old Norse gods, and Tiew and Woden, Thor and Friga, or Frija, were worshiped on the soil of Britain for more than a hundred years. The Britons tried to convert their conquerors, but the invaders did not care to be taught religion by those whom they had conquered; so the British missionaries found the work unusually hard. Aid came to them in a singular way. At some time near the year 575 A.D., the Saxons quarreled and fought with their friends, the Angles. They took some Angles prisoners and carried them to Rome to be sold in the great slave-market there. A monk named Gregory passed one day through the market and saw these captives. He asked the dealer who they were. "Angles, " was the answer. "Oh, " said the monk, "they would be ANGELS instead of ANGLES if they were only Christians; for they certainly have the faces of angels." Years after, when that monk was the Pope of Rome, he remembered this conversation and sent the monk Augustine (Au-gus'-tine) to England to teach the Christian religion to the savage but angel-faced Angles. Augustine and the British missionaries converted the Anglo-Saxons two hundred years before the German Saxons were converted. Still, though both Angles and Saxons called themselves Christians, they were seldom at peace; and for more than two hundred years they frequently fought. Various chiefs tried to make themselves kings; and at length there came to be no less than seven small kingdoms in South Britain . In 784 Egbert claimed to be heir of the kingdom called Wessex ; but the people elected another man and Egbert had to flee for his life. He went to the court of Charlemagne, and was with the great king of the Franks in Rome on Christmas Day, 800, when the Pope placed the crown on Charles' head and proclaimed him emperor. Soon after this a welcome message came to Egbert. The mind of the people in Wessex had changed and they had elected him king. So bidding farewell to Charlemagne, he hurried to England . Egbert had seen how Charlemagne had compelled the different quarreling tribes of Germany to yield allegiance to him and how after uniting his empire he had ruled it well. Egbert did in England what Charlemagne had done in Germany . He either persuaded the various petty kingdoms of the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes to recognize him as their ruler, or forced them to do so; and thus under him all England became one united kingdom . But Egbert did even better than this. He did much to harmonize the different tribes by his wise conciliation. The name "England" is a memorial of this; for though Egbert himself was a Saxon, he advised that to please the Angles the country should be called Anglia (An'-gli-a), that is, Angleland or England, the land of the Angles, instead of Saxonia (Sax-on-i'-a), or Saxonland.	772	ENGLISH	1
However in April Hitler replace them with Reich governors, all of who were loyal Nazis. It had been founded after World War One. His body was carried into the garden of the Reich Chancellery by aides, covered with petrol and burned along with that of Eva Braun. However by the mids the miracle had ended and Germany was mired in recession. Hitler required the vote of the Centre Party and Conservatives in the Reichstag to obtain the powers he desired. Hitler decided that it was not in his best interest to invade the British Isles. Moreover in the 11th century there was a conflict between the Pope and the emperor over who had the right to appoint bishops. However the tide of war then turned against the Prussians and they were defeated at the battle of Minden in Furthermore in September the Americans began an offensive against the Germans. This page summarises the main aspects of life where the Nazis took control, and the methods they used to maintain control. Discontent erupted in revolution in It was called the German Democratic Republic. Part of the German army there surrendered on 31 January The pope, naturally, resented this interference in church affairs. Stalin did not trust Britain and France and felt they were encouraging Hitler to attack Russia. The battles on the streets grew increasingly violent. He told them that democracy led to socialism and that he would curb socialism and the socialist-led labor unions. In Hitler created the Schutzstaffel protection squad of SS as his bodyguard. However a number of universities were founded in Germany at that time. Anyone who disagreed with their ruler could emigrate. Most of the population were peasants. In Medieval Germany lords granted land to their vassals and in return the vassals swore to serve the lord. For the next five years Poland and Germany were to enjoy cordial relations.Germany: Germany, country of north-central Europe. Although Germany existed as a loose polity of Germanic-speaking peoples for millennia, a united German nation in roughly its present form dates only to Modern Germany is a liberal democracy that has become ever more integrated with and central to a united Europe. The plain fact is that Hitler was elected in on a popular vote and from then on went from strength to strength with the full backing of a clear majority of the German people. A detailed biography of Adolf Hitler () that includes includes images, quotations and the main facts of his life. GCSE Modern World History - Nazi Germany. A-level - Life in Nazi Germany, – Hitler's Childhood. Death of Adolf Hitler's Mother. Adolf Hitler in Vienna. Adolf Hitler's Political Development. Hitler and the. May 05, · After WW1, Germany established the Weimar Republic - an essentially democratic government, but eventually became so divided and governed so badly that Hitler's party, the NSDAP (Nazi party), managed to gain most of the seats in the Reichstag. Adolf Hitler's rise to power began in Germany in September when Hitler joined the political party known as the Deutsche Arbeiterpartei – DAP (German Workers' Party). The name was changed in to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei – NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers' Party, commonly known as the Nazi. In Gustav Stresemann: Years as foreign minister Western powers, especially France, for Germany had already renewed ties with Russia through the Treaty of Rapallo in By meeting the reparation payments, for the reduction of which he fought as stubbornly as he did for removal of French troops from west of the Rhine, he hoped to gain.Download	<urn:uuid:c45a7da1-f819-4610-83fd-7f5182ed32d3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://raroqaq.bistroriviere.com/how-did-hitler-gain-control-over-germany-91477qm.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00214.warc.gz	en	0.983035	737	3.40625	3	[ -0.33487468957901, 0.6145287752151489, 0.0798821970820427, -0.025868816301226616, -0.005974496249109507, 0.10382427275180817, -0.01928936503827572, -0.001292847329750657, -0.08466238528490067, -0.024051470682024956, 0.030573740601539612, -0.12857964634895325, 0.15543991327285767, 0.2624295...	1	However in April Hitler replace them with Reich governors, all of who were loyal Nazis. It had been founded after World War One. His body was carried into the garden of the Reich Chancellery by aides, covered with petrol and burned along with that of Eva Braun. However by the mids the miracle had ended and Germany was mired in recession. Hitler required the vote of the Centre Party and Conservatives in the Reichstag to obtain the powers he desired. Hitler decided that it was not in his best interest to invade the British Isles. Moreover in the 11th century there was a conflict between the Pope and the emperor over who had the right to appoint bishops. However the tide of war then turned against the Prussians and they were defeated at the battle of Minden in Furthermore in September the Americans began an offensive against the Germans. This page summarises the main aspects of life where the Nazis took control, and the methods they used to maintain control. Discontent erupted in revolution in It was called the German Democratic Republic. Part of the German army there surrendered on 31 January The pope, naturally, resented this interference in church affairs. Stalin did not trust Britain and France and felt they were encouraging Hitler to attack Russia. The battles on the streets grew increasingly violent. He told them that democracy led to socialism and that he would curb socialism and the socialist-led labor unions. In Hitler created the Schutzstaffel protection squad of SS as his bodyguard. However a number of universities were founded in Germany at that time. Anyone who disagreed with their ruler could emigrate. Most of the population were peasants. In Medieval Germany lords granted land to their vassals and in return the vassals swore to serve the lord. For the next five years Poland and Germany were to enjoy cordial relations.Germany: Germany, country of north-central Europe. Although Germany existed as a loose polity of Germanic-speaking peoples for millennia, a united German nation in roughly its present form dates only to Modern Germany is a liberal democracy that has become ever more integrated with and central to a united Europe. The plain fact is that Hitler was elected in on a popular vote and from then on went from strength to strength with the full backing of a clear majority of the German people. A detailed biography of Adolf Hitler () that includes includes images, quotations and the main facts of his life. GCSE Modern World History - Nazi Germany. A-level - Life in Nazi Germany, – Hitler's Childhood. Death of Adolf Hitler's Mother. Adolf Hitler in Vienna. Adolf Hitler's Political Development. Hitler and the. May 05, · After WW1, Germany established the Weimar Republic - an essentially democratic government, but eventually became so divided and governed so badly that Hitler's party, the NSDAP (Nazi party), managed to gain most of the seats in the Reichstag. Adolf Hitler's rise to power began in Germany in September when Hitler joined the political party known as the Deutsche Arbeiterpartei – DAP (German Workers' Party). The name was changed in to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei – NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers' Party, commonly known as the Nazi. In Gustav Stresemann: Years as foreign minister Western powers, especially France, for Germany had already renewed ties with Russia through the Treaty of Rapallo in By meeting the reparation payments, for the reduction of which he fought as stubbornly as he did for removal of French troops from west of the Rhine, he hoped to gain.Download	724	ENGLISH	1
On tour in February The war between the British and the two Dutch South African republics – the Boer War – began on 11 October 1899 when the Boers declared war on the British. It lasted until 31 May 1902 when Lord Kitchener and General Botha signed a treaty, the Peace of Vereeniging. Australia, as part of the British Empire, offered troops from the six separate colonies and from 1901, the new Australian Commonwealth. The first colonial contingents arrived in South Africa between November 1899 and March 1900; the second between December 1899 and February 1900; the third between April and May 1900 and the fourth between May and June 1900. The 5th NSW contingent departed between March and April 1901 and consisted of the 2nd and 3rd NSW Mounted Rifles and those troops destined to become the 3rd NSW Imperial Bushmen, plus reinforcements for the Field Ambulance NSWAMC and A Field Battery RAA. After 1901 additional contingents of soldiers were sent to South Africa to form battalions with squadrons from each state. These battalions were first numbered as units of the Commonwealth Contingent. Later the entire force was designated as the Australian Commonwealth Horse. It is estimated that about 16,000 Australians fought in the Boer War and there were about 600 casualties and deaths. Six Australian soldiers were decorated with a Victoria Cross. In our collection are some general records relating to the Boer War, such as regimental orders and photos of the NSW Bushmen’s Contingent. For records relating to soldiers and nurses who enlisted see the Australian War Memorial.	<urn:uuid:8286d6e7-d304-4220-a261-cca556f426c4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.records.nsw.gov.au/archives/magazine/galleries/boer-war	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00157.warc.gz	en	0.980846	325	3.59375	4	[ -0.052319690585136414, 0.7154248952865601, 0.5232110619544983, -0.1444997638463974, -0.05771174654364586, 0.04941432550549507, 0.00531007070094347, -0.004945748019963503, -0.22418707609176636, 0.03872605785727501, 0.17019523680210114, -0.7451375722885132, -0.15685881674289703, 0.6434094309...	2	On tour in February The war between the British and the two Dutch South African republics – the Boer War – began on 11 October 1899 when the Boers declared war on the British. It lasted until 31 May 1902 when Lord Kitchener and General Botha signed a treaty, the Peace of Vereeniging. Australia, as part of the British Empire, offered troops from the six separate colonies and from 1901, the new Australian Commonwealth. The first colonial contingents arrived in South Africa between November 1899 and March 1900; the second between December 1899 and February 1900; the third between April and May 1900 and the fourth between May and June 1900. The 5th NSW contingent departed between March and April 1901 and consisted of the 2nd and 3rd NSW Mounted Rifles and those troops destined to become the 3rd NSW Imperial Bushmen, plus reinforcements for the Field Ambulance NSWAMC and A Field Battery RAA. After 1901 additional contingents of soldiers were sent to South Africa to form battalions with squadrons from each state. These battalions were first numbered as units of the Commonwealth Contingent. Later the entire force was designated as the Australian Commonwealth Horse. It is estimated that about 16,000 Australians fought in the Boer War and there were about 600 casualties and deaths. Six Australian soldiers were decorated with a Victoria Cross. In our collection are some general records relating to the Boer War, such as regimental orders and photos of the NSW Bushmen’s Contingent. For records relating to soldiers and nurses who enlisted see the Australian War Memorial.	378	ENGLISH	1
Lewis Carroll was an English writer. His real name was Charles Dodgson. Charles Dodgson was the third child in the family. He had seven brothers and sisters. The children were brought up in the country among gardens, fields and woods. When Charles was twelve years old, he went to school. He was a good pupil. Then he became a student at Oxford University. Later he was a teacher of mathematics there. Charles Dodgson wrote a lot of books on mathematics, but he is not famous as a mathematician. He is famous as Lewis Carroll, the author of the children’s book “Alice in Wonderland”. This book was written in 1865 and very soon it was a popular children’s book. Charles Dodgson loved children very much and he often told interesting stories to his friend’s children. One of them was his friend’s daughter Alice. He loved her best of all. He often told her interesting stories, which he made up himself. When Alice was ten years old, she asked Charles Dodgson to write down all the stories for her. She wanted to read them herself. He did it and called the book “Alice in Wonderland”. Charles Dodgson did not want his name to be on the book. People knew him as a mathematician and not as a writer of stories for children. So the author of “Alice in Wonderland” was given the name of Lewis Carroll. In this time the book was published in England many, many times. Soon it was translated into many languages, and children all over the world began to read it. They all loved it very much. Children still love “Alice in Wonderland”. It is one of the most popular children’s books and people still publish it in many parts of the world.	<urn:uuid:9944ecfd-3a71-41b4-bc93-a20addde724a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tvory.predmety.in.ua/lewis-carroll-1832-1898/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00291.warc.gz	en	0.994154	380	3.265625	3	[ 0.046283382922410965, -0.06490079313516617, 0.4079936444759369, 0.38938936591148376, -0.14906039834022522, -0.000034589465940371156, 0.3988429009914398, -0.0891098752617836, -0.13984739780426025, -0.37084323167800903, -0.28205251693725586, -0.13331648707389832, -0.21544575691223145, -0.183...	3	Lewis Carroll was an English writer. His real name was Charles Dodgson. Charles Dodgson was the third child in the family. He had seven brothers and sisters. The children were brought up in the country among gardens, fields and woods. When Charles was twelve years old, he went to school. He was a good pupil. Then he became a student at Oxford University. Later he was a teacher of mathematics there. Charles Dodgson wrote a lot of books on mathematics, but he is not famous as a mathematician. He is famous as Lewis Carroll, the author of the children’s book “Alice in Wonderland”. This book was written in 1865 and very soon it was a popular children’s book. Charles Dodgson loved children very much and he often told interesting stories to his friend’s children. One of them was his friend’s daughter Alice. He loved her best of all. He often told her interesting stories, which he made up himself. When Alice was ten years old, she asked Charles Dodgson to write down all the stories for her. She wanted to read them herself. He did it and called the book “Alice in Wonderland”. Charles Dodgson did not want his name to be on the book. People knew him as a mathematician and not as a writer of stories for children. So the author of “Alice in Wonderland” was given the name of Lewis Carroll. In this time the book was published in England many, many times. Soon it was translated into many languages, and children all over the world began to read it. They all loved it very much. Children still love “Alice in Wonderland”. It is one of the most popular children’s books and people still publish it in many parts of the world.	359	ENGLISH	1
Oedipus Complex term was used by Sigmund Freud in ‘Psycho-sexual Stages of Development’. In, this theory Freud explains a child’s feeling of desire for the opposite gender parent and competition with the same gender parent. A boy feels that he compete with his father to get the affection from his mother where a girl feels that she is competing with her mother for the affection of her father. Children see their same-gender parent as a rival for the opposite gender’s affection. Freud first introduced this concept to us in his book The Interpretation of Dreams but in 1910 he used this term formally. This concept was named after the character in Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex who accidentally kills his father and marries his mother. What I believe is that naming this concept after Oedipus is not accurate because when Oedipus came to know that he accidentally married his mother he plucked his eyes out and cursed himself horribly. And he did not have any desire for his mother he married her accidentally. Girl’s affection for their father and jealousy towards their mother is known as Electra Complex. This term in girls was introduced by Carl Jung to describe how this concept works in girls. Freud believed that the Oedipus complex referred to both boys and girls, but he believed both sex experiences it differently. Freud also suggested that when girls realize that they do not have a penis they develop penis envy and resentment towards their mother to send them in this but incomplete. This view of Freud for female sexuality was deeply criticized. To develop a healthy adult personality Oedipus complex needs to be resolved. To resolve the issue child in his phallic stage need to identify with the same-sex parent. If, the Oedipus complex is not resolved child with become a parent fixated, and they will seek their life partner who resembles their opposite-sex parent.	<urn:uuid:c49846d4-7953-4241-b194-9e8da4b9faf9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sagaraga.com/oedipus-and-electra-complex/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00073.warc.gz	en	0.986204	396	3.328125	3	[ 0.034447960555553436, 0.32241061329841614, 0.1535930186510086, -0.014519676566123962, -0.4014703035354614, 0.17760762572288513, 0.4921782612800598, 0.15169833600521088, 0.008178246207535267, -0.2295704185962677, -0.002031039446592331, -0.6073611974716187, 0.00623066583648324, 0.17919814586...	1	Oedipus Complex term was used by Sigmund Freud in ‘Psycho-sexual Stages of Development’. In, this theory Freud explains a child’s feeling of desire for the opposite gender parent and competition with the same gender parent. A boy feels that he compete with his father to get the affection from his mother where a girl feels that she is competing with her mother for the affection of her father. Children see their same-gender parent as a rival for the opposite gender’s affection. Freud first introduced this concept to us in his book The Interpretation of Dreams but in 1910 he used this term formally. This concept was named after the character in Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex who accidentally kills his father and marries his mother. What I believe is that naming this concept after Oedipus is not accurate because when Oedipus came to know that he accidentally married his mother he plucked his eyes out and cursed himself horribly. And he did not have any desire for his mother he married her accidentally. Girl’s affection for their father and jealousy towards their mother is known as Electra Complex. This term in girls was introduced by Carl Jung to describe how this concept works in girls. Freud believed that the Oedipus complex referred to both boys and girls, but he believed both sex experiences it differently. Freud also suggested that when girls realize that they do not have a penis they develop penis envy and resentment towards their mother to send them in this but incomplete. This view of Freud for female sexuality was deeply criticized. To develop a healthy adult personality Oedipus complex needs to be resolved. To resolve the issue child in his phallic stage need to identify with the same-sex parent. If, the Oedipus complex is not resolved child with become a parent fixated, and they will seek their life partner who resembles their opposite-sex parent.	386	ENGLISH	1
Religion in China is very ancient, dating back over 7000 years. Three main philosophies were the basis of religion in China. These were Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism. Before these three main religions and teachings gained popularity, people worshipped nature and also ideas, like “wealth” or “luck”. Rituals surrounding nature, crops and the earth would have also been practiced in ancient times. Historians know about this through the graves that have been unearthed by archaeologists from the Neolithic Banpo Village (dated around 4500-3750 BC). Because people were buried with artefacts in their graves, this tells archaeologists that people believed that there was life after death. Archaeologists have also found evidence of priests as well as objects used for divination (predicting what might happen or unknown events). Worshipping ancestors was also very important. Worshipping family members or important people who had passed away meant turning people into gods or deities. Ancestor worship is something that stayed within many religious practices throughout China. Shrines would be made, and offerings would have been given to them. During the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BC), religion had developed and there was a supreme god (a main god above all others) called Shangti. There were over 200 other gods. As early as the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046), people also believed in ghosts and there were lots of ghost stories in early Chinese literature. Ghosts were those who had died and had not been buried in the correct way. Therefore, it was believed these spirits could not let go and were attached to the earth. There was even a form of ancient Chinese zombies called jiangshi (‘stiff bodies’)! There is a day called Tomb Sweeping Day on 4th April where people go to graves to pay their respects to the dead. Divination is when people try to predict the future or unknown events by contacting the spirit world. Divination was a big part of Ancient Chinese religion. In Ancient China, ‘oracle bones’ would be used. Someone with mystical powers (a psychic or a priest) would be paid to tell the future using special messages on these oracle bones. They would write a question on these bones and then heat them up until they cracked in order to get an answer. Confucius was a philosopher who lived between 551 and 479 BC. He wrote lots of important texts that influenced Chinese education, society and religion. He said it was okay to believe in ancestor worship, but he thought people relied too much on supernatural powers. These ideas had a big influence on religion, especially during the Warring States Period (476-221 BC). During the Qin Dynasty, the emperor Shi Huangti banned religion. He tried to replace it with an idea called legalism. Shi Huangti was very strict and burned books that did not suit his own family history and his own ideas. During the Han Dynasty (202-220 AD), Confucianism became more popular again. There was a route that went through China and other parts of Asia called the Silk Road where goods were traded. Sometimes, though, it was not just goods that were traded along trade routes, but also ideas, even religious ideas. This is how Buddhism spread to China in the 1st century AD. The ideas of Buddhism combined with earlier religious beliefs and remained a strong influence in China after its introduction. Taoism is a religious tradition that has had a big influence in China. It is thought to have begun in the 4th century BC. Taoism is about something called the Tao. Tao means ‘the way’, it is like an invisible energy that runs the universe. The ideas of yin and yang (opposites) are a part of Taoism. There are deities (god-like figures) that are worshipped but Tao itself is not worshipped. A Taoist would believe in being at one with nature. Taoists meditate, read scriptures and chant in order to practice their beliefs. Test your knowledge of Ancient Chinese religion with the quick quiz… - What were the three main religious influences in Ancient China? - What is an ancestor? - What is Tomb Sweeping Day? - What did Shi Huangti do when he banned religion? - What do Taoists believe in? - Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism - An ancestor is someone who you are related to in some way and who is no longer living - Tomb sweeping day is when people pay respects to the dead at their graves - Shi Huangti burnt books - Taoists believe in nature	<urn:uuid:683eaa18-e59a-4711-9e05-979e45cf5dcd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.savvyleo.com/world-history/ancient-china/religion/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00305.warc.gz	en	0.984137	978	3.59375	4	[ -0.20100045204162598, 0.47066444158554077, 0.17661599814891815, -0.2762588560581207, -0.13902275264263153, 0.04772445559501648, 0.12766733765602112, -0.2919647693634033, 0.2177116870880127, -0.1755303591489792, 0.22979462146759033, -0.4224737882614136, 0.04336366802453995, 0.18684494495391...	14	Religion in China is very ancient, dating back over 7000 years. Three main philosophies were the basis of religion in China. These were Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism. Before these three main religions and teachings gained popularity, people worshipped nature and also ideas, like “wealth” or “luck”. Rituals surrounding nature, crops and the earth would have also been practiced in ancient times. Historians know about this through the graves that have been unearthed by archaeologists from the Neolithic Banpo Village (dated around 4500-3750 BC). Because people were buried with artefacts in their graves, this tells archaeologists that people believed that there was life after death. Archaeologists have also found evidence of priests as well as objects used for divination (predicting what might happen or unknown events). Worshipping ancestors was also very important. Worshipping family members or important people who had passed away meant turning people into gods or deities. Ancestor worship is something that stayed within many religious practices throughout China. Shrines would be made, and offerings would have been given to them. During the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BC), religion had developed and there was a supreme god (a main god above all others) called Shangti. There were over 200 other gods. As early as the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046), people also believed in ghosts and there were lots of ghost stories in early Chinese literature. Ghosts were those who had died and had not been buried in the correct way. Therefore, it was believed these spirits could not let go and were attached to the earth. There was even a form of ancient Chinese zombies called jiangshi (‘stiff bodies’)! There is a day called Tomb Sweeping Day on 4th April where people go to graves to pay their respects to the dead. Divination is when people try to predict the future or unknown events by contacting the spirit world. Divination was a big part of Ancient Chinese religion. In Ancient China, ‘oracle bones’ would be used. Someone with mystical powers (a psychic or a priest) would be paid to tell the future using special messages on these oracle bones. They would write a question on these bones and then heat them up until they cracked in order to get an answer. Confucius was a philosopher who lived between 551 and 479 BC. He wrote lots of important texts that influenced Chinese education, society and religion. He said it was okay to believe in ancestor worship, but he thought people relied too much on supernatural powers. These ideas had a big influence on religion, especially during the Warring States Period (476-221 BC). During the Qin Dynasty, the emperor Shi Huangti banned religion. He tried to replace it with an idea called legalism. Shi Huangti was very strict and burned books that did not suit his own family history and his own ideas. During the Han Dynasty (202-220 AD), Confucianism became more popular again. There was a route that went through China and other parts of Asia called the Silk Road where goods were traded. Sometimes, though, it was not just goods that were traded along trade routes, but also ideas, even religious ideas. This is how Buddhism spread to China in the 1st century AD. The ideas of Buddhism combined with earlier religious beliefs and remained a strong influence in China after its introduction. Taoism is a religious tradition that has had a big influence in China. It is thought to have begun in the 4th century BC. Taoism is about something called the Tao. Tao means ‘the way’, it is like an invisible energy that runs the universe. The ideas of yin and yang (opposites) are a part of Taoism. There are deities (god-like figures) that are worshipped but Tao itself is not worshipped. A Taoist would believe in being at one with nature. Taoists meditate, read scriptures and chant in order to practice their beliefs. Test your knowledge of Ancient Chinese religion with the quick quiz… - What were the three main religious influences in Ancient China? - What is an ancestor? - What is Tomb Sweeping Day? - What did Shi Huangti do when he banned religion? - What do Taoists believe in? - Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism - An ancestor is someone who you are related to in some way and who is no longer living - Tomb sweeping day is when people pay respects to the dead at their graves - Shi Huangti burnt books - Taoists believe in nature	971	ENGLISH	1
Thus was born the myth of Archimedes: the first great engineer in history20/11/2019 Archimedes of Syracuse, painted here by José de Ribera in 1630, is considered one of the most important scientists of Classical Antiquity. Credit: Wikimedia Commons. DORY GASCUEÑA LÓPEZ \| Tungsteno Prolific inventor, mechanical engineer and war strategist —as well as a pioneer of science— his life story could fill a great saga of television fiction. Archimedes (287 B.C. – 212 B.C.) lived most of his life in Syracuse, on the island of Sicily, which at that time belonged to Greece and would eventually succumb to the Roman siege during the Second Punic War. This is where Archimedes' life ended, and where his legend began, which has made him a mythical figure of science and of engineering. This personage was already an enigma for those Roman historians who compiled his work decades after his death (Plutarch, Diodorus, Titus Livius...), so it is easy to understand that today it is difficult to distinguish myth from reality. What has come down to us regarding the figure of Archimedes is a mixture of direct information from his writings combined with references from great historians about his life and work. Three manuscripts preserve the texts of Archimedes' original treatises in Greek. The third, a codex containing Archimedes Palimpsest, was sold in New York for $2 million at a Christie's auction in 1998. An article published in the journal The Mathematical Intelligencer explains the epic feat of Reviel Netz and William Noel, who deciphered the manuscript after it had been lost for several millennia and was in a complicated state of preservation. Nowadays it is available to everyone in digital format thanks to The Archimedes Palimpsest Project. The Palimpsest of Archimedes, from the 10th century, contains the only existing known copies of The Method of Mechanical Theorems and On Floating Bodies. Credit:Walters Art Museum. The unknown engineer As an engineer, history attributes to him the invention of tools such as Archimedes' lever or screw —and of war machines such as the catapult, the heat ray or the Claw of Archimedes— but his written legacy makes no mention of these inventions. What is certain is that Archimedes was a man of science and also highly valued by the court of King Hieron II, to whom he was a close advisor and with whom he worked on military strategy. This could have been, according to some experts, one of the main motivations of Archimedes to promote his facet of engineer. In addition, practice was for him a way of making tangible what really fascinated him: the theory. This is revealed in a letter he wrote to Eratosthenes of Cyrene, then librarian and director of the Alexandria Museum, where Archimedes had studied in his youth. In the 20th century, historian Johan Ludvig Heiberg deciphered the text in which Archimedes explained his method: he would explore through mechanics the mathematical relationship he wished to establish and would then look for its geometric demonstration. Experimentation and observation were thus the basis of his successful method, at a time when science was taking its first steps. His achievements in different fields of knowledge are as brilliant as they are varied: he obtained a very exact approximation of the number Pi, developed the basis of naval architecture thanks to the Archimedes’ Principle, and formulated the law of the lever. Chris Rorres, professor emeritus of mathematics at the University of Drexel, organised a conference in New York in 2013 with the aim of deciphering with a group of historians which of the achievements attributed to the genius from Syracuse were feasible 23 centuries ago. That meeting discredited some inventions that could be considered too fanciful: the "death ray" (or heat ray) was completely discarded, as had already happened in 2010 on the American television program "MythBusters", when the then president of the United States, Barack Obama, requested scientific verification as to whether the legendary invention capable of burning the Roman fleet by concentrating the sun's rays through large reflective mirrors was actually feasible. Some hypotheses point out that the famous Archimedes screw was already used in Egypt and that the scientist actually made an improvement on the design. Credit: Wikimedia Commons. From screw to weapons As for Archimedes' famous screw, which allows water and other materials to be lifted with little effort and without damaging them, Rorres gathers evidence in his book Archimedes in the 21st Century that Archimedes might have seen these during his stay in Egypt and produced an improved version. Roman engineer Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, who first recorded Archimedes' screw in his work De architectura, does not attribute its design to Archimedes or to any other author. Although the passage of time makes it difficult to distinguish myth from reality, the history of science continues to delve into the figure of this enigmatic genius. What is certain is that his ingenuity earned him the respect even of his enemies. For the Roman general Marco Claudio Marcelo, who finally conquered Syracuse, the mathematician and his inventions were the reason why the siege of the city lasted almost 3 years. Thanks to his mathematical knowledge, Archimedes had developed a unique understanding of the properties of matter, so he had a privileged view on the possibility of using certain bodies as weapons. Thus, he took advantage of what he knew about weight and density in relation to the laws of physics to develop weapons as ingenious as they were devastating. Marcellus buried Archimedes with honours. The specific circumstances of his death have also faded over the centuries. Despite the different versions of the story, many agree that it was his passion for mathematics that would cost him his life. Thomas Little Heath compiles in the book The Works of Archimedes, some of them: perhaps he was drawing in the sand to solve some mathematical enigma, or was manipulating some different tools, but the fact is that he was so absorbed in his ruminations that apparently he refused to follow the soldier who came to collect him. He died as he had lived, absorbed in mathematical contemplation. His tomb had a sphere and a cylinder carved into it, as Cicero described in his chronicles. · — — Tungsteno is a journalism laboratory to scan the essence of innovation. Devised by Materia Publicaciones Científicas for Sacyr’s blog.	<urn:uuid:2cf6299b-4a52-4d8d-850a-053fa2db6c87>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://innovation.sacyr.com/-/thus-was-born-the-myth-of-archimedes-the-first-great-engineer-in-history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00526.warc.gz	en	0.981178	1,365	3.421875	3	[ 0.07190494239330292, 0.6079908013343811, 0.5762766003608704, -0.29162827134132385, -0.1577599048614502, -0.18629133701324463, -0.1021459549665451, 0.25268667936325073, -0.1109917014837265, -0.31806498765945435, 0.11741814017295837, -0.1639266163110733, 0.04448889195919037, 0.39151278138160...	4	Thus was born the myth of Archimedes: the first great engineer in history20/11/2019 Archimedes of Syracuse, painted here by José de Ribera in 1630, is considered one of the most important scientists of Classical Antiquity. Credit: Wikimedia Commons. DORY GASCUEÑA LÓPEZ \| Tungsteno Prolific inventor, mechanical engineer and war strategist —as well as a pioneer of science— his life story could fill a great saga of television fiction. Archimedes (287 B.C. – 212 B.C.) lived most of his life in Syracuse, on the island of Sicily, which at that time belonged to Greece and would eventually succumb to the Roman siege during the Second Punic War. This is where Archimedes' life ended, and where his legend began, which has made him a mythical figure of science and of engineering. This personage was already an enigma for those Roman historians who compiled his work decades after his death (Plutarch, Diodorus, Titus Livius...), so it is easy to understand that today it is difficult to distinguish myth from reality. What has come down to us regarding the figure of Archimedes is a mixture of direct information from his writings combined with references from great historians about his life and work. Three manuscripts preserve the texts of Archimedes' original treatises in Greek. The third, a codex containing Archimedes Palimpsest, was sold in New York for $2 million at a Christie's auction in 1998. An article published in the journal The Mathematical Intelligencer explains the epic feat of Reviel Netz and William Noel, who deciphered the manuscript after it had been lost for several millennia and was in a complicated state of preservation. Nowadays it is available to everyone in digital format thanks to The Archimedes Palimpsest Project. The Palimpsest of Archimedes, from the 10th century, contains the only existing known copies of The Method of Mechanical Theorems and On Floating Bodies. Credit:Walters Art Museum. The unknown engineer As an engineer, history attributes to him the invention of tools such as Archimedes' lever or screw —and of war machines such as the catapult, the heat ray or the Claw of Archimedes— but his written legacy makes no mention of these inventions. What is certain is that Archimedes was a man of science and also highly valued by the court of King Hieron II, to whom he was a close advisor and with whom he worked on military strategy. This could have been, according to some experts, one of the main motivations of Archimedes to promote his facet of engineer. In addition, practice was for him a way of making tangible what really fascinated him: the theory. This is revealed in a letter he wrote to Eratosthenes of Cyrene, then librarian and director of the Alexandria Museum, where Archimedes had studied in his youth. In the 20th century, historian Johan Ludvig Heiberg deciphered the text in which Archimedes explained his method: he would explore through mechanics the mathematical relationship he wished to establish and would then look for its geometric demonstration. Experimentation and observation were thus the basis of his successful method, at a time when science was taking its first steps. His achievements in different fields of knowledge are as brilliant as they are varied: he obtained a very exact approximation of the number Pi, developed the basis of naval architecture thanks to the Archimedes’ Principle, and formulated the law of the lever. Chris Rorres, professor emeritus of mathematics at the University of Drexel, organised a conference in New York in 2013 with the aim of deciphering with a group of historians which of the achievements attributed to the genius from Syracuse were feasible 23 centuries ago. That meeting discredited some inventions that could be considered too fanciful: the "death ray" (or heat ray) was completely discarded, as had already happened in 2010 on the American television program "MythBusters", when the then president of the United States, Barack Obama, requested scientific verification as to whether the legendary invention capable of burning the Roman fleet by concentrating the sun's rays through large reflective mirrors was actually feasible. Some hypotheses point out that the famous Archimedes screw was already used in Egypt and that the scientist actually made an improvement on the design. Credit: Wikimedia Commons. From screw to weapons As for Archimedes' famous screw, which allows water and other materials to be lifted with little effort and without damaging them, Rorres gathers evidence in his book Archimedes in the 21st Century that Archimedes might have seen these during his stay in Egypt and produced an improved version. Roman engineer Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, who first recorded Archimedes' screw in his work De architectura, does not attribute its design to Archimedes or to any other author. Although the passage of time makes it difficult to distinguish myth from reality, the history of science continues to delve into the figure of this enigmatic genius. What is certain is that his ingenuity earned him the respect even of his enemies. For the Roman general Marco Claudio Marcelo, who finally conquered Syracuse, the mathematician and his inventions were the reason why the siege of the city lasted almost 3 years. Thanks to his mathematical knowledge, Archimedes had developed a unique understanding of the properties of matter, so he had a privileged view on the possibility of using certain bodies as weapons. Thus, he took advantage of what he knew about weight and density in relation to the laws of physics to develop weapons as ingenious as they were devastating. Marcellus buried Archimedes with honours. The specific circumstances of his death have also faded over the centuries. Despite the different versions of the story, many agree that it was his passion for mathematics that would cost him his life. Thomas Little Heath compiles in the book The Works of Archimedes, some of them: perhaps he was drawing in the sand to solve some mathematical enigma, or was manipulating some different tools, but the fact is that he was so absorbed in his ruminations that apparently he refused to follow the soldier who came to collect him. He died as he had lived, absorbed in mathematical contemplation. His tomb had a sphere and a cylinder carved into it, as Cicero described in his chronicles. · — — Tungsteno is a journalism laboratory to scan the essence of innovation. Devised by Materia Publicaciones Científicas for Sacyr’s blog.	1,377	ENGLISH	1
Please explain the role of family in the renaissance.© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 9, 2019, 11:29 pm ad1c9bdddf The typical makeup of a family during the Renaissance Period is much like the modern day family - a nuclear family consisting of parents and children. Many people married during their 20's, more on the early side because life expectancy during the Renaissance was the early to mid 40's. Few, if any people lived to see their grandchildren born. Like many women in past times, the role of the wife/mother during the Renaissance was to stay home and take care of the house and family, cleaning and cooking. While the women stayed home, the men went to work, typically having jobs in fields and shops. Families who had children who were older and of age to work, typically went to work with their father to help with the family's income - male and female children did this. During the Renaissance period, families lived in small homes with about two rooms and ceilings that were very low. Often there was one big bed ... The role of each family member during the Renaissance Period and how it varied based on age, gender and economic class.	<urn:uuid:5dc06f15-d1a8-42ab-85f7-ed75e667eeae>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brainmass.com/english-language-and-literature/literature-arts/families-during-reniassance-258032	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00187.warc.gz	en	0.987813	245	3.59375	4	[ 0.17312978208065033, 0.3024197220802307, -0.06737489998340607, -0.4519704282283783, -0.15892523527145386, 0.2823046147823334, 0.1405348777770996, 0.22599750757217407, -0.2922181487083435, -0.09990401566028595, 0.1336388736963272, -0.30173182487487793, 0.07559949904680252, -0.01107218582183...	1	Please explain the role of family in the renaissance.© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 9, 2019, 11:29 pm ad1c9bdddf The typical makeup of a family during the Renaissance Period is much like the modern day family - a nuclear family consisting of parents and children. Many people married during their 20's, more on the early side because life expectancy during the Renaissance was the early to mid 40's. Few, if any people lived to see their grandchildren born. Like many women in past times, the role of the wife/mother during the Renaissance was to stay home and take care of the house and family, cleaning and cooking. While the women stayed home, the men went to work, typically having jobs in fields and shops. Families who had children who were older and of age to work, typically went to work with their father to help with the family's income - male and female children did this. During the Renaissance period, families lived in small homes with about two rooms and ceilings that were very low. Often there was one big bed ... The role of each family member during the Renaissance Period and how it varied based on age, gender and economic class.	253	ENGLISH	1
George Crabbe ( KRAB; 24 December 1754 – 3 February 1832) was an English poet, surgeon and clergyman. He is best known for his early use of the realistic narrative form and his descriptions of middle and working-class life and people. In the 1770s, Crabbe began his career as a doctor’s apprentice, later becoming a surgeon. In 1780, he travelled to London to make a living as a poet. After encountering serious financial difficulty and being unable to have his work published, he wrote to the statesman and author Edmund Burke for assistance. Burke was impressed enough by Crabbe’s poems to promise to help him in any way he could. The two became close friends and Burke helped Crabbe greatly both in his literary career and in building a role within the church. Burke introduced Crabbe to the literary and artistic society of London, including Sir Joshua Reynolds and Samuel Johnson, who read The Village before its publication and made some minor changes. Burke secured Crabbe the important position of Chaplain to the Duke of Rutland. Crabbe served as a clergyman in various capacities for the rest of his life, with Burke’s continued help in securing these positions. He developed friendships with many of the great literary men of his day, including Sir Walter Scott, whom he visited in Edinburgh, and William Wordsworth and some of his fellow Lake Poets, who frequently visited Crabbe as his guests. Lord Byron described him as “nature’s sternest painter, yet the best.” Crabbe’s poetry was predominantly in the form of heroic couplets, and has been described as unsentimental in its depiction of provincial life and society. The modern critic Frank Whitehead wrote that “Crabbe, in his verse tales in particular, is an important—indeed, a major—poet whose work has been and still is seriously undervalued.” Crabbe’s works include The Village (1783), Poems (1807), The Borough (1810), and his poetry collections Tales (1812) and Tales of the Hall (1819).	<urn:uuid:6061e87a-0fbc-4300-9c36-1a914067c5d8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://goodquotes.me/authors/george-crabbe/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00498.warc.gz	en	0.989214	442	3.484375	3	[ 0.1661575734615326, 0.17654486000537872, -0.005592466332018375, -0.3071974217891693, 0.1309027373790741, -0.16883069276809692, 0.3533463180065155, -0.33254003524780273, -0.43617114424705505, 0.1288483887910843, 0.20209984481334686, -0.2573016583919525, 0.06641989201307297, 0.19402787089347...	2	George Crabbe ( KRAB; 24 December 1754 – 3 February 1832) was an English poet, surgeon and clergyman. He is best known for his early use of the realistic narrative form and his descriptions of middle and working-class life and people. In the 1770s, Crabbe began his career as a doctor’s apprentice, later becoming a surgeon. In 1780, he travelled to London to make a living as a poet. After encountering serious financial difficulty and being unable to have his work published, he wrote to the statesman and author Edmund Burke for assistance. Burke was impressed enough by Crabbe’s poems to promise to help him in any way he could. The two became close friends and Burke helped Crabbe greatly both in his literary career and in building a role within the church. Burke introduced Crabbe to the literary and artistic society of London, including Sir Joshua Reynolds and Samuel Johnson, who read The Village before its publication and made some minor changes. Burke secured Crabbe the important position of Chaplain to the Duke of Rutland. Crabbe served as a clergyman in various capacities for the rest of his life, with Burke’s continued help in securing these positions. He developed friendships with many of the great literary men of his day, including Sir Walter Scott, whom he visited in Edinburgh, and William Wordsworth and some of his fellow Lake Poets, who frequently visited Crabbe as his guests. Lord Byron described him as “nature’s sternest painter, yet the best.” Crabbe’s poetry was predominantly in the form of heroic couplets, and has been described as unsentimental in its depiction of provincial life and society. The modern critic Frank Whitehead wrote that “Crabbe, in his verse tales in particular, is an important—indeed, a major—poet whose work has been and still is seriously undervalued.” Crabbe’s works include The Village (1783), Poems (1807), The Borough (1810), and his poetry collections Tales (1812) and Tales of the Hall (1819).	446	ENGLISH	1
In Greek mythology, Mopsus was the name of two famous seers: Mopsus, son of Manto and Rhacius or Apollo Mopsus, a celebrated prophet, son of Manto and Rhacius or Apollo. He officiated at the altars of Apollo at Claros; and from his unerring wisdom and discernment gave rise to the proverb, "more certain than Mopsus". He distinguished himself at the siege of Thebes; but he was held in particular veneration at the court of Amphilochus, at Colophon in Ionia. Having been consulted, on one occasion, by Amphilochus, who wished to know what success would attend his arms in a war which he was going to undertake, he predicted the greatest calamities; but Calchas, who had been the soothsayer of the Greeks during the Trojan War, promised the greatest successes. Amphilochus followed the opinion of Calchas, but the prediction of Mopsus was fully verified. This had such an effect upon Calchas that he died soon after. His death is attributed by some to another mortification of the same nature. The two soothsayers, jealous of each other's fame, came to a trial of their skill in divination. Calchas first asked his antagonist how many figs a neighboring tree bore; ten thousand and one, replied Mopsus. The figs were gathered, and his answer was found to be true. Mopsus now, to try his adversary, asked him how many young ones a certain pregnant sow would bring forth, and at what time. Calchas confessed his inability to answer, whereupon Mopsus declared that she would be delivered on the morrow, and would bring forth ten young ones, of which only one would be a male. The morrow proved the veracity of his prediction, and Calchas died through the grief which his defeat produced. (Tzetz., ad Lycophr., 427.) Amphilochus subsequently, have occasion to visit Argos, entrusted the sovereign power to Mopsus, to keep it for him during the space of a year. On his return, however, Mopsus refused to restore to him the kingdom, whereupon, having quarreled, they engaged and slew each other. (Tzetz., ad Lycophr., 440). According to another legend, he was slain by Hercules. (Tzetz., ad Lycophr., 980). Mopsus, the son of Ampyx and Chloris A son of Ampyx and Chloris, born at Titaressa in Thessaly. He was the prophet and soothsayer of the Argonauts, and died at his return from Colchis by the bite of a serpent in Libya. (Hygin., fab., 14, 128, 172.? Tzetz., ad Lycophr., 980) - This section includes text from Charles Anthon's A Classical Dictionary (1842).	<urn:uuid:2f3a46c8-d2d6-446f-bb20-ebd2e9dae995>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Mopsus	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00337.warc.gz	en	0.982942	628	3.28125	3	[ -0.23789890110492706, 0.39405375719070435, 0.34042465686798096, 0.012746680527925491, -0.63823002576828, -0.8236441612243652, 0.5342360734939575, 0.3884741961956024, -0.05440754443407059, -0.31927967071533203, -0.1473655104637146, -0.6375603675842285, -0.11982569098472595, 0.34391695261001...	1	In Greek mythology, Mopsus was the name of two famous seers: Mopsus, son of Manto and Rhacius or Apollo Mopsus, a celebrated prophet, son of Manto and Rhacius or Apollo. He officiated at the altars of Apollo at Claros; and from his unerring wisdom and discernment gave rise to the proverb, "more certain than Mopsus". He distinguished himself at the siege of Thebes; but he was held in particular veneration at the court of Amphilochus, at Colophon in Ionia. Having been consulted, on one occasion, by Amphilochus, who wished to know what success would attend his arms in a war which he was going to undertake, he predicted the greatest calamities; but Calchas, who had been the soothsayer of the Greeks during the Trojan War, promised the greatest successes. Amphilochus followed the opinion of Calchas, but the prediction of Mopsus was fully verified. This had such an effect upon Calchas that he died soon after. His death is attributed by some to another mortification of the same nature. The two soothsayers, jealous of each other's fame, came to a trial of their skill in divination. Calchas first asked his antagonist how many figs a neighboring tree bore; ten thousand and one, replied Mopsus. The figs were gathered, and his answer was found to be true. Mopsus now, to try his adversary, asked him how many young ones a certain pregnant sow would bring forth, and at what time. Calchas confessed his inability to answer, whereupon Mopsus declared that she would be delivered on the morrow, and would bring forth ten young ones, of which only one would be a male. The morrow proved the veracity of his prediction, and Calchas died through the grief which his defeat produced. (Tzetz., ad Lycophr., 427.) Amphilochus subsequently, have occasion to visit Argos, entrusted the sovereign power to Mopsus, to keep it for him during the space of a year. On his return, however, Mopsus refused to restore to him the kingdom, whereupon, having quarreled, they engaged and slew each other. (Tzetz., ad Lycophr., 440). According to another legend, he was slain by Hercules. (Tzetz., ad Lycophr., 980). Mopsus, the son of Ampyx and Chloris A son of Ampyx and Chloris, born at Titaressa in Thessaly. He was the prophet and soothsayer of the Argonauts, and died at his return from Colchis by the bite of a serpent in Libya. (Hygin., fab., 14, 128, 172.? Tzetz., ad Lycophr., 980) - This section includes text from Charles Anthon's A Classical Dictionary (1842).	636	ENGLISH	1
In 1962 a border war erupted between India and China. The war had a two-fold effect. Firstly, India realized that the dominant power in the Asian sphere was China, and secondly, Indi’s idealist Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru had his reputation as a world leader ground to ashes. Origin Of The Conflict The border war, however, may have never taken place in case the Indian Prime Minister Pandit Nehru shown any semblance of statesmanship and awareness of the game of power politics. His failure to grasp the essentials of military power and also a bigger failure to correctly interpret history, which is a saga of world conquerors, was to prove fatal. His reliance on diplomacy and the smug belief that the world would recognize him as a great leader without a strong army was a fatal mistake. The result has damned him forever as man who surrendered India’s right to be an equal of China on the world stage. The facts when they unfold make distressing reading. When the British were the paramount power in India they had kept Tibet as a buffer with China. In fact, to subdue Tibet, they had launched the Younghusband expedition in 1903, which resulted in the defeat of Tibet and the start of British presence there. In 1913 they also concluded a tripartite conference at Shimla between the representatives of Tibet and China on a firm line of demarcation of the Northern border. The crucial part of this entire exercise was the military power of the British. Nehru learned nothing from this. Nehru And China After the departure of the British, Nehru should have logically built on what they had started. But his idealism took the better of horse sense and he allowed matters to drift. He committed a fatal blunder in thinking that China was a friend, without realizing that two great powers cannot subsist side by side and one has to bite the dust. He also in his immature way became so engrossed in the idea as a ‘world leader’ that he forgot the essentials of world leadership is military power and aggressive policy. The result was that the Army went to seed and India made no effort to establish any form of control on the forward areas, particularly Aksai Chin. Such naivety is hard to digest at this time. Neglect Of The Northern Borders This inaction led to the entire Aksai Chin, as well as Tibet, being occupied by China, while Nehru kept twiddling his thumbs in the halo of a ‘world leader’. When Nehru woke up, it was too late and the Chinese had a de-facto occupation of nearly 30,000 sq miles of Indian Territory. The Fatal Blunder He then committed another fatal blunder. Without beefing up the military might he ordered the establishment of military posts in the forward areas. He also made a silly remark ‘I have ordered the army to throw the Chinese out’. He perhaps didn’t realize the purport of his words. Probably he just meant it for home consumption. But the Chinese were incensed and attacked all along the border and Nehru was caught napping. As per Nevile Maxwell, the famous journalist in an interview with the DNA newspaper in 2006 stated: “China, therefore, made use of a well-established principle in international law, and acted in pre-emptive self-defense.” It was a colossal defeat for India. Perhaps, had the Army fought or the air force been used the story could have been different, but a shell-shocked Nehru threw in the towel. His world image was shattered and he will go down in history as the man who let India down. A man who surrendered India’s inherent right to the leadership of Asia.	<urn:uuid:5af8e537-5709-457b-a8c9-64864d6893dd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.emitpost.com/world/indo-china-war-of-1962-18298.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00411.warc.gz	en	0.981062	777	3.78125	4	[ -0.229272723197937, 0.45237788558006287, 0.4627798795700073, 0.010486857034265995, -0.11360053718090057, 0.15057694911956787, 0.5198181867599487, 0.048261962831020355, 0.17440056800842285, 0.0000028908252716064453, 0.30111193656921387, -0.5546675324440002, 0.5701432228088379, 0.54457372426...	13	In 1962 a border war erupted between India and China. The war had a two-fold effect. Firstly, India realized that the dominant power in the Asian sphere was China, and secondly, Indi’s idealist Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru had his reputation as a world leader ground to ashes. Origin Of The Conflict The border war, however, may have never taken place in case the Indian Prime Minister Pandit Nehru shown any semblance of statesmanship and awareness of the game of power politics. His failure to grasp the essentials of military power and also a bigger failure to correctly interpret history, which is a saga of world conquerors, was to prove fatal. His reliance on diplomacy and the smug belief that the world would recognize him as a great leader without a strong army was a fatal mistake. The result has damned him forever as man who surrendered India’s right to be an equal of China on the world stage. The facts when they unfold make distressing reading. When the British were the paramount power in India they had kept Tibet as a buffer with China. In fact, to subdue Tibet, they had launched the Younghusband expedition in 1903, which resulted in the defeat of Tibet and the start of British presence there. In 1913 they also concluded a tripartite conference at Shimla between the representatives of Tibet and China on a firm line of demarcation of the Northern border. The crucial part of this entire exercise was the military power of the British. Nehru learned nothing from this. Nehru And China After the departure of the British, Nehru should have logically built on what they had started. But his idealism took the better of horse sense and he allowed matters to drift. He committed a fatal blunder in thinking that China was a friend, without realizing that two great powers cannot subsist side by side and one has to bite the dust. He also in his immature way became so engrossed in the idea as a ‘world leader’ that he forgot the essentials of world leadership is military power and aggressive policy. The result was that the Army went to seed and India made no effort to establish any form of control on the forward areas, particularly Aksai Chin. Such naivety is hard to digest at this time. Neglect Of The Northern Borders This inaction led to the entire Aksai Chin, as well as Tibet, being occupied by China, while Nehru kept twiddling his thumbs in the halo of a ‘world leader’. When Nehru woke up, it was too late and the Chinese had a de-facto occupation of nearly 30,000 sq miles of Indian Territory. The Fatal Blunder He then committed another fatal blunder. Without beefing up the military might he ordered the establishment of military posts in the forward areas. He also made a silly remark ‘I have ordered the army to throw the Chinese out’. He perhaps didn’t realize the purport of his words. Probably he just meant it for home consumption. But the Chinese were incensed and attacked all along the border and Nehru was caught napping. As per Nevile Maxwell, the famous journalist in an interview with the DNA newspaper in 2006 stated: “China, therefore, made use of a well-established principle in international law, and acted in pre-emptive self-defense.” It was a colossal defeat for India. Perhaps, had the Army fought or the air force been used the story could have been different, but a shell-shocked Nehru threw in the towel. His world image was shattered and he will go down in history as the man who let India down. A man who surrendered India’s inherent right to the leadership of Asia.	770	ENGLISH	1
Full and absolute equality has finally arrived. This includes a type of equality that many past generations have fought to have, whether it be women's rights, civil rights, gay and lesbian rights, etc. Some who have failed in this fight and others fulfilled partially, but now full equality throughout society, in the year 2081. “They weren’t only equal before God and the law, they were equal every which way” (Vonnegut) In the year 2081 all of society as become equal in every aspect of life. This includes their physical attractiveness, physical strengths and mental intelligence, all equal. Equality is maintained by “handicaps”. For someone who is considered very intelligent, he or she is forced to wear a mental handicap in his or her ear, for someone who is stronger than the “average Joe” is forced to have extra weight attached to them at all times and for someone who is considered attractive must wear a mask to hide their faces. In the short story, Harrison Bergeron by Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., reveals an argument that the need for full equality loses the variety and uniqueness and strengths of individuals along with the diversity as a whole, which in doubt is a negative effect on all of society. The loss of variety and personal strengths is shown clearly through characters George and Hazel. George and Hazel both depict people in society who have loss their ability to think abstractly or even wear for long periods of time. More specifically George has been affected by the loss more than Hazel has. “George, while his intelligence was way above normal, had a little mental handicap radio in his ear. He was required by law to wear it at all times, it was tuned to a government transmitter, every twenty seconds or so, the transmitter would send out some sharp noise to keep people like George from taking unfair advantage of their brains” (Vonnegut). George has been forced to wear a device that basically no longer allows him to think. Although the government may think that its only fair because other members of society, for instance his wife Hazel, only have average intelligence and it would be “unequal” to have someone in society smarter than them, it actually only makes society worse. Today in most	<urn:uuid:bd5fd4be-6d92-4014-a925-159f37461d7e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Harrison-Bergeron-558952.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00030.warc.gz	en	0.983971	466	3.59375	4	[ -0.1493261307477951, 0.061420030891895294, -0.12327634543180466, -0.22711771726608276, -0.3561752438545227, 0.49245724081993103, 0.22712239623069763, 0.021960005164146423, 0.17648789286613464, 0.05080767348408699, 0.1412011831998825, -0.18748781085014343, 0.3698895573616028, -0.00603877520...	1	Full and absolute equality has finally arrived. This includes a type of equality that many past generations have fought to have, whether it be women's rights, civil rights, gay and lesbian rights, etc. Some who have failed in this fight and others fulfilled partially, but now full equality throughout society, in the year 2081. “They weren’t only equal before God and the law, they were equal every which way” (Vonnegut) In the year 2081 all of society as become equal in every aspect of life. This includes their physical attractiveness, physical strengths and mental intelligence, all equal. Equality is maintained by “handicaps”. For someone who is considered very intelligent, he or she is forced to wear a mental handicap in his or her ear, for someone who is stronger than the “average Joe” is forced to have extra weight attached to them at all times and for someone who is considered attractive must wear a mask to hide their faces. In the short story, Harrison Bergeron by Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., reveals an argument that the need for full equality loses the variety and uniqueness and strengths of individuals along with the diversity as a whole, which in doubt is a negative effect on all of society. The loss of variety and personal strengths is shown clearly through characters George and Hazel. George and Hazel both depict people in society who have loss their ability to think abstractly or even wear for long periods of time. More specifically George has been affected by the loss more than Hazel has. “George, while his intelligence was way above normal, had a little mental handicap radio in his ear. He was required by law to wear it at all times, it was tuned to a government transmitter, every twenty seconds or so, the transmitter would send out some sharp noise to keep people like George from taking unfair advantage of their brains” (Vonnegut). George has been forced to wear a device that basically no longer allows him to think. Although the government may think that its only fair because other members of society, for instance his wife Hazel, only have average intelligence and it would be “unequal” to have someone in society smarter than them, it actually only makes society worse. Today in most	455	ENGLISH	1
The Industrial Revolution (1760-1850) began in England and spread throughout Europe and the Americas over the course of the next several decades. The Industrial Revolution did not reach America until the 1820s and began with the textile industries in the northeast. Expanding technology and the invention of new machines forever changed the way manufacturing and industry took place. The textile industry was greatly impacted by a number of new inventions such as the flying shuttle, the spinning frame and the cotton gin. But it was the invention of the Spinning Jenny by James Hargreaves that is credited with moving the textile industry from homes to factories. The move from a domestic cottage based industry to factories allowed the expansion of the Industrial Revolution from England throughout much of the world. James Hargreaves was a weaver in Blackburn, Lancaster. Although this area was known as a major textile center, prior to the Industrial Revolution the production of cloth from raw goods took place within cottage industries. All work was done by individuals within the home and entire families were involved. Men were often the weavers while children assisted in cleaning raw materials and women spun the materials into threads or yarns. The process was time consuming and merchants wanting to meet the demand for textile goods were often frustrated by the huge gap between supply and demand. The expense involved in transporting raw materials to numerous locations, waiting for finished textiles to be made by hand and then the finished goods to be picked up and transported back to the merchant was also an incentive to search for alternatives. While the invention of the flying shuttle and later the power loom made it possible to weave materials faster, spinning of raw materials into threads and yarns was still done by hand one thread at a time. Spinners were unable to keep up with the increased demand for threads. James Hargreaves may have designed the spinning jenny as an improvement over an earlier machine invented by Thomas High in 1763 or 1764. While never patented, High's machine used six spinning wheels that were bolted together and powered by a single large wheel. James Hargreaves' spinning jenny was said to have been designed after he saw his wife's spinning wheel knocked over and saw the spindle continue to spin. The spinning jenny used eight different spindles that were powered by a single wheel. This allowed one spinster to produce eight threads in the same amount of time it previously took to produce one. Later versions of the spinning jenny added even more lines which made the machine too large for home use. This led the way to factories where these larger machines could be run by fewer workers. With machines and workers concentrated in one place, the transportation costs of raw materials and finished goods were greatly reduced. Factory owners also had greater control over workers and began a division of labor that had individuals responsible for different stages of the manufacturing process. This led to increased production and often a demand for workers to keep up with quotas set by the factory owners. The invention of the spinning jenny and other inventions that improved the efficiency and production of textiles was the beginning of the Industrial Revolution that shifted England, Europe, and the United States from an agrarian society to an Industrial economy. As with all change, there were advantages and disadvantages to the use of the spinning jenny and other inventions at the time. The spinning jenny allowed more threads and yarns to be produced by fewer spinners. The early spinning jenny also produced a weaker thread than could be produced by hand so there was a decrease in quality until improvements were made to the machines and a dependable power source became available. With the use of water to power later versions of spinning and weaving machinery, quality and strength of the cloth produced was greatly improved. While many factors in England including the availability of workers along with the increased demand for textiles produced ideal conditions for the economic growth of the textile industry, without the invention of the spinning jenny, progress would have continued at a much slower pace. A traditional story maintains that the Spinning Jenny was named after one of Hargreaves' daughters or his wife. Yet he had no daughter named Jenny and his wife was named Elizabeth. The word jenny is an old world word used as a reference to an engine. There is some indication that James Hargreaves worked with Thomas High to improve on an earlier invention of a mechanical spinning wheel and improved the design which was then named a spinning Jenny after Thomas High's daughter. Regardless of how the invention came to be named, it changed forever the way textile manufacturing was accomplished and led the way to the Industrial Revolution. Check out the following resources for more information concerning the Spinning Jenny and the impact it had on the Industrial Revolution. Seeing products online is one thing. Bringing them into your home and holding them in your hand is another. To bridge the gap, we’d like to give you 10% off your first order.	<urn:uuid:2913f073-7dfa-4f3e-839e-fceea660aa57>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.faribaultmill.com/pages/spinning-jenny	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00493.warc.gz	en	0.98295	994	4	4	[ -0.33516979217529297, 0.09043946862220764, 0.38546109199523926, -0.13683894276618958, -0.19819432497024536, 0.30994635820388794, -0.2808065712451935, 0.3334922790527344, -0.3686588406562805, -0.20391881465911865, 0.1678905189037323, 0.04726821184158325, -0.11937598139047623, -0.19833548367...	1	The Industrial Revolution (1760-1850) began in England and spread throughout Europe and the Americas over the course of the next several decades. The Industrial Revolution did not reach America until the 1820s and began with the textile industries in the northeast. Expanding technology and the invention of new machines forever changed the way manufacturing and industry took place. The textile industry was greatly impacted by a number of new inventions such as the flying shuttle, the spinning frame and the cotton gin. But it was the invention of the Spinning Jenny by James Hargreaves that is credited with moving the textile industry from homes to factories. The move from a domestic cottage based industry to factories allowed the expansion of the Industrial Revolution from England throughout much of the world. James Hargreaves was a weaver in Blackburn, Lancaster. Although this area was known as a major textile center, prior to the Industrial Revolution the production of cloth from raw goods took place within cottage industries. All work was done by individuals within the home and entire families were involved. Men were often the weavers while children assisted in cleaning raw materials and women spun the materials into threads or yarns. The process was time consuming and merchants wanting to meet the demand for textile goods were often frustrated by the huge gap between supply and demand. The expense involved in transporting raw materials to numerous locations, waiting for finished textiles to be made by hand and then the finished goods to be picked up and transported back to the merchant was also an incentive to search for alternatives. While the invention of the flying shuttle and later the power loom made it possible to weave materials faster, spinning of raw materials into threads and yarns was still done by hand one thread at a time. Spinners were unable to keep up with the increased demand for threads. James Hargreaves may have designed the spinning jenny as an improvement over an earlier machine invented by Thomas High in 1763 or 1764. While never patented, High's machine used six spinning wheels that were bolted together and powered by a single large wheel. James Hargreaves' spinning jenny was said to have been designed after he saw his wife's spinning wheel knocked over and saw the spindle continue to spin. The spinning jenny used eight different spindles that were powered by a single wheel. This allowed one spinster to produce eight threads in the same amount of time it previously took to produce one. Later versions of the spinning jenny added even more lines which made the machine too large for home use. This led the way to factories where these larger machines could be run by fewer workers. With machines and workers concentrated in one place, the transportation costs of raw materials and finished goods were greatly reduced. Factory owners also had greater control over workers and began a division of labor that had individuals responsible for different stages of the manufacturing process. This led to increased production and often a demand for workers to keep up with quotas set by the factory owners. The invention of the spinning jenny and other inventions that improved the efficiency and production of textiles was the beginning of the Industrial Revolution that shifted England, Europe, and the United States from an agrarian society to an Industrial economy. As with all change, there were advantages and disadvantages to the use of the spinning jenny and other inventions at the time. The spinning jenny allowed more threads and yarns to be produced by fewer spinners. The early spinning jenny also produced a weaker thread than could be produced by hand so there was a decrease in quality until improvements were made to the machines and a dependable power source became available. With the use of water to power later versions of spinning and weaving machinery, quality and strength of the cloth produced was greatly improved. While many factors in England including the availability of workers along with the increased demand for textiles produced ideal conditions for the economic growth of the textile industry, without the invention of the spinning jenny, progress would have continued at a much slower pace. A traditional story maintains that the Spinning Jenny was named after one of Hargreaves' daughters or his wife. Yet he had no daughter named Jenny and his wife was named Elizabeth. The word jenny is an old world word used as a reference to an engine. There is some indication that James Hargreaves worked with Thomas High to improve on an earlier invention of a mechanical spinning wheel and improved the design which was then named a spinning Jenny after Thomas High's daughter. Regardless of how the invention came to be named, it changed forever the way textile manufacturing was accomplished and led the way to the Industrial Revolution. Check out the following resources for more information concerning the Spinning Jenny and the impact it had on the Industrial Revolution. Seeing products online is one thing. Bringing them into your home and holding them in your hand is another. To bridge the gap, we’d like to give you 10% off your first order.	995	ENGLISH	1
You may have heard the term “attachment” mentioned and wondered what it meant. It started with research in the 1950s that involved putting a toddler in a “strange situation” where the mother left the room and observations were made about how the child reacted to this, to a stranger entering the room, and to the mother coming back. It was noticed that some children have a secure attachment and some do not. This basically means the securely attached child feels the caregiver is reliable and safe. The attachment depends on how the parent responds to the child. Attachment theory has developed since them to include how adults form “attachment bonds” with one another and their children and what impact the secure and insecure types of attachment have on the developing child and on the adult. One thing that has been discovered is that insecurely attached children do not tend to do as well in school as more securely attachment children. They also struggle more in adulthood. Attachment between a child and its primary care giver gives the child the template from which it learns to form new relationships. If the primary care giver is secure or reliable, the child learns that relationships are safe. If the primary care giver is insecure or unreliable, the child learns that relationships are not safe. Attachment between a child and its primary care giver provides the opportunity for the child to co-regulate with the person who gives it its greatest sense of security. If the attachment is secure and the primary care giver is well tuned in to the child, then when it is distressed it is more likely to be effectively soothed by the caregiver. This is known as co-regulating. This allows the child to learn that other people are reliable sources of calming. When a child learns this, that child in later life will be more likely to seek out others for help when in need. This is a good protective skill against depression, which is often characterised by the person withdrawing from others rather than reaching out for help. Soothing a distressed child also helps the child learn how to cope with the strong emotions it is experiencing. We are not born with the understanding of the emotions we are feeling. Emotions for a child are strong and can be frightening. A securely attached caregiver who is in tune with the child’s experience is able to help the child learn to understand those emotions. This soothing helps the child to learn how to soothe itself. This is known as learning to self-regulate. You may have heard the term “Resilience” as well. The ability to self-regulate and co-regulate are vital aspects of resilience. Resilience is the ability to not be overwhelmed by circumstances in life. This includes knowing when to take time out to calm down, being able to regulate emotions and being able to find and use resources to deal with life circumstances.	<urn:uuid:d5dc8ba8-51f7-4500-8a35-e2b11d665e6f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://plentifullifecounselling.com.au/wp/what-is-attachment-theory/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00275.warc.gz	en	0.981364	593	3.796875	4	[ -0.04130705073475838, -0.03856215626001358, -0.1955661177635193, -0.2183813452720642, -0.2082323580980301, -0.2214452624320984, 0.5015266537666321, -0.23166733980178833, 0.02390877902507782, -0.08534736931324005, 0.4342081844806671, -0.118594229221344, 0.15066060423851013, 0.31209394335746...	3	You may have heard the term “attachment” mentioned and wondered what it meant. It started with research in the 1950s that involved putting a toddler in a “strange situation” where the mother left the room and observations were made about how the child reacted to this, to a stranger entering the room, and to the mother coming back. It was noticed that some children have a secure attachment and some do not. This basically means the securely attached child feels the caregiver is reliable and safe. The attachment depends on how the parent responds to the child. Attachment theory has developed since them to include how adults form “attachment bonds” with one another and their children and what impact the secure and insecure types of attachment have on the developing child and on the adult. One thing that has been discovered is that insecurely attached children do not tend to do as well in school as more securely attachment children. They also struggle more in adulthood. Attachment between a child and its primary care giver gives the child the template from which it learns to form new relationships. If the primary care giver is secure or reliable, the child learns that relationships are safe. If the primary care giver is insecure or unreliable, the child learns that relationships are not safe. Attachment between a child and its primary care giver provides the opportunity for the child to co-regulate with the person who gives it its greatest sense of security. If the attachment is secure and the primary care giver is well tuned in to the child, then when it is distressed it is more likely to be effectively soothed by the caregiver. This is known as co-regulating. This allows the child to learn that other people are reliable sources of calming. When a child learns this, that child in later life will be more likely to seek out others for help when in need. This is a good protective skill against depression, which is often characterised by the person withdrawing from others rather than reaching out for help. Soothing a distressed child also helps the child learn how to cope with the strong emotions it is experiencing. We are not born with the understanding of the emotions we are feeling. Emotions for a child are strong and can be frightening. A securely attached caregiver who is in tune with the child’s experience is able to help the child learn to understand those emotions. This soothing helps the child to learn how to soothe itself. This is known as learning to self-regulate. You may have heard the term “Resilience” as well. The ability to self-regulate and co-regulate are vital aspects of resilience. Resilience is the ability to not be overwhelmed by circumstances in life. This includes knowing when to take time out to calm down, being able to regulate emotions and being able to find and use resources to deal with life circumstances.	563	ENGLISH	1
In what ways did the French and Indian War alter the political, economic, and ideological relations between Britain and its American colonies? Use the documents and your knowledge of the period in constructing your response. Free response, part B: During the election, Abraham Lincoln was asked about his views on slavery. He simply stated that he would do anything with slavery to preserve the union. A few months later, Lincoln issued the Emancipation and this went slightly against what he had said earlier. Once this was issued, the preservation of the Union and the abolition of slavery became the main goal in the war. Although he believed that it was morally wrong, he still did not believe that blacks should have the same rights as an american. He wanted them to be free. Just free somewhere else. During his presidency he tried very hard to do whatever needed to be done to preserve the Union. Lincoln restated this again in August of when he reminded people of the democratic party that the civil war was being fought in an effort to put the Union back together. Feelings on slavery did not matter but freeing slaves would make things easier because Confederate war effort would become more difficult. I march ofLincoln decided that it would be best to award states that freed their slaves with money. This was simply a bribe though. Although that made the thought of abolition seem less awful to the confederates, they were still unsure. When speaking to a Committee of Religious Denominations of Chicago in September of that same year, Lincoln admitted that slavery was a big part of rebellion. He also stated that emancipation would prove to Europe that the U. Emancipation would then also weaken the rebels by taking their laborers. Fredrick Douglas, brought up the idea of letting black people fight in the war, and Lincoln felt that it was a good thing for blacks to do. All black people fought for free until they were seen as equal. At first, Lincoln was scared that they would not be good soldiers and they would not be loyal to the fellow troops. Another fear he had was that White regiments would be angry and refuse to fight. This impressed both Sherman and Grant. That concern was put aside when all the focus was pointed towards Lincoln during his famous Gettysburg address in July of During the historic speech, he stated that all men were created equal and pointed out that during the revolution, they fought for equality of all men. This meant that by having slavery, they were lying about the revolution. Lincoln made it a point to say that were an example to all other countries that wanted democracy. They had to keep fighting for those who already died or they might as well have a monarchy. Everything was going smoothly until there was a race riot later that year. White people were beating up black people because they felt that they were stealing their jobs. Buckner was confused because these northern people were treating blacks like southerners. Abusing them and refusing to draft.Edit Article How to Write a Thesis Statement. Three Methods: Crafting Great Thesis Statements Getting it Right Finding the Perfect Thesis Community Q&A Whether you’re writing a short essay or a doctoral dissertation, your thesis statement can be one of the trickiest sentences to formulate. AP’s high school United States History course is a rigorous, college-level class that provides an opportunity to gain skills colleges recognize. Dbq Essay On Us History S S. AP® United States History Free-Response Questions The College Board The College Board is a not-for-profit membership association whose mission is to connect students to college success and opportunity. Founded in , the College Board is composed of more than 5, schools, colleges, universities and other educational organizations. Below are links to DBQs created by students / teachers for the following AP US History exams. Use them for review. AHAP Exam DBQ period --> AHAP Exam DBQ period --> AHAP Exam DBQ period --> AHAP Exam DBQ period --> Ap Us History Dbq. 3 March Slavery; APUSH DBQ 6 All throughout the ’s, slavery was a very controversial topic. During the election, Abraham Lincoln was asked about his views on slavery. He simply stated that he would do anything with slavery to preserve the union. A few months later, Lincoln issued the Emancipation and this. Western Civilization. European History & Its Impact on the World. Updated April JUMP TO A.P. History, National History Day & WAYBACK MACHINE / Europe Today / Revolutions / Primary Documents. Maps, Flags, Timelines / Vikings / Barbarians / Pirates. Absolutism / Nationalism, Imperialism, & Anarchism /. The Thirty & Seven Years Wars / Military History & War.	<urn:uuid:afbe256e-9205-412b-8222-fa77ac158616>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://zugujidipuvegexil.attheheels.com/ap-us-history-1800-dbq-21898ws.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00370.warc.gz	en	0.985252	978	4.0625	4	[ -0.30823686718940735, 0.5244540572166443, 0.16560134291648865, 0.010844500735402107, -0.07679493725299835, 0.08072151243686676, -0.001833941787481308, 0.11221493035554886, -0.09967111796140671, -0.014775926247239113, -0.09035540372133255, 0.08453203737735748, -0.3496271073818207, 0.5241079...	1	In what ways did the French and Indian War alter the political, economic, and ideological relations between Britain and its American colonies? Use the documents and your knowledge of the period in constructing your response. Free response, part B: During the election, Abraham Lincoln was asked about his views on slavery. He simply stated that he would do anything with slavery to preserve the union. A few months later, Lincoln issued the Emancipation and this went slightly against what he had said earlier. Once this was issued, the preservation of the Union and the abolition of slavery became the main goal in the war. Although he believed that it was morally wrong, he still did not believe that blacks should have the same rights as an american. He wanted them to be free. Just free somewhere else. During his presidency he tried very hard to do whatever needed to be done to preserve the Union. Lincoln restated this again in August of when he reminded people of the democratic party that the civil war was being fought in an effort to put the Union back together. Feelings on slavery did not matter but freeing slaves would make things easier because Confederate war effort would become more difficult. I march ofLincoln decided that it would be best to award states that freed their slaves with money. This was simply a bribe though. Although that made the thought of abolition seem less awful to the confederates, they were still unsure. When speaking to a Committee of Religious Denominations of Chicago in September of that same year, Lincoln admitted that slavery was a big part of rebellion. He also stated that emancipation would prove to Europe that the U. Emancipation would then also weaken the rebels by taking their laborers. Fredrick Douglas, brought up the idea of letting black people fight in the war, and Lincoln felt that it was a good thing for blacks to do. All black people fought for free until they were seen as equal. At first, Lincoln was scared that they would not be good soldiers and they would not be loyal to the fellow troops. Another fear he had was that White regiments would be angry and refuse to fight. This impressed both Sherman and Grant. That concern was put aside when all the focus was pointed towards Lincoln during his famous Gettysburg address in July of During the historic speech, he stated that all men were created equal and pointed out that during the revolution, they fought for equality of all men. This meant that by having slavery, they were lying about the revolution. Lincoln made it a point to say that were an example to all other countries that wanted democracy. They had to keep fighting for those who already died or they might as well have a monarchy. Everything was going smoothly until there was a race riot later that year. White people were beating up black people because they felt that they were stealing their jobs. Buckner was confused because these northern people were treating blacks like southerners. Abusing them and refusing to draft.Edit Article How to Write a Thesis Statement. Three Methods: Crafting Great Thesis Statements Getting it Right Finding the Perfect Thesis Community Q&A Whether you’re writing a short essay or a doctoral dissertation, your thesis statement can be one of the trickiest sentences to formulate. AP’s high school United States History course is a rigorous, college-level class that provides an opportunity to gain skills colleges recognize. Dbq Essay On Us History S S. AP® United States History Free-Response Questions The College Board The College Board is a not-for-profit membership association whose mission is to connect students to college success and opportunity. Founded in , the College Board is composed of more than 5, schools, colleges, universities and other educational organizations. Below are links to DBQs created by students / teachers for the following AP US History exams. Use them for review. AHAP Exam DBQ period --> AHAP Exam DBQ period --> AHAP Exam DBQ period --> AHAP Exam DBQ period --> Ap Us History Dbq. 3 March Slavery; APUSH DBQ 6 All throughout the ’s, slavery was a very controversial topic. During the election, Abraham Lincoln was asked about his views on slavery. He simply stated that he would do anything with slavery to preserve the union. A few months later, Lincoln issued the Emancipation and this. Western Civilization. European History & Its Impact on the World. Updated April JUMP TO A.P. History, National History Day & WAYBACK MACHINE / Europe Today / Revolutions / Primary Documents. Maps, Flags, Timelines / Vikings / Barbarians / Pirates. Absolutism / Nationalism, Imperialism, & Anarchism /. The Thirty & Seven Years Wars / Military History & War.	942	ENGLISH	1
The children have settled quickly into their new classrooms and have enthusiastically engaged with our Year 6 topics. They are already finding out about South America and have started an art project which will culminate in a piece of textile work inspired by the Mola of the Kuna people of Colombia. In science, they have begun to learn about Charles Darwin and the Theory of Evolution. The children used a variety of tools, such as bulldog clips and tweezers, to model different beak shapes. They used these to see which was best at picking up various foods including dried beans, rice and sultanas. Their conclusions were that short strong beaks were good for cracking open nuts and seeds whilst long, thin, sharp beaks worked well for soft, squidgy foods such as worms.	<urn:uuid:5a8fbeea-8679-4d92-8b0e-b1e80a64c0af>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.miltonroadschool.org.uk/single-post/2019/09/25/Starting-our-New-Topics-in-Year-6	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00378.warc.gz	en	0.983429	158	3.515625	4	[ -0.07045568525791168, -0.04199724271893501, 0.4550414979457855, -0.2859741151332855, 0.02777186408638954, -0.1824917197227478, -0.029294798150658607, 0.1689399629831314, -0.5403972864151001, 0.011751610785722733, 0.2877282202243805, -0.4715260863304138, -0.0373341366648674, 0.3643406033515...	2	The children have settled quickly into their new classrooms and have enthusiastically engaged with our Year 6 topics. They are already finding out about South America and have started an art project which will culminate in a piece of textile work inspired by the Mola of the Kuna people of Colombia. In science, they have begun to learn about Charles Darwin and the Theory of Evolution. The children used a variety of tools, such as bulldog clips and tweezers, to model different beak shapes. They used these to see which was best at picking up various foods including dried beans, rice and sultanas. Their conclusions were that short strong beaks were good for cracking open nuts and seeds whilst long, thin, sharp beaks worked well for soft, squidgy foods such as worms.	158	ENGLISH	1
Gleaning was a historical practice of collecting leftover crops from farmer’s fields after they had been commercially harvested or if they were not profitable to harvest. It is described in the Hebrew Bible and it became a legally enforced entitlement of the poor in a number of Christian kingdoms. 2. In medieval times “cat-burning” was an accepted practice thought to bring good luck. It was custom to burn a barrel full of live cats over a bonfire as people shrieked with laughter while they were singed and roasted. French Kings often witnessed it and even ceremoniously started the fire. 3. People in Medieval times accused of crimes could opt for a “trial by ordeal” where they would stick their hands in boiling water. If innocent, God would stop them from burning. The priests who administered this would secretly cool the water beforehand if they thought the defendant was innocent. 4. In ancient Ireland, sucking a king’s nipples was a gesture of submission. Failed kings would have their nipples brutally cut to dethrone them and make them incapable of holding kingship. 5. The term scapegoat comes from an old Jewish ritual where a town would place all the sins of the townspeople onto a goat and then banish that goat from town to die, sending the burden of their sins with it. The original word for ‘bear’ has been lost. People in middle ages were so superstitious and afraid of it that they thought just saying the animal’s name would summon it. They called it ‘bear’ which means ‘the brown one’ to avoid saying its actual name. The original word was never recorded, so it remains a mystery. 7. In medieval times, it was a common practice in the battlefield to not kill warriors who wore particularly strong armor. Such warriors were captured instead, and then a ransom was demanded because only ‘well off’ warriors were able to afford such good armor. 8. Whipping boys were a real position in the English court in the middle ages. Since monarchy was appointed by God, no one could punish the Prince for bad behavior. So they would give the prince a friend and this friend would be punished if the prince misbehaved. The prince would normally stay in line to stop his friend from being hurt. 9. In ancient Egypt, under the decree of Ptolemy II, all ships visiting the city were obliged to surrender their books to the library of Alexandria and be copied. The original would be kept in the library and the copy given back to the owner. 10. Adamites were an early Christian sect that worshipped naked. They were prevalent between the 2nd and 4th centuries in the Northern parts of Africa. Some of their beliefs were holy nudism, rejection of marriage, and an endorsement of lawlessness as their actions were “neither good nor evil.” They believed they were embodying the innocence of Adam in Genesis. Monks in northern Japan used to practice self-mummification. They would exercise rigorously to rid all body fat from their system, begin drinking a poisonous tea, and remain in a tiny tomb in the lotus position until confirmed dead. The process took over 3000 days. 12. People in the Middle Ages would brew a batch of ale, have a big party to drink it, and collect donations for the needy. They called it “help ale” and this practice preceded charity keggers by 1500 years. 13. Ancient Spartan schools deliberately underfed boys to force them to steal food, but severely punished anyone who was caught. This was thought to toughen them up, especially since it accustomed them to hunger, which was common on the battlefield. 14. In the middle ages, some kings had clothes made from "Salamander fur" which were completely fire-proof and bright white. The name likely comes from the common belief that Salamanders were “born from fire”. The clothes were actually made out of asbestos. 15. Krypteia was a special secret police unit in ancient Sparta, who was given the dubious task of controlling their slave population by annual massacres. Even more messed up was the fact that they had to do the killings in secrecy and were punished by whipping if anyone caught them. The word “orient” comes from the Latin word “oriens”, meaning East because in the Middle Ages many maps were drawn with East at the top, for religious reasons because the Garden of Eden was supposed to be there. 17. During the middle ages there was a legal category called “enbrotherment” that allowed two men to share living quarters, pool their resources, and effectively live as a married couple. The couple shared “one bread, one wine, one purse.” 18. In 18th-century Denmark, people were afraid to take their own lives because they believed it would send them to hell. Instead, they resorted to killing other people to receive the death penalty and repented before execution, believing that doing so would send them to heaven. 19. The concept of the “rap battle” has existed since the 5th century. Poets often engaged in “flyting,” a spoken word event where poets would insult one another in verse. The Norse god Loki is noted as having insulted other gods in verse. It is said flyting has similarities to slam poetry and rap battles of today. 20. In France in the 1500s, women could charge their husbands with impotence. He would have to become erect and show that he could ejaculate in a courtroom. If he failed, he could demand a trial by Congress and attempt to have sex with his wife in front of the experts. In medieval times it was common to have “2” sleeps per night. You would fall asleep for 4 to 5 hours, wake up for 2 hours or so and fall back to sleep for another 3 to 4. It’s been suggested that we may have evolved this way to tend to the fire in order to keep us warm and safe. 22. The term “Freelancer” used to refer to a knight in the Middle Ages who was not under any feudal oaths and who sold his services to the highest bidder. Since a knight’s primary weapon was a lance, he was a “free” “lancer.” 23. The word decimation comes from the Roman practice of killing every 10th man as a form of maintaining discipline. 24. January 14th used to be observed as the Feast of the Ass. It was a Catholic feast day that was mostly celebrated in the Middle Ages to honor all the asses in the Bible, especially the one that bore Mary and the baby Jesus into Egypt after the birth. 25. In the middle ages it was an accepted political act for two kings to sleep in the same bed as a symbol of unity between their two countries; much like the modern-day photo-op. There was nothing sexual about it.	<urn:uuid:1bba83f5-132c-4240-854f-cf86616dcfb6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://factrepublic.com/50-peculiar-and-bizarre-historical-practices/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00036.warc.gz	en	0.988138	1,456	3.65625	4	[ -0.2908495366573334, 0.5793415307998657, 0.09238413721323013, 0.05652656778693199, 0.11079083383083344, -0.4320452809333801, 0.3701142966747284, 0.03363894671201706, 0.01598970778286457, 0.21206636726856232, -0.5151091814041138, -0.468021035194397, 0.15122079849243164, 0.29886239767074585,...	5	Gleaning was a historical practice of collecting leftover crops from farmer’s fields after they had been commercially harvested or if they were not profitable to harvest. It is described in the Hebrew Bible and it became a legally enforced entitlement of the poor in a number of Christian kingdoms. 2. In medieval times “cat-burning” was an accepted practice thought to bring good luck. It was custom to burn a barrel full of live cats over a bonfire as people shrieked with laughter while they were singed and roasted. French Kings often witnessed it and even ceremoniously started the fire. 3. People in Medieval times accused of crimes could opt for a “trial by ordeal” where they would stick their hands in boiling water. If innocent, God would stop them from burning. The priests who administered this would secretly cool the water beforehand if they thought the defendant was innocent. 4. In ancient Ireland, sucking a king’s nipples was a gesture of submission. Failed kings would have their nipples brutally cut to dethrone them and make them incapable of holding kingship. 5. The term scapegoat comes from an old Jewish ritual where a town would place all the sins of the townspeople onto a goat and then banish that goat from town to die, sending the burden of their sins with it. The original word for ‘bear’ has been lost. People in middle ages were so superstitious and afraid of it that they thought just saying the animal’s name would summon it. They called it ‘bear’ which means ‘the brown one’ to avoid saying its actual name. The original word was never recorded, so it remains a mystery. 7. In medieval times, it was a common practice in the battlefield to not kill warriors who wore particularly strong armor. Such warriors were captured instead, and then a ransom was demanded because only ‘well off’ warriors were able to afford such good armor. 8. Whipping boys were a real position in the English court in the middle ages. Since monarchy was appointed by God, no one could punish the Prince for bad behavior. So they would give the prince a friend and this friend would be punished if the prince misbehaved. The prince would normally stay in line to stop his friend from being hurt. 9. In ancient Egypt, under the decree of Ptolemy II, all ships visiting the city were obliged to surrender their books to the library of Alexandria and be copied. The original would be kept in the library and the copy given back to the owner. 10. Adamites were an early Christian sect that worshipped naked. They were prevalent between the 2nd and 4th centuries in the Northern parts of Africa. Some of their beliefs were holy nudism, rejection of marriage, and an endorsement of lawlessness as their actions were “neither good nor evil.” They believed they were embodying the innocence of Adam in Genesis. Monks in northern Japan used to practice self-mummification. They would exercise rigorously to rid all body fat from their system, begin drinking a poisonous tea, and remain in a tiny tomb in the lotus position until confirmed dead. The process took over 3000 days. 12. People in the Middle Ages would brew a batch of ale, have a big party to drink it, and collect donations for the needy. They called it “help ale” and this practice preceded charity keggers by 1500 years. 13. Ancient Spartan schools deliberately underfed boys to force them to steal food, but severely punished anyone who was caught. This was thought to toughen them up, especially since it accustomed them to hunger, which was common on the battlefield. 14. In the middle ages, some kings had clothes made from "Salamander fur" which were completely fire-proof and bright white. The name likely comes from the common belief that Salamanders were “born from fire”. The clothes were actually made out of asbestos. 15. Krypteia was a special secret police unit in ancient Sparta, who was given the dubious task of controlling their slave population by annual massacres. Even more messed up was the fact that they had to do the killings in secrecy and were punished by whipping if anyone caught them. The word “orient” comes from the Latin word “oriens”, meaning East because in the Middle Ages many maps were drawn with East at the top, for religious reasons because the Garden of Eden was supposed to be there. 17. During the middle ages there was a legal category called “enbrotherment” that allowed two men to share living quarters, pool their resources, and effectively live as a married couple. The couple shared “one bread, one wine, one purse.” 18. In 18th-century Denmark, people were afraid to take their own lives because they believed it would send them to hell. Instead, they resorted to killing other people to receive the death penalty and repented before execution, believing that doing so would send them to heaven. 19. The concept of the “rap battle” has existed since the 5th century. Poets often engaged in “flyting,” a spoken word event where poets would insult one another in verse. The Norse god Loki is noted as having insulted other gods in verse. It is said flyting has similarities to slam poetry and rap battles of today. 20. In France in the 1500s, women could charge their husbands with impotence. He would have to become erect and show that he could ejaculate in a courtroom. If he failed, he could demand a trial by Congress and attempt to have sex with his wife in front of the experts. In medieval times it was common to have “2” sleeps per night. You would fall asleep for 4 to 5 hours, wake up for 2 hours or so and fall back to sleep for another 3 to 4. It’s been suggested that we may have evolved this way to tend to the fire in order to keep us warm and safe. 22. The term “Freelancer” used to refer to a knight in the Middle Ages who was not under any feudal oaths and who sold his services to the highest bidder. Since a knight’s primary weapon was a lance, he was a “free” “lancer.” 23. The word decimation comes from the Roman practice of killing every 10th man as a form of maintaining discipline. 24. January 14th used to be observed as the Feast of the Ass. It was a Catholic feast day that was mostly celebrated in the Middle Ages to honor all the asses in the Bible, especially the one that bore Mary and the baby Jesus into Egypt after the birth. 25. In the middle ages it was an accepted political act for two kings to sleep in the same bed as a symbol of unity between their two countries; much like the modern-day photo-op. There was nothing sexual about it.	1,418	ENGLISH	1
Moats were an important part of a medieval castle’s defenses and were usually the earliest of the barriers that an attacking enemy had to face. They proved formidable in that they made it impossible for the enemy to attack a castle using conventional methods such as scaling the walls, using barging rams or tunneling. Consequently, an attacker had to devise unconventional and often costly methods when storming a castle protected with a moat. It was certainly possible to overcome a castle moat but it was more time consuming, incurred more losses in terms of dead soldiers and was more vulnerable. Imagine how hard it would have been to overcome this medieval Castle moat Failure of Conventional Methods A moat effectively rendered nearly all conventional methods of attacking a castle as failures. Conventionally, the attacking army could use three ways of storming a castle. It could force its way near castle walls and then scale the walls with ladders. This was often possible for an enemy with numerical superiority. The second way of storming a castle was by focusing the attack on the key entrances – this involved using a barging ram to destroy the fortified entrance and break an entry. The third method was by getting closer to castle walls and then digging a tunnel under a vulnerable part of the castle. The tunnel was used to attempt to collapse the wall. Each method was used with varying success in conventional castle attacks. But if a castle was surrounded by a moat, all three methods proved futile. Image shows battering ram from the front Ways of Overcoming a Castle Moat Since conventional method simply didn’t work on a castle protected by a moat, other ways had to be devised to overcome a castle moat. These ways depended on the type of the moat– If the castle was surrounded by a dry moat, the enemy forces would use wood, stone and rocks to fill up the dry ditch. This took considerable time and had to be done under the cover of wooden shields in order to be safe from the attacks of castle defenders. Once done, this allowed the attackers to carry scaling ladders and reach castle walls. When faced with a wet moat filled with water, the attackers had to resort to other measures. They would build a makeshift bridge and then use it to reach castle walls. Alternatively, they would use barges to sail towards castle walls. Both methods were quite hazardous and involved significant losses in terms of men due to the castles archers and other military attacks from the castle walls. A medieval Drawbridge could be raised quickly if a castle was under attack Hazards in Overcoming a Castle Moat All the methods of overcoming a castle moat, as mentioned above, involved incurring significant losses. These losses were in terms of soldiers who were wounded or killed by the missiles from castle walls as they attempted to overcome the difficulties of the moat. The losses were also in terms of the time lost in overcoming the moat which made it possible for a reliving force from outside to arrive and attack them from the rear. Although fraught with difficulties and losses, these were the only ways of effecting a breach into a moat-protected castle. – for this reason, moats were highly preferred by the defenders of the castles.	<urn:uuid:94cbd3b3-97fb-43b4-bb41-31c29c5ecf11>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-battles-wars/medieval-warfare/overcoming-a-castle-moat-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00140.warc.gz	en	0.981388	682	3.921875	4	[ -0.251324325799942, 0.16144680976867676, 0.12555041909217834, 0.32989633083343506, -0.07969323545694351, -0.17877599596977234, 0.29064029455184937, -0.2531190514564514, 0.10179609060287476, -0.3373284637928009, -0.29182323813438416, -0.19468797743320465, 0.3183559477329254, -0.046085085719...	4	Moats were an important part of a medieval castle’s defenses and were usually the earliest of the barriers that an attacking enemy had to face. They proved formidable in that they made it impossible for the enemy to attack a castle using conventional methods such as scaling the walls, using barging rams or tunneling. Consequently, an attacker had to devise unconventional and often costly methods when storming a castle protected with a moat. It was certainly possible to overcome a castle moat but it was more time consuming, incurred more losses in terms of dead soldiers and was more vulnerable. Imagine how hard it would have been to overcome this medieval Castle moat Failure of Conventional Methods A moat effectively rendered nearly all conventional methods of attacking a castle as failures. Conventionally, the attacking army could use three ways of storming a castle. It could force its way near castle walls and then scale the walls with ladders. This was often possible for an enemy with numerical superiority. The second way of storming a castle was by focusing the attack on the key entrances – this involved using a barging ram to destroy the fortified entrance and break an entry. The third method was by getting closer to castle walls and then digging a tunnel under a vulnerable part of the castle. The tunnel was used to attempt to collapse the wall. Each method was used with varying success in conventional castle attacks. But if a castle was surrounded by a moat, all three methods proved futile. Image shows battering ram from the front Ways of Overcoming a Castle Moat Since conventional method simply didn’t work on a castle protected by a moat, other ways had to be devised to overcome a castle moat. These ways depended on the type of the moat– If the castle was surrounded by a dry moat, the enemy forces would use wood, stone and rocks to fill up the dry ditch. This took considerable time and had to be done under the cover of wooden shields in order to be safe from the attacks of castle defenders. Once done, this allowed the attackers to carry scaling ladders and reach castle walls. When faced with a wet moat filled with water, the attackers had to resort to other measures. They would build a makeshift bridge and then use it to reach castle walls. Alternatively, they would use barges to sail towards castle walls. Both methods were quite hazardous and involved significant losses in terms of men due to the castles archers and other military attacks from the castle walls. A medieval Drawbridge could be raised quickly if a castle was under attack Hazards in Overcoming a Castle Moat All the methods of overcoming a castle moat, as mentioned above, involved incurring significant losses. These losses were in terms of soldiers who were wounded or killed by the missiles from castle walls as they attempted to overcome the difficulties of the moat. The losses were also in terms of the time lost in overcoming the moat which made it possible for a reliving force from outside to arrive and attack them from the rear. Although fraught with difficulties and losses, these were the only ways of effecting a breach into a moat-protected castle. – for this reason, moats were highly preferred by the defenders of the castles.	656	ENGLISH	1
John Milton was an English writer born on December 9, 1608. As a child and young adult, Milton was an avid reader and traveled often, which played a great role in shaping his beliefs and political ideologies. He is known for capitalizing on the political conflict of his time and creating brilliant works of social commentary as a response. One such work is Paradise Lost (1667), his most well-known epic poem. The Sonnets of John Milton is a collection of Milton’s work that scholars deemed culturally-defining. The book begins with a preface explaining the artistic makeup of a sonnet and what makes it so pleasing to the human ear. The preface is followed by a slew of original documents and hand-written drafts from Milton himself, so many of the pieces are difficult to read or illegible. However, many scholars believed that Milton’s work is so significant that even the bits and pieces of his unpublished works should be released to the public. John Milton was an iconic poet in his day and his poems are still revered to this day. Milton’s passion for literature is palpable in every sonnet and poem he writes. He was praised by writers such as William Wordsworth and Thomas Hardy, and continues to be a source of inspiration of aspiring writers today.	<urn:uuid:8304f289-8c67-46c9-b6ce-a79ede96d355>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gradesaver.com/the-sonnets-of-john-milton	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00023.warc.gz	en	0.988536	264	4.5	4	[ 0.13435375690460205, 0.3998255729675293, 0.2815079689025879, 0.17333818972110748, -0.15741181373596191, 0.5400401949882507, 0.1862601935863495, 0.1394868642091751, -0.20460288226604462, 0.06693645566701889, -0.3980180025100708, 0.25655004382133484, 0.0749669298529625, 0.4411527216434479, ...	1	John Milton was an English writer born on December 9, 1608. As a child and young adult, Milton was an avid reader and traveled often, which played a great role in shaping his beliefs and political ideologies. He is known for capitalizing on the political conflict of his time and creating brilliant works of social commentary as a response. One such work is Paradise Lost (1667), his most well-known epic poem. The Sonnets of John Milton is a collection of Milton’s work that scholars deemed culturally-defining. The book begins with a preface explaining the artistic makeup of a sonnet and what makes it so pleasing to the human ear. The preface is followed by a slew of original documents and hand-written drafts from Milton himself, so many of the pieces are difficult to read or illegible. However, many scholars believed that Milton’s work is so significant that even the bits and pieces of his unpublished works should be released to the public. John Milton was an iconic poet in his day and his poems are still revered to this day. Milton’s passion for literature is palpable in every sonnet and poem he writes. He was praised by writers such as William Wordsworth and Thomas Hardy, and continues to be a source of inspiration of aspiring writers today.	260	ENGLISH	1
Look what fun we have been having in our block area this week… Read our learning story to find out how we made our GIANT slide! Last week began with lots of letter writing. The children were writing letters home and to their friends. We got out the post bag so we could deliver our letters. In the construction area lots of children were building cages and zoos for the animals. We remembered our story from guided reading all about sending letters to the zoo. It was called ‘Dear Zoo’. We read it at story time and then we got a delivery from the zoo! We weighed the animals to see if they could be sent in the post. As everybody knows only animals that weigh less than a hamster can be sent in the post. Some of the animals were feeling a little bit poorly but luckily the vets were there to make sure they were ok. Some of the children decided they needed to use tools to make their zoos even better. Then they asked to build a real zoo with real tools! We thought about what we would need and wrote a letter to Ella’s daddy who looks after our school. Then we drew designs for how we wanted our zoo to look. We used the big drill, the saw and the screwdrivers to build our zoo. We had to work together and be very careful. We had lots of fun, especially using the big drill! When the zoo was finished we sorted the animals to see who could live inside it. What were we learning about? This week the children decided everything we learnt about. All the activities were planned because of what the children said or did. This way the children were very interested in their learning. The children did lots of mark making. They wrote letters to the zoo and to other people. They drew designs for their zoo and talked about their pictures. We learnt about letter writing. We made sure we said who our letters were to and who they were from. We learnt the names of different animals including more unusual animals like flamingos. The children had discussions about where different animals live e.g. would we find a spider in the zoo? They learnt to ask questions and look in books to find the answers. We learnt about vets. The children took on a role in their play, asking and answering questions. They began adding more mark making to their play by writing what was wrong with the animals. We learnt about tools. We learnt how to be safe and manage risks. In maths we learnt the words ‘heavy’ and ‘light’ and could sort the animals. We learnt that not everything that was big was heavy and not everything small was light. How can you continue learning at home? Following children’s interests at home is a great way to help their learning. Children that don’t normally pick up a pencil will often write more if it is part of their play. If your child likes to build encourage them to draw what they are building and talk about their pictures. If they like to play football and other games give them a pen and paper or chalk to write on the ground and encourage them to keep a score. Letting the children use tools in a controlled and supervised environment allows them to learn about safety. For example, letting children use scissors and talking to them about how to use them safely means they are less likely to be dangerous with them than if they never use them. We have been doing lots of fun activities this week in Nursery for our buildings theme. In the sensory tray we have been playing with sand slime. We used it to stick blocks together and build walls using the tools. In the play dough we use vehicle cutters, diggers and rocks. In the water tray we used colourful ice to make sculptures. We added fake snow, styrofoam and white foam cylinders to build models. In the painting area we used Duplo blocks to stamp patterns. We have been making models of houses for the three little pigs. Once the children had made their models they critiqued them. They shared them with their friends then thought of how to improve them. When we critique we give our friends feedback on their work so they can make changes to make it even better. Critique means giving feedback that is specific, helpful and kind. In the outdoor area the children from FS2 made houses using straw, sticks and bricks. In FS1 the children worked in pairs to make houses using construction materials. The children gave each other kind and helpful feedback and we saw big improvements in their work. This week our role-play area is a building site for the Three Little Pigs. We have lots of resources in there to help the children to talk and share their ideas, build and make up their own stories. We have open-ended resources so children can use their imagination for how they want to use them. There are; blocks, sticks, boxes, a doll’s house, grass, straw, tools and puppets. We have had lots of fun telling stories and building houses this week:	<urn:uuid:9c80224b-2e55-48c9-a5aa-b74ddf22bf78>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://diamondclassfs1.wordpress.com/tag/construction/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00552.warc.gz	en	0.981631	1,060	3.421875	3	[ -0.2721845805644989, -0.05395708978176117, 0.3178197741508484, 0.10438775271177292, -0.33701610565185547, 0.3234293758869171, 0.11883360147476196, 0.13972502946853638, -0.19856135547161102, 0.10376693308353424, 0.289195716381073, -0.43258577585220337, 0.09168301522731781, 0.370704859495162...	1	Look what fun we have been having in our block area this week… Read our learning story to find out how we made our GIANT slide! Last week began with lots of letter writing. The children were writing letters home and to their friends. We got out the post bag so we could deliver our letters. In the construction area lots of children were building cages and zoos for the animals. We remembered our story from guided reading all about sending letters to the zoo. It was called ‘Dear Zoo’. We read it at story time and then we got a delivery from the zoo! We weighed the animals to see if they could be sent in the post. As everybody knows only animals that weigh less than a hamster can be sent in the post. Some of the animals were feeling a little bit poorly but luckily the vets were there to make sure they were ok. Some of the children decided they needed to use tools to make their zoos even better. Then they asked to build a real zoo with real tools! We thought about what we would need and wrote a letter to Ella’s daddy who looks after our school. Then we drew designs for how we wanted our zoo to look. We used the big drill, the saw and the screwdrivers to build our zoo. We had to work together and be very careful. We had lots of fun, especially using the big drill! When the zoo was finished we sorted the animals to see who could live inside it. What were we learning about? This week the children decided everything we learnt about. All the activities were planned because of what the children said or did. This way the children were very interested in their learning. The children did lots of mark making. They wrote letters to the zoo and to other people. They drew designs for their zoo and talked about their pictures. We learnt about letter writing. We made sure we said who our letters were to and who they were from. We learnt the names of different animals including more unusual animals like flamingos. The children had discussions about where different animals live e.g. would we find a spider in the zoo? They learnt to ask questions and look in books to find the answers. We learnt about vets. The children took on a role in their play, asking and answering questions. They began adding more mark making to their play by writing what was wrong with the animals. We learnt about tools. We learnt how to be safe and manage risks. In maths we learnt the words ‘heavy’ and ‘light’ and could sort the animals. We learnt that not everything that was big was heavy and not everything small was light. How can you continue learning at home? Following children’s interests at home is a great way to help their learning. Children that don’t normally pick up a pencil will often write more if it is part of their play. If your child likes to build encourage them to draw what they are building and talk about their pictures. If they like to play football and other games give them a pen and paper or chalk to write on the ground and encourage them to keep a score. Letting the children use tools in a controlled and supervised environment allows them to learn about safety. For example, letting children use scissors and talking to them about how to use them safely means they are less likely to be dangerous with them than if they never use them. We have been doing lots of fun activities this week in Nursery for our buildings theme. In the sensory tray we have been playing with sand slime. We used it to stick blocks together and build walls using the tools. In the play dough we use vehicle cutters, diggers and rocks. In the water tray we used colourful ice to make sculptures. We added fake snow, styrofoam and white foam cylinders to build models. In the painting area we used Duplo blocks to stamp patterns. We have been making models of houses for the three little pigs. Once the children had made their models they critiqued them. They shared them with their friends then thought of how to improve them. When we critique we give our friends feedback on their work so they can make changes to make it even better. Critique means giving feedback that is specific, helpful and kind. In the outdoor area the children from FS2 made houses using straw, sticks and bricks. In FS1 the children worked in pairs to make houses using construction materials. The children gave each other kind and helpful feedback and we saw big improvements in their work. This week our role-play area is a building site for the Three Little Pigs. We have lots of resources in there to help the children to talk and share their ideas, build and make up their own stories. We have open-ended resources so children can use their imagination for how they want to use them. There are; blocks, sticks, boxes, a doll’s house, grass, straw, tools and puppets. We have had lots of fun telling stories and building houses this week:	999	ENGLISH	1
William Shakespeare was a distinguished writer who authored many works in the literature that are still relevant up to date. He wrote many works of literature that shook the whole literature world and provided a basis for learning from other writers. Tyndale was instrumental in the writings of Shakespeare, especially in his writing. The writing of Shakespeare had biblical references from some of the 42 books in the Bible (Dobson & Wells, 2011, p. 45). Shakespeare gets his scriptural references from the both books in the old and new testaments. He quotes more from the Bible from the Bible especially the Geneva version. An approximation of the number of biblical references is 1200. Shakespeare refers from the book of Psalms more than the other books like Matthew and job. The religious side of Shakespeare can be traced to the Mountjoys who were a religious people and recited scripture in their homes. Shakespeare lived with the family for some time and may have learnt the bible when he was with them. Another school of thought is that Shakespeare would learn much from the Bible when he took part in its translation while in school. Shakespeare quotes much from the Bible in one of his books called Hamlet. Shakespeare thus uses various quotes from the bible in the characters he uses in the different books. Therefore, his upbringing made him use some of the scriptures in his writings and even in forming his characters. Order Unique Answer Now	<urn:uuid:075b7090-303c-45bc-8623-f00a02b264eb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://uniquewritersbay.com/blog/biography-william-shakespeare-bible-influenced-work/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00052.warc.gz	en	0.985102	278	3.65625	4	[ -0.15248684585094452, 0.12627269327640533, 0.4167880117893219, -0.4478099048137665, -0.42436614632606506, -0.18646903336048126, 0.40143439173698425, 0.27518409490585327, -0.08707540482282639, -0.1600555032491684, -0.16531480848789215, -0.09806984663009644, -0.2725612223148346, -0.041957523...	1	William Shakespeare was a distinguished writer who authored many works in the literature that are still relevant up to date. He wrote many works of literature that shook the whole literature world and provided a basis for learning from other writers. Tyndale was instrumental in the writings of Shakespeare, especially in his writing. The writing of Shakespeare had biblical references from some of the 42 books in the Bible (Dobson & Wells, 2011, p. 45). Shakespeare gets his scriptural references from the both books in the old and new testaments. He quotes more from the Bible from the Bible especially the Geneva version. An approximation of the number of biblical references is 1200. Shakespeare refers from the book of Psalms more than the other books like Matthew and job. The religious side of Shakespeare can be traced to the Mountjoys who were a religious people and recited scripture in their homes. Shakespeare lived with the family for some time and may have learnt the bible when he was with them. Another school of thought is that Shakespeare would learn much from the Bible when he took part in its translation while in school. Shakespeare quotes much from the Bible in one of his books called Hamlet. Shakespeare thus uses various quotes from the bible in the characters he uses in the different books. Therefore, his upbringing made him use some of the scriptures in his writings and even in forming his characters. Order Unique Answer Now	290	ENGLISH	1
On July 11, 1613, the coronation ceremony of Mikhail Romanov took place at the Uspensky Sobor (Dormition Cathedral) at the Moscow Kremlin. The sixteen-year-old Mikhail became the Tsar of all Russia and the founder of the great Romanov dynasty. The son of Fyodor Romanov and Kseniya Shestova, Mikhail was elected Tsar by the people of Russia and a council of nobles during the “Time of Troubles.” At that time, Russia was going through the Polish-Lithuanian invasion, severe political, economic, and social crisis. No other noble family at that time in Russia enjoyed such love among the people as the Romanovs did. However, getting Mikhail onto the throne was a rather difficult task… Mikhail refused to take the role when he heard the news of his election. His mother was scared for his safety, believing that he was too young and inexperienced to rule in such a troublesome time. Mother and son went hiding in the Ipatiev Monastery, near Kostroma, from the nobles who wanted to convince Mikhail to take the crown. According to a legend, as soon as the Poles discovered that Mikhail Romanov was selected as the Tsar, they sent troops to Kostroma to find and kill Mikhail. Because the Poles did not know the road to Kostroma very well, they started asking the locals for directions. This is when they met local peasant Ivan Susanin, who asked them why they wanted to find him. The Poles said that they wished to congratulate the new Tsar on his coronation. However, Susanin did not believe them. He sent his grandson to warn Mikhail and told the troops: “This is not the right way, let me show you a shortcut, through the forest.” The Poles believed Susanin and followed him. Susanin led them into the swampy forest in the dead of winter, deliberately getting them lost in the wilderness. When the Poles began to suspect him, it was too late. Susanin said: “Now, you can do with me whatever you like, but know this: the Tsar has been saved and you will never reach him!” The next day, the peasants found the frozen bodies of the Polish troops together with Susanin’s body… When the Moscow nobles found Mikhail and his mother safe and sound in the Ipatiev Monastery, they convinced them to come to Moscow. The Tsar was crowned on this day. Mikhail Romanov ruled Russia for 32 years and brought order and peace to his country. He marked the start of the great Romanov dynasty that lasted 300 years. As the legend says, Susanin’s family was generously rewarded by the Tsar. Mikhail Romanov was present at the funeral of the man who had given his life for him. The self-sacrificing act of this iconic Russian hero had inspired many artists, composers, and writers. A statue of Susanin stands in the historical city of Kostroma. The statements, views and opinions expressed in this column are solely those of the author and do not necessarily represent those of The Duran.	<urn:uuid:226ef14a-d97e-49e5-a2d5-2da8a0905b92>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://theduran.com/beginning-great-romanov-dynasty-july-11/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00111.warc.gz	en	0.982517	667	3.34375	3	[ -0.11391328275203705, 0.2317906618118286, 0.05549157038331032, 0.30451658368110657, -0.04449240118265152, 0.049264099448919296, 0.20297476649284363, 0.5261871814727783, -0.09616106748580933, -0.08671517670154572, -0.05702527239918709, 0.06332135200500488, -0.356046199798584, 0.189860507845...	5	On July 11, 1613, the coronation ceremony of Mikhail Romanov took place at the Uspensky Sobor (Dormition Cathedral) at the Moscow Kremlin. The sixteen-year-old Mikhail became the Tsar of all Russia and the founder of the great Romanov dynasty. The son of Fyodor Romanov and Kseniya Shestova, Mikhail was elected Tsar by the people of Russia and a council of nobles during the “Time of Troubles.” At that time, Russia was going through the Polish-Lithuanian invasion, severe political, economic, and social crisis. No other noble family at that time in Russia enjoyed such love among the people as the Romanovs did. However, getting Mikhail onto the throne was a rather difficult task… Mikhail refused to take the role when he heard the news of his election. His mother was scared for his safety, believing that he was too young and inexperienced to rule in such a troublesome time. Mother and son went hiding in the Ipatiev Monastery, near Kostroma, from the nobles who wanted to convince Mikhail to take the crown. According to a legend, as soon as the Poles discovered that Mikhail Romanov was selected as the Tsar, they sent troops to Kostroma to find and kill Mikhail. Because the Poles did not know the road to Kostroma very well, they started asking the locals for directions. This is when they met local peasant Ivan Susanin, who asked them why they wanted to find him. The Poles said that they wished to congratulate the new Tsar on his coronation. However, Susanin did not believe them. He sent his grandson to warn Mikhail and told the troops: “This is not the right way, let me show you a shortcut, through the forest.” The Poles believed Susanin and followed him. Susanin led them into the swampy forest in the dead of winter, deliberately getting them lost in the wilderness. When the Poles began to suspect him, it was too late. Susanin said: “Now, you can do with me whatever you like, but know this: the Tsar has been saved and you will never reach him!” The next day, the peasants found the frozen bodies of the Polish troops together with Susanin’s body… When the Moscow nobles found Mikhail and his mother safe and sound in the Ipatiev Monastery, they convinced them to come to Moscow. The Tsar was crowned on this day. Mikhail Romanov ruled Russia for 32 years and brought order and peace to his country. He marked the start of the great Romanov dynasty that lasted 300 years. As the legend says, Susanin’s family was generously rewarded by the Tsar. Mikhail Romanov was present at the funeral of the man who had given his life for him. The self-sacrificing act of this iconic Russian hero had inspired many artists, composers, and writers. A statue of Susanin stands in the historical city of Kostroma. The statements, views and opinions expressed in this column are solely those of the author and do not necessarily represent those of The Duran.	651	ENGLISH	1
The Great Uprising Revolt of 1857 It was the time when the oppression of the Britishers had reached its limit. Everywhere there was treachery and ingenuity. Almost everyone was suffering at the cost of the British rule. There was a need for an opposition of the British dictatorship. It was becoming clear that the British had not come to India to develop it in any terms rather they have come to loot and to make India in the worst state of degradation. The most sufferers were the one who were serving the very British troop. Thus began the Revolt of 1857 mainly led by the sepoys in the army. The first mass revolt of its own kind, the Revolt of 1857 has set up its mark in the History of Modern India. Though the revolt was not successful in its attempts in some perspective and independence was gained almost 90 years later, yet this revolt was able to rekindle amongst the people of India the feeling of freeing themselves from the impeachment of the British rule. The Inception of the Revolt........ The beginning of the Revolt happened all of a sudden when a band of soldiers on 11th May, 1857 marched towards the Red Fort, New Delhi, captured Delhi and convinced Bahadur Shah II to be the Emperor of India (Hindustan). They then approached the leaders at various areas to be a part of the revolt. The revolt was most widespread in Northern, Western and Central India. Nana Saheb from Kanpur, Khan Bahadur from Barailey, Kunwar Singh from Bihar and Rani Laxmibai from Jhansi were approached to lead from their respective areas and the impact of the revolt was mainly seen in these areas. Nearly 2.32 lacs soldiers opted out of the British army without caring about their economic stability and joined the revolt. The reasons that led to the Revolt..... There were several reasons because of which the revolt gained its momentum. The most significant was the introduction of the Enfield rifle in the army. The cartridges of the new rifle had to be bitten off before loading and the greased was supposed to be made of beef and pig fat. This hurt the sentiments of both the Hindu as well as the Muslim soldiers. As a result of which they refused to use the rifle. The Britishers reacted by disbanding the whole army. Further a brave soldier by the name of Mangal Pandey came up and killed a British officer were he could not further tolerate the unethical behavior of the Britishers. Similarly, some soldiers refused to go Burma by crossing the sea as crossing the sea meant a loss of caste according to the Hindu rituals prevailing at that time. When the soldiers denied following the orders, the whole army was disbanded and the opposers were hanged. Those who obliged to the British’s orders found themselves outcasted from their own people. One such example can be illustrated when a band of army was sent for the Afghan War where they would eat whatever food was offered to them. When they came back to their own society, the people refused to accept them as they sensed that the soldiers would not have followed their caste rituals. The Hinduism also seemed to be at stake since it is believed that the Britishers conspired to convert the people of India into Christianity. The missionaries were openly permitted to preach Christianity where they would defame other religion and propagate their own. The inequality shown by the Britishers in terms of wages and promotion also seemed to be one of the causes. The soldiers were dissatisfied and understood that no matter how dedicated they were for the Britishers, they would never be able to attain the position that their British counterparts would attain. The oppression and the dictatorship did not remain confined only to the soldiers but it also extended to the civilians too. The impeachment of heavy land taxes, the propagation of Christianity further infuriated the soldiers as the agricultural family had their representatives in army. The British not only showed their cruelty only to the peasants but also to the land owner as well as to the handicraft makers & artisans. The frustration of the whole mass added fuel to the fire and when the band of army decided to revolt against the Britishers, the people from all the communities joined to their cause. Was the Revolt planned & organized or just impulsive...........? The real question lies if the Revolt was an organized and planned one or was it just an impulsive reunion of all the infuriated soldiers. There has been a difference in opinions among the various historians about it being a planned and organized. The very prominent one being that the not a single paper or clue was found about the Revolt either before or after its occurrence. The circulation of chapattis and lotus flowers is still to be proved but its rumor did spread. However, there are many reasons for it being a sudden and an unorganized one: - Bahadur Shah II was in much of a shock and was unable to decide when he was approached to hold the leadership of the revolt. Similarly the Rani of Jhansi was apprehensive before joining the revolt. - The communication gap existed among the various parts where the revolt occurred and the different parts of the leaders could not know about each other’s strength or weaknesses. - The army too was not all prepared to fight against the British troops as they had to fight mostly with swords and spikes against the modern weapons. Where did the revolt lag......... Although the soldiers showed great commitment and dedication for the revolt to reach its mass still there were some loopholes. If these loopholes had not existed, this Revolt would have succeeded to a great extent in its motivation. Few of them are: - The better settled Indians did not join the revolt rather they supported the Britishers. Similarly many soldiers in the army fought against their own men which became a favors for the British troops. - With the exception of Rani Laxmibai, Kunwar Singh and few others, most of the leaders did not treat the soldiers well. They did nothing to encourage them or to instigate in them, the feeling of patriotism. - The Most important of all was that this revolt had no political agenda. The people fought for their own miseries and interest and not as united Indians fighting for their freedom and rights. Not all in vain....... Although the revolt failed to achieve its targeted objectives, but not all the sacrifices went in vain. The revolt was one of its own kind. The courage shown by Rani Laxmibai, Tantia Tope and Mangal Pandey during this period has embarked its name in the history of India. The revolt was a source of inspiration for the upcoming movements that took place in India later. Like it on Facebook, +1 on Google, Tweet it or share this article on other bookmarking websites.	<urn:uuid:a6572de3-72a5-45e0-b6f1-d24a71b26fcf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.boddunan.com/articles/miscellaneous/21480-the-great-uprising-revolt-of-1857.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00436.warc.gz	en	0.986615	1,392	3.359375	3	[ -0.08009519428014755, 0.3032550513744354, 0.26452845335006714, -0.1579730212688446, -0.214932382106781, -0.09020157903432846, 0.17904965579509735, 0.16138137876987457, -0.3733412027359009, 0.09835806488990784, 0.0148587292060256, -0.252498984336853, 0.03341782093048096, 0.2933621108531952,...	2	The Great Uprising Revolt of 1857 It was the time when the oppression of the Britishers had reached its limit. Everywhere there was treachery and ingenuity. Almost everyone was suffering at the cost of the British rule. There was a need for an opposition of the British dictatorship. It was becoming clear that the British had not come to India to develop it in any terms rather they have come to loot and to make India in the worst state of degradation. The most sufferers were the one who were serving the very British troop. Thus began the Revolt of 1857 mainly led by the sepoys in the army. The first mass revolt of its own kind, the Revolt of 1857 has set up its mark in the History of Modern India. Though the revolt was not successful in its attempts in some perspective and independence was gained almost 90 years later, yet this revolt was able to rekindle amongst the people of India the feeling of freeing themselves from the impeachment of the British rule. The Inception of the Revolt........ The beginning of the Revolt happened all of a sudden when a band of soldiers on 11th May, 1857 marched towards the Red Fort, New Delhi, captured Delhi and convinced Bahadur Shah II to be the Emperor of India (Hindustan). They then approached the leaders at various areas to be a part of the revolt. The revolt was most widespread in Northern, Western and Central India. Nana Saheb from Kanpur, Khan Bahadur from Barailey, Kunwar Singh from Bihar and Rani Laxmibai from Jhansi were approached to lead from their respective areas and the impact of the revolt was mainly seen in these areas. Nearly 2.32 lacs soldiers opted out of the British army without caring about their economic stability and joined the revolt. The reasons that led to the Revolt..... There were several reasons because of which the revolt gained its momentum. The most significant was the introduction of the Enfield rifle in the army. The cartridges of the new rifle had to be bitten off before loading and the greased was supposed to be made of beef and pig fat. This hurt the sentiments of both the Hindu as well as the Muslim soldiers. As a result of which they refused to use the rifle. The Britishers reacted by disbanding the whole army. Further a brave soldier by the name of Mangal Pandey came up and killed a British officer were he could not further tolerate the unethical behavior of the Britishers. Similarly, some soldiers refused to go Burma by crossing the sea as crossing the sea meant a loss of caste according to the Hindu rituals prevailing at that time. When the soldiers denied following the orders, the whole army was disbanded and the opposers were hanged. Those who obliged to the British’s orders found themselves outcasted from their own people. One such example can be illustrated when a band of army was sent for the Afghan War where they would eat whatever food was offered to them. When they came back to their own society, the people refused to accept them as they sensed that the soldiers would not have followed their caste rituals. The Hinduism also seemed to be at stake since it is believed that the Britishers conspired to convert the people of India into Christianity. The missionaries were openly permitted to preach Christianity where they would defame other religion and propagate their own. The inequality shown by the Britishers in terms of wages and promotion also seemed to be one of the causes. The soldiers were dissatisfied and understood that no matter how dedicated they were for the Britishers, they would never be able to attain the position that their British counterparts would attain. The oppression and the dictatorship did not remain confined only to the soldiers but it also extended to the civilians too. The impeachment of heavy land taxes, the propagation of Christianity further infuriated the soldiers as the agricultural family had their representatives in army. The British not only showed their cruelty only to the peasants but also to the land owner as well as to the handicraft makers & artisans. The frustration of the whole mass added fuel to the fire and when the band of army decided to revolt against the Britishers, the people from all the communities joined to their cause. Was the Revolt planned & organized or just impulsive...........? The real question lies if the Revolt was an organized and planned one or was it just an impulsive reunion of all the infuriated soldiers. There has been a difference in opinions among the various historians about it being a planned and organized. The very prominent one being that the not a single paper or clue was found about the Revolt either before or after its occurrence. The circulation of chapattis and lotus flowers is still to be proved but its rumor did spread. However, there are many reasons for it being a sudden and an unorganized one: - Bahadur Shah II was in much of a shock and was unable to decide when he was approached to hold the leadership of the revolt. Similarly the Rani of Jhansi was apprehensive before joining the revolt. - The communication gap existed among the various parts where the revolt occurred and the different parts of the leaders could not know about each other’s strength or weaknesses. - The army too was not all prepared to fight against the British troops as they had to fight mostly with swords and spikes against the modern weapons. Where did the revolt lag......... Although the soldiers showed great commitment and dedication for the revolt to reach its mass still there were some loopholes. If these loopholes had not existed, this Revolt would have succeeded to a great extent in its motivation. Few of them are: - The better settled Indians did not join the revolt rather they supported the Britishers. Similarly many soldiers in the army fought against their own men which became a favors for the British troops. - With the exception of Rani Laxmibai, Kunwar Singh and few others, most of the leaders did not treat the soldiers well. They did nothing to encourage them or to instigate in them, the feeling of patriotism. - The Most important of all was that this revolt had no political agenda. The people fought for their own miseries and interest and not as united Indians fighting for their freedom and rights. Not all in vain....... Although the revolt failed to achieve its targeted objectives, but not all the sacrifices went in vain. The revolt was one of its own kind. The courage shown by Rani Laxmibai, Tantia Tope and Mangal Pandey during this period has embarked its name in the history of India. The revolt was a source of inspiration for the upcoming movements that took place in India later. Like it on Facebook, +1 on Google, Tweet it or share this article on other bookmarking websites.	1,394	ENGLISH	1
In the second millennium BC, the Romans emerged from a small settlement near Rome to begin a course of expansion that was to make them the dominant power in the Mediterranean. By the 1st Century AD, Roman territories expanded from Britain in the north to Egypt in the south. Much of the Roman culture and crafts reflected the preceding Hellenistic period; however, their extensive trade network provided them with a great variety of materials. Artisans often combined styles and materials creating their own unique designs. Terracotta (baked clay) pottery was made and used throughout the middle east and was produced in the earliest settlements along the Fertile Crescent where the clay was abundant and varied in color. The early potters had ample resources with which to experiment, create and develop their styles. The pottery was made as a fair course, porous clay that when fired, assumes a color ranging from dull ochre to red and was usually left unglazed. Most terracotta pottery has been utilitarian because of its cheapness, versatility, and durability. As technique and firing methods improved, a great variety of shapes evolved. The most widely utilized pottery in the Ancient World was oil lamps, bottles, unguentarium, pitchers, bowls and plates, their basic shapes remaining unchanged for over a thousand years and still being used in today’s modern world. The oil lamp was the source of light in every household, the bottles and pitchers were used to store wine, water, and other liquids, the unguentarium held oils, spices, unguents, and balm and the bowls and plates were used to eat from and hold foodstuffs. The amphora, classic in shape, was used for storage and shipping in the ancient world and was meant for household use and to hold wine, oil, spice or unguents. The Bronze Age was an important element in time even though not any particular period of time. Some areas had their Bronze Age early, others had it late. The primary function of any metal industry in antiquity was the production of weapons and tools. A spear point, also known as spearhead, was ranked as the chief weapon used in the battle of ancient Asia and Europe. The famous Greek poet, Homer, tells how Achilles speared Hector with a bronze pole. Ancient Roman spear points have played an important part in history. Early men tied jagged pieces of stone onto their throwing sticks until they learned to shape pointed spearheads from pieces of flint. In the 2nd millennium BC, the Romans emerged from a small settlement near Rome. By the 1st Century AD, Roman territories expanded from Britain in the north to Egypt in the south. The Roman army was originally made up of citizens. By Caesar’s time, in the 40’s BC, most soldiers were professionals in a standing army, forming a civilizing force as well as a conquering one.	<urn:uuid:f82bee21-ad25-4788-8778-8ad281f0df16>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://salesmasterypro.net/ancient-roman-pottery/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00310.warc.gz	en	0.98231	591	3.640625	4	[ -0.1069268137216568, 0.5327763557434082, 0.5687546133995056, -0.20033299922943115, -0.3758566081523895, 0.1256767362356186, -0.30101802945137024, 0.3594017028808594, -0.3306528925895691, -0.22207844257354736, -0.07943087071180344, -0.4659099578857422, -0.10422040522098541, 0.34445121884346...	13	In the second millennium BC, the Romans emerged from a small settlement near Rome to begin a course of expansion that was to make them the dominant power in the Mediterranean. By the 1st Century AD, Roman territories expanded from Britain in the north to Egypt in the south. Much of the Roman culture and crafts reflected the preceding Hellenistic period; however, their extensive trade network provided them with a great variety of materials. Artisans often combined styles and materials creating their own unique designs. Terracotta (baked clay) pottery was made and used throughout the middle east and was produced in the earliest settlements along the Fertile Crescent where the clay was abundant and varied in color. The early potters had ample resources with which to experiment, create and develop their styles. The pottery was made as a fair course, porous clay that when fired, assumes a color ranging from dull ochre to red and was usually left unglazed. Most terracotta pottery has been utilitarian because of its cheapness, versatility, and durability. As technique and firing methods improved, a great variety of shapes evolved. The most widely utilized pottery in the Ancient World was oil lamps, bottles, unguentarium, pitchers, bowls and plates, their basic shapes remaining unchanged for over a thousand years and still being used in today’s modern world. The oil lamp was the source of light in every household, the bottles and pitchers were used to store wine, water, and other liquids, the unguentarium held oils, spices, unguents, and balm and the bowls and plates were used to eat from and hold foodstuffs. The amphora, classic in shape, was used for storage and shipping in the ancient world and was meant for household use and to hold wine, oil, spice or unguents. The Bronze Age was an important element in time even though not any particular period of time. Some areas had their Bronze Age early, others had it late. The primary function of any metal industry in antiquity was the production of weapons and tools. A spear point, also known as spearhead, was ranked as the chief weapon used in the battle of ancient Asia and Europe. The famous Greek poet, Homer, tells how Achilles speared Hector with a bronze pole. Ancient Roman spear points have played an important part in history. Early men tied jagged pieces of stone onto their throwing sticks until they learned to shape pointed spearheads from pieces of flint. In the 2nd millennium BC, the Romans emerged from a small settlement near Rome. By the 1st Century AD, Roman territories expanded from Britain in the north to Egypt in the south. The Roman army was originally made up of citizens. By Caesar’s time, in the 40’s BC, most soldiers were professionals in a standing army, forming a civilizing force as well as a conquering one.	584	ENGLISH	1
This essay map was created to outline and organize a basic five paragraph essay to form a historical argument or opinion. We chose not to introduce the idea of a thesis yet, as for many students, it was repetitive, but for others, it would perhaps overwhelm them on top of learning the basic essay structure. Many of our students expressed nerves about how they would be graded on this essay, as they had never written a five paragraph essay before and seemed overwhelmed. Others asked if they could forgo the map since they were able to clearly write and outline an essay on their own without it. We were further educated on the incredible range of learning levels in our classroom through this activity and the importance of having an adaptable classroom practice with prepares for all learning levels. To see the graphic organizer, please select the following link: EssayMapping.docx	<urn:uuid:41ba4087-6811-4f0f-944f-8f09a42574ba>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brown.digication.com/sally_patton/Artifact_Essay_Map	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00445.warc.gz	en	0.98839	171	3.65625	4	[ -0.4555985927581787, -0.18383574485778809, 0.2201715111732483, -0.10203296691179276, -0.36516743898391724, 0.2418719232082367, -0.16897305846214294, 0.5814744234085083, 0.04420826956629753, -0.20346461236476898, 0.05042484030127525, 0.07420036941766739, 0.04284986853599548, 0.4060986042022...	2	This essay map was created to outline and organize a basic five paragraph essay to form a historical argument or opinion. We chose not to introduce the idea of a thesis yet, as for many students, it was repetitive, but for others, it would perhaps overwhelm them on top of learning the basic essay structure. Many of our students expressed nerves about how they would be graded on this essay, as they had never written a five paragraph essay before and seemed overwhelmed. Others asked if they could forgo the map since they were able to clearly write and outline an essay on their own without it. We were further educated on the incredible range of learning levels in our classroom through this activity and the importance of having an adaptable classroom practice with prepares for all learning levels. To see the graphic organizer, please select the following link: EssayMapping.docx	166	ENGLISH	1
At the end of 2017, two classrooms on different continents shared their cultural experiences with each other. Here’s how they did it. Written by Yuka Ishiyama Translated by Takayuki Doi From November to December 2017, Edmodo and Zkai helped create a global classroom for a few elementary schools in Japan, connecting them to fifth and sixth graders at elementary schools in Australia. Students in the global classroom were grouped into teams of three to four. They studied their own national cultures and events, then presented to the rest of the class in Edmodo. Japanese students spoke in English while Australian students spoke in Japanese, expressing their cultures with their own words. How did we do it? Here’s a step-by-step process: In each physical classroom, the students discussed with each other about what national culture or events they will introduce to the other culture. Then, we asked them how to explain it. The students thought about it in their own language and worked with teachers to convert it to the other language. It was a great opportunity for students to learn about the culture of their home country, such as the meaning and the cultural background of certain festivals, ceremonies and celebrations that students are participating in. Students from the Japanese elementary school created English cards while the students from the Australian elementary school created Japanese cards together with the images that explains the culture in each team, which were all posted on Edmodo. The teacher only asked each student to comment or like on posts from the other country. Originally, there were no regulations in posting but the Japanese students examined what they want to say in English by themselves. They voluntarily translated their comments into English and Australian students used Japanese in posting their comments. What Did We Learn? Fostering ICT literacy For many students, it was their first experience with social media. Students were able to see posts outside their usual social circles. There were responses to their posts and they had a more interactive experience, hearing about other cultures directly from people living in that society. Using the Internet to Connect New Cultures Students used Google to search for images that will fit to explain their country’s culture. Although there were differences in confidence between each student, all students were able to try searching for images by using specific keywords. Improve motivation for learning The Japanese students examined the posts in English and returned comments in English while the Australian students examined the Japanese posts and returned comments in Japanese. The excitement from this project was much greater than what the teacher expected and the students were more motivated to learn than in previous activities. Also, students were able to experience cooperative learning by helping friends when they struggled to post comments or express themselves. Communicating between two classrooms with a language barrier showed us some valuable takeaways: - Unlike the English language, which requires spaces between words, the Japanese language requires no spaces. Students were confused by this, as opposed to adults, who had already adjusted to this change. - The students enjoyed the activities over any particular learning motivation, resulting in a deeper, more memorable learning experience. - Because of their desire to express their sincere feelings with one another, students chose specific words and meanings when writing their comments.	<urn:uuid:4b7a027c-8f94-45df-8293-e2bffb77bd3b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://go.edmodo.com/connecting-public-schools-in-japan-and-australia-with-edmodo/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00199.warc.gz	en	0.981137	665	3.59375	4	[ 0.22693601250648499, 0.26447075605392456, 0.2458665668964386, -0.3780952990055084, -0.24246656894683838, 0.2407396137714386, -0.08848252892494202, 0.2617121636867523, 0.07952065765857697, 0.0661526620388031, 0.16166068613529205, -0.04426497220993042, 0.056095875799655914, 0.415586054325103...	3	At the end of 2017, two classrooms on different continents shared their cultural experiences with each other. Here’s how they did it. Written by Yuka Ishiyama Translated by Takayuki Doi From November to December 2017, Edmodo and Zkai helped create a global classroom for a few elementary schools in Japan, connecting them to fifth and sixth graders at elementary schools in Australia. Students in the global classroom were grouped into teams of three to four. They studied their own national cultures and events, then presented to the rest of the class in Edmodo. Japanese students spoke in English while Australian students spoke in Japanese, expressing their cultures with their own words. How did we do it? Here’s a step-by-step process: In each physical classroom, the students discussed with each other about what national culture or events they will introduce to the other culture. Then, we asked them how to explain it. The students thought about it in their own language and worked with teachers to convert it to the other language. It was a great opportunity for students to learn about the culture of their home country, such as the meaning and the cultural background of certain festivals, ceremonies and celebrations that students are participating in. Students from the Japanese elementary school created English cards while the students from the Australian elementary school created Japanese cards together with the images that explains the culture in each team, which were all posted on Edmodo. The teacher only asked each student to comment or like on posts from the other country. Originally, there were no regulations in posting but the Japanese students examined what they want to say in English by themselves. They voluntarily translated their comments into English and Australian students used Japanese in posting their comments. What Did We Learn? Fostering ICT literacy For many students, it was their first experience with social media. Students were able to see posts outside their usual social circles. There were responses to their posts and they had a more interactive experience, hearing about other cultures directly from people living in that society. Using the Internet to Connect New Cultures Students used Google to search for images that will fit to explain their country’s culture. Although there were differences in confidence between each student, all students were able to try searching for images by using specific keywords. Improve motivation for learning The Japanese students examined the posts in English and returned comments in English while the Australian students examined the Japanese posts and returned comments in Japanese. The excitement from this project was much greater than what the teacher expected and the students were more motivated to learn than in previous activities. Also, students were able to experience cooperative learning by helping friends when they struggled to post comments or express themselves. Communicating between two classrooms with a language barrier showed us some valuable takeaways: - Unlike the English language, which requires spaces between words, the Japanese language requires no spaces. Students were confused by this, as opposed to adults, who had already adjusted to this change. - The students enjoyed the activities over any particular learning motivation, resulting in a deeper, more memorable learning experience. - Because of their desire to express their sincere feelings with one another, students chose specific words and meanings when writing their comments.	643	ENGLISH	1
stronger and stronger to protect men in the possession of what was theirs. Governor Eden was the last of the colonial governors who had dealings with the pirates, and Blackbeard was almost the last of the pirates who, with his banded men, was savage and powerful enough to come and go as he chose among the people whom he plundered. Virginia, at that time, was the greatest and the richest of all the American colonies, and upon the farther side of North Carolina was the province of South Carolina, also strong and rich. It was these two colonies that suffered the most from Blackbeard, and it began to be that the honest men that lived in them could endure no longer to be plundered. The merchants and traders and others who suffered cried out loudly for protection, so loudly that the governors of these provinces could not help hearing them. Governor Eden was petitioned to act against the pirates, but he would do nothing, for he felt very friendly toward Blackbeard—just as a child who has had a taste of the stolen sugar feels friendly toward the child who gives it to him. At last, when Blackbeard sailed up into the very heart of Virginia, and seized upon and carried away the daughter of that colony’s foremost people, the governor of Virginia, finding that the governor of North Carolina would do nothing to punish the outrage, took the matter into his own hands and issued a proclamation offering a reward of one hundred pounds for Blackbeard, alive or dead, and different sums for the other pirates who were his followers. Governor Spottiswood had the right to issue the proclamation, but he had no right to commission Lieutenant Maynard, as he did, to take down an armed force into the neighboring province and to attack the pirates in the waters of the North Carolina sounds. It was all a part of the rude and lawless condition of the colonies at the time that such a thing could have been done. The governor’s proclamation against the pirates was issued	<urn:uuid:4973f721-8e78-4a46-ba54-862ff95663ae>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Howard_Pyle%27s_Book_of_Pirates_(1921).djvu/190	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00286.warc.gz	en	0.987735	410	4.0625	4	[ -0.4354720711708069, 0.514959990978241, 0.12498404830694199, -0.42604178190231323, 0.0917268618941307, -0.07737568020820618, 0.49912527203559875, -0.19175879657268524, -0.6491965055465698, -0.2077963650226593, 0.1292603462934494, -0.1192212849855423, 0.18564413487911224, 0.2102549970149994...	1	stronger and stronger to protect men in the possession of what was theirs. Governor Eden was the last of the colonial governors who had dealings with the pirates, and Blackbeard was almost the last of the pirates who, with his banded men, was savage and powerful enough to come and go as he chose among the people whom he plundered. Virginia, at that time, was the greatest and the richest of all the American colonies, and upon the farther side of North Carolina was the province of South Carolina, also strong and rich. It was these two colonies that suffered the most from Blackbeard, and it began to be that the honest men that lived in them could endure no longer to be plundered. The merchants and traders and others who suffered cried out loudly for protection, so loudly that the governors of these provinces could not help hearing them. Governor Eden was petitioned to act against the pirates, but he would do nothing, for he felt very friendly toward Blackbeard—just as a child who has had a taste of the stolen sugar feels friendly toward the child who gives it to him. At last, when Blackbeard sailed up into the very heart of Virginia, and seized upon and carried away the daughter of that colony’s foremost people, the governor of Virginia, finding that the governor of North Carolina would do nothing to punish the outrage, took the matter into his own hands and issued a proclamation offering a reward of one hundred pounds for Blackbeard, alive or dead, and different sums for the other pirates who were his followers. Governor Spottiswood had the right to issue the proclamation, but he had no right to commission Lieutenant Maynard, as he did, to take down an armed force into the neighboring province and to attack the pirates in the waters of the North Carolina sounds. It was all a part of the rude and lawless condition of the colonies at the time that such a thing could have been done. The governor’s proclamation against the pirates was issued	403	ENGLISH	1
Often maligned but rarely boring, Richard Nixon (1913-1994) was the nation’s 37th president and the first to resign from office. Although his involvement in the Watergate break-in scandal tends to overshadow much of his life, there was more to Nixon—who was born on January 9, 1913—than his political improprieties. Check out some facts about his early law enforcement aspirations, why he got criticized for commenting on Charles Manson, and his infamous encounter with RoboCop. 1. Richard Nixon was a Quaker. Also known as the Religious Society of Friends, Quakers have roots in 17th century England and promoted pacifism and spiritual equality among genders at a time those thoughts were not in fashion. When Nixon’s father, Frank, married Quaker Hannah Milhous, he joined a Quaker congregation and the couple raised their children as Quakers. Nixon’s religious faith allowed him an exemption from serving in World War II, but he waived it to enter the Navy. Later, when he was facing impeachment for his role in Watergate, Quakers in Milwaukee and Minneapolis apparently didn’t like the affiliation with the outcast president, petitioning for him to be removed from office months before he resigned. 2. Richard Nixon wanted to join the FBI. In retrospect, it’s easy to imagine Nixon’s mannered disposition fitting comfortably in the stiff-necked legion of G-men that populated J. Edgar Hoover’s Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). A little over a month before graduating from law school, Nixon applied to the Bureau in 1937, when he was just 24. After an in-person interview and physical, Nixon waited for a response. He never got one. Later, when Nixon was in office as vice president and queried Hoover about why he had not been accepted, Hoover told him it had been due to budget cuts. 3. Richard Nixon wrote love notes to his wife-to-be. Nixon met his wife, Patricia, while the two appeared in a 1938 Whittier Community Players theater production titled The Dark Tower. Nixon set about courting her, writing letters that seemed uncharacteristically maudlin for the future president. He wrote: “And when the wind blows and the rains fall and the sun shines through the clouds (as it is now) he still resolves, as he did then, that nothing so fine ever happened to him or anyone else as falling in love with Thee – my dearest heart.” The two married in 1940. 4. A dog helped save Richard Nixon's political career (for a little while). Controversy dogged Nixon early on. In 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower considered dropping Nixon as his vice-presidential running mate after allegations surfaced that Nixon was benefiting from a trust fund filled by his supporters to help offset his political and personal expenses. Going on radio and television to address the issue, Nixon cleverly slipped in an anecdote about his 6-year-old daughter being in love with a cocker spaniel named Checkers that had been “donated” by a campaign supporter. Believing that any man who loved dogs couldn’t be all bad, the public sentiment turned and he remained on the ticket. “It was labeled as the ‘Checkers speech,’ as though the mention of my dog was the only thing that saved my career," Nixon later wrote. "Many of the critics glided over the fact that the fund was thoroughly explained, my personal finances laid bare, and an admittedly emotional but honest appeal made for public support." 5. Richard Nixon literally made the mornings darker. In 1973, to save fuel during an energy crisis, Nixon signed a law that mandated that daylight saving would be in effect year-round starting on January 6, 1974. But kids wound up waiting for their school buses in pitch-black conditions, and there was a fear they might get hit by traffic—so the idea was scrapped in 1975. 6. Richard Nixon had a bowling alley installed under the White House. Nixon, an avid bowler, was pleased to see that the love of bowling that inspired Harry Truman to build lanes in the White House in 1947 was still going strong when he took office in 1969. That alley was moved in 1955, and Nixon actually ordered that a new lane be built underground under the North Portico entrance and favored the new location because it was more private than the lanes that were open to other staffers. Nixon reportedly bowled a respectable 232. 7. Richard Nixon wanted the Secret Service to wear uniforms. The president’s security detail is usually dressed for business: Suits, ties, and sunglasses are the normal attire for many agents, while those patrolling the White House grounds wear police-style uniforms. When Nixon took office, however, he wanted his men to resemble the palace guards he had seen in other countries. The Service assigned to his personal detail wore white double-breasted tunics and hats that vaguely resembled the Empire’s underlings in a Star Wars film. After he was criticized by the press, Nixon abandoned the idea and the outfits were eventually donated to a high school marching band. 8. Richard Nixon almost messed up Charles Manson's murder trial. Nixon’s first year in office coincided with the national obsession over cult leader Charles Manson and his followers, some of whom had gone on a murder spree in 1969 that left actress Sharon Tate and several others dead. During Manson’s trial in August 1970, Nixon proclaimed Manson “was guilty, directly or indirectly, of eight murders without reason.” Manson’s lawyers moved for a mistrial based on Nixon’s comments. The president quickly retracted his statement, with a spokesperson suggesting he neglected to include the word “allegedly.” 9. Richard Nixon met RoboCop. In 1987, Nixon attended a national board meeting for the Boys Club of America. Also on hand to fete organizers and kids was a guy dressed as Robocop. (The unknown actor was definitely not Peter Weller, star of the 1987 feature, and the ill-fitting costume was definitely not the original.) For years, an image of the meeting circulated on the internet without context before a crack sleuth determined it had been snapped for Billboard magazine. 10. Richard Nixon's meeting with Elvis Presley made National Archives history. On December 21, 1970, Nixon greeted one of the more colorful characters to ever enter the White House: Elvis Presley. The singer apparently wanted a badge or other token of law enforcement; as the King was high on fighting the war on drugs at the time. (Unfortunately, Presley had drug issues of his own that may have contributed to his death in 1977.) A photo of the meeting between the two is (as of 2015) the most requested image in the National Archives, outpacing requests for the moon landing, the Declaration of Independence, or the Bill of Rights.	<urn:uuid:95e3eb6a-adeb-4191-a6cf-ebe4565a759e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/571591/government-shutdown-forcing-couples-change-their-wedding-plans-national-parks	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00507.warc.gz	en	0.980041	1,435	3.421875	3	[ 0.16795118153095245, 0.31509989500045776, 0.3056080937385559, -0.02170528657734394, -0.03328891098499298, 0.43884509801864624, 0.20746904611587524, -0.25118499994277954, 0.2961319088935852, 0.04358755052089691, 0.1790880411863327, 0.5161181688308716, 0.3820571303367615, 0.37387892603874207...	4	Often maligned but rarely boring, Richard Nixon (1913-1994) was the nation’s 37th president and the first to resign from office. Although his involvement in the Watergate break-in scandal tends to overshadow much of his life, there was more to Nixon—who was born on January 9, 1913—than his political improprieties. Check out some facts about his early law enforcement aspirations, why he got criticized for commenting on Charles Manson, and his infamous encounter with RoboCop. 1. Richard Nixon was a Quaker. Also known as the Religious Society of Friends, Quakers have roots in 17th century England and promoted pacifism and spiritual equality among genders at a time those thoughts were not in fashion. When Nixon’s father, Frank, married Quaker Hannah Milhous, he joined a Quaker congregation and the couple raised their children as Quakers. Nixon’s religious faith allowed him an exemption from serving in World War II, but he waived it to enter the Navy. Later, when he was facing impeachment for his role in Watergate, Quakers in Milwaukee and Minneapolis apparently didn’t like the affiliation with the outcast president, petitioning for him to be removed from office months before he resigned. 2. Richard Nixon wanted to join the FBI. In retrospect, it’s easy to imagine Nixon’s mannered disposition fitting comfortably in the stiff-necked legion of G-men that populated J. Edgar Hoover’s Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). A little over a month before graduating from law school, Nixon applied to the Bureau in 1937, when he was just 24. After an in-person interview and physical, Nixon waited for a response. He never got one. Later, when Nixon was in office as vice president and queried Hoover about why he had not been accepted, Hoover told him it had been due to budget cuts. 3. Richard Nixon wrote love notes to his wife-to-be. Nixon met his wife, Patricia, while the two appeared in a 1938 Whittier Community Players theater production titled The Dark Tower. Nixon set about courting her, writing letters that seemed uncharacteristically maudlin for the future president. He wrote: “And when the wind blows and the rains fall and the sun shines through the clouds (as it is now) he still resolves, as he did then, that nothing so fine ever happened to him or anyone else as falling in love with Thee – my dearest heart.” The two married in 1940. 4. A dog helped save Richard Nixon's political career (for a little while). Controversy dogged Nixon early on. In 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower considered dropping Nixon as his vice-presidential running mate after allegations surfaced that Nixon was benefiting from a trust fund filled by his supporters to help offset his political and personal expenses. Going on radio and television to address the issue, Nixon cleverly slipped in an anecdote about his 6-year-old daughter being in love with a cocker spaniel named Checkers that had been “donated” by a campaign supporter. Believing that any man who loved dogs couldn’t be all bad, the public sentiment turned and he remained on the ticket. “It was labeled as the ‘Checkers speech,’ as though the mention of my dog was the only thing that saved my career," Nixon later wrote. "Many of the critics glided over the fact that the fund was thoroughly explained, my personal finances laid bare, and an admittedly emotional but honest appeal made for public support." 5. Richard Nixon literally made the mornings darker. In 1973, to save fuel during an energy crisis, Nixon signed a law that mandated that daylight saving would be in effect year-round starting on January 6, 1974. But kids wound up waiting for their school buses in pitch-black conditions, and there was a fear they might get hit by traffic—so the idea was scrapped in 1975. 6. Richard Nixon had a bowling alley installed under the White House. Nixon, an avid bowler, was pleased to see that the love of bowling that inspired Harry Truman to build lanes in the White House in 1947 was still going strong when he took office in 1969. That alley was moved in 1955, and Nixon actually ordered that a new lane be built underground under the North Portico entrance and favored the new location because it was more private than the lanes that were open to other staffers. Nixon reportedly bowled a respectable 232. 7. Richard Nixon wanted the Secret Service to wear uniforms. The president’s security detail is usually dressed for business: Suits, ties, and sunglasses are the normal attire for many agents, while those patrolling the White House grounds wear police-style uniforms. When Nixon took office, however, he wanted his men to resemble the palace guards he had seen in other countries. The Service assigned to his personal detail wore white double-breasted tunics and hats that vaguely resembled the Empire’s underlings in a Star Wars film. After he was criticized by the press, Nixon abandoned the idea and the outfits were eventually donated to a high school marching band. 8. Richard Nixon almost messed up Charles Manson's murder trial. Nixon’s first year in office coincided with the national obsession over cult leader Charles Manson and his followers, some of whom had gone on a murder spree in 1969 that left actress Sharon Tate and several others dead. During Manson’s trial in August 1970, Nixon proclaimed Manson “was guilty, directly or indirectly, of eight murders without reason.” Manson’s lawyers moved for a mistrial based on Nixon’s comments. The president quickly retracted his statement, with a spokesperson suggesting he neglected to include the word “allegedly.” 9. Richard Nixon met RoboCop. In 1987, Nixon attended a national board meeting for the Boys Club of America. Also on hand to fete organizers and kids was a guy dressed as Robocop. (The unknown actor was definitely not Peter Weller, star of the 1987 feature, and the ill-fitting costume was definitely not the original.) For years, an image of the meeting circulated on the internet without context before a crack sleuth determined it had been snapped for Billboard magazine. 10. Richard Nixon's meeting with Elvis Presley made National Archives history. On December 21, 1970, Nixon greeted one of the more colorful characters to ever enter the White House: Elvis Presley. The singer apparently wanted a badge or other token of law enforcement; as the King was high on fighting the war on drugs at the time. (Unfortunately, Presley had drug issues of his own that may have contributed to his death in 1977.) A photo of the meeting between the two is (as of 2015) the most requested image in the National Archives, outpacing requests for the moon landing, the Declaration of Independence, or the Bill of Rights.	1,458	ENGLISH	1
Squanto was born near Plymouth, Massachusetts around the year 1580. He was a member of the Patuxet tribe, a branch of the Wampanoag Confederation. Squanto was captured along the coast of what is present day Maine in 1605 by Captain George Weymouth, who was exploring the area at the time. Weymouth brought Squanto and four other Penobscot Indians to England. In England, Squanto lived with a man named Ferdinando Gorges who taught him English. Later, Gorges hired Squanto as a guide and interpreter. Squanto returned as a guide to North America for John Smith. Squanto was kidnapped yet again by John Smith’s lieutenant, Thomas Hunt. He was sold into slavery in Spain, but eventually escaped and fled to monastery where he lived for several years. After persuading the monks to let him go back to North America, Squanto returned in 1619 aboard another of John Smith’s ships, only to discover that most of the Patuxet had been killed off by a plague the previous year. A visiting Wampanoag Chief introduced Squanto to the Pilgrims of Plymouth near where his village used to be. It is believed that Squanto helped the Pilgrims recover after a particularly hard winter by teaching them how to grow maize by using the local method of burying fish as fertilizer. Squanto was captured again by the Wampanoag when he was sent on a mission for Governor William Bradford to gather intelligence. The Plymouth colony sent ten settlers to rescue Squanto. He was found and brought back to the welcoming arms of the Plymouth Pilgrims. Squanto continued to aid the Pilgrims and went on diplomatic missions to mend the rift between the Wampanoag and the Pilgrims. On his return from one of these critical missions, Squanto fell ill and died a few days later in the year 1622. He is believed to be buried in an unmarked grave, possibly in a Pilgrim cemetery. Squanto’s legacy lived on, and peace was achieved between the Wampanoag and the Pilgrims for another fifty years.	<urn:uuid:2d31abbf-ae29-40f8-9db7-8cc3c782568d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mrnussbaum.com/uploads/activities/massachusetts/squanto-1.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00553.warc.gz	en	0.984281	441	4.0625	4	[ 0.07519175857305527, 0.19471953809261322, 0.34372183680534363, -0.24233084917068481, -0.014141094870865345, -0.32638803124427795, 0.2670845091342926, 0.09880653023719788, -0.38802412152290344, 0.015835963189601898, -0.22237251698970795, -0.5800610780715942, 0.26149675250053406, 0.319347560...	2	Squanto was born near Plymouth, Massachusetts around the year 1580. He was a member of the Patuxet tribe, a branch of the Wampanoag Confederation. Squanto was captured along the coast of what is present day Maine in 1605 by Captain George Weymouth, who was exploring the area at the time. Weymouth brought Squanto and four other Penobscot Indians to England. In England, Squanto lived with a man named Ferdinando Gorges who taught him English. Later, Gorges hired Squanto as a guide and interpreter. Squanto returned as a guide to North America for John Smith. Squanto was kidnapped yet again by John Smith’s lieutenant, Thomas Hunt. He was sold into slavery in Spain, but eventually escaped and fled to monastery where he lived for several years. After persuading the monks to let him go back to North America, Squanto returned in 1619 aboard another of John Smith’s ships, only to discover that most of the Patuxet had been killed off by a plague the previous year. A visiting Wampanoag Chief introduced Squanto to the Pilgrims of Plymouth near where his village used to be. It is believed that Squanto helped the Pilgrims recover after a particularly hard winter by teaching them how to grow maize by using the local method of burying fish as fertilizer. Squanto was captured again by the Wampanoag when he was sent on a mission for Governor William Bradford to gather intelligence. The Plymouth colony sent ten settlers to rescue Squanto. He was found and brought back to the welcoming arms of the Plymouth Pilgrims. Squanto continued to aid the Pilgrims and went on diplomatic missions to mend the rift between the Wampanoag and the Pilgrims. On his return from one of these critical missions, Squanto fell ill and died a few days later in the year 1622. He is believed to be buried in an unmarked grave, possibly in a Pilgrim cemetery. Squanto’s legacy lived on, and peace was achieved between the Wampanoag and the Pilgrims for another fifty years.	453	ENGLISH	1
George Fox was an English Dissenter, who was a founder of the Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as the Quakers or Friends. The son of a Leicestershire weaver, he lived in times of social upheaval and war. George Fox, 1624 – 1691 Founder of the Society of Friends (Quakers) George Fox, founder of the Society of Friends (Quakers), was born at Drayton-In-The-Clay, Leicestershire, England, the son of Puritan parents. Little is known of his early life apart from what he wrote in his journal: In my very young years I had a gravity and stayedness of mind and spirit not usual in young children: insomuch that when I saw old men behave lightly and wantonly toward each other, I had a dislike thereof raise in my heart, and I said within myself, “If ever I come to be a man, surely I shall not do so, nor be so wanton.” Raised in the Anglican Church, George Fox was religiously inclined from his childhood, but being too poor to study theology, he was employed looking after sheep and at 19 he decided to take to the road in search of personal spiritual truth. Fox seems to have been guided by the works of Jakob Bohme and in 1646 a sudden revelation transformed him into an impassioned preacher who burned with an inner light. He accused both Puritans and the Anglicans of holding back the advance of Christianity and was arrested 36 times in the 40 years of his mission, spending a total of 6 years in prison. Birth of the Quakers It began through the agency of George Fox; and the date which is generally accepted as the “birth time of Quakerism” is 1652. For some five years, Fox had been travelling round the country, spreading his message. He was understood and welcomed by some, but he also met with considerable opposition; he had been imprisoned in Derby gaol on a charge of blasphemy and had suffered considerable ill-treatment. He had been working very much on his own and he had certainly not initiated any sort of religious movement. Then, in May 1652, he was in Lancashire and had climbed to the top of Pendle Hill, near Clitheroe. It was a strange thing to do, for people did not climb hills for fun in those days, especially one well-reputed as an abode for witches; still, Fox had a habit of doing unaccountable things! The view from the summit of the far spread countryside inspired him and shortly afterwards he had a vision, or an insight, of “a great people to be gathered”. It was, in fact, the district where he would meet groups of interested people, for instance those known as the “Westmorland Seekers”. The really significant visit which he paid, one to have far reaching and permanent effects on the history of Quakerism, was to Swarthmore Hall, near Ulverston (reached by crossing the dangerous sands of Morecambe Bay). This was a large house and property occupied by Judge Fell and his wife Margaret. Both were of a liberal outlook in religious matters and visiting preachers had already been made welcome there. Margaret Fell welcomed George Fox with great enthusiasm and was quickly “converted” to his teaching. Fell, though he never formally associated himself with the Quaker movement, was supportive and permitted meetings of Fox and his followers to take place in the Hall. Presumably because of Judge Fell’s standing in the county (and also in the nation), these group meetings were not subjected to harassment by Church and Law, which was otherwise common. Thus, for many years right up to the time of George Fox’s death, Swarthmore Hall was the “headquarters” or “powerhouse” of the Quaker movement. It was from this Hall that the early Quaker “missionaries” were sent in small groups of two or more to spread the message in different parts of the country. Persecution and imprisonment did not prevent him from travelling throughout England, Ireland, North America and Holland, and making converts. The converts formed the Society of Friends, nicknamed Quakers after the way in which they behaved at their meetings where each individual showed his inner illumination by shudders and cries of enthusiasm and impromptu speeches. From the Autobiography of George Fox CHAPTER V. One Man May Shake the Country for Ten Miles (1651-1652). … Passing on, I was moved of the Lord to go to Beverley steeple-house, which was then a place of high profession; and being very wet with rain, I went first to an inn. As soon as I came to the door, a young woman of the house came to the door, and said, “What, is it you? come in,” as if she had known me before; for the Lord’s power bowed their hearts. So I refreshed myself and went to bed; and in the morning, my clothes being still wet, I got ready, and having paid for what I had had in the inn, I went up to the steeple-house, where was a man preaching. When he had done, I was moved to speak to him, and to the people, in the mighty power of God, and to turn them to their teacher, Christ Jesus. The power of the Lord was so strong, that it struck a mighty dread amongst the people. The mayor came and spoke a few words to me; but none of them had any power to meddle with me. So I passed away out of the town, and in the afternoon went to another steeple-house about two miles off. When the priest had done, I was moved to speak to him, and to the people very largely, showing them the way of life and truth, and the ground of election and reprobation. The priest said he was but a child, and could not dispute with me. I told him I did not come to dispute, but to hold forth the Word of life and truth unto them, that they might all know the one Seed, to which the promise of God was given, both in the male and in the female. Here the people were very loving, and would have had me come again on a week-day, and preach among them; but I directed them to their teacher, Christ Jesus, and so passed away. The next day I went to Cranswick, to Captain Pursloe’s, who accompanied me to Justice Hotham’s. This Justice Hotham was a tender man, one that had had some experience of God’s workings in his heart. After some discourse with him of the things of God, he took me into his closet, where, sitting with me, he told me he had known that principle these ten years, and was glad that the Lord did now publish it abroad to the people. After a while there came a priest to visit him, with whom also I had some discourse concerning the Truth. But his mouth was quickly stopped, for he was nothing but a notionist, and not in possession of what he talked of. While I was here, there came a great woman of Beverley to speak to Justice Hotham about some business; and in discourse she told him that the last Sabbath-day (as she called it) there came an angel or spirit into the church at Beverley, and spoke the wonderful things of God, to the astonishment of all that were there; and when it had done, it passed away, and they did not know whence it came, nor whither it went; but it astonished all, — priest, professors, and magistrates of the town. This relation Justice Hotham gave me afterwards, and then I gave him an account of how I had been that day at Beverley steeple-house, and had declared truth to the priest and people there. I went to another steeple-house about three miles off, where preached a great high-priest, called a doctor, one of them whom Justice Hotham would have sent for to speak with me. I went into the steeple-house, and stayed till the priest had done. The words which he took for his text were these, “Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters; and he that hath no money, come ye, buy and eat, yea come, buy wine and milk without money and without price.” Then was I moved of the Lord God to say unto him, “Come down, thou deceiver; dost thou bid people come freely, and take of the water of life freely, and yet thou takest three hundred pounds a year of them for preaching the Scriptures to them. Mayest thou not blush for shame? Did the prophet Isaiah, and Christ do so, who spoke the words, and gave them forth freely? Did not Christ say to His ministers, whom He sent to preach, ‘Freely ye have received, freely give’?” The priest, like a man amazed, hastened away. After he had left his flock, I had as much time as I could desire to speak to the people; and I directed them from the darkness to the Light, and to the grace of God, that would teach them, and bring them salvation; to the Spirit of God in their inward parts, which would be a free teacher unto them… The next day I came into York, where were several very tender people. Upon the First-day following, I was commanded of the Lord to go and speak to priest Bowles and his hearers in their great cathedral. Accordingly I went. When the priest had done, I told them I had something from the Lord God to speak to the priest and people. “Then say on quickly,” said a professor, for there was frost and snow, and it was very cold weather. Then I told them that this was the Word of the Lord God unto them, — that they lived in words, but God Almighty looked for fruits amongst them. As soon as the words were out of my mouth, they hurried me out, and threw me down the steps. But I got up again without hurt, and went to my lodging, and several were convinced there. For that which arose from the weight and oppression that was upon the Spirit of God in me, would open people, strike them, and make them confess that the groans which broke forth through me did reach them, for my life was burthened with their profession without possession, and their words without fruit. [After being thus violently tumbled down the steps of the great minster, George Fox found his next few days crowded with hot discussion. Papists and Ranters and Scotch “priests” made him stand forth for the hope that was in him. The Ranters, he says, “had spent their portions, and not living in that which they spake of, were now become dry. They had some kind of meetings, but they took tobacco and drank ale in their meetings and were grown light and loose.” After the narrative of an attempt to push him over the cliffs the account continues.] From 1650 to 1689 more than 3000 of Fox’s disciples were imprisoned, some being tortured and others dying in prison. Nevertheless, by the time of Fox’s death, there were still 50,000 ‘Friends’. Many of them emigrated to North America where the Quaker William Penn (1644-1718) founded Pennsylvania in 1682, with its capital Philadelphia, the city of ‘Fraternal Love’. He gave the new state a remarkable constitution which was the inspiration for the constitution of the United States. Today, there are nearly 300,000 Quakers of which 250,000 live in America and only 18,000 live in the UK. Most faith groups have specific beliefs that their membership is expected to follow. Sometimes, as in the case of the Roman Catholic church, these requirements are numerous. The Religious Society of Friends is near the opposite end of the religious spectrum. They rely heavily upon spiritual searching by individual members, individual congregations and meetings. Some Quaker meetings at the liberal and evangelical ends of the spectrum differ significantly The Quakers reject all dogma, creed, sacrament and hierarchy. They believe firmly that within each individual the Bible is as a ‘seed’ or a ‘divine light’ which must be uncovered through meditation. The same Spirit which inspired the the disposal of all those who know how to hear it. Supreme authority in both administrative and religious matters is associated with the ‘meetings’ where the spirit is present; decisions must be unanimous. The Quakers, like all the followers of radical reform questioned the existing social and religious order, which in part explains the persecution they suffered. But they have always distinguished themselves through their humanitarian efforts. They fought the institution of slavery , helped the victims of the two world wars and today campaign for third world countries, human rights and the position of women in society. Quaker peace work continued after the end of the wars, taking on different forms as different needs developed. An immediate opportunity came in Germany and Austria, where large student populations were seen to be suffering severe deprivation. Food relief was undertaken through both British and American Quakers. This relief, known as “Quaker-Speisung” in Germany, made a lasting impression on the people. Later on, in the days of the Hitler regime, there were a number of Germans now in positions of responsibility who had benefited from this help and had remembered it. There were occasions when Quakers were enabled to give help to those suffering in Germany when others could not. Simplicity, pacifism, and inner revelation are long standing Quaker beliefs. Their religion does not consist of accepting specific beliefs or of engaging in certain practices; it involves each person’s direct experience of God. There is a strong mystical component to Quaker belief. One visitor to a meeting wrote, “In Meeting for Worship, God is there … God is probably always there, but in Meeting, I am able to slow down enough to see God. The Light becomes tangible for me, a blanket of love, a hope made living.” They do not have a specific creed; however, many of the coordinating groups have created statements of faith. The statement by the largest Quaker body, the Friends United Meeting includes the beliefs in: - true religion as a personal encounter with God, rather than ritual and ceremony - individual worth before God - worship as an act of seeking - the virtues of moral purity, integrity, honesty, simplicity and humility - Christian love and goodness - concern for the suffering and unfortunate - continuing revelation through the Holy Spirit Many Quakers do not regard the Bible as the only source of belief and conduct. They rely upon their Inner Light to resolve what they perceive as the Bible’s many contradictions. They also feel free to take advantage of scientific and philosophical findings from other sources. Individual Quakers hold diverse views concerning life after death. Few believe in the eternal punishment of individuals in a Hell. All aspects of life are sacramental; they do not differentiate between the secular and the religious. No one day or one place or one activity is any more spiritual than any other. This page last updated 29 September 2019 This page first updated 4 May 2002 4,831 total views, 2 views today	<urn:uuid:5db3aeb8-ace0-4331-8c11-2e67bbef2918>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://saieditor.com/?p=3134	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00198.warc.gz	en	0.988886	3,225	3.375	3	[ 0.043321393430233, 0.040936846286058426, 0.09757871925830841, -0.012099083513021469, -0.3610174059867859, 0.009802406653761864, 0.4092023968696594, 0.16310858726501465, -0.29523056745529175, 0.0456681102514267, 0.015339523553848267, -0.268752783536911, 0.28401243686676025, 0.58969914913177...	1	George Fox was an English Dissenter, who was a founder of the Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as the Quakers or Friends. The son of a Leicestershire weaver, he lived in times of social upheaval and war. George Fox, 1624 – 1691 Founder of the Society of Friends (Quakers) George Fox, founder of the Society of Friends (Quakers), was born at Drayton-In-The-Clay, Leicestershire, England, the son of Puritan parents. Little is known of his early life apart from what he wrote in his journal: In my very young years I had a gravity and stayedness of mind and spirit not usual in young children: insomuch that when I saw old men behave lightly and wantonly toward each other, I had a dislike thereof raise in my heart, and I said within myself, “If ever I come to be a man, surely I shall not do so, nor be so wanton.” Raised in the Anglican Church, George Fox was religiously inclined from his childhood, but being too poor to study theology, he was employed looking after sheep and at 19 he decided to take to the road in search of personal spiritual truth. Fox seems to have been guided by the works of Jakob Bohme and in 1646 a sudden revelation transformed him into an impassioned preacher who burned with an inner light. He accused both Puritans and the Anglicans of holding back the advance of Christianity and was arrested 36 times in the 40 years of his mission, spending a total of 6 years in prison. Birth of the Quakers It began through the agency of George Fox; and the date which is generally accepted as the “birth time of Quakerism” is 1652. For some five years, Fox had been travelling round the country, spreading his message. He was understood and welcomed by some, but he also met with considerable opposition; he had been imprisoned in Derby gaol on a charge of blasphemy and had suffered considerable ill-treatment. He had been working very much on his own and he had certainly not initiated any sort of religious movement. Then, in May 1652, he was in Lancashire and had climbed to the top of Pendle Hill, near Clitheroe. It was a strange thing to do, for people did not climb hills for fun in those days, especially one well-reputed as an abode for witches; still, Fox had a habit of doing unaccountable things! The view from the summit of the far spread countryside inspired him and shortly afterwards he had a vision, or an insight, of “a great people to be gathered”. It was, in fact, the district where he would meet groups of interested people, for instance those known as the “Westmorland Seekers”. The really significant visit which he paid, one to have far reaching and permanent effects on the history of Quakerism, was to Swarthmore Hall, near Ulverston (reached by crossing the dangerous sands of Morecambe Bay). This was a large house and property occupied by Judge Fell and his wife Margaret. Both were of a liberal outlook in religious matters and visiting preachers had already been made welcome there. Margaret Fell welcomed George Fox with great enthusiasm and was quickly “converted” to his teaching. Fell, though he never formally associated himself with the Quaker movement, was supportive and permitted meetings of Fox and his followers to take place in the Hall. Presumably because of Judge Fell’s standing in the county (and also in the nation), these group meetings were not subjected to harassment by Church and Law, which was otherwise common. Thus, for many years right up to the time of George Fox’s death, Swarthmore Hall was the “headquarters” or “powerhouse” of the Quaker movement. It was from this Hall that the early Quaker “missionaries” were sent in small groups of two or more to spread the message in different parts of the country. Persecution and imprisonment did not prevent him from travelling throughout England, Ireland, North America and Holland, and making converts. The converts formed the Society of Friends, nicknamed Quakers after the way in which they behaved at their meetings where each individual showed his inner illumination by shudders and cries of enthusiasm and impromptu speeches. From the Autobiography of George Fox CHAPTER V. One Man May Shake the Country for Ten Miles (1651-1652). … Passing on, I was moved of the Lord to go to Beverley steeple-house, which was then a place of high profession; and being very wet with rain, I went first to an inn. As soon as I came to the door, a young woman of the house came to the door, and said, “What, is it you? come in,” as if she had known me before; for the Lord’s power bowed their hearts. So I refreshed myself and went to bed; and in the morning, my clothes being still wet, I got ready, and having paid for what I had had in the inn, I went up to the steeple-house, where was a man preaching. When he had done, I was moved to speak to him, and to the people, in the mighty power of God, and to turn them to their teacher, Christ Jesus. The power of the Lord was so strong, that it struck a mighty dread amongst the people. The mayor came and spoke a few words to me; but none of them had any power to meddle with me. So I passed away out of the town, and in the afternoon went to another steeple-house about two miles off. When the priest had done, I was moved to speak to him, and to the people very largely, showing them the way of life and truth, and the ground of election and reprobation. The priest said he was but a child, and could not dispute with me. I told him I did not come to dispute, but to hold forth the Word of life and truth unto them, that they might all know the one Seed, to which the promise of God was given, both in the male and in the female. Here the people were very loving, and would have had me come again on a week-day, and preach among them; but I directed them to their teacher, Christ Jesus, and so passed away. The next day I went to Cranswick, to Captain Pursloe’s, who accompanied me to Justice Hotham’s. This Justice Hotham was a tender man, one that had had some experience of God’s workings in his heart. After some discourse with him of the things of God, he took me into his closet, where, sitting with me, he told me he had known that principle these ten years, and was glad that the Lord did now publish it abroad to the people. After a while there came a priest to visit him, with whom also I had some discourse concerning the Truth. But his mouth was quickly stopped, for he was nothing but a notionist, and not in possession of what he talked of. While I was here, there came a great woman of Beverley to speak to Justice Hotham about some business; and in discourse she told him that the last Sabbath-day (as she called it) there came an angel or spirit into the church at Beverley, and spoke the wonderful things of God, to the astonishment of all that were there; and when it had done, it passed away, and they did not know whence it came, nor whither it went; but it astonished all, — priest, professors, and magistrates of the town. This relation Justice Hotham gave me afterwards, and then I gave him an account of how I had been that day at Beverley steeple-house, and had declared truth to the priest and people there. I went to another steeple-house about three miles off, where preached a great high-priest, called a doctor, one of them whom Justice Hotham would have sent for to speak with me. I went into the steeple-house, and stayed till the priest had done. The words which he took for his text were these, “Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters; and he that hath no money, come ye, buy and eat, yea come, buy wine and milk without money and without price.” Then was I moved of the Lord God to say unto him, “Come down, thou deceiver; dost thou bid people come freely, and take of the water of life freely, and yet thou takest three hundred pounds a year of them for preaching the Scriptures to them. Mayest thou not blush for shame? Did the prophet Isaiah, and Christ do so, who spoke the words, and gave them forth freely? Did not Christ say to His ministers, whom He sent to preach, ‘Freely ye have received, freely give’?” The priest, like a man amazed, hastened away. After he had left his flock, I had as much time as I could desire to speak to the people; and I directed them from the darkness to the Light, and to the grace of God, that would teach them, and bring them salvation; to the Spirit of God in their inward parts, which would be a free teacher unto them… The next day I came into York, where were several very tender people. Upon the First-day following, I was commanded of the Lord to go and speak to priest Bowles and his hearers in their great cathedral. Accordingly I went. When the priest had done, I told them I had something from the Lord God to speak to the priest and people. “Then say on quickly,” said a professor, for there was frost and snow, and it was very cold weather. Then I told them that this was the Word of the Lord God unto them, — that they lived in words, but God Almighty looked for fruits amongst them. As soon as the words were out of my mouth, they hurried me out, and threw me down the steps. But I got up again without hurt, and went to my lodging, and several were convinced there. For that which arose from the weight and oppression that was upon the Spirit of God in me, would open people, strike them, and make them confess that the groans which broke forth through me did reach them, for my life was burthened with their profession without possession, and their words without fruit. [After being thus violently tumbled down the steps of the great minster, George Fox found his next few days crowded with hot discussion. Papists and Ranters and Scotch “priests” made him stand forth for the hope that was in him. The Ranters, he says, “had spent their portions, and not living in that which they spake of, were now become dry. They had some kind of meetings, but they took tobacco and drank ale in their meetings and were grown light and loose.” After the narrative of an attempt to push him over the cliffs the account continues.] From 1650 to 1689 more than 3000 of Fox’s disciples were imprisoned, some being tortured and others dying in prison. Nevertheless, by the time of Fox’s death, there were still 50,000 ‘Friends’. Many of them emigrated to North America where the Quaker William Penn (1644-1718) founded Pennsylvania in 1682, with its capital Philadelphia, the city of ‘Fraternal Love’. He gave the new state a remarkable constitution which was the inspiration for the constitution of the United States. Today, there are nearly 300,000 Quakers of which 250,000 live in America and only 18,000 live in the UK. Most faith groups have specific beliefs that their membership is expected to follow. Sometimes, as in the case of the Roman Catholic church, these requirements are numerous. The Religious Society of Friends is near the opposite end of the religious spectrum. They rely heavily upon spiritual searching by individual members, individual congregations and meetings. Some Quaker meetings at the liberal and evangelical ends of the spectrum differ significantly The Quakers reject all dogma, creed, sacrament and hierarchy. They believe firmly that within each individual the Bible is as a ‘seed’ or a ‘divine light’ which must be uncovered through meditation. The same Spirit which inspired the the disposal of all those who know how to hear it. Supreme authority in both administrative and religious matters is associated with the ‘meetings’ where the spirit is present; decisions must be unanimous. The Quakers, like all the followers of radical reform questioned the existing social and religious order, which in part explains the persecution they suffered. But they have always distinguished themselves through their humanitarian efforts. They fought the institution of slavery , helped the victims of the two world wars and today campaign for third world countries, human rights and the position of women in society. Quaker peace work continued after the end of the wars, taking on different forms as different needs developed. An immediate opportunity came in Germany and Austria, where large student populations were seen to be suffering severe deprivation. Food relief was undertaken through both British and American Quakers. This relief, known as “Quaker-Speisung” in Germany, made a lasting impression on the people. Later on, in the days of the Hitler regime, there were a number of Germans now in positions of responsibility who had benefited from this help and had remembered it. There were occasions when Quakers were enabled to give help to those suffering in Germany when others could not. Simplicity, pacifism, and inner revelation are long standing Quaker beliefs. Their religion does not consist of accepting specific beliefs or of engaging in certain practices; it involves each person’s direct experience of God. There is a strong mystical component to Quaker belief. One visitor to a meeting wrote, “In Meeting for Worship, God is there … God is probably always there, but in Meeting, I am able to slow down enough to see God. The Light becomes tangible for me, a blanket of love, a hope made living.” They do not have a specific creed; however, many of the coordinating groups have created statements of faith. The statement by the largest Quaker body, the Friends United Meeting includes the beliefs in: - true religion as a personal encounter with God, rather than ritual and ceremony - individual worth before God - worship as an act of seeking - the virtues of moral purity, integrity, honesty, simplicity and humility - Christian love and goodness - concern for the suffering and unfortunate - continuing revelation through the Holy Spirit Many Quakers do not regard the Bible as the only source of belief and conduct. They rely upon their Inner Light to resolve what they perceive as the Bible’s many contradictions. They also feel free to take advantage of scientific and philosophical findings from other sources. Individual Quakers hold diverse views concerning life after death. Few believe in the eternal punishment of individuals in a Hell. All aspects of life are sacramental; they do not differentiate between the secular and the religious. No one day or one place or one activity is any more spiritual than any other. This page last updated 29 September 2019 This page first updated 4 May 2002 4,831 total views, 2 views today	3,204	ENGLISH	1
There has been a long debate on whether brains can be fossilized and that question may finally have an answer. Scientists claim to have discovered incredibly well preserved fossilized brains in 500-million-year-old bug-like creatures. The inky stains were found in fossils from an arthropod called Alalcomenaeus that lived during the Cambrian period – between approximately 543 million and 490 million years ago. The bug-like creature’s exoskeleton was well preserved in addition to the soft tissue from the brain and nerves. In their study, which was published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B (and can be read in full here), researchers described finding two Alalcomenaeus fossils in which the brains were still preserved. Co-author of the study, Javier Ortega-Hernández, who is an invertebrate paleobiologist at Harvard University and curator of the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology, explained, “What we are dealing with in the fossil record are exceptional circumstances. This is not common — this is super, super rare.” Paleontologists previously found one Alalcomenaeus fossil which was believed to have had preserved nervous tissue; however, there was much controversy over the discovery. But now with two more specimens, it’s pretty convincing proof that nervous tissue in arthropod fossils from the Cambrian period can indeed be fossilized. In fact, all three specimens were discovered buried in similar deposits which allowed the brain tissue to fossilize. The two Alalcomenaeus fossils were found in the Great Basin in Utah. Ortega-Hernández and his co-authors described the fossils as having symmetrical stains that were found along its mid-line that looked like the nervous system that’s found in modern arthropods like spiders, scorpions, and horseshoe crabs. Additionally, the stains contained carbon which is an important element found in nervous tissue. “The nervous system and the gut kind of cross each other, which is really funky but common in arthropods nowadays,” Ortega-Hernández told Live Science. Pictures can be seen here. But not everyone is convinced that they in fact found a fossilized brain. Jianni Liu, who is a professor at the Early Life Institute in the Department of Geology at Northwest University in Xi’an, China, wrote an email to Live Science and argued that the inky stains found in the fossils could have been a “slightly random effect of the decay process” instead of being brain tissue. Liu and her colleagues studied around 800 fossilized specimens and discovered that almost 10% of them had inky stains around the head. They found that while nervous tissue decays quite rapidly, bacteria from the gut can persist and “produce these so-called biofilms as radiating [stains] which look a bit like parts of a nervous system,” they wrote in a 2018 study. Nicholas Strausfeld, who is a regents professor in the department of neuroscience at the University of Arizona, explained that when the creatures are buried underneath strong pressure, the remains become flattened out. And since there is a lot of fat found in nervous tissue, it repels water and “have some resistance against decay”. There is still a lot of work and studying that needs to be done in regards to brain and nervous tissue fossilizing, but these are definitely interesting developments.	<urn:uuid:420de965-eddd-4963-84b3-2e4930097641>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mysteriousuniverse.org/2019/12/scientists-find-500-million-year-old-fossilized-brain/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00538.warc.gz	en	0.980693	725	3.71875	4	[ -0.3897441625595093, 0.03848203644156456, 0.00007128412835299969, 0.11507999151945114, -0.08101391792297363, 0.09978482127189636, 0.18235930800437927, 0.04533985257148743, -0.4879576861858368, 0.0008324019145220518, 0.20118816196918488, -0.24141687154769897, 0.08128871768712997, 0.28343132...	11	There has been a long debate on whether brains can be fossilized and that question may finally have an answer. Scientists claim to have discovered incredibly well preserved fossilized brains in 500-million-year-old bug-like creatures. The inky stains were found in fossils from an arthropod called Alalcomenaeus that lived during the Cambrian period – between approximately 543 million and 490 million years ago. The bug-like creature’s exoskeleton was well preserved in addition to the soft tissue from the brain and nerves. In their study, which was published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B (and can be read in full here), researchers described finding two Alalcomenaeus fossils in which the brains were still preserved. Co-author of the study, Javier Ortega-Hernández, who is an invertebrate paleobiologist at Harvard University and curator of the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology, explained, “What we are dealing with in the fossil record are exceptional circumstances. This is not common — this is super, super rare.” Paleontologists previously found one Alalcomenaeus fossil which was believed to have had preserved nervous tissue; however, there was much controversy over the discovery. But now with two more specimens, it’s pretty convincing proof that nervous tissue in arthropod fossils from the Cambrian period can indeed be fossilized. In fact, all three specimens were discovered buried in similar deposits which allowed the brain tissue to fossilize. The two Alalcomenaeus fossils were found in the Great Basin in Utah. Ortega-Hernández and his co-authors described the fossils as having symmetrical stains that were found along its mid-line that looked like the nervous system that’s found in modern arthropods like spiders, scorpions, and horseshoe crabs. Additionally, the stains contained carbon which is an important element found in nervous tissue. “The nervous system and the gut kind of cross each other, which is really funky but common in arthropods nowadays,” Ortega-Hernández told Live Science. Pictures can be seen here. But not everyone is convinced that they in fact found a fossilized brain. Jianni Liu, who is a professor at the Early Life Institute in the Department of Geology at Northwest University in Xi’an, China, wrote an email to Live Science and argued that the inky stains found in the fossils could have been a “slightly random effect of the decay process” instead of being brain tissue. Liu and her colleagues studied around 800 fossilized specimens and discovered that almost 10% of them had inky stains around the head. They found that while nervous tissue decays quite rapidly, bacteria from the gut can persist and “produce these so-called biofilms as radiating [stains] which look a bit like parts of a nervous system,” they wrote in a 2018 study. Nicholas Strausfeld, who is a regents professor in the department of neuroscience at the University of Arizona, explained that when the creatures are buried underneath strong pressure, the remains become flattened out. And since there is a lot of fat found in nervous tissue, it repels water and “have some resistance against decay”. There is still a lot of work and studying that needs to be done in regards to brain and nervous tissue fossilizing, but these are definitely interesting developments.	695	ENGLISH	1
As a teacher I have struggled to find literature to share with my students that is academically challenging, relevant, and engaging. This is especially true with my under-resourced learners. I assumed the best method to excite my students about reading was to give them literature with which they could relate. For example, wouldn’t my under-resourced learners rather read about characters who live lives similar to their own, instead of reading about people and circumstances that they are unfamiliar with? My main concern when choosing literature became whether or not my students could identify with the characters’ lives. I faced this problem most recently in my current classroom. I am teaching a sixth-grade class in a rural school with 99% free and reduced lunch and a student body that is 75% African American. The majority of the students in my class performed at the lowest two scaled levels on the previous year’s standardized tests. I knew I had to do something to get my students reading while making it meaningful and educational. So, because of my belief that the students must be able to relate to the characters, I leafed through novels that were age and grade appropriate. I finally decided on the novel The Cay by Theodore Taylor, mainly because it held adventure and corresponded with our social studies unit on the Caribbean. I was worried my students would not like the novel and therefore would not gain anything from reading it, because it did not directly relate to their lives. Boy, was I surprised! The students loved the novel. They wanted to keep reading, and every time we stopped for the day, they begged to read more. I was shocked! I wondered to myself, “Why do these students love this book so much?” It flew in the face of everything I thought to be true about reading with under-resourced learners. I asked these students why they enjoyed the novel as much as they did. Their responses were simple: They could relate to the themes of struggling in the face of adversity and race relations. They loved the suspense the author created and were excited to see what would happen next. They easily succeeded in completing the lessons on text structures, vocabulary, and integrated social studies lessons because they loved the story. In order for students to become better readers, students must read. As for a pianist, practice makes perfect. It is not so important that the students can relate to the characters as people, but that the students can relate to the themes, the stories being conveyed in the literature. I concluded that, for our students to read, we need to give them literature that excites them while relating to their lives, whether through character, setting, or, most importantly, theme.	<urn:uuid:1e0d2fc7-e43b-40f9-82c2-5ea2ade1e296>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ahaprocess.com/choosing-literature-to-excite-under-resourced-learners/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00109.warc.gz	en	0.985271	547	3.6875	4	[ 0.12815622985363007, -0.07988882064819336, 0.3808205723762512, -0.0015204561641439795, -0.3011082410812378, -0.2677423655986786, 0.06306908279657364, 0.4245009422302246, 0.09018830209970474, 0.0572541281580925, 0.18870823085308075, 0.12618663907051086, -0.03270353376865387, 0.2605880200862...	5	As a teacher I have struggled to find literature to share with my students that is academically challenging, relevant, and engaging. This is especially true with my under-resourced learners. I assumed the best method to excite my students about reading was to give them literature with which they could relate. For example, wouldn’t my under-resourced learners rather read about characters who live lives similar to their own, instead of reading about people and circumstances that they are unfamiliar with? My main concern when choosing literature became whether or not my students could identify with the characters’ lives. I faced this problem most recently in my current classroom. I am teaching a sixth-grade class in a rural school with 99% free and reduced lunch and a student body that is 75% African American. The majority of the students in my class performed at the lowest two scaled levels on the previous year’s standardized tests. I knew I had to do something to get my students reading while making it meaningful and educational. So, because of my belief that the students must be able to relate to the characters, I leafed through novels that were age and grade appropriate. I finally decided on the novel The Cay by Theodore Taylor, mainly because it held adventure and corresponded with our social studies unit on the Caribbean. I was worried my students would not like the novel and therefore would not gain anything from reading it, because it did not directly relate to their lives. Boy, was I surprised! The students loved the novel. They wanted to keep reading, and every time we stopped for the day, they begged to read more. I was shocked! I wondered to myself, “Why do these students love this book so much?” It flew in the face of everything I thought to be true about reading with under-resourced learners. I asked these students why they enjoyed the novel as much as they did. Their responses were simple: They could relate to the themes of struggling in the face of adversity and race relations. They loved the suspense the author created and were excited to see what would happen next. They easily succeeded in completing the lessons on text structures, vocabulary, and integrated social studies lessons because they loved the story. In order for students to become better readers, students must read. As for a pianist, practice makes perfect. It is not so important that the students can relate to the characters as people, but that the students can relate to the themes, the stories being conveyed in the literature. I concluded that, for our students to read, we need to give them literature that excites them while relating to their lives, whether through character, setting, or, most importantly, theme.	537	ENGLISH	1
The ancient philosopher, Pythagoras, once wrote that “The universe begins with bread.” While this might seem like a pretty big statement, there is no doubt that bread has had a massive impact on humanity. Wars have been fought over it, uprisings have been sparked by its price, and people have survived for long periods of time on nothing but bread and water. The relationship between humans and wheat – bread’s key ingredient – goes back thousands of years to hunter-gatherer times. Wheat is known to have grown on several continents in ancient times, though it thrived most in an area known as the Fertile Crescent, a region that includes parts of modern day Lebanon, Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Palestine and Israel. It is believed that early humans first chewed wheat for its nutritional value. Only much later did they discover that if you dried and ground the grains and added liquid could you bake it over a fire to create bread. Many believe that humans first learned to bake bread as early as 10,000 BC, though the Ancient Egyptians are viewed as the first to perfect it roughly 6,000 years ago. After becoming wildly popular throughout Ancient Egypt, the practice of baking bread quickly spread throughout the region and beyond. Bread would continue to evolve and become part of almost every culture on earth. The significance of bread’s arrival wasn’t lost on the world’s major religions. Many viewed it as nothing short of a gift from heaven and bread quickly became part of religious writings, sayings and rituals. You can find references to bread throughout the Bible in both the Old and New Testaments where it is hailed as being a gift from God and even the body of Christ himself. Even the birthplace of Jesus – Bethlehem – translates from Hebrew to mean the House of Bread. Islam is similarly enamoured with bread, as is shown through the works of Rumi, a prominent 13th Century Sufi mystic. Rumi famously dedicated a series of poems to bread in which he praises it as a mirror of life itself. Bread became so important to everyday life that in the middle Ages the rulings powers started to control it – they knew that without access to bread the masses would revolt. Regulations were brought in to control how bread was made, how much it could be sold for, and in many cases governments subsidized the cost of bread to keep prices low. To this day many countries still don’t tax bread as it is seen as a necessity of life. Despite all of the advancements of the modern world very little has changed when it comes to bread, particularly in the Middle East where it remains just as important as ever. We eat it with dips, such as hommus, it is a key element in salads, such as fattoush, and we have used it as a pizza-like base for manoosh for thousands of years. To us, life simply wouldn’t be the same without bread.	<urn:uuid:7cb66471-2ccb-436d-91de-43c621375266>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.manoosh.com.au/the-meaning-of-life-or-lebanese-bread/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00120.warc.gz	en	0.982852	612	3.296875	3	[ -0.32650721073150635, 0.7573826313018799, 0.11020930111408234, -0.17578203976154327, -0.6701596975326538, -0.06821845471858978, 0.08564811944961548, 0.21595153212547302, 0.01956932432949543, 0.04157973825931549, -0.41891685128211975, -0.41814976930618286, 0.06196963042020798, 0.23768541216...	10	The ancient philosopher, Pythagoras, once wrote that “The universe begins with bread.” While this might seem like a pretty big statement, there is no doubt that bread has had a massive impact on humanity. Wars have been fought over it, uprisings have been sparked by its price, and people have survived for long periods of time on nothing but bread and water. The relationship between humans and wheat – bread’s key ingredient – goes back thousands of years to hunter-gatherer times. Wheat is known to have grown on several continents in ancient times, though it thrived most in an area known as the Fertile Crescent, a region that includes parts of modern day Lebanon, Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Palestine and Israel. It is believed that early humans first chewed wheat for its nutritional value. Only much later did they discover that if you dried and ground the grains and added liquid could you bake it over a fire to create bread. Many believe that humans first learned to bake bread as early as 10,000 BC, though the Ancient Egyptians are viewed as the first to perfect it roughly 6,000 years ago. After becoming wildly popular throughout Ancient Egypt, the practice of baking bread quickly spread throughout the region and beyond. Bread would continue to evolve and become part of almost every culture on earth. The significance of bread’s arrival wasn’t lost on the world’s major religions. Many viewed it as nothing short of a gift from heaven and bread quickly became part of religious writings, sayings and rituals. You can find references to bread throughout the Bible in both the Old and New Testaments where it is hailed as being a gift from God and even the body of Christ himself. Even the birthplace of Jesus – Bethlehem – translates from Hebrew to mean the House of Bread. Islam is similarly enamoured with bread, as is shown through the works of Rumi, a prominent 13th Century Sufi mystic. Rumi famously dedicated a series of poems to bread in which he praises it as a mirror of life itself. Bread became so important to everyday life that in the middle Ages the rulings powers started to control it – they knew that without access to bread the masses would revolt. Regulations were brought in to control how bread was made, how much it could be sold for, and in many cases governments subsidized the cost of bread to keep prices low. To this day many countries still don’t tax bread as it is seen as a necessity of life. Despite all of the advancements of the modern world very little has changed when it comes to bread, particularly in the Middle East where it remains just as important as ever. We eat it with dips, such as hommus, it is a key element in salads, such as fattoush, and we have used it as a pizza-like base for manoosh for thousands of years. To us, life simply wouldn’t be the same without bread.	596	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 25/01/2012) The socio-religious movements in Bengal during the British period are considered some of the most important and influential events in the history of India. Most of the socio-religious movements in Bengal were led by the English educated Indian elite people clustered in Calcutta. They mostly opposed the evil rituals practised in Hinduism and other religions and tried to eliminate the malevolent rituals to offer religion the desired contour. The major socio-religious movements in Bengal related to Hinduism included the Brahmo Samaj movement, Arya Samaj movement, Ramkrishna Mission, Theosophical movement, etc. On the other hand, the religious movements relating to Islam included the Ahmadiyya movement, Faraizi movement, etc. The Brahmo Samaj movement was one of the most prominent socio-religious movements in Bengal during the British period. The movement was led by the eminent educationalist and social reformer, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, who strongly opposed the evil rituals of Hinduism like Sati. He also propagated the idea of worshipping only one God, who is omnipresent. He also denied worshiping the God under any name or designation or title. The Arya Samaj movement was another prominent socio-religious movement in Bengal. This movement was started and led by Dayananda Saraswati and one of the most important features of this movement was the Shuddhi movement. This was a ritual developed by the Aryas to readmit the lower caste Hindus, who were converted into Islam or Christianity. The Arya Samaj also actively opposed the evil rituals that were practised in Hinduism and supported the cause of women education. The Samaj established educational institutions for providing education to the women at various levels as well. Ramkrishna Mission played am important part in the socio religious movement in Bengal. The Mission was established by Swami Vivekananda, who followed and publicised the visions and ideas of Ramkrishna Paramhansha Dev. Vivekananda emphasised mainly on social service and on fulfillment and reorientation of Ramakrishna's wishes. He was true to the traditions of Hinduism and established the Ramkrishna Math that still works for serving the humanity. The Theosophical movement was also an important socio-religious movement in Bengal during the British period. The movement was mainly inspired from outside India and was politically ambiguous. There were also a few socio-religious movements in Bengal during the British period, which dealt with the problems of Islam. The Socio-religious movements among Bengali Muslims drew upon the dynamics of that society for their motivation. The Ahmadiyya movement and Faraizi movement were the two most influential movements among the Islam-related religious movements. The Ahmadiyya movement was formed in Punjab and was started by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. He started to proclaim a mission as Masih Maw'ud (promised Messiah), Mtgaddid (restorer) and Mahdi (guide) and he also endowed himself with powers of prophet hood. He directed his campaign against some well-known Sunni Ulama of the Deoband and Ahl-i Hadith movements that were increasingly influential among Sunnis in the region. He also opposed the increasing influence of the Christian missionaries in the region. The supporters of Ahmadiyya movement described them as a distinct religious community and also claimed that they were the only upholders of 'true Islam'. The Faraizi movement was a prominent religious reform movement and was founded by Haji Shariatullah during the nineteenth century. The Faraizis were those who had the only objective of implementing and imposing the mandatory religious duties ordained by Allah. Hazi Shariatullah believed that the Faraizis should imply to assimilate every religious duty ordained by the Holy Quran and also by the Sunnah of the Prophet. Besides Hazi Shariatullah, Dudu Miyan and Naya Miyan were the two other prominent leaders of the Faraizi movement. The socio religious movements made huge impacts on the Indian society and also became successful to eradicate some of the evil rituals that were practised in various religions during that period. The movements were also an integral part of Bengal renaissance during the eighteenth and nineteenth century.	<urn:uuid:043acaf2-73d5-4a84-9c2c-472a1328bc03>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indianetzone.com/42/socioreligious_movements_bengal.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00408.warc.gz	en	0.980022	874	3.625	4	[ 0.34396666288375854, 0.023381978273391724, -0.135223388671875, -0.53862065076828, -0.27439719438552856, 0.23956561088562012, -0.05872517451643944, -0.23664072155952454, 0.28018873929977417, -0.047570981085300446, -0.29394665360450745, -0.3800433874130249, 0.09440005570650101, 0.12390843033...	1	(Last Updated on : 25/01/2012) The socio-religious movements in Bengal during the British period are considered some of the most important and influential events in the history of India. Most of the socio-religious movements in Bengal were led by the English educated Indian elite people clustered in Calcutta. They mostly opposed the evil rituals practised in Hinduism and other religions and tried to eliminate the malevolent rituals to offer religion the desired contour. The major socio-religious movements in Bengal related to Hinduism included the Brahmo Samaj movement, Arya Samaj movement, Ramkrishna Mission, Theosophical movement, etc. On the other hand, the religious movements relating to Islam included the Ahmadiyya movement, Faraizi movement, etc. The Brahmo Samaj movement was one of the most prominent socio-religious movements in Bengal during the British period. The movement was led by the eminent educationalist and social reformer, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, who strongly opposed the evil rituals of Hinduism like Sati. He also propagated the idea of worshipping only one God, who is omnipresent. He also denied worshiping the God under any name or designation or title. The Arya Samaj movement was another prominent socio-religious movement in Bengal. This movement was started and led by Dayananda Saraswati and one of the most important features of this movement was the Shuddhi movement. This was a ritual developed by the Aryas to readmit the lower caste Hindus, who were converted into Islam or Christianity. The Arya Samaj also actively opposed the evil rituals that were practised in Hinduism and supported the cause of women education. The Samaj established educational institutions for providing education to the women at various levels as well. Ramkrishna Mission played am important part in the socio religious movement in Bengal. The Mission was established by Swami Vivekananda, who followed and publicised the visions and ideas of Ramkrishna Paramhansha Dev. Vivekananda emphasised mainly on social service and on fulfillment and reorientation of Ramakrishna's wishes. He was true to the traditions of Hinduism and established the Ramkrishna Math that still works for serving the humanity. The Theosophical movement was also an important socio-religious movement in Bengal during the British period. The movement was mainly inspired from outside India and was politically ambiguous. There were also a few socio-religious movements in Bengal during the British period, which dealt with the problems of Islam. The Socio-religious movements among Bengali Muslims drew upon the dynamics of that society for their motivation. The Ahmadiyya movement and Faraizi movement were the two most influential movements among the Islam-related religious movements. The Ahmadiyya movement was formed in Punjab and was started by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. He started to proclaim a mission as Masih Maw'ud (promised Messiah), Mtgaddid (restorer) and Mahdi (guide) and he also endowed himself with powers of prophet hood. He directed his campaign against some well-known Sunni Ulama of the Deoband and Ahl-i Hadith movements that were increasingly influential among Sunnis in the region. He also opposed the increasing influence of the Christian missionaries in the region. The supporters of Ahmadiyya movement described them as a distinct religious community and also claimed that they were the only upholders of 'true Islam'. The Faraizi movement was a prominent religious reform movement and was founded by Haji Shariatullah during the nineteenth century. The Faraizis were those who had the only objective of implementing and imposing the mandatory religious duties ordained by Allah. Hazi Shariatullah believed that the Faraizis should imply to assimilate every religious duty ordained by the Holy Quran and also by the Sunnah of the Prophet. Besides Hazi Shariatullah, Dudu Miyan and Naya Miyan were the two other prominent leaders of the Faraizi movement. The socio religious movements made huge impacts on the Indian society and also became successful to eradicate some of the evil rituals that were practised in various religions during that period. The movements were also an integral part of Bengal renaissance during the eighteenth and nineteenth century.	875	ENGLISH	1
In early September 1781, General Sir Henry Clinton, the British Commander in Chief in America, found himself facing a combined Franco-American force poised to attack his stronghold in New York. Or so he believed. Purposely deceived by the allies that an attack was forthcoming, he eventually decided that his only option was to make a diversionary attack against the Connecticut coastline. This was an effort to draw away attention, anticipated reinforcements, and supplies that would come from the neighboring state. His eventual target would be New London. Located nearly ninety miles to the east of New York, its harbor was a thriving American seaport that had earned the reputation of being “the most detestable nest of pirates on the continent,” due to the number of American privateers that operated out of it. Clinton dispatched a British force of 1,700 men under the command of Brig. General Benedict Arnold which appeared offshore on the morning of September 6th and were able to land then marched inland, secured the town, set it ablaze and then returned back to their shipping almost uncontested. Now, nearly a year later, in August 1782, Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull ordered a court martial to be convened in the towns of New London and nearby Groton to investigate the actions of ten local militia officers. He wanted answers regarding their decisions and actions during the raid. They needed to be held accountable for what had happened. Called to trial were two colonels, two lieutenant colonels, one major, three captains, one lieutenant, and one ensign, all belonging to the two local militia regiments. Only four officers would be found guilty of the charges against them, the highest ranking and most well known locally was forty-one year old, Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Harris Jr, the second-in-command of the Third Connecticut Militia. Harris’ decisions and actions led him to take the fall for the actions of the militia who served under his command for much of the morning phase of the fighting on the west bank of the Thames River. He has been most often remembered to historians as a coward. This is partly because of the description given by Jonathan Brooks, a twelve-year old participant of the fighting, who penned a narrative of the events that day later in his life. In it, Brooks claimed that as they were gathering to resist the British approach towards New London, Harris rode up to them and when asked for orders, replied that he had “a violent sick-headache” and could not sit on his horse. He then promptly rode off abandoning them. Harris “came [as a] prisoner before the Court, when the following charges were exhibited against him: That on the day when the British burned the town he was shamefully negligent in his military duty, and guilty of acting a cowardly part.” He was then brought up on five underlying charges, all dealing with his own incompetence on the battlefield. Unfortunately, no surviving records of the court martial are known to still exist. Very little has been known about Harris’ orders, decisions or actions, except what was written by Brooks or a few other penned narratives. However, a recently discovered letter, written by Harris himself, about five months before the trial concluded, provides these additional valuable details into understanding his decisions and actions. The letter was published in the New London based Connecticut Gazette on May 2, 1783, over a year after the court passed its ruling. Harris had written the letter much earlier as he attempted to publically defend himself and his reputation in front of the courts eventual ruling, but it is not known why it took so long for his letter to be released to the public. Born into a prominent New London family, Harris, a very well-known and active lawyer, had served for several decades in the local militia, just like his father had before him. At the outset of the war, he held the rank of captain and commanded the First Company in the local Third Connecticut Militia, which was comprised of companies from New London and nearby Lyme. He received no formal militia training, and unlike many other officers in the regiment did not see any active service during the French and Indian War. In October, 1776, while many in his regiment were drafted and sent to New York to assist George Washington’s Continental Army, he remained home and received promotion to Major in the regiment, based primarily on the former major being promoted to active field command. In 1779, he was drafted by the Governor and Council of Safety to serve in a Connecticut militia battalion sent to Rhode Island, but saw no combat. Seven months before the raid on New London, he was again promoted, this time to lieutenant colonel, again based only on his seniority. The morning of the British approach, Harris was at his home atop Town Hill, located along a main road which approached New London from the south and nearly a mile and a half from the center of town. Awoken by the same alarm guns that alerted the rest of the town to the British, he like most of the town was not prepared for it. In his letter, he claimed, “I anticipate the question of every one, whether or not the surprise was not so compleat…” He then asserted that just after daybreak, he received orders from Lieutenant Colonel William Ledyard, the commandant of the harbor’s defenses, “to immediately procure some suitable person to send express to Col. [Jonathan] Latimer.” The fifty-seven year old Latimer was a hero of the Battle of Saratoga and also the colonel of the Third Regiment, Harris’ commanding officer. This seemingly simple task, for reasons not revealed publicly at the time, proved to be very difficult for him. Later found guilty of “not notifying his chief colonel of the enemy’s approach,” Harris attempted to explain that he had asked others to send word for him, but all had failed him, including the now deceased commander of Fort Trumbull, the main fortification on the New London side of the river. It would be almost two hours after receiving his initial order that a courier would finally be sent to bring the colonel, who lived in its North Parish (today’s Montville) almost ten miles away, to New London. However, by then the military situation had already deteriorated beyond quick correction due to Harris’ mismanagement. Harris’ next mistake that morning was to not rely on the already established alarm system for gathering militia. In the event of an alarm, the militia and other volunteers were to assemble on Manwaring Hill in the western end of town. Harris changed the gathering point early on. He ordered what militia had gathered to instead assemble near the courthouse in the center of town. He did this without communicating it to the other members or officers of the regiment. A militia captain who went to the pre-established alarm post a short time later, expected to find his company and others gathered but “found nobody thare.” Instead, he wandered around looking for information and did not find members of his company until just prior to the British landing. When Harris moved the assembly point, he also appointed Captain Richard Deshon, an officer in the regiment, to gather what volunteers he could and march them to the beach; about three miles south of town, where the British were expected to come ashore. But he again did this without telling the other officers of the regiment. To make matters worse, he never followed through to make sure the task had been completed. This failure led to the second charge of “Not opposing the entrance of the enemy into town” to be brought against him. While it was common practice during the time period for commanding officers not to directly lead their troops into combat, but rather to play an active role from behind, Harris failed at even this task. When approached just prior to the British landing, he was witnessed telling a party of volunteers to simply “go Down [to the beach] & make the best Defence you Can with what men you Can gitt.” He did not provide them any other orders. According to Captain John Hempsted, another officer in the regiment, when Hempsted passed over Town Hill with two other volunteers, they were to finally able to persuade Harris to ride down with them to the beach to oversee his men. But as soon as the British naval vessels began to shell the beach, Harris panicked and abruptly left his men behind. During his withdrawal, he met with the group mentioned in Jonathan Brooks’ narrative, referred to above. Excusing himself from the group, he rode back to Town Hill, which was also the site of a fort, known by the militia as Fort Nonsense. It had been given that name by the militia companies who had constructed it and who did not understand its purpose, which was to protect both the south and western land approaches to New London, but to also protect the rear of Fort Trumbull, a water battery protruding out into the Thames River. As the British approached the hill, Harris ordered the evacuation of the fort, but again did not communicate this to the militia attempting to protect it, a short distance to the south. Withdrawing again, but this time with a twelve-pounder field piece, he had ordered out of the fort, he rode this time to Manwaring Hill. When the British eventually approached this position about an hour later, Harris hid in the rear of the hill while they attacked, despite claiming in his letter, “that I was one of the three last [on the hill], and the other two were taken prisoners.” After retreating for the third time and having lost possession of the town, he was met with orders from Latimer at around noontime, who realizing the chaos that had ensued in his absence, ordered Harris to the rear to perform a support role. For the duration of the battle, Harris remained content under Latimer’s orders, he wrote that he was “to equip the men and send them forward, and no orders for me to proceed.” After the British occupied and began to set New London afire, Latimer would be able to establish a new command structure by creating a line of makeshift companies, headed by officers in the regiment. He then placed them along the hills north of New London. There they were to harass the British, but not to enter the town, until Latimer was able to gather more strength or he was presented with a favorable opportunity to attack. Harris’ new role was now only to direct forward newly arriving militia and other volunteers to Latimer’s newly established sectors. His actions here led to the third and fourth set of charges brought against him, of which he would be found guilty. These mainly dealt with him being accused of “not supporting a part of [his] regiment, and others engaged in battle with the enemy at the north end of the town” and allowing “the militia to remain strolling and unembodied upon the hill near to the place of action, in fair view of the enemy.” According to Harris, at this point, he was met with resistance by several members of his own regiment. At first, he delegated Major Christopher Darrow, a veteran of the First Connecticut Continental Regiment, who had resigned his commission the previous summer and returned home, to ride down and organize the militia and other volunteers to send them forward. But after seeing it was not getting done, Harris, according to his letter, rode down in person. Again he was met with stiff resistance. It is not known why they refused, whether they were demoralized because they lost the town or faith in their officers, but many, according to Harris, who refused to obey orders, had to be disarmed. The last charge, “In not falling upon and attacking the enemy at the favourable moment of their retreat,” Harris, in his defense, fell back to being under Latimer’s order with no orders from him to advance forward. Survivors, including Captain Robert Hallam, contended that they did not see Harris until the British had long retreated from New London. When the trial ended, the court found him guilty on all five charges. But they carefully worded their verdict to protect the public image of Harris, mindful of the possible public backlash if he were accused of neglect of duty due to secret loyalist sympathies. It “unanimously gave it as their opinion that Lieutenant-Colonel Harris has been and is a worthy member of society, and a good citizen in private life, but not suitably qualified for military service [and] that he was not guilty of any neglect of duty…from enmity or disaffection to the independence of the American states.” However, it was also “unanimously of opinion that he was and is guilty of the matter charged against him in [all five charges] and that the whole are proved and supported against him.” Harris was “cashiered as being a person unsuitable to sustain [his commission]” and summarily dismissed from the militia. The court’s ruling was entirely justified. Harris was unsuitable to maintaining his command, especially since there was always the fear that the British could return to New London and he would again assume a leadership role. His inexperience actively commanding troops, despite holding the rank of lieutenant colonel, led him to make many tragic errors throughout the morning phase of the Battle of New London that would ultimately result in the almost complete destruction of the town. His failure to send quick word to Latimer denied the local militia a badly needed, battle tested and capable leader. Latimer’s worth would be proven later as he was eventually able to bring order to the chaos that had ensued in his absence. Harris’ failure to recognize the importance of the established alarm system, by moving the assembly point into town without much communication challenged the ability for the militia to gain sufficient numbers earlier on in the fighting. His poor choice of tasking a subordinate officer to coordinate the initial defense of New London without any direct support from him would lead to its quick demise. His failure to coordinate and give direction to arriving militia and other volunteers led to the easy capture of the town. Harris had shown complete incompetence and should have never held command that day. Stripped of his rank near the close of the war, Harris returned to civilian life and resumed practicing law. Even though he was at fault, Harris remained defiant and refused to take responsibility for his actions. In his letter, he blames everyone except himself. He even went as far as to blame the entire command structure of his regiment for not assisting him. Reminding the public that “even if I had had a body of troops immediately at my command; however that may be, such was our situation at this point, that the chief colonel of the regiment, the major, the adjutant, the sergeant-major, the quarter-master and surgeon, were all out of town, and not one lived within nine miles of me.” The public never bought his reasoning. Believing that he was being made into the scapegoat, Harris was furious when he had been asked during the proceedings, if he had been intimidated at all that day. He answered, “that I was much engaged-acted with resolution-my conduct steady-not the least stuttered-and not more intimidated that any one of their honours then on the beach. All the above truths established in court by in contestable evidence, and at least prove to me that those against me are founded in malice entirely.” Though he believed his actions were honorable that day, the results showed otherwise. Henry Clinton, The American Rebellion: Sir Henry Clinton’s Narrative of his Campaigns, 1775-1782, ed. William B. Wilcox (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1954), 330. Connecticut Gazette. September 21, 1781. The report was originally published in the New York based loyalist newspaper Rivington’s Royal Gazette. William W. Harris, The Battle of Groton Heights: A Collection of Narratives, Official Reports, Records, etc. of the Storming of Fort Griswold, the Massacre of its Garrison, and the burning of New London by British Troops under the Command of Brig. General Benedict Arnold, on the Sixth of Sept., 1781, rev. Charles Allyn (New London, CT: Charles Allyn, 1882), 76. Harris, Groton Heights, 114. Charles J. Hoadly, ed., The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, 15 vols. (Hartford: Case, Lockwood, & Brainard Co., 1890), 10:318. Harris served as captain of the first company between 1754-1775. Charles J. Hoadly, ed., The Records of the State of Connecticut, 4 vols. (Hartford: Case, Lockwood, & Brainard Co., 1894-1942) 1:28. (Hereafter cited as Connecticut State Records.) Connecticut State Records, 2:399-401. The proclamation cited here states that a major for the militia regiment being raised will come from the Third State Militia Regiment. Harris is revealed as the officer drafted through Revolutionary War Records, XIII: 414-415, Connecticut State Library. Henry P. Johnston, ed., The Record of Connecticut Men in the Military and Naval Service During the War of the Revolution, 1775-1783. (Hartford, CT: Case, Lockwood, & Brainard Co., 1889), 432. Connecticut Gazette, May 2, 1783. Connecticut Gazette, May 2, 1783. Captain Adam Shapley, the commander of Fort Trumbull, was mortally wounded during the fighting at Fort Griswold on the east bank of the Thames River and had succumbed to his wounds on February 14, 1782. Harris, Groton Heights, 62. Harris, Groton Heights, 116. John Hempsted narrative, cited in Harris, Groton Heights, 62. Ibid, 62. Connecticut Gazette. May 2, 1783. Harris, Groton Heights, 66. Hempsted who was present during the attack on Manwaring Hill, later wrote that when he escaped to the rear of the hill, he was called over by a man, who turned out to be Harris. The request came as a surprise to him because he had not seen Harris since earlier that morning and did not even know he was there. Connecticut Gazette. May 2, 1783. Connecticut Gazette, May 2, 1783. Connecticut Gazette, May 2, 1783. Robert Hallam account of Sept. 6, 1781, undated, New London County Historical Society. Harris, Groton Heights, 117. Harris, Groton Heights, 117. Connecticut Gazette, May 2, 1783. Connecticut Gazette, May 2, 1783.	<urn:uuid:baeb0445-7a83-4966-9751-0b658c1e0955>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://allthingsliberty.com/2014/12/disastrous-leadership-lt-colonel-joseph-harris-at-the-battle-of-new-london/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00246.warc.gz	en	0.984866	3,894	3.359375	3	[ -0.2338903397321701, 0.20204821228981018, 0.305828332901001, -0.12600041925907135, -0.24715366959571838, 0.016561497002840042, 0.5270318984985352, -0.20846176147460938, -0.1279815435409546, -0.22234222292900085, 0.021524222567677498, 0.2062825858592987, 0.04959717020392418, 0.6017227768898...	7	In early September 1781, General Sir Henry Clinton, the British Commander in Chief in America, found himself facing a combined Franco-American force poised to attack his stronghold in New York. Or so he believed. Purposely deceived by the allies that an attack was forthcoming, he eventually decided that his only option was to make a diversionary attack against the Connecticut coastline. This was an effort to draw away attention, anticipated reinforcements, and supplies that would come from the neighboring state. His eventual target would be New London. Located nearly ninety miles to the east of New York, its harbor was a thriving American seaport that had earned the reputation of being “the most detestable nest of pirates on the continent,” due to the number of American privateers that operated out of it. Clinton dispatched a British force of 1,700 men under the command of Brig. General Benedict Arnold which appeared offshore on the morning of September 6th and were able to land then marched inland, secured the town, set it ablaze and then returned back to their shipping almost uncontested. Now, nearly a year later, in August 1782, Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull ordered a court martial to be convened in the towns of New London and nearby Groton to investigate the actions of ten local militia officers. He wanted answers regarding their decisions and actions during the raid. They needed to be held accountable for what had happened. Called to trial were two colonels, two lieutenant colonels, one major, three captains, one lieutenant, and one ensign, all belonging to the two local militia regiments. Only four officers would be found guilty of the charges against them, the highest ranking and most well known locally was forty-one year old, Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Harris Jr, the second-in-command of the Third Connecticut Militia. Harris’ decisions and actions led him to take the fall for the actions of the militia who served under his command for much of the morning phase of the fighting on the west bank of the Thames River. He has been most often remembered to historians as a coward. This is partly because of the description given by Jonathan Brooks, a twelve-year old participant of the fighting, who penned a narrative of the events that day later in his life. In it, Brooks claimed that as they were gathering to resist the British approach towards New London, Harris rode up to them and when asked for orders, replied that he had “a violent sick-headache” and could not sit on his horse. He then promptly rode off abandoning them. Harris “came [as a] prisoner before the Court, when the following charges were exhibited against him: That on the day when the British burned the town he was shamefully negligent in his military duty, and guilty of acting a cowardly part.” He was then brought up on five underlying charges, all dealing with his own incompetence on the battlefield. Unfortunately, no surviving records of the court martial are known to still exist. Very little has been known about Harris’ orders, decisions or actions, except what was written by Brooks or a few other penned narratives. However, a recently discovered letter, written by Harris himself, about five months before the trial concluded, provides these additional valuable details into understanding his decisions and actions. The letter was published in the New London based Connecticut Gazette on May 2, 1783, over a year after the court passed its ruling. Harris had written the letter much earlier as he attempted to publically defend himself and his reputation in front of the courts eventual ruling, but it is not known why it took so long for his letter to be released to the public. Born into a prominent New London family, Harris, a very well-known and active lawyer, had served for several decades in the local militia, just like his father had before him. At the outset of the war, he held the rank of captain and commanded the First Company in the local Third Connecticut Militia, which was comprised of companies from New London and nearby Lyme. He received no formal militia training, and unlike many other officers in the regiment did not see any active service during the French and Indian War. In October, 1776, while many in his regiment were drafted and sent to New York to assist George Washington’s Continental Army, he remained home and received promotion to Major in the regiment, based primarily on the former major being promoted to active field command. In 1779, he was drafted by the Governor and Council of Safety to serve in a Connecticut militia battalion sent to Rhode Island, but saw no combat. Seven months before the raid on New London, he was again promoted, this time to lieutenant colonel, again based only on his seniority. The morning of the British approach, Harris was at his home atop Town Hill, located along a main road which approached New London from the south and nearly a mile and a half from the center of town. Awoken by the same alarm guns that alerted the rest of the town to the British, he like most of the town was not prepared for it. In his letter, he claimed, “I anticipate the question of every one, whether or not the surprise was not so compleat…” He then asserted that just after daybreak, he received orders from Lieutenant Colonel William Ledyard, the commandant of the harbor’s defenses, “to immediately procure some suitable person to send express to Col. [Jonathan] Latimer.” The fifty-seven year old Latimer was a hero of the Battle of Saratoga and also the colonel of the Third Regiment, Harris’ commanding officer. This seemingly simple task, for reasons not revealed publicly at the time, proved to be very difficult for him. Later found guilty of “not notifying his chief colonel of the enemy’s approach,” Harris attempted to explain that he had asked others to send word for him, but all had failed him, including the now deceased commander of Fort Trumbull, the main fortification on the New London side of the river. It would be almost two hours after receiving his initial order that a courier would finally be sent to bring the colonel, who lived in its North Parish (today’s Montville) almost ten miles away, to New London. However, by then the military situation had already deteriorated beyond quick correction due to Harris’ mismanagement. Harris’ next mistake that morning was to not rely on the already established alarm system for gathering militia. In the event of an alarm, the militia and other volunteers were to assemble on Manwaring Hill in the western end of town. Harris changed the gathering point early on. He ordered what militia had gathered to instead assemble near the courthouse in the center of town. He did this without communicating it to the other members or officers of the regiment. A militia captain who went to the pre-established alarm post a short time later, expected to find his company and others gathered but “found nobody thare.” Instead, he wandered around looking for information and did not find members of his company until just prior to the British landing. When Harris moved the assembly point, he also appointed Captain Richard Deshon, an officer in the regiment, to gather what volunteers he could and march them to the beach; about three miles south of town, where the British were expected to come ashore. But he again did this without telling the other officers of the regiment. To make matters worse, he never followed through to make sure the task had been completed. This failure led to the second charge of “Not opposing the entrance of the enemy into town” to be brought against him. While it was common practice during the time period for commanding officers not to directly lead their troops into combat, but rather to play an active role from behind, Harris failed at even this task. When approached just prior to the British landing, he was witnessed telling a party of volunteers to simply “go Down [to the beach] & make the best Defence you Can with what men you Can gitt.” He did not provide them any other orders. According to Captain John Hempsted, another officer in the regiment, when Hempsted passed over Town Hill with two other volunteers, they were to finally able to persuade Harris to ride down with them to the beach to oversee his men. But as soon as the British naval vessels began to shell the beach, Harris panicked and abruptly left his men behind. During his withdrawal, he met with the group mentioned in Jonathan Brooks’ narrative, referred to above. Excusing himself from the group, he rode back to Town Hill, which was also the site of a fort, known by the militia as Fort Nonsense. It had been given that name by the militia companies who had constructed it and who did not understand its purpose, which was to protect both the south and western land approaches to New London, but to also protect the rear of Fort Trumbull, a water battery protruding out into the Thames River. As the British approached the hill, Harris ordered the evacuation of the fort, but again did not communicate this to the militia attempting to protect it, a short distance to the south. Withdrawing again, but this time with a twelve-pounder field piece, he had ordered out of the fort, he rode this time to Manwaring Hill. When the British eventually approached this position about an hour later, Harris hid in the rear of the hill while they attacked, despite claiming in his letter, “that I was one of the three last [on the hill], and the other two were taken prisoners.” After retreating for the third time and having lost possession of the town, he was met with orders from Latimer at around noontime, who realizing the chaos that had ensued in his absence, ordered Harris to the rear to perform a support role. For the duration of the battle, Harris remained content under Latimer’s orders, he wrote that he was “to equip the men and send them forward, and no orders for me to proceed.” After the British occupied and began to set New London afire, Latimer would be able to establish a new command structure by creating a line of makeshift companies, headed by officers in the regiment. He then placed them along the hills north of New London. There they were to harass the British, but not to enter the town, until Latimer was able to gather more strength or he was presented with a favorable opportunity to attack. Harris’ new role was now only to direct forward newly arriving militia and other volunteers to Latimer’s newly established sectors. His actions here led to the third and fourth set of charges brought against him, of which he would be found guilty. These mainly dealt with him being accused of “not supporting a part of [his] regiment, and others engaged in battle with the enemy at the north end of the town” and allowing “the militia to remain strolling and unembodied upon the hill near to the place of action, in fair view of the enemy.” According to Harris, at this point, he was met with resistance by several members of his own regiment. At first, he delegated Major Christopher Darrow, a veteran of the First Connecticut Continental Regiment, who had resigned his commission the previous summer and returned home, to ride down and organize the militia and other volunteers to send them forward. But after seeing it was not getting done, Harris, according to his letter, rode down in person. Again he was met with stiff resistance. It is not known why they refused, whether they were demoralized because they lost the town or faith in their officers, but many, according to Harris, who refused to obey orders, had to be disarmed. The last charge, “In not falling upon and attacking the enemy at the favourable moment of their retreat,” Harris, in his defense, fell back to being under Latimer’s order with no orders from him to advance forward. Survivors, including Captain Robert Hallam, contended that they did not see Harris until the British had long retreated from New London. When the trial ended, the court found him guilty on all five charges. But they carefully worded their verdict to protect the public image of Harris, mindful of the possible public backlash if he were accused of neglect of duty due to secret loyalist sympathies. It “unanimously gave it as their opinion that Lieutenant-Colonel Harris has been and is a worthy member of society, and a good citizen in private life, but not suitably qualified for military service [and] that he was not guilty of any neglect of duty…from enmity or disaffection to the independence of the American states.” However, it was also “unanimously of opinion that he was and is guilty of the matter charged against him in [all five charges] and that the whole are proved and supported against him.” Harris was “cashiered as being a person unsuitable to sustain [his commission]” and summarily dismissed from the militia. The court’s ruling was entirely justified. Harris was unsuitable to maintaining his command, especially since there was always the fear that the British could return to New London and he would again assume a leadership role. His inexperience actively commanding troops, despite holding the rank of lieutenant colonel, led him to make many tragic errors throughout the morning phase of the Battle of New London that would ultimately result in the almost complete destruction of the town. His failure to send quick word to Latimer denied the local militia a badly needed, battle tested and capable leader. Latimer’s worth would be proven later as he was eventually able to bring order to the chaos that had ensued in his absence. Harris’ failure to recognize the importance of the established alarm system, by moving the assembly point into town without much communication challenged the ability for the militia to gain sufficient numbers earlier on in the fighting. His poor choice of tasking a subordinate officer to coordinate the initial defense of New London without any direct support from him would lead to its quick demise. His failure to coordinate and give direction to arriving militia and other volunteers led to the easy capture of the town. Harris had shown complete incompetence and should have never held command that day. Stripped of his rank near the close of the war, Harris returned to civilian life and resumed practicing law. Even though he was at fault, Harris remained defiant and refused to take responsibility for his actions. In his letter, he blames everyone except himself. He even went as far as to blame the entire command structure of his regiment for not assisting him. Reminding the public that “even if I had had a body of troops immediately at my command; however that may be, such was our situation at this point, that the chief colonel of the regiment, the major, the adjutant, the sergeant-major, the quarter-master and surgeon, were all out of town, and not one lived within nine miles of me.” The public never bought his reasoning. Believing that he was being made into the scapegoat, Harris was furious when he had been asked during the proceedings, if he had been intimidated at all that day. He answered, “that I was much engaged-acted with resolution-my conduct steady-not the least stuttered-and not more intimidated that any one of their honours then on the beach. All the above truths established in court by in contestable evidence, and at least prove to me that those against me are founded in malice entirely.” Though he believed his actions were honorable that day, the results showed otherwise. Henry Clinton, The American Rebellion: Sir Henry Clinton’s Narrative of his Campaigns, 1775-1782, ed. William B. Wilcox (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1954), 330. Connecticut Gazette. September 21, 1781. The report was originally published in the New York based loyalist newspaper Rivington’s Royal Gazette. William W. Harris, The Battle of Groton Heights: A Collection of Narratives, Official Reports, Records, etc. of the Storming of Fort Griswold, the Massacre of its Garrison, and the burning of New London by British Troops under the Command of Brig. General Benedict Arnold, on the Sixth of Sept., 1781, rev. Charles Allyn (New London, CT: Charles Allyn, 1882), 76. Harris, Groton Heights, 114. Charles J. Hoadly, ed., The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, 15 vols. (Hartford: Case, Lockwood, & Brainard Co., 1890), 10:318. Harris served as captain of the first company between 1754-1775. Charles J. Hoadly, ed., The Records of the State of Connecticut, 4 vols. (Hartford: Case, Lockwood, & Brainard Co., 1894-1942) 1:28. (Hereafter cited as Connecticut State Records.) Connecticut State Records, 2:399-401. The proclamation cited here states that a major for the militia regiment being raised will come from the Third State Militia Regiment. Harris is revealed as the officer drafted through Revolutionary War Records, XIII: 414-415, Connecticut State Library. Henry P. Johnston, ed., The Record of Connecticut Men in the Military and Naval Service During the War of the Revolution, 1775-1783. (Hartford, CT: Case, Lockwood, & Brainard Co., 1889), 432. Connecticut Gazette, May 2, 1783. Connecticut Gazette, May 2, 1783. Captain Adam Shapley, the commander of Fort Trumbull, was mortally wounded during the fighting at Fort Griswold on the east bank of the Thames River and had succumbed to his wounds on February 14, 1782. Harris, Groton Heights, 62. Harris, Groton Heights, 116. John Hempsted narrative, cited in Harris, Groton Heights, 62. Ibid, 62. Connecticut Gazette. May 2, 1783. Harris, Groton Heights, 66. Hempsted who was present during the attack on Manwaring Hill, later wrote that when he escaped to the rear of the hill, he was called over by a man, who turned out to be Harris. The request came as a surprise to him because he had not seen Harris since earlier that morning and did not even know he was there. Connecticut Gazette. May 2, 1783. Connecticut Gazette, May 2, 1783. Connecticut Gazette, May 2, 1783. Robert Hallam account of Sept. 6, 1781, undated, New London County Historical Society. Harris, Groton Heights, 117. Harris, Groton Heights, 117. Connecticut Gazette, May 2, 1783. Connecticut Gazette, May 2, 1783.	3,952	ENGLISH	1
Cherokee - Why The Opossum's Tail Is Bare It must be remembered that the animals which appear in Indian myths and legends are not the same as those which exist now. When the world began, animals were much bigger, stronger and cleverer than their present counterparts but, because of man's cruelty and aggression, these left the earth and took the rainbow path to Galunlati, the Sky Land, where they still remain. The animals which came after them - those we know today - are but poor, weak imitations of those first creatures. In the beginning, before this happened, all living things - men, animals, plants and trees - spoke the same language and behaved in much the same way. Animals, like people, were organized into tribes. They had chiefs, lived in houses, held councils and ceremonies. Many animals had characteristics which we would not recognize today. The rabbit, for example, was fierce, bold and cunning, and a great mischief maker. It was through Rabbit's tricks that the deer lost his sharp wolf-like teeth, the buzzard his handsome topknot of feathers and the opossum his long, bushy tail. Opossum was very proud of his tail which, in those days, was covered with thick black fur. He spent long hours cleaning and brushing it and composing songs about its beauty and vigor. Sometimes, when he walked through the village, he carried his tail erect, like a banner rippling in the breeze. At other times, he swept it low behind him, like a train. It was useful as well as beautiful, for when Opossum lay down to sleep, he tucked it under him to make a soft bed, and in cold weather he folded it over his body to keep himself warm. Rabbit was very jealous of Opossum's tail. He, too, had once had a long bushy tail but, during the course of a a fight with Bear, he had lost most of it and now had only a short fluffy tuft. The sight of Opossum strutting before the other animals and swirling his tail ostentatiously, filled Rabbit with rage and he made up his mind to play a trick on him at the first opportunity. At this time, when the animals still lived harmoniously together, each had his appointed station and duty. Thus, Frog was leader in the council and Rabbit, because of his speed, was employed to carry messages and announcements to the others. As was their custom from time to time, the animals decided to hold a great council to discuss important matters and Rabbit, as usual, was given the task of arranging the gathering and delivering the invitations. Councils were also occasions for feasting and dancing and Rabbit saw a way of bringing about Opossum's downfall. When Rabbit arrived with the news of the meeting, Opossum was sitting by the door of his lodge engaged in his favorite occupation - grooming his tail. 'I come to call you to the great council tomorrow, brother Opossum,' said Rabbit. 'Will you attend and join in the dance ?' 'Only if I am given a special seat,' replied the conceited Opossum, carefully smoothing some untidy hairs at the tip of his tail. 'After all,' he went on, grinning maliciously at Rabbit, 'I have such a beautiful long tail that I ought to sit where everyone can see and admire it.' Rabbit was almost beside himself with fury, but he pretended not to notice the jibe and said, 'But of course, brother Opossum! I will personally see to it that you have the best seat in the council lodge, and I will also send someone to dress your tail specially for the dance.' Opossum was delighted by this suggestion and Rabbit left him singing the praises of his tail even more loudly than usual. Next, Rabbit called on the cricket, whom Indians call the barber, because of his fame as an expert hair-cutter. Cricket listened with growing amazement as Rabbit recounted his conversation with Opossum. Like all the other animals, he found Opossum's vanity and arrogance very tiresome. He began to protest, but Rabbit held up a paw and said, 'Wait a moment. I have a plan and I need your help. Listen...', and he dropped his voice as he told Cricket what he wanted him to do. Early next morning Cricket presented himself at Opossum's door and said that he had been sent by Rabbit to prepare the famous tail for the council that evening. Opossum made himself comfortable on the floor and stretched out his tail. Cricket began to comb it gently. 'I will wrap this red cord round your tail as I comb it,' he explained, 'so that it will remain smooth and neat for the dance tonight.' Opossum found Cricket's ministrations so soothing that he fell asleep, awakening just as Cricket was tying the final knot in the red cord which now completely swathed his tail. 'I will keep it bound up until the very last moment,' thought Opossum gleefully. 'How envious the others will be when I finally reveal it in all its beauty!' That evening, his tail still tightly wrapped in the red cord, Opossum marched into the council lodge and was led to his special seat by a strangely obsequious Rabbit. Soon it was time for the dancing to take place. The drums and rattles began to sound. Opossum stood up, loosened the cord from his tail and stepped proudly into the center of the dance floor. He began to sing. 'Look at my beautiful tail!' he sang as he circled the floor. 'See how it sweeps the ground!' There was a great shout from the audience and some of the animals began to applaud. 'How they admire me!' though Opossum and he continued dancing and singing loudly. 'See how my tail gleams in the firelight!' Again everyone shouted and cheered. Opossum began to have just the merest suspicion that all was not quite as it should be. Was there possibly a hint of mockery in their voices ? He dismissed such an absurd idea and continued dancing. 'My tail is stronger than the eagle's, more lustrous than the raven's!' At this the animals shrieked so loudly that Opossum stopped in his tracks and looked at them. To his astonishment and chagrin they were all convulsed with laughter, some leaning weakly on their neighbor's shoulders, others rolling on the ground in their mirth. Several were pointing at his tail. Bewildered, Opossum looked down and saw to his horror that his tail, his beautiful, thick, glossy tail, was now balk and scaly like that of a lizard. Nothing remained of its former glory. While pretending to comb it, the wily Cricket had snipped off every single lair. Opossum was so overcome with shame and confusion that he could not utter a sound. Instead he rolled over helplessly on his back, grimacing with embarrassment, just as opossums still do today, when taken by surprise.	<urn:uuid:04a39ff8-35a0-4ab9-9dee-8a0bb1925669>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nativeamericangenealogy.net/why-the-opossum-s-tail-is-bare	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00327.warc.gz	en	0.990205	1,479	3.765625	4	[ -0.10897448658943176, -0.03772836551070213, 0.30155858397483826, 0.1663985401391983, -0.22532784938812256, 0.07509227097034454, 0.5192947387695312, 0.19403371214866638, 0.21569886803627014, 0.16478843986988068, 0.16023945808410645, -0.45280295610427856, 0.3324599266052246, 0.30648994445800...	9	Cherokee - Why The Opossum's Tail Is Bare It must be remembered that the animals which appear in Indian myths and legends are not the same as those which exist now. When the world began, animals were much bigger, stronger and cleverer than their present counterparts but, because of man's cruelty and aggression, these left the earth and took the rainbow path to Galunlati, the Sky Land, where they still remain. The animals which came after them - those we know today - are but poor, weak imitations of those first creatures. In the beginning, before this happened, all living things - men, animals, plants and trees - spoke the same language and behaved in much the same way. Animals, like people, were organized into tribes. They had chiefs, lived in houses, held councils and ceremonies. Many animals had characteristics which we would not recognize today. The rabbit, for example, was fierce, bold and cunning, and a great mischief maker. It was through Rabbit's tricks that the deer lost his sharp wolf-like teeth, the buzzard his handsome topknot of feathers and the opossum his long, bushy tail. Opossum was very proud of his tail which, in those days, was covered with thick black fur. He spent long hours cleaning and brushing it and composing songs about its beauty and vigor. Sometimes, when he walked through the village, he carried his tail erect, like a banner rippling in the breeze. At other times, he swept it low behind him, like a train. It was useful as well as beautiful, for when Opossum lay down to sleep, he tucked it under him to make a soft bed, and in cold weather he folded it over his body to keep himself warm. Rabbit was very jealous of Opossum's tail. He, too, had once had a long bushy tail but, during the course of a a fight with Bear, he had lost most of it and now had only a short fluffy tuft. The sight of Opossum strutting before the other animals and swirling his tail ostentatiously, filled Rabbit with rage and he made up his mind to play a trick on him at the first opportunity. At this time, when the animals still lived harmoniously together, each had his appointed station and duty. Thus, Frog was leader in the council and Rabbit, because of his speed, was employed to carry messages and announcements to the others. As was their custom from time to time, the animals decided to hold a great council to discuss important matters and Rabbit, as usual, was given the task of arranging the gathering and delivering the invitations. Councils were also occasions for feasting and dancing and Rabbit saw a way of bringing about Opossum's downfall. When Rabbit arrived with the news of the meeting, Opossum was sitting by the door of his lodge engaged in his favorite occupation - grooming his tail. 'I come to call you to the great council tomorrow, brother Opossum,' said Rabbit. 'Will you attend and join in the dance ?' 'Only if I am given a special seat,' replied the conceited Opossum, carefully smoothing some untidy hairs at the tip of his tail. 'After all,' he went on, grinning maliciously at Rabbit, 'I have such a beautiful long tail that I ought to sit where everyone can see and admire it.' Rabbit was almost beside himself with fury, but he pretended not to notice the jibe and said, 'But of course, brother Opossum! I will personally see to it that you have the best seat in the council lodge, and I will also send someone to dress your tail specially for the dance.' Opossum was delighted by this suggestion and Rabbit left him singing the praises of his tail even more loudly than usual. Next, Rabbit called on the cricket, whom Indians call the barber, because of his fame as an expert hair-cutter. Cricket listened with growing amazement as Rabbit recounted his conversation with Opossum. Like all the other animals, he found Opossum's vanity and arrogance very tiresome. He began to protest, but Rabbit held up a paw and said, 'Wait a moment. I have a plan and I need your help. Listen...', and he dropped his voice as he told Cricket what he wanted him to do. Early next morning Cricket presented himself at Opossum's door and said that he had been sent by Rabbit to prepare the famous tail for the council that evening. Opossum made himself comfortable on the floor and stretched out his tail. Cricket began to comb it gently. 'I will wrap this red cord round your tail as I comb it,' he explained, 'so that it will remain smooth and neat for the dance tonight.' Opossum found Cricket's ministrations so soothing that he fell asleep, awakening just as Cricket was tying the final knot in the red cord which now completely swathed his tail. 'I will keep it bound up until the very last moment,' thought Opossum gleefully. 'How envious the others will be when I finally reveal it in all its beauty!' That evening, his tail still tightly wrapped in the red cord, Opossum marched into the council lodge and was led to his special seat by a strangely obsequious Rabbit. Soon it was time for the dancing to take place. The drums and rattles began to sound. Opossum stood up, loosened the cord from his tail and stepped proudly into the center of the dance floor. He began to sing. 'Look at my beautiful tail!' he sang as he circled the floor. 'See how it sweeps the ground!' There was a great shout from the audience and some of the animals began to applaud. 'How they admire me!' though Opossum and he continued dancing and singing loudly. 'See how my tail gleams in the firelight!' Again everyone shouted and cheered. Opossum began to have just the merest suspicion that all was not quite as it should be. Was there possibly a hint of mockery in their voices ? He dismissed such an absurd idea and continued dancing. 'My tail is stronger than the eagle's, more lustrous than the raven's!' At this the animals shrieked so loudly that Opossum stopped in his tracks and looked at them. To his astonishment and chagrin they were all convulsed with laughter, some leaning weakly on their neighbor's shoulders, others rolling on the ground in their mirth. Several were pointing at his tail. Bewildered, Opossum looked down and saw to his horror that his tail, his beautiful, thick, glossy tail, was now balk and scaly like that of a lizard. Nothing remained of its former glory. While pretending to comb it, the wily Cricket had snipped off every single lair. Opossum was so overcome with shame and confusion that he could not utter a sound. Instead he rolled over helplessly on his back, grimacing with embarrassment, just as opossums still do today, when taken by surprise.	1,449	ENGLISH	1
Five years have passed since the Great East Japan Earthquake of March 11, 2011, but I remember it like it was yesterday. The shaking may have lasted five minutes, but the earthquake's impact will be felt for many years to come. Much of the region's damaged infrastructure has been rebuilt and housing reconstruction continues, but more than 180,000 people remain in temporary accommodation. According to the central government, in addition to the death toll of almost 20,000 (with another 2,500 still unaccounted for), nearly 3,000 have died since of disaster-related causes, such as the stress of living in temporary shelters. The five-year "Concentrated Reconstruction Period" established by the government at a cost of about USD 250 billion is drawing to its close and a second five-year "Reconstruction and Revitalization Period" will follow. Full economic recovery for the region may take much longer still. The M9.0 earthquake was the strongest experienced since Japan began taking instrumental measurements about 120 years ago. It released as much energy as 32,000 M6.0 temblors or 600,000,000 Hiroshima bombs. It shifted the axis of Earth's rotation by redistributing its mass, and shortened the length of a day by about a microsecond. Near its epicenter, the Pacific Plate slid westward some 24 meters; a 180 km stretch of seabed was forced upward an average of 3–4 meters, and as much as 6–8 meters in places. Japan's main island, Honshu, moved eastward 2.4 meters and about 400 km of its coastline dropped 0.6 meters. Even in Japan, a country so accustomed to earthquakes and so sophisticated with respect to seismic risk, almost nobody anticipated such a massive event or the colossal tsunami that followed. Indeed, most of the damage experienced and most of the lives lost resulted from the tsunami. The Japan Meteorological Agency's warning scale classifies a 3 meter tsunami as a major event, and its observations of the Tohoku event show many areas to have been affected by waves of 1–3 meters. In some locations, however, much higher figures were recorded. Off Kamaishi, for example, waves of 6.8 meters were observed; off Sōma, waves of 7.3 meters or higher were noted. It was estimated that the tsunami reached up to 40.5 meters in Miyako in the Iwate Prefecture, meaning run-up heights could have been even greater. The tsunami penetrated up to 10 km inland and covered an area of about 560 km2. The numbers still amaze me. In addition to the huge loss of life, 45,700 buildings were destroyed, 144,300 structures damaged, and 230,000 automobiles and trucks were damaged or destroyed. About 4,000 roads, 78 bridges, and 29 railways were affected. Following the earthquake, 345 fires occurred in 12 prefectures, 40% of which were triggered by the tsunami. As I have done after other earthquakes, I traveled to the region to survey the damage. Transportation was challenging because so many roads were blocked with debris and closed; access was restricted to many areas. Finding accommodation was a problem, too, because so many hotels were closed due to the general lack of power and water. I was completely unprepared for the sheer scale of devastation that I encountered and the extent of the area impacted. It was so much worse than I had anticipated from what I had seen on television, seeming more like a war zone than the aftermath of a natural disaster. The enormous amount of building debris and the number of wrecked vehicles everywhere were staggering. An estimated 25 million tons of debris was generated in the three worst-affected prefectures, and another 5 million tons or so are thought to have been carried out to sea. Four years after the event, it was estimated that about 1 million tons was still lingering in the Pacific Ocean, and today some of it is still being washed up on North American shores. Fortunately, we were able to learn many lessons from the disaster. The Tohoku event was by far the most widely instrumented megaquake of all time and provided an unprecedented wealth of ground motion data, damage observations, and detailed claims data. It had important implications for understanding the complex network of plate boundaries and crustal faults that underlie Japan's islands and highlighted the importance of explicitly modeling earthquake-associated perils like tsunami and liquefaction. As a result, AIR Worldwide completed a major update to its earthquake model for Japan in 2013, the industry's first (and currently only) comprehensive model update following the earthquake. Japan is a seismically active region, with many low-intensity tremors taking place each year and significant destructive earthquakes striking several times each century. I hope that we will not experience anything like the Great East Japan Earthquake for a very long time to come.	<urn:uuid:d8a5e946-f2af-42e9-ba08-4d5ec57735f0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.air-worldwide.com/blog/posts/2016/3/tohoku-remembered/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00386.warc.gz	en	0.980599	994	3.453125	3	[ -0.3377765417098999, -0.17684969305992126, 0.2345450073480606, -0.1521259993314743, 0.13734330236911774, 0.25073689222335815, -0.4052502512931824, 0.29283878207206726, 0.09974033385515213, 0.2290242314338684, 0.3937087655067444, -0.06153036281466484, 0.39271169900894165, 0.5084937214851379...	8	Five years have passed since the Great East Japan Earthquake of March 11, 2011, but I remember it like it was yesterday. The shaking may have lasted five minutes, but the earthquake's impact will be felt for many years to come. Much of the region's damaged infrastructure has been rebuilt and housing reconstruction continues, but more than 180,000 people remain in temporary accommodation. According to the central government, in addition to the death toll of almost 20,000 (with another 2,500 still unaccounted for), nearly 3,000 have died since of disaster-related causes, such as the stress of living in temporary shelters. The five-year "Concentrated Reconstruction Period" established by the government at a cost of about USD 250 billion is drawing to its close and a second five-year "Reconstruction and Revitalization Period" will follow. Full economic recovery for the region may take much longer still. The M9.0 earthquake was the strongest experienced since Japan began taking instrumental measurements about 120 years ago. It released as much energy as 32,000 M6.0 temblors or 600,000,000 Hiroshima bombs. It shifted the axis of Earth's rotation by redistributing its mass, and shortened the length of a day by about a microsecond. Near its epicenter, the Pacific Plate slid westward some 24 meters; a 180 km stretch of seabed was forced upward an average of 3–4 meters, and as much as 6–8 meters in places. Japan's main island, Honshu, moved eastward 2.4 meters and about 400 km of its coastline dropped 0.6 meters. Even in Japan, a country so accustomed to earthquakes and so sophisticated with respect to seismic risk, almost nobody anticipated such a massive event or the colossal tsunami that followed. Indeed, most of the damage experienced and most of the lives lost resulted from the tsunami. The Japan Meteorological Agency's warning scale classifies a 3 meter tsunami as a major event, and its observations of the Tohoku event show many areas to have been affected by waves of 1–3 meters. In some locations, however, much higher figures were recorded. Off Kamaishi, for example, waves of 6.8 meters were observed; off Sōma, waves of 7.3 meters or higher were noted. It was estimated that the tsunami reached up to 40.5 meters in Miyako in the Iwate Prefecture, meaning run-up heights could have been even greater. The tsunami penetrated up to 10 km inland and covered an area of about 560 km2. The numbers still amaze me. In addition to the huge loss of life, 45,700 buildings were destroyed, 144,300 structures damaged, and 230,000 automobiles and trucks were damaged or destroyed. About 4,000 roads, 78 bridges, and 29 railways were affected. Following the earthquake, 345 fires occurred in 12 prefectures, 40% of which were triggered by the tsunami. As I have done after other earthquakes, I traveled to the region to survey the damage. Transportation was challenging because so many roads were blocked with debris and closed; access was restricted to many areas. Finding accommodation was a problem, too, because so many hotels were closed due to the general lack of power and water. I was completely unprepared for the sheer scale of devastation that I encountered and the extent of the area impacted. It was so much worse than I had anticipated from what I had seen on television, seeming more like a war zone than the aftermath of a natural disaster. The enormous amount of building debris and the number of wrecked vehicles everywhere were staggering. An estimated 25 million tons of debris was generated in the three worst-affected prefectures, and another 5 million tons or so are thought to have been carried out to sea. Four years after the event, it was estimated that about 1 million tons was still lingering in the Pacific Ocean, and today some of it is still being washed up on North American shores. Fortunately, we were able to learn many lessons from the disaster. The Tohoku event was by far the most widely instrumented megaquake of all time and provided an unprecedented wealth of ground motion data, damage observations, and detailed claims data. It had important implications for understanding the complex network of plate boundaries and crustal faults that underlie Japan's islands and highlighted the importance of explicitly modeling earthquake-associated perils like tsunami and liquefaction. As a result, AIR Worldwide completed a major update to its earthquake model for Japan in 2013, the industry's first (and currently only) comprehensive model update following the earthquake. Japan is a seismically active region, with many low-intensity tremors taking place each year and significant destructive earthquakes striking several times each century. I hope that we will not experience anything like the Great East Japan Earthquake for a very long time to come.	1,076	ENGLISH	1
Receiving and Translating the Book of Mormon \|It could be said that Mormon history starts with the translation of the Book of Mormon. On September 21, 1823, Joseph Smith, then seventeen years old, was in his bed praying when a light began to fill his room. A personage appeared in the light and began to speak to Joseph. He identified himself as a messenger from the presence of God, named Moroni. He told Joseph that God had a special mission for him to accomplish. The messenger then told Joseph of an ancient record buried in a nearby hill that contained an account of an ancient people who lived on the American continent. This record was engraved on gold plates and contained the everlasting gospel. Also buried with the plates were two stones in silver bows, attached to a breastplate, called the Urim and Thummim. God had prepared them for the purpose of translating the plates. After this, Joseph was shown the place where the plates were hidden, which was in a hill not far from Joseph’s home.After this night, every September for four years Joseph Smith was instructed to go to the Hill Cumorah to be taught by Moroni in preparation for his task. Finally, in September of 1827, Moroni gave the plates to Joseph to commence the translation. Emma, Joseph Smith’s wife, worked for a time as scribe during translation. The rumor of gold plates circulated through the region, and numerous attempts were made to steal the plates from Joseph.The attacks became so vicious, that Emma and Joseph went to stay with her family in Harmony, Pennsylvania. Martin Harris, a good friend of the Smith family, followed them to Harmony and acted as scribe for Joseph.After the translation was underway, Martin Harris asked Joseph if he could take what they had translated home to appease his family and show them the validity of what he and Joseph were doing. At the behest of Martin Harris, Joseph asked the Lord three times if sending the manuscript would be okay. Joseph was reluctant to do so, but he finally let Martin take the first 116 pages of the translation to show his family. While in Harris’ care, the manuscript was stolen. When Joseph found out, he was grief-stricken. As punishment, the gold plates and the Urim and Thummim were taken from him. Joseph sincerely repented of his mistake, and after a short period of time, the Lord forgave him.When the record was returned, the Lord instructed Joseph not to retranslate the lost material. Instead, Joseph was to translate from another section of the plates that covered the same period of time. The Lord had foreseen the loss of the 116 pages and inspired this second history in order to frustrate the designs of those who stole the manuscript. The Lord informed Joseph that men had the intention of altering it to show Joseph Smith a fraud when he attempted to retranslate. The retranslation would not match the original.In April of 1829 Oliver Cowdery began working as scribe for Joseph Smith. The translation proceeded more rapidly from that time forth. Persecutions resumed, so Joseph moved to Fayette, New York, and stayed in the home of David Whitmer. Translation continued until it was completed in July 1829. The golden plates and Urim and Thummim were then returned to the angel Moroni. The Lord chose several men to be witnesses to the translation of the Book of Mormon. Three witnesses–Martin Harris, Oliver Cowdery, and David Whitmer–were shown the gold plates by the angel who proclaimed its truth. Eight other witnesses, most from the Whitmer and Smith families, were shown the gold plates by Joseph Smith. The three witnesses and the eight witnesses signed their names as a testimony to the world of the authenticity of the Book of Mormon and it has been published in every Book of Mormon since the first edition in 1830. See also “The Translation Miracle of the Book of Mormon” by Elder Dellenbach	<urn:uuid:c61a8d03-1688-4f14-8350-a53a211b2349>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://prophetjosephsmith.org/index/life_joseph_smith/joseph_smith_timeline/1805-1830/joseph_smith_translation_book_of_mormon	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00157.warc.gz	en	0.983211	814	3.515625	4	[ -0.27292701601982117, 0.32870084047317505, 0.1155218556523323, -0.060560621321201324, -0.4337279498577118, -0.007788053713738918, 0.0490444153547287, 0.22175733745098114, -0.02423696033656597, 0.05848456174135208, 0.31802141666412354, 0.06286242604255676, 0.3331553339958191, -0.08956503868...	2	Receiving and Translating the Book of Mormon \|It could be said that Mormon history starts with the translation of the Book of Mormon. On September 21, 1823, Joseph Smith, then seventeen years old, was in his bed praying when a light began to fill his room. A personage appeared in the light and began to speak to Joseph. He identified himself as a messenger from the presence of God, named Moroni. He told Joseph that God had a special mission for him to accomplish. The messenger then told Joseph of an ancient record buried in a nearby hill that contained an account of an ancient people who lived on the American continent. This record was engraved on gold plates and contained the everlasting gospel. Also buried with the plates were two stones in silver bows, attached to a breastplate, called the Urim and Thummim. God had prepared them for the purpose of translating the plates. After this, Joseph was shown the place where the plates were hidden, which was in a hill not far from Joseph’s home.After this night, every September for four years Joseph Smith was instructed to go to the Hill Cumorah to be taught by Moroni in preparation for his task. Finally, in September of 1827, Moroni gave the plates to Joseph to commence the translation. Emma, Joseph Smith’s wife, worked for a time as scribe during translation. The rumor of gold plates circulated through the region, and numerous attempts were made to steal the plates from Joseph.The attacks became so vicious, that Emma and Joseph went to stay with her family in Harmony, Pennsylvania. Martin Harris, a good friend of the Smith family, followed them to Harmony and acted as scribe for Joseph.After the translation was underway, Martin Harris asked Joseph if he could take what they had translated home to appease his family and show them the validity of what he and Joseph were doing. At the behest of Martin Harris, Joseph asked the Lord three times if sending the manuscript would be okay. Joseph was reluctant to do so, but he finally let Martin take the first 116 pages of the translation to show his family. While in Harris’ care, the manuscript was stolen. When Joseph found out, he was grief-stricken. As punishment, the gold plates and the Urim and Thummim were taken from him. Joseph sincerely repented of his mistake, and after a short period of time, the Lord forgave him.When the record was returned, the Lord instructed Joseph not to retranslate the lost material. Instead, Joseph was to translate from another section of the plates that covered the same period of time. The Lord had foreseen the loss of the 116 pages and inspired this second history in order to frustrate the designs of those who stole the manuscript. The Lord informed Joseph that men had the intention of altering it to show Joseph Smith a fraud when he attempted to retranslate. The retranslation would not match the original.In April of 1829 Oliver Cowdery began working as scribe for Joseph Smith. The translation proceeded more rapidly from that time forth. Persecutions resumed, so Joseph moved to Fayette, New York, and stayed in the home of David Whitmer. Translation continued until it was completed in July 1829. The golden plates and Urim and Thummim were then returned to the angel Moroni. The Lord chose several men to be witnesses to the translation of the Book of Mormon. Three witnesses–Martin Harris, Oliver Cowdery, and David Whitmer–were shown the gold plates by the angel who proclaimed its truth. Eight other witnesses, most from the Whitmer and Smith families, were shown the gold plates by Joseph Smith. The three witnesses and the eight witnesses signed their names as a testimony to the world of the authenticity of the Book of Mormon and it has been published in every Book of Mormon since the first edition in 1830. See also “The Translation Miracle of the Book of Mormon” by Elder Dellenbach	821	ENGLISH	1
The Saint-Bonaventure church's history is intimately related to the convent of the Cordeliers whose it was a part. It was built originally in the 13th century. The current church was built in just two years between 1325 and 1327. It housed the remains of Jacques de Grolée, died on 4 May 1327, which is under the high altar, before being moved somewhere near the epistle in 1599. The church was consecrated on 18 September 1328 by the archbishop of Lyon, Pierre IV of Savoy, under the name of St. Francis of Assisi. The church was expanded from 1471 to 1484 and was then named Saint-Bonaventure. The choir was restored in 1607. It served as a granary grain after the French Revolution before being used to worship in 1806 to getting its current facade under the Cardinal Joseph Fesch's leadership. Around 1890, the church was cleared of the curia and buildings bordering it on its side, which allowed the expansion of the rue Grolée on its western flank.References: Medvedgrad is a medieval fortified town located on the south slopes of Medvednica mountain, approximately halfway from the Croatian capital Zagreb to the mountain top Sljeme. For defensive purposes it was built on a hill, Mali Plazur, that is a spur of the main ridge of the mountain that overlooks the city. On a clear day the castle can be seen from far away, especially the high main tower. Below the main tower of the castle is Oltar Domovine (Altar of the homeland) which is dedicated to Croatian soldiers killed in the Croatian War of Independence. In 1242, Mongols invaded Zagreb. The city was destroyed and burned to the ground. This prompted the building of Medvedgrad. Encouraged by Pope Innocent IV, Philip Türje, bishop of Zagreb, built the fortress between 1249 and 1254. It was later owned by bans of Slavonia. Notable Croatian and Hungarian poet and ban of Slavonia Janus Pannonius (Ivan Česmički) died in the Medvedgrad castle on March 27, 1472. The last Medvedgrad owners and inhabitants was the Gregorijanec family, who gained possession of Medvedgrad in 1562. In 1574, the walls of Medvedgrad were reinforced, but after the 1590 Neulengbach earthquake, the fortress was heavily damaged and ultimately abandoned. It remained in ruins until the late 20th century, when it was partly restored and now offers a panoramic view of the city from an altitude of over 500 meters.	<urn:uuid:fa5adf32-f132-4337-b9bb-e09bebc641a3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.spottinghistory.com/view/6359/saint-bonaventure-church/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00351.warc.gz	en	0.981189	555	3.328125	3	[ 0.2953355014324188, 0.28618931770324707, -0.012366345152258873, 0.058885570615530014, 0.04770607128739357, -0.2302606999874115, -0.19516292214393616, 0.6106802225112915, 0.08218596875667572, 0.10517238080501556, 0.05129710212349892, -0.5309976935386658, 0.24097615480422974, -0.063781678676...	1	The Saint-Bonaventure church's history is intimately related to the convent of the Cordeliers whose it was a part. It was built originally in the 13th century. The current church was built in just two years between 1325 and 1327. It housed the remains of Jacques de Grolée, died on 4 May 1327, which is under the high altar, before being moved somewhere near the epistle in 1599. The church was consecrated on 18 September 1328 by the archbishop of Lyon, Pierre IV of Savoy, under the name of St. Francis of Assisi. The church was expanded from 1471 to 1484 and was then named Saint-Bonaventure. The choir was restored in 1607. It served as a granary grain after the French Revolution before being used to worship in 1806 to getting its current facade under the Cardinal Joseph Fesch's leadership. Around 1890, the church was cleared of the curia and buildings bordering it on its side, which allowed the expansion of the rue Grolée on its western flank.References: Medvedgrad is a medieval fortified town located on the south slopes of Medvednica mountain, approximately halfway from the Croatian capital Zagreb to the mountain top Sljeme. For defensive purposes it was built on a hill, Mali Plazur, that is a spur of the main ridge of the mountain that overlooks the city. On a clear day the castle can be seen from far away, especially the high main tower. Below the main tower of the castle is Oltar Domovine (Altar of the homeland) which is dedicated to Croatian soldiers killed in the Croatian War of Independence. In 1242, Mongols invaded Zagreb. The city was destroyed and burned to the ground. This prompted the building of Medvedgrad. Encouraged by Pope Innocent IV, Philip Türje, bishop of Zagreb, built the fortress between 1249 and 1254. It was later owned by bans of Slavonia. Notable Croatian and Hungarian poet and ban of Slavonia Janus Pannonius (Ivan Česmički) died in the Medvedgrad castle on March 27, 1472. The last Medvedgrad owners and inhabitants was the Gregorijanec family, who gained possession of Medvedgrad in 1562. In 1574, the walls of Medvedgrad were reinforced, but after the 1590 Neulengbach earthquake, the fortress was heavily damaged and ultimately abandoned. It remained in ruins until the late 20th century, when it was partly restored and now offers a panoramic view of the city from an altitude of over 500 meters.	612	ENGLISH	1
Our “Today in History” posts are always free, but if you want to support the newsletter and get the full Foreign Exchanges experience you know what you have to do: Although he's well-regarded as a military leader for having retaken Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187, Saladin's military career was not without its setbacks. Richard the Lionheart handed him a couple of defeats during the Third Crusade, for example, though ultimately that crusade failed to achieve its goal. There's also the 1177 Battle of Montgisard, in which Saladin's first attempt at capturing Jerusalem was decisively ended in what is now central Israel by an outnumbered Crusader army under King Baldwin IV. Baldwin, by the way, is one of the most remarkable of all the Crusaders in my humble opinion—after all, they didn't call him the "Leper King" for fun. That he survived long enough to rule Jerusalem at all is pretty incredible; that he not only ruled, but was able to lead (successful) armies in the field is really astounding. Just how badly the Christians were outnumbered at Montgisard is anybody's guess, because medieval sources only count the number of knights in Baldwin's army, and that only amounted to something shy of about 400 men, many of them Knights Templar. Obviously Baldwin didn't defeat Saladin's army, variously listed at anywhere from around 8000 to 26,000 men, with 400 guys, and we know that medieval European armies included lots of fighters who were not knights, but nobody bothered to count those fighters in this case. Still, it seems likely that they were, in fact, pretty significantly outnumbered. They were so badly outnumbered that when Baldwin had previously attempted to stop Saladin's march toward Jerusalem at Ascalon, Saladin simply detached part of his army to occupy Baldwin and kept right on marching. "The Battle of Montgisard," by 19th century French painter Charles-Philippe Larivière; note Baldwin directing the battle from his litter, which seems not to actually reflect what happened (Wikimedia Commons) In fact, Saladin's overconfidence about the size of his own army seems to have been part of his undoing. Instead of making a beeline for Jerusalem, which was obviously the main prize both from a tactical and religious standpoint, he decided to take his time and nab a couple of the towns and fortresses along the way. Meanwhile, Baldwin was able to shake free of the troops Saladin left at Ascalon and go after the main body of the Ayyubid army. The two forces met somewhere near Ramla, a strategically important point that sat at the crossroads of the Cairo-Damascus highway and the main road from Jerusalem to its port at Jaffa (today it's an Israeli city of about 70,000 people). Saladin was preoccupied trying to dislodge his baggage train from a muddy patch, and the arrival of Baldwin and his army apparently took him totally by surprise. His army was scattered all over the place, some working on the baggage train and others out foraging for supplies and raiding in the countryside. Baldwin was no dummy, so there was no "let's do the honorable thing and wait for our enemy to get ready before we attack" nonsense—he ordered his men to attack immediately. We're told that Baldwin, as weakened as he was by his condition, fought right alongside his men, which, as it would for Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, had an inspiring effect on his army. Saladin managed to hop on the back of a fast camel and make a break for it, but his army was cut to pieces. His losses can't be accurately measured, but estimates are that he brought about one tenth of his army back to Egypt with him, and while some of the 90% he lost may have been due to desertion, I think it's safe to say that the vast majority were killed. Unfortunately for the Crusaders, Saladin's position in Egypt and Syria was a whole lot stronger than theirs in Jerusalem and the other Crusader states, and it only took him a couple of years (until 1179) to build up a new army and start harassing the Crusaders again. In 1182 he launched a new campaign to capture Jerusalem. Baldwin finally succumbed to his illness in 1185 and was eventually succeeded by a much less capable king, and as a result Saladin's efforts finally proved successful.	<urn:uuid:95933cc3-a5a9-40ef-8759-7a214ffaf4ed>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://fx.substack.com/p/today-in-middle-eastern-history-the-c68	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00180.warc.gz	en	0.989807	917	3.359375	3	[ -0.4249463677406311, 0.4161849915981293, 0.22132380306720734, -0.09691184759140015, -0.3788539469242096, -0.20871424674987793, 0.05960271507501602, 0.3824370801448822, 0.14914709329605103, 0.12985602021217346, -0.06038923189043999, -0.5170843005180359, 0.19541265070438385, -0.0430606380105...	3	Our “Today in History” posts are always free, but if you want to support the newsletter and get the full Foreign Exchanges experience you know what you have to do: Although he's well-regarded as a military leader for having retaken Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187, Saladin's military career was not without its setbacks. Richard the Lionheart handed him a couple of defeats during the Third Crusade, for example, though ultimately that crusade failed to achieve its goal. There's also the 1177 Battle of Montgisard, in which Saladin's first attempt at capturing Jerusalem was decisively ended in what is now central Israel by an outnumbered Crusader army under King Baldwin IV. Baldwin, by the way, is one of the most remarkable of all the Crusaders in my humble opinion—after all, they didn't call him the "Leper King" for fun. That he survived long enough to rule Jerusalem at all is pretty incredible; that he not only ruled, but was able to lead (successful) armies in the field is really astounding. Just how badly the Christians were outnumbered at Montgisard is anybody's guess, because medieval sources only count the number of knights in Baldwin's army, and that only amounted to something shy of about 400 men, many of them Knights Templar. Obviously Baldwin didn't defeat Saladin's army, variously listed at anywhere from around 8000 to 26,000 men, with 400 guys, and we know that medieval European armies included lots of fighters who were not knights, but nobody bothered to count those fighters in this case. Still, it seems likely that they were, in fact, pretty significantly outnumbered. They were so badly outnumbered that when Baldwin had previously attempted to stop Saladin's march toward Jerusalem at Ascalon, Saladin simply detached part of his army to occupy Baldwin and kept right on marching. "The Battle of Montgisard," by 19th century French painter Charles-Philippe Larivière; note Baldwin directing the battle from his litter, which seems not to actually reflect what happened (Wikimedia Commons) In fact, Saladin's overconfidence about the size of his own army seems to have been part of his undoing. Instead of making a beeline for Jerusalem, which was obviously the main prize both from a tactical and religious standpoint, he decided to take his time and nab a couple of the towns and fortresses along the way. Meanwhile, Baldwin was able to shake free of the troops Saladin left at Ascalon and go after the main body of the Ayyubid army. The two forces met somewhere near Ramla, a strategically important point that sat at the crossroads of the Cairo-Damascus highway and the main road from Jerusalem to its port at Jaffa (today it's an Israeli city of about 70,000 people). Saladin was preoccupied trying to dislodge his baggage train from a muddy patch, and the arrival of Baldwin and his army apparently took him totally by surprise. His army was scattered all over the place, some working on the baggage train and others out foraging for supplies and raiding in the countryside. Baldwin was no dummy, so there was no "let's do the honorable thing and wait for our enemy to get ready before we attack" nonsense—he ordered his men to attack immediately. We're told that Baldwin, as weakened as he was by his condition, fought right alongside his men, which, as it would for Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, had an inspiring effect on his army. Saladin managed to hop on the back of a fast camel and make a break for it, but his army was cut to pieces. His losses can't be accurately measured, but estimates are that he brought about one tenth of his army back to Egypt with him, and while some of the 90% he lost may have been due to desertion, I think it's safe to say that the vast majority were killed. Unfortunately for the Crusaders, Saladin's position in Egypt and Syria was a whole lot stronger than theirs in Jerusalem and the other Crusader states, and it only took him a couple of years (until 1179) to build up a new army and start harassing the Crusaders again. In 1182 he launched a new campaign to capture Jerusalem. Baldwin finally succumbed to his illness in 1185 and was eventually succeeded by a much less capable king, and as a result Saladin's efforts finally proved successful.	954	ENGLISH	1
The Significance Of The Plot Of Xenia Ancient Greece is known for its beautiful theaters and its skilled poets. One of the most famous ones at that time and famous even now is Homer. Nobody knows who he actually is but the works that he has created are far more than magnificent. The Odyssey and The Iliad are two poems that turned into myths, have actually been accepted as part of the history of the Greeks. The Odyssey is a story about a hero from the Trojan War who struggles to get home to his family and when he finally does he faces the suitors who he fights and defeats with the help of the gods and his son who he hasn’t seen for around twenty years. The gradual development of the plot, the actual, end of the book is easily noticed. A big role in that development plays hospitality or as Homer calls it the xenia. Odysseus’ journey on his way back to his island Ithaca contains numerous details about hospitality and what it is to be a good or a bad host. His voyage is based on the kindness and the warmth of the people. There are gods and humans, and giants that do not appreciate the hero but he deals with them and we meet with the actual plot of the story, his homecoming. Warmth and kindness are presented within every visit described in the book. Homer draws a very good picture of how guests are welcomed, what entertainment they are given and the way they are send on their way. The picture is filled with kindness and warmth. We could say that the kind of hospitality presented in the book is hardly seen today. The different steps of welcoming some one are really interesting. The host is bathed and fed right after his arrival no matter who he is. Hosts do not really present the question that identifies their guest until later on, after he has been well rested and entertained. A great example of this is when Telemachos and Athene, in the body of Mentor, visit Nestor. When Nestor sees the two men he has never seen before he has a feast with his sons and companions. In the sight of the strangers they all stand up and greet them. The first thing that is done is to find a place for the two guests on the table and to feed them. ” But when they had put aside their desire for eating and drinking, first to speak was the Gerenian horseman, Nestor: ‘Now is a better time to interrogate our guests and ask them who they are, now they have had the pleasure of eating'” In this quote we see some of the interesting customs of welcoming a guest. They are even more emphasized in the visit of Telemachos and Nestor’s son to Menelaus, in Sparta. More specifically in the words of Menelaus to his servant when he is asked if the strangers should be send away: ” Eteoneus, son of Boethoos, you were never a fool before, but now you are babbling nonsense, as a child would do. Surely we two have eaten much hospitality from other men before we came back here” Then he tells his servant to bring the guests to be feasted. Another great custom is seen when Menelaus sends Telemachos and Nestor’s son on their way. He gives them precious and expensive gifts. What is the reason for this customs? What is their meaning and significance? If this friendliness did not exist among the characters in the book, Odysseus would never be able to go to his homeland, Ithaca. There would not have been a homecoming that long, and may be the plot of the story would have been different, if Homer did not introduce the detaining of Odysseus at Kalypso’s island. The goddess is in love with the mortal and for a long time tries to persuade him to be her husband, only the will of the hero is to go back to his wife and already grown son. Even though holding him against his will, Kalypso is a very good hostess. She never harms Odysseus’s. She cooks for him and bathes him but never uses her powers in a negative way. She even promises that she would make him immortal if he marries her. There is warmth and kindness again, the two important elements of xenia. The time spend on Kalypso’s island helps pieces of the story, other than Odysseus’ journey home and important for its plot, to be developed. Really significant are the Phaiakians. Without their help Odysseus would have never been home in time to organize the murder of the foolish suitors and take his place as a leader of the Ithacans. Alkinoos and Arete, king and queen of the Phaiakians, show such good hospitality. They entertain and feed the tired and 1- Book III, lines 67-70 2- Book IV, lines 30-36 lost hero and help him rest. The customs of receiving a guest are again emphasized here. The guest is being bathed, fed, entertained and then asked who he is. In this visit of Odysseus we meet with his journey, before he ends up on Kalypso’s island. We see how one visit leads to the other and how they are all connected. If one does not occur then the next do not either. The Phiakians not only entertain Odysseus but they give him gifts and they take him to his homeland. There, Athena changes his physical appearance so he can plan his revenge on the suitors. The first one he meets with after his return is Eumaios and that visit helps him find out about the suitors the situation in the palace. Eumaios is really warm to Odysseus even though he doesn’t recognize him. He shows good hospitality and he explains how much he misses his master and that he dislikes the suitors. Odysseus’ mask that Athena creates helps him recognize the people still loyal to him and Eumaios is one of these people. In this visit Telemachos finally meets his long gone father. Another important part of the story that helps build its plot and is also connected with hospitality is the way the suitors are entertained and welcomed in the palace. Homer has established specific rules and customs that a host should follow and Penelope is a follower of these rules. The suitors no matter what their purpose of stay is and no matter who they are a warmly welcomed in the palace and are constantly fed and entertained. They cannot be forced to leave just because the rules that the society Homer meets us with has establish. It would be really inhospitable and therefore Penelope and everybody else have to put up with the suitors and offer them everything they have until they decide to leave. Instead of leaving they take advantage of the free food and entertainment and not only that but they constantly trouble Penelope with their marriage proposals. Feasting and wasting Odysseus’ fortune and belongings they are presented as haughty people that only care about eating and drinking. They are being really bad guests and are punished on the end, punished by the man whose belongings, wife, son, and servants they abuse for so long. “You dogs, you never thought that I would any more come back from the land of Troy, and because of that you despoiled my household, and forcibly took my serving women to sleep beside you, and sought to win my wife while I was still alive, fearing neither the immortal gods who hold the wide heaven, nor any resentment sprung from men to be yours in the future. Now upon all of you the terms of destruction are fastened” 3- Book XXII, lines 35-41 These are the words of Odysseus, mad with the destruction the suitors have caused to his home. He kills them all, right before they are about to eat. He kills Antinoos right when he is about to drink from the wine. The suitors do not deserve the food that is being served to them because of their cruelty towards the host and the hostess. That is the reason Odysseus plans their murder right before they eat so that can be emphasized. The “good food” falls on the ground when Odysseus’ arrows strike the suitors and their blood mixes with it. May be Homer felt sorry for the suitors and he, through the mix of dirty blood and “good food” purifies the suitors and cleans their souls. The Odyssey is a book that grabs its reader with its story about Odysseus and his final homecoming. There would be no homecoming or he would have been home too late to save his wife and son from the “haughty” suitors if there was not the good hospitality of the people he visits. Everybody Odysseus meets on his way has helped the story progress by their bad or good hospitality. Therefore xenia plays a very significant role in the plot of the story. / Pages : 1,478 / 24	<urn:uuid:b9df58a3-48bd-430f-bd91-658210e6682e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://e-lib.info/the-significance-of-the-plot-of-xenia-54782/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00463.warc.gz	en	0.983538	1,923	3.328125	3	[ 0.13130924105644226, 0.1336095929145813, 0.4785989820957184, 0.06609368324279785, -0.5239996910095215, -0.6113518476486206, -0.015634644776582718, 0.6386384963989258, -0.21668092906475067, -0.1487293243408203, -0.2905799448490143, 0.013542169705033302, -0.004352283664047718, 0.594126105308...	1	The Significance Of The Plot Of Xenia Ancient Greece is known for its beautiful theaters and its skilled poets. One of the most famous ones at that time and famous even now is Homer. Nobody knows who he actually is but the works that he has created are far more than magnificent. The Odyssey and The Iliad are two poems that turned into myths, have actually been accepted as part of the history of the Greeks. The Odyssey is a story about a hero from the Trojan War who struggles to get home to his family and when he finally does he faces the suitors who he fights and defeats with the help of the gods and his son who he hasn’t seen for around twenty years. The gradual development of the plot, the actual, end of the book is easily noticed. A big role in that development plays hospitality or as Homer calls it the xenia. Odysseus’ journey on his way back to his island Ithaca contains numerous details about hospitality and what it is to be a good or a bad host. His voyage is based on the kindness and the warmth of the people. There are gods and humans, and giants that do not appreciate the hero but he deals with them and we meet with the actual plot of the story, his homecoming. Warmth and kindness are presented within every visit described in the book. Homer draws a very good picture of how guests are welcomed, what entertainment they are given and the way they are send on their way. The picture is filled with kindness and warmth. We could say that the kind of hospitality presented in the book is hardly seen today. The different steps of welcoming some one are really interesting. The host is bathed and fed right after his arrival no matter who he is. Hosts do not really present the question that identifies their guest until later on, after he has been well rested and entertained. A great example of this is when Telemachos and Athene, in the body of Mentor, visit Nestor. When Nestor sees the two men he has never seen before he has a feast with his sons and companions. In the sight of the strangers they all stand up and greet them. The first thing that is done is to find a place for the two guests on the table and to feed them. ” But when they had put aside their desire for eating and drinking, first to speak was the Gerenian horseman, Nestor: ‘Now is a better time to interrogate our guests and ask them who they are, now they have had the pleasure of eating'” In this quote we see some of the interesting customs of welcoming a guest. They are even more emphasized in the visit of Telemachos and Nestor’s son to Menelaus, in Sparta. More specifically in the words of Menelaus to his servant when he is asked if the strangers should be send away: ” Eteoneus, son of Boethoos, you were never a fool before, but now you are babbling nonsense, as a child would do. Surely we two have eaten much hospitality from other men before we came back here” Then he tells his servant to bring the guests to be feasted. Another great custom is seen when Menelaus sends Telemachos and Nestor’s son on their way. He gives them precious and expensive gifts. What is the reason for this customs? What is their meaning and significance? If this friendliness did not exist among the characters in the book, Odysseus would never be able to go to his homeland, Ithaca. There would not have been a homecoming that long, and may be the plot of the story would have been different, if Homer did not introduce the detaining of Odysseus at Kalypso’s island. The goddess is in love with the mortal and for a long time tries to persuade him to be her husband, only the will of the hero is to go back to his wife and already grown son. Even though holding him against his will, Kalypso is a very good hostess. She never harms Odysseus’s. She cooks for him and bathes him but never uses her powers in a negative way. She even promises that she would make him immortal if he marries her. There is warmth and kindness again, the two important elements of xenia. The time spend on Kalypso’s island helps pieces of the story, other than Odysseus’ journey home and important for its plot, to be developed. Really significant are the Phaiakians. Without their help Odysseus would have never been home in time to organize the murder of the foolish suitors and take his place as a leader of the Ithacans. Alkinoos and Arete, king and queen of the Phaiakians, show such good hospitality. They entertain and feed the tired and 1- Book III, lines 67-70 2- Book IV, lines 30-36 lost hero and help him rest. The customs of receiving a guest are again emphasized here. The guest is being bathed, fed, entertained and then asked who he is. In this visit of Odysseus we meet with his journey, before he ends up on Kalypso’s island. We see how one visit leads to the other and how they are all connected. If one does not occur then the next do not either. The Phiakians not only entertain Odysseus but they give him gifts and they take him to his homeland. There, Athena changes his physical appearance so he can plan his revenge on the suitors. The first one he meets with after his return is Eumaios and that visit helps him find out about the suitors the situation in the palace. Eumaios is really warm to Odysseus even though he doesn’t recognize him. He shows good hospitality and he explains how much he misses his master and that he dislikes the suitors. Odysseus’ mask that Athena creates helps him recognize the people still loyal to him and Eumaios is one of these people. In this visit Telemachos finally meets his long gone father. Another important part of the story that helps build its plot and is also connected with hospitality is the way the suitors are entertained and welcomed in the palace. Homer has established specific rules and customs that a host should follow and Penelope is a follower of these rules. The suitors no matter what their purpose of stay is and no matter who they are a warmly welcomed in the palace and are constantly fed and entertained. They cannot be forced to leave just because the rules that the society Homer meets us with has establish. It would be really inhospitable and therefore Penelope and everybody else have to put up with the suitors and offer them everything they have until they decide to leave. Instead of leaving they take advantage of the free food and entertainment and not only that but they constantly trouble Penelope with their marriage proposals. Feasting and wasting Odysseus’ fortune and belongings they are presented as haughty people that only care about eating and drinking. They are being really bad guests and are punished on the end, punished by the man whose belongings, wife, son, and servants they abuse for so long. “You dogs, you never thought that I would any more come back from the land of Troy, and because of that you despoiled my household, and forcibly took my serving women to sleep beside you, and sought to win my wife while I was still alive, fearing neither the immortal gods who hold the wide heaven, nor any resentment sprung from men to be yours in the future. Now upon all of you the terms of destruction are fastened” 3- Book XXII, lines 35-41 These are the words of Odysseus, mad with the destruction the suitors have caused to his home. He kills them all, right before they are about to eat. He kills Antinoos right when he is about to drink from the wine. The suitors do not deserve the food that is being served to them because of their cruelty towards the host and the hostess. That is the reason Odysseus plans their murder right before they eat so that can be emphasized. The “good food” falls on the ground when Odysseus’ arrows strike the suitors and their blood mixes with it. May be Homer felt sorry for the suitors and he, through the mix of dirty blood and “good food” purifies the suitors and cleans their souls. The Odyssey is a book that grabs its reader with its story about Odysseus and his final homecoming. There would be no homecoming or he would have been home too late to save his wife and son from the “haughty” suitors if there was not the good hospitality of the people he visits. Everybody Odysseus meets on his way has helped the story progress by their bad or good hospitality. Therefore xenia plays a very significant role in the plot of the story. / Pages : 1,478 / 24	1,874	ENGLISH	1
Weapons were an important part of the Viking society and were considered the pride of Viking warriors. As the Vikings began attacking European shores from 8th century onwards, they came equipped with a wide range of weapons which they used with great skill. Notable weapons wielded by the Viking included Axe, spear, sword, knife, different pole-arms as well as the bow and arrow. Different varieties of each type of weapon was used by the Viking warriors. The spear, for instance, came in variants meant for close combat as well as smaller javelins while the throwing Axe was distinct from the heavier Axe which was meant for closer combat. The Viking Axe typically featured an iron blade with a steel edge. There is sufficient historical evidence to show that Vikings actively used throwing axes on the battlefield. Such axes were smaller in size and carried a slimmer blade which was sharp enough to lodge in an opponent’s body when throwing from a distance. The other major type of Axe was the famous Dane Axe which was typically as long as a Viking warrior and had to be wielded with both hands. Such an Axe came with a huge and heavy blade which was enough to cut through shields, armor and helmets when wielded in a downward stroke. Dane Axe – was a famous Axe used by the viking – the Dane Axe was as long as a Viking warrior and had to be wielded with both hands A Spear was one of the most inexpensive weapons used by the Vikings and was typically wielded as a primary weapon by the peasants in a Viking army. Wealthier Vikings carried small spears besides other weapons such as axes and swords. These javelins typically had narrow and light spearheads which enabled a Viking warrior to throw them over great distances and pierce enemy shields and armor. Larger spears were as long as two to three meters and usually made from ash wood with an iron spearhead. These spearheads measured between 20 and 60 centimeters in length and in some cases, they were set up with wings to help dislodge them easily. Viking Warrior wielding a Sword and wearing a Helmet The Sword was a less commonly used weapon in the Viking armies primarily because swords were more expensive to produce and could be afforded only by the richest in the society. The standard style of a Viking sword was that of a sword with a double-edge blade which measured as long as 90 centimeter. Such a sword was meant to be wielded with a single hand so that the warrior using it could carry a shield in his other hand. Viking bows were usually made from yew wood and were designed so that as much as 90 pounds to over 100 pounds draw force was required to shoot arrows from it. The arrows used by Viking archers mostly had iron heads although in some cases, arrowheads were made from bone or wood. Given their heavy construction, Viking bows were effective in throwing an arrow over a distance as far as 230 meters towards the enemy lines. This suggests that Viking archers may have played significant role on the battlefield. Copyright - 2014 - 2019 - Medieval Chronicles	<urn:uuid:3cc1e30e-294d-4a30-ba9c-061523e30d12>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-weapons/viking-weapons-list/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00477.warc.gz	en	0.98984	630	3.625	4	[ -0.16261208057403564, 0.5012027025222778, 0.07382766157388687, -0.026548322290182114, 0.07641810923814774, -0.1528521180152893, 0.06381524354219437, 0.3282470703125, -0.10631685703992844, -0.34122568368911743, 0.19880929589271545, -0.3515748381614685, 0.007799066603183746, 0.07450014352798...	1	Weapons were an important part of the Viking society and were considered the pride of Viking warriors. As the Vikings began attacking European shores from 8th century onwards, they came equipped with a wide range of weapons which they used with great skill. Notable weapons wielded by the Viking included Axe, spear, sword, knife, different pole-arms as well as the bow and arrow. Different varieties of each type of weapon was used by the Viking warriors. The spear, for instance, came in variants meant for close combat as well as smaller javelins while the throwing Axe was distinct from the heavier Axe which was meant for closer combat. The Viking Axe typically featured an iron blade with a steel edge. There is sufficient historical evidence to show that Vikings actively used throwing axes on the battlefield. Such axes were smaller in size and carried a slimmer blade which was sharp enough to lodge in an opponent’s body when throwing from a distance. The other major type of Axe was the famous Dane Axe which was typically as long as a Viking warrior and had to be wielded with both hands. Such an Axe came with a huge and heavy blade which was enough to cut through shields, armor and helmets when wielded in a downward stroke. Dane Axe – was a famous Axe used by the viking – the Dane Axe was as long as a Viking warrior and had to be wielded with both hands A Spear was one of the most inexpensive weapons used by the Vikings and was typically wielded as a primary weapon by the peasants in a Viking army. Wealthier Vikings carried small spears besides other weapons such as axes and swords. These javelins typically had narrow and light spearheads which enabled a Viking warrior to throw them over great distances and pierce enemy shields and armor. Larger spears were as long as two to three meters and usually made from ash wood with an iron spearhead. These spearheads measured between 20 and 60 centimeters in length and in some cases, they were set up with wings to help dislodge them easily. Viking Warrior wielding a Sword and wearing a Helmet The Sword was a less commonly used weapon in the Viking armies primarily because swords were more expensive to produce and could be afforded only by the richest in the society. The standard style of a Viking sword was that of a sword with a double-edge blade which measured as long as 90 centimeter. Such a sword was meant to be wielded with a single hand so that the warrior using it could carry a shield in his other hand. Viking bows were usually made from yew wood and were designed so that as much as 90 pounds to over 100 pounds draw force was required to shoot arrows from it. The arrows used by Viking archers mostly had iron heads although in some cases, arrowheads were made from bone or wood. Given their heavy construction, Viking bows were effective in throwing an arrow over a distance as far as 230 meters towards the enemy lines. This suggests that Viking archers may have played significant role on the battlefield. Copyright - 2014 - 2019 - Medieval Chronicles	639	ENGLISH	1
The great plague How empty the streets are and how melancholy, so many poor sick people in the streets full of sores… in Westminster, there is never a physician and but one apothecary left, all being dead. Londoners had a greater sense of community after they had overcome the great adversities of and Some scientists suggest that the black rat had started to develop a greater resistance to the disease. Influenza seems to be the modern form of plague. Oriental rat flea Xenopsylla cheopis infected with the Yersinia pestis bacterium which appears as a dark mass in the gut. The authorities became concerned that the number of deaths might cause public alarm and ordered that body removal and interment should take place only at night. In both of these localities, poor workers were crowded into ill-kept structures. Those people who could sent their families away from London during these months, but the poor had no recourse but to stay. Smaller than the Norwegian rat, which later supplanted it, it is also keener to live near to humankind. What caused the great plague Many plague deaths had occurred in the poorest parishes outside the city walls. These different districts with different administrations constituted the officially recognised extent of London as a whole. In , there were 15, deaths, saw 41, dead, between and came 11, deaths, culminating in 3, for This official activity suggests that despite the few recorded cases, the government was already aware that this was a serious outbreak of plague. This was not due to any remedies used. Daytime collection was resumed and the plague pits became mounds of decomposing corpses. A transmissible disease will spread easily in such conditions. Many commercial enterprises came to an end due to the low amount of merchandise and the disappearance of merchants. The real root of the problem was RATS! Physicians were hired by city officials and burial details were carefully organized, but panic spread through the city and, out of the fear of contagion, people were hastily buried in overcrowded pits. It was believed that holding a posy of flowers to the nose kept away the plague and to this day judges are still given a nose-gay to carry on ceremonial occasions as a protection against the plague! based on 76 review	<urn:uuid:41cdeb9f-3fc4-4c33-918d-bb08557cce0b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://dygevymysyqenawa.dellrichards.com/the-great-plague50493530pr.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00416.warc.gz	en	0.984603	462	3.3125	3	[ 0.18199239671230316, -0.05734120309352875, 0.5629256367683411, 0.11714786291122437, 0.5264182686805725, -0.20038224756717682, 0.4763782024383545, 0.14337076246738434, -0.21814905107021332, -0.00478505389764905, -0.2525748312473297, -0.2120819091796875, 0.02110113576054573, 0.44123435020446...	2	The great plague How empty the streets are and how melancholy, so many poor sick people in the streets full of sores… in Westminster, there is never a physician and but one apothecary left, all being dead. Londoners had a greater sense of community after they had overcome the great adversities of and Some scientists suggest that the black rat had started to develop a greater resistance to the disease. Influenza seems to be the modern form of plague. Oriental rat flea Xenopsylla cheopis infected with the Yersinia pestis bacterium which appears as a dark mass in the gut. The authorities became concerned that the number of deaths might cause public alarm and ordered that body removal and interment should take place only at night. In both of these localities, poor workers were crowded into ill-kept structures. Those people who could sent their families away from London during these months, but the poor had no recourse but to stay. Smaller than the Norwegian rat, which later supplanted it, it is also keener to live near to humankind. What caused the great plague Many plague deaths had occurred in the poorest parishes outside the city walls. These different districts with different administrations constituted the officially recognised extent of London as a whole. In , there were 15, deaths, saw 41, dead, between and came 11, deaths, culminating in 3, for This official activity suggests that despite the few recorded cases, the government was already aware that this was a serious outbreak of plague. This was not due to any remedies used. Daytime collection was resumed and the plague pits became mounds of decomposing corpses. A transmissible disease will spread easily in such conditions. Many commercial enterprises came to an end due to the low amount of merchandise and the disappearance of merchants. The real root of the problem was RATS! Physicians were hired by city officials and burial details were carefully organized, but panic spread through the city and, out of the fear of contagion, people were hastily buried in overcrowded pits. It was believed that holding a posy of flowers to the nose kept away the plague and to this day judges are still given a nose-gay to carry on ceremonial occasions as a protection against the plague! based on 76 review	468	ENGLISH	1
Sailing the Globe #OTD It's the anniversary of the day that Captain Cook arrived in England in 1771. He had successfully led that first voyage to Australia. But, neither Cook nor his botanist Joseph Banks, realized that the quartz reef where they planted the British Flag contained gold. The area would remain untouched by Europeans for almost two more decades. And, Cook's ship, the Endeavor, had somehow managed to survive the trials of sailing on the Great Barrier Reef and River. Before he sailed for England, Cook worried the Endeavor wouldn't make it around the Cape of Good Hope. In a fateful decision, Cook had brought the ship to Batavia, a Dutch colony, to fortify his boat. Batavia was a dangerous place. Malaria and dysentery were rampant. As a result of his stop in Batavia, Cook lost a staggering 38 members of his crew. The botanists, Banks, and Solander, managed to survive the stop, although, at one point, they were both gravely ill. Even as they battled back from illness, they still went out to collect specimens. So, on this day, in 1771, Cook and Banks and Solander make it home to England. Three hundred sixty-five days later, Cook would be setting sail once more, but this time Banks would not be going. Instead, a German, Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Georg—would be the botanists for his next big adventure.	<urn:uuid:84a68966-8547-4a68-a323-662d1b3419c0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thedailygardener.org/ota20190712/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00068.warc.gz	en	0.980239	309	3.734375	4	[ 0.15189999341964722, 0.12734819948673248, 0.3779871463775635, -0.19381003081798553, -0.06981721520423889, -0.3126299977302551, 0.12618426978588104, 0.27486851811408997, -0.49291494488716125, -0.21207697689533234, 0.04680318757891655, -0.6332701444625854, -0.19319424033164978, 0.50120121240...	4	Sailing the Globe #OTD It's the anniversary of the day that Captain Cook arrived in England in 1771. He had successfully led that first voyage to Australia. But, neither Cook nor his botanist Joseph Banks, realized that the quartz reef where they planted the British Flag contained gold. The area would remain untouched by Europeans for almost two more decades. And, Cook's ship, the Endeavor, had somehow managed to survive the trials of sailing on the Great Barrier Reef and River. Before he sailed for England, Cook worried the Endeavor wouldn't make it around the Cape of Good Hope. In a fateful decision, Cook had brought the ship to Batavia, a Dutch colony, to fortify his boat. Batavia was a dangerous place. Malaria and dysentery were rampant. As a result of his stop in Batavia, Cook lost a staggering 38 members of his crew. The botanists, Banks, and Solander, managed to survive the stop, although, at one point, they were both gravely ill. Even as they battled back from illness, they still went out to collect specimens. So, on this day, in 1771, Cook and Banks and Solander make it home to England. Three hundred sixty-five days later, Cook would be setting sail once more, but this time Banks would not be going. Instead, a German, Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Georg—would be the botanists for his next big adventure.	311	ENGLISH	1
Throughout 1890, the U.S. government worried about the increasing influence at Pine Ridge of the Ghost Dance spiritual movement, which taught that Indians had been defeated and confined to reservations because they had angered the gods by abandoning their traditional customs. Many Sioux believed that if they practiced the Ghost Dance and rejected the ways of the white man, the gods would create the world anew and destroy all non-believers, including non-Indians. On December 15th 1890, reservation police tried to arrest Sitting Bull, the famous Sioux chief, who they mistakenly believed was a Ghost Dancer, and killed him in the process, increasing the tensions at Pine Ridge. On December 29th, the U.S. Army’s 7th cavalry surrounded a band of Ghost Dancers under the Sioux Chief Big Foot near Wounded Knee Creek and demanded they surrender their weapons. As that was happening, a fight broke out between an Indian and a U.S. soldier and a shot was fired, although it’s unclear from which side. A brutal massacre followed, in which it’s estimated almost 150 Indians were killed (some historians put this number at twice as high), nearly half of them women and children. The cavalry lost 25 men. The conflict at Wounded Knee was originally referred to as a battle, but in reality it was a tragic and avoidable massacre. Surrounded by heavily armed troops, it’s unlikely that Big Foot’s band would have intentionally started a fight. Some historians speculate that the soldiers of the 7th Cavalry were deliberately taking revenge for the regiment’s defeat at Little Bighorn in 1876. Whatever the motives, the massacre ended the Ghost Dance movement and was the last major confrontation in America’s deadly war against the Plains Indians. Conflict came to Wounded Knee again in February 1973 when it was the site of a 71-day occupation by the activist group AIM (American Indian Movement) and its supporters, who were protesting the U.S. government’s mistreatment of Native Americans. During the standoff, two Indians were killed, one federal marshal was seriously wounded and numerous people were arrested.	<urn:uuid:979d90f1-ebc3-452f-9fb4-3ed41265aa9c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://craighill.net/2012/12/29/december-29-1890-us-army-massacres-indians-at-wounded-knee/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00274.warc.gz	en	0.985538	445	3.78125	4	[ 0.023770740255713463, 0.17614740133285522, 0.11341775953769684, -0.20216518640518188, 0.2346411794424057, 0.26567280292510986, -0.07352817058563232, -0.005421942099928856, -0.007621831726282835, 0.0155092254281044, 0.33250540494918823, 0.46931207180023193, -0.1902884691953659, 0.4222885072...	3	Throughout 1890, the U.S. government worried about the increasing influence at Pine Ridge of the Ghost Dance spiritual movement, which taught that Indians had been defeated and confined to reservations because they had angered the gods by abandoning their traditional customs. Many Sioux believed that if they practiced the Ghost Dance and rejected the ways of the white man, the gods would create the world anew and destroy all non-believers, including non-Indians. On December 15th 1890, reservation police tried to arrest Sitting Bull, the famous Sioux chief, who they mistakenly believed was a Ghost Dancer, and killed him in the process, increasing the tensions at Pine Ridge. On December 29th, the U.S. Army’s 7th cavalry surrounded a band of Ghost Dancers under the Sioux Chief Big Foot near Wounded Knee Creek and demanded they surrender their weapons. As that was happening, a fight broke out between an Indian and a U.S. soldier and a shot was fired, although it’s unclear from which side. A brutal massacre followed, in which it’s estimated almost 150 Indians were killed (some historians put this number at twice as high), nearly half of them women and children. The cavalry lost 25 men. The conflict at Wounded Knee was originally referred to as a battle, but in reality it was a tragic and avoidable massacre. Surrounded by heavily armed troops, it’s unlikely that Big Foot’s band would have intentionally started a fight. Some historians speculate that the soldiers of the 7th Cavalry were deliberately taking revenge for the regiment’s defeat at Little Bighorn in 1876. Whatever the motives, the massacre ended the Ghost Dance movement and was the last major confrontation in America’s deadly war against the Plains Indians. Conflict came to Wounded Knee again in February 1973 when it was the site of a 71-day occupation by the activist group AIM (American Indian Movement) and its supporters, who were protesting the U.S. government’s mistreatment of Native Americans. During the standoff, two Indians were killed, one federal marshal was seriously wounded and numerous people were arrested.	443	ENGLISH	1
Think about being one of the first to do it. If the balloon went up, would it come down? Where would it land? You wouldn’t want to launch one near the ocean. Would the balloon tear? At this point they didn’t even know there were different atmospheres with different temperatures. The first people to go up over 20,000 feet about froze to death and found out that their faculties were diminished with reduced oxygen. Another lesson learned. Meteorology made huge advancements when scientists began running tests using the balloons. These people were our first aviators and they were as brave as any of the pioneers in the field. The idea of using hydrogen to make a balloon rise into the sky occurred in the 1700's. Two brothers from France came up with the idea and in 1783, King Louis XVI commissioned the first flight with the idea of using criminals to go up but a couple of nobles petitioned to be the first. They rose around 100 feet and travelled around five miles. This might not seem like much but think about accomplishing this back in the 1700's; it was a mind-blowing experience for those who took the risk. The year 1785 in ballooning was very significant in that a balloon made it across the English Channel but unfortunately another crashed into a town and burned down around 100 homes. It was a public relations disaster for the new form of flight and was of course on record as being the first aviation disaster. France was the first country to use an air balloon in battle, as they used it to observe troop movements during the French Revolutionary War. Britain flooded the skies with unmanned balloons to obstruct German fighter pilots. Unfortunately, they didn’t work too well at The Battle of Britain as German’s bombers unleashed a fury. The record height an air balloon has reached occurred in 2005 by a man from India. With special life-saving equipment, he reached an altitude of 69,850 feet which is around twice as high as a passenger jet travels. Now there are huge balloon festivals around the country that are filled with beautiful colors. It’s amazing how close some of them fly to each other but the balloons tend to bump off each other so the baskets and ropes don’t typically become entwined. I’ve got to admit, when I was younger, I’d have no problem going up, but now it doesn’t seem like such a fun idea. 😊	<urn:uuid:b2ebd7d7-ae25-4535-bd78-b55aa267beba>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.knowledgeseeker.org/articles/archives/12-2019	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00088.warc.gz	en	0.983685	502	3.515625	4	[ -0.2809448838233948, 0.26213210821151733, -0.059032127261161804, -0.3615112900733948, -0.09866213798522949, 0.34186792373657227, 0.2803879976272583, 0.2740143835544586, 0.33241692185401917, -0.19482259452342987, -0.06949243694543839, 0.005221252795308828, -0.031366415321826935, 0.483254700...	15	Think about being one of the first to do it. If the balloon went up, would it come down? Where would it land? You wouldn’t want to launch one near the ocean. Would the balloon tear? At this point they didn’t even know there were different atmospheres with different temperatures. The first people to go up over 20,000 feet about froze to death and found out that their faculties were diminished with reduced oxygen. Another lesson learned. Meteorology made huge advancements when scientists began running tests using the balloons. These people were our first aviators and they were as brave as any of the pioneers in the field. The idea of using hydrogen to make a balloon rise into the sky occurred in the 1700's. Two brothers from France came up with the idea and in 1783, King Louis XVI commissioned the first flight with the idea of using criminals to go up but a couple of nobles petitioned to be the first. They rose around 100 feet and travelled around five miles. This might not seem like much but think about accomplishing this back in the 1700's; it was a mind-blowing experience for those who took the risk. The year 1785 in ballooning was very significant in that a balloon made it across the English Channel but unfortunately another crashed into a town and burned down around 100 homes. It was a public relations disaster for the new form of flight and was of course on record as being the first aviation disaster. France was the first country to use an air balloon in battle, as they used it to observe troop movements during the French Revolutionary War. Britain flooded the skies with unmanned balloons to obstruct German fighter pilots. Unfortunately, they didn’t work too well at The Battle of Britain as German’s bombers unleashed a fury. The record height an air balloon has reached occurred in 2005 by a man from India. With special life-saving equipment, he reached an altitude of 69,850 feet which is around twice as high as a passenger jet travels. Now there are huge balloon festivals around the country that are filled with beautiful colors. It’s amazing how close some of them fly to each other but the balloons tend to bump off each other so the baskets and ropes don’t typically become entwined. I’ve got to admit, when I was younger, I’d have no problem going up, but now it doesn’t seem like such a fun idea. 😊	511	ENGLISH	1
In this excellent book, Kochlin traces the origins of slavery from its origins in the Colonial period to the latter parts of the institution. He focuses primarily on slavery as an American institution and largely focuses on the historiography of the topic especially where the mannerisms of African slaves are concerned. Kolchin who is a professor at the University of Delaware assesses the resilience of African slaves who are sometimes underrated as resilient beings with the focus being chiefly on their suffering and not on their strengths as individuals. Kochlin also delves deeper into the mechanics of the Reconstruction period than many arguing that emancipation was taken away from the former masters who were chomping at the bit to continue dominating the slaves. Slavery in earlier times: Kochlin delves deep into the mechanics of the slavery system in the early 18th century and how this was crucially important to the growth of the American economy in the deep South. However slavery seemed to develop from the trend of forced labour in the Caribbean colonies which had an appetite for this type of labour long before it became popular in the United states. The vast sugar plantations in Trinidad and Jamaica required considerable slave labour so the British who eventually became very anti slavery in their beliefs were actually the great pioneers of slavery in its commercial sense. Kochlin speaks about the importance of the great slave centres in Africa such as the Gold Coast and Sierra Leone which were the great slave centres of the New World and where African chieftans and intermediaries were as much guilty and culpable of selling their own people into slavery as the Europeans themselves. The conditions in the Caribbean plantations were much harder and more pronounced than those in the United States where slaves could at least assimilate themselves into the culture with some success. This aspect of slavery is very often overlooked as the slaves quickly became part of American culture especially with regards to religion and other aspects of life which always served them in good stead in their futures. Kochlin continues to harp on this point and although it was true that some masters treated their subjects pretty brutally, others were quite kind and humane and actually allowed slaves to have some form of education accordingly. Other aspects which are treated in the book include slaves’ resilience to forced labour and other similar situations. Slaves could not always perform the tasks allotted to them and some even rebelled when faced with these situations. The harsh repression practiced by some plantation owners is discussed at length although there is also a tendency to dehumanize the slaves in efforts to become more colonial and authorative. African culture remained an intrinsic part of the slaves’ life until well into the 19th century but life was changing for the average slave even as customs were changing and other freedmen were imbuing several new ideas into the slaves’ minds. Kochlin is rather circumspect about the influence of slavery on the Civil War and he prefers to see that as a logical conclusion to a lengthy debate on humanity and the influence of commerce. All this comes together in his narrative on certain aspects of the slave’s life which was not always as bad as portrayed especially in the border states. The situation in Virginia where slaves had their initial origins on a large scale is also discussed extensively in the book. One has to remember that most of the slaves in the beginnings of the American colonies were actually indentured servants from Great Britain and these carried out the hard manual labour accordingly. The shift to large scale slavery is discussed constantly in the book and provides the major leitmotif for all proceedings accordingly. However Kochlin focuses mostly on life in the Antebellum South and what this actually meant for slaves in this context. Naturally enough he espouses great detail on the work which went on in the plantations and how this was intrinsically affected by the whims and foibles of the masters. He also goes into great detail on the resilience of slaves to the adverse working conditions especially those who were concerned with picking cotton. The roles of slaves in society according to gender is also discussed at length, especially the women who had a hugely important role to play as well as the situation regarding children who were initially treated with kindness although everything degenerated accordingly. Kochlin’s major argument seems to be focused on the fact that slaves could not always be masters of their situation but they did have some form of influence which should not in any way be overlooked. Naturally they could not always be at the forefront of things but they could always lead their own lives without any form of deep intrusion which could have made this intolerable. This aspect is dealt with at length by Kochlin and it is a point with which I definitely do not agree. Slavery was slavery and one could not have any qualms about condemning it as a despicable institution. Reconstruction period – a new life for slaves or a return to the old? Reconstruction after the Civil War was an important aspect of the American nation coming to terms with the end of slavery. Kochlin is again very detailed about this period and provides some insightful analysis into all of the proceedings. However there are some aspects with whivh I do not agree especially as he seems to be arguing that reconstruction was a bit hard on whites in the Deep South due to the fact that they were deprived of their principal form of labour. This was actually not the case as the black people could now offer their services but had to be paid according to what they did which was probably only fair but which was something which the white people seemed unable to understand. Reconstruction was also important for former slaves as it also gave them the first taste of politics where they even held office in the US Senate for a time. Kochlin argues that this was made possible by the understanding that slaves were no longer sub human individuals but were also individual beings possessed of a mind of their own and who could contribute to life in general even on a social basis. This obviously brought about considerable opposition from the white minority in the South who could not bring themselves to be ruled by blacks. This is an aspect which may be afforded much discussion but which at the end of the day is also an important moot point for those who wish to understand the deep rooted effects of slavery on American society in general and how this is continually relevant today even in the context of a liberalized society. Conclusion: slavery and its long term effects on American society Slavery remains a topic which arouses much controversy both amongst Americans and also throughout the world when discussing the past and its effects on society in general. One has to take into account the fact that slavery remains ingrained in certain societies although the American institution also persisted for several decades after it supposedly ended through the system of sharecropping and other forms of indentured labour. To sum up, Kochlin provides an interestingly different analysis of proceedings regarding slavery which are not always given their due or their importance. One has to consider the fact that Kochlin’s documentation is occasionally rather scarce and scant but at the end of the book, one finds a detailed bibliographical essay which has some fascinating and highly readable anecdotes on several issues. Although I am not in total agreement with Kochlin on some of the issues in the book, his account is certainly highly readable and direct and should provide the discerning reader with several interesting points for discussion which may be expanded and delved much deeper into. The book is also an interesting companion for the scholar on slavery which also fills in some gaps that are very much overlooked. Kochlin P; American Slavery, Wilmington, DE, Hill and Wang, 2003, Print	<urn:uuid:6d9eae3e-1b30-42d0-9f9c-542116468d10>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/book-review-on-peter-kochlin-american-slavery/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00404.warc.gz	en	0.985836	1,523	3.609375	4	[ -0.3574167490005493, 0.31831610202789307, 0.2701357305049896, -0.0626319944858551, 0.1840459108352661, 0.05408814921975136, -0.05650543421506882, -0.21865470707416534, -0.45657724142074585, 0.17428091168403625, -0.14664004743099213, 0.13808190822601318, -0.08895277976989746, 0.592278361320...	3	In this excellent book, Kochlin traces the origins of slavery from its origins in the Colonial period to the latter parts of the institution. He focuses primarily on slavery as an American institution and largely focuses on the historiography of the topic especially where the mannerisms of African slaves are concerned. Kolchin who is a professor at the University of Delaware assesses the resilience of African slaves who are sometimes underrated as resilient beings with the focus being chiefly on their suffering and not on their strengths as individuals. Kochlin also delves deeper into the mechanics of the Reconstruction period than many arguing that emancipation was taken away from the former masters who were chomping at the bit to continue dominating the slaves. Slavery in earlier times: Kochlin delves deep into the mechanics of the slavery system in the early 18th century and how this was crucially important to the growth of the American economy in the deep South. However slavery seemed to develop from the trend of forced labour in the Caribbean colonies which had an appetite for this type of labour long before it became popular in the United states. The vast sugar plantations in Trinidad and Jamaica required considerable slave labour so the British who eventually became very anti slavery in their beliefs were actually the great pioneers of slavery in its commercial sense. Kochlin speaks about the importance of the great slave centres in Africa such as the Gold Coast and Sierra Leone which were the great slave centres of the New World and where African chieftans and intermediaries were as much guilty and culpable of selling their own people into slavery as the Europeans themselves. The conditions in the Caribbean plantations were much harder and more pronounced than those in the United States where slaves could at least assimilate themselves into the culture with some success. This aspect of slavery is very often overlooked as the slaves quickly became part of American culture especially with regards to religion and other aspects of life which always served them in good stead in their futures. Kochlin continues to harp on this point and although it was true that some masters treated their subjects pretty brutally, others were quite kind and humane and actually allowed slaves to have some form of education accordingly. Other aspects which are treated in the book include slaves’ resilience to forced labour and other similar situations. Slaves could not always perform the tasks allotted to them and some even rebelled when faced with these situations. The harsh repression practiced by some plantation owners is discussed at length although there is also a tendency to dehumanize the slaves in efforts to become more colonial and authorative. African culture remained an intrinsic part of the slaves’ life until well into the 19th century but life was changing for the average slave even as customs were changing and other freedmen were imbuing several new ideas into the slaves’ minds. Kochlin is rather circumspect about the influence of slavery on the Civil War and he prefers to see that as a logical conclusion to a lengthy debate on humanity and the influence of commerce. All this comes together in his narrative on certain aspects of the slave’s life which was not always as bad as portrayed especially in the border states. The situation in Virginia where slaves had their initial origins on a large scale is also discussed extensively in the book. One has to remember that most of the slaves in the beginnings of the American colonies were actually indentured servants from Great Britain and these carried out the hard manual labour accordingly. The shift to large scale slavery is discussed constantly in the book and provides the major leitmotif for all proceedings accordingly. However Kochlin focuses mostly on life in the Antebellum South and what this actually meant for slaves in this context. Naturally enough he espouses great detail on the work which went on in the plantations and how this was intrinsically affected by the whims and foibles of the masters. He also goes into great detail on the resilience of slaves to the adverse working conditions especially those who were concerned with picking cotton. The roles of slaves in society according to gender is also discussed at length, especially the women who had a hugely important role to play as well as the situation regarding children who were initially treated with kindness although everything degenerated accordingly. Kochlin’s major argument seems to be focused on the fact that slaves could not always be masters of their situation but they did have some form of influence which should not in any way be overlooked. Naturally they could not always be at the forefront of things but they could always lead their own lives without any form of deep intrusion which could have made this intolerable. This aspect is dealt with at length by Kochlin and it is a point with which I definitely do not agree. Slavery was slavery and one could not have any qualms about condemning it as a despicable institution. Reconstruction period – a new life for slaves or a return to the old? Reconstruction after the Civil War was an important aspect of the American nation coming to terms with the end of slavery. Kochlin is again very detailed about this period and provides some insightful analysis into all of the proceedings. However there are some aspects with whivh I do not agree especially as he seems to be arguing that reconstruction was a bit hard on whites in the Deep South due to the fact that they were deprived of their principal form of labour. This was actually not the case as the black people could now offer their services but had to be paid according to what they did which was probably only fair but which was something which the white people seemed unable to understand. Reconstruction was also important for former slaves as it also gave them the first taste of politics where they even held office in the US Senate for a time. Kochlin argues that this was made possible by the understanding that slaves were no longer sub human individuals but were also individual beings possessed of a mind of their own and who could contribute to life in general even on a social basis. This obviously brought about considerable opposition from the white minority in the South who could not bring themselves to be ruled by blacks. This is an aspect which may be afforded much discussion but which at the end of the day is also an important moot point for those who wish to understand the deep rooted effects of slavery on American society in general and how this is continually relevant today even in the context of a liberalized society. Conclusion: slavery and its long term effects on American society Slavery remains a topic which arouses much controversy both amongst Americans and also throughout the world when discussing the past and its effects on society in general. One has to take into account the fact that slavery remains ingrained in certain societies although the American institution also persisted for several decades after it supposedly ended through the system of sharecropping and other forms of indentured labour. To sum up, Kochlin provides an interestingly different analysis of proceedings regarding slavery which are not always given their due or their importance. One has to consider the fact that Kochlin’s documentation is occasionally rather scarce and scant but at the end of the book, one finds a detailed bibliographical essay which has some fascinating and highly readable anecdotes on several issues. Although I am not in total agreement with Kochlin on some of the issues in the book, his account is certainly highly readable and direct and should provide the discerning reader with several interesting points for discussion which may be expanded and delved much deeper into. The book is also an interesting companion for the scholar on slavery which also fills in some gaps that are very much overlooked. Kochlin P; American Slavery, Wilmington, DE, Hill and Wang, 2003, Print	1,514	ENGLISH	1
‘night’ and ‘at night’ Night is the period during each twenty-four hours when it is dark. If something happens regularly during this period, you say that it happens at night. The doors were kept closed at night. I used to lie awake at night, listening to the rain. A night is one of these periods of darkness. You usually refer to a particular period as the night. He went to a hotel and spent the night there. I got a phone call in the middle of the night. the previous night If something happened during the night before the present day, you say that it happened in the night, during the night, or last night. I didn't hear Sheila in the night. I had the strangest dream last night. You can also say that a situation existed last night. I didn't manage to sleep much last night. Last night is also used for saying that something happened during the previous evening. I met your husband last night. If you are talking about a day in the past and you want to say that something happened the night before that day, you say that it happened in the night, during the night, or the previous night. His father had died in the night. This was the hotel where they had stayed the previous night. If you want to make it clear that you are talking about a particular time in the early part of the night rather than the morning, you add at night. This took place at eleven o'clock at night on our second day. However, if you are talking about a time after midnight and you want to make it clear that you are talking about the night and not the afternoon, you say in the morning. It was five o'clock in the morning.	<urn:uuid:0b000566-ae33-4f2d-926a-dca944bf340b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www2.wordreference.com/EnglishUsage/night	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00520.warc.gz	en	0.98789	376	3.484375	3	[ -0.09362947940826416, 0.17072328925132751, -0.07283773273229599, -0.13133350014686584, 0.2383650690317154, 0.038745950907468796, 0.5377123951911926, -0.1406114101409912, 0.6689724326133728, -0.3432343602180481, 0.02485019713640213, 0.4081808030605316, -0.27858099341392517, 0.16081623733043...	1	‘night’ and ‘at night’ Night is the period during each twenty-four hours when it is dark. If something happens regularly during this period, you say that it happens at night. The doors were kept closed at night. I used to lie awake at night, listening to the rain. A night is one of these periods of darkness. You usually refer to a particular period as the night. He went to a hotel and spent the night there. I got a phone call in the middle of the night. the previous night If something happened during the night before the present day, you say that it happened in the night, during the night, or last night. I didn't hear Sheila in the night. I had the strangest dream last night. You can also say that a situation existed last night. I didn't manage to sleep much last night. Last night is also used for saying that something happened during the previous evening. I met your husband last night. If you are talking about a day in the past and you want to say that something happened the night before that day, you say that it happened in the night, during the night, or the previous night. His father had died in the night. This was the hotel where they had stayed the previous night. If you want to make it clear that you are talking about a particular time in the early part of the night rather than the morning, you add at night. This took place at eleven o'clock at night on our second day. However, if you are talking about a time after midnight and you want to make it clear that you are talking about the night and not the afternoon, you say in the morning. It was five o'clock in the morning.	350	ENGLISH	1
Benjamin Lay is not to be overlooked. This 1790 portrait of Benjamin Lay, by William Williams and his apprentice, depicts Lay in front of his cave. The basket of vegetables beside him is a hint of his vegetarianism. Public Domain. One Sunday, 18th-century Quakers living in Abington, Pennsylvania, near Philadelphia, were met with a strange sight outside their morning meeting. The snow lay thick on the ground and there was Benjamin Lay, a member of the congregation, wearing little clothing, with his “right leg and foot uncovered,” almost knee-deep in the snow. When one Quaker after the next told him that he would get sick or that he should get inside and cover up, he turned to them. “Ah,” he said, “you pretend compassion for me, but you do not feel for the poor slaves in your fields, who go all winter half-clad.” Lay always cut a striking figure. An 1818 article, republished in the newspaper The Friend in 1911, many years after his death, described him thus: … only four foot seven in height; his head was large in proportion to his body, the features of his face were remarkable … He was hunch-backed, with a projecting chest, below which his body become much contracted. His legs were so slender, as to appear almost unequal to the purpose of supporting him. His act of protest in the snow is of the sort that might make the news today, but in the 1730s it would have been radical almost beyond understanding. This was a time, writes Marcus Rediker in his recent book The Fearless Benjamin Lay: The Quaker Dwarf Who Became the First Revolutionary Abolitionist, when “slavery seemed to many people around the world as natural and unchangeable as the sun, the moon, and the stars in the heavens.” Lay was an abolitionist, vegetarian, pacifist, gender-conscious, anti-capitalist, environmentalist Quaker, with dwarfism and a hunchback, and he wanted to change the apparently “natural” order of things. Despite his ultra-radical leanings, Lay has been almost entirely excised from modern history books. “The wildness of his methods of approaching antislavery is part of it,” Rediker says. “He was extremely militant and completely uncompromising.” This level of abolitionist militance was unprecedented, and only began to become common after the 1830s. Lay sits outside of the standard narrative of the movement, and his disability and lower socioeconomic status make him difficult to place in a clear historical model. “He just didn’t fit the story,” Rediker says. The snow protest was by no means Lay’s only performed, dramatic, nonviolent act of radicalism. Quaker neighbors of his kept a young “negro girl” as a slave, and continued to justify the practice, even in the face of his exhortations on both the evil of slavery in general and the “wickedness” of separating enslaved children from their parents. When the neighbors refused to listen, Lay invited their six-year-old son into the cave where he lived and innocently entertained him throughout the day. The boy’s parents panicked. The Village Record, a local newspaper, later described how Lay “observed the father and mother running towards his dwelling; as they drew near, discovering their distress, he advanced and met them, enquiring in a feeling manner: ‘What is the matter?’” The parents, understandably terrified, explained that the boy had been missing all day. Lay is said to have paused, and said: “Your child is safe in my house, and you may now conceive of the sorrow you inflict upon the parents of the negro girl you hold in slavery, for she was torn from them by avarice.” Taking the Bible as his model, he seems to have generated living parables to show people the evil of their ways. (Another version of this story claims that the child was a three-year-old girl.) Lay seems to have had big dreams and ideals to match. Born to a family of common Quakers in Colchester, England, he left his work as a glover at 21, eschewed his likely inheritance, and went to London in pursuit of his fortune. There he became a sailor, desperate to see the world despite the risk of injury or death. (That year, 1703, as many as 10,000 British sailors and crew members lost their lives in a major cyclone.) For more than a decade at sea, he slept in a hammock and lived among people of all ethnicities, shapes, and sizes. For the rest of his life, even after years on land, Lay thought of himself in some sense as a sailor. “At the end of his life,” writes Rediker, “he made a request that shocked his friends and acquaintances: he asked a man to ‘burn his body, and throw the ashes into the sea.’” It was on his voyages that Lay first became aware of slavery. Fellow sailors told him horror stories about working in the African slave trade, where hundreds of thousands died in transit. Still a devout Quaker, Lay began to connect these practices to Biblical verses about racial equality—that God “hath made of one Blood all Nations of Men for to dwell on all the Face of the Earth.” He soon concluded that slave traders were murderers, and that the practice was barbarous. In time, Lay married. Like him, his wife Sarah was a Quaker. She had similar physical conditions, and shared many of his forward-thinking beliefs. The Lays moved, in 1718, to Barbados, a place with some vestiges of a Quaker community. They were appalled to find themselves on an island built on slavery, “barbary and ill-gotten gains,” where slaves were treated worse than horses. The Lays held open meetings and offered meals to the island’s enslaved population, which drew the opprobrium of the island’s white population. Though the Lays had already made plans to leave, these “Masters and Mistresses of Slaves” called for them to be banished. In 1720, they returned to England. Lay was just getting started ruffling feathers in Quaker communities. Twelve years later they moved to Pennsylvania, where they established themselves in the local Quaker community again. Lay was shocked to find slavery a common practice there, too, after more than a decade in England, where it was rare. At that time, around 10 percent of Pennsylvanians were enslaved, compared with around 90 percent in Barbados. In Pennsylvania, Lay performed some of his most dramatic protest stunts, including disrupting Quaker meetings with abolitionist messages. He is said to have stood up in meetings whenever a slaveholder attempted to speak, and shout: “There’s another negro-master!” Three years later, Sarah died, unexpectedly. Lay was heartbroken. By the time he himself died, in 1759, Lay had eked out a strange and deeply principled life for himself in the Philadelphia area. He lived in a cave, made his own clothes, and walked everywhere. He had become a vegetarian and felt that animals, including horses, should not be exploited for their labor or their meat. In 1737 he published the revolutionary tract All Slaveholders That Keep the Innocent in Bondage, Apostates, a mixture of polemic, musings, and autobiography, put together in a curiously nonlinear, almost postmodern, format. (The publisher—Benjamin Franklin, a longtime, if a little wary, friend—chose to keep his own name off the text.) Despite his requests to be cremated, which would have been tantamount to paganism, Lay was buried in an unmarked grave close to his wife’s, in the Quaker burial ground. During his life and after his death, many people, Rediker says, thought of Lay as deranged. “[Historians] thought he was not sane, and this was a very effective way of putting him at the margins.” Ableism, too, seems to have factored in this general unwillingness to take him seriously. But some of those in the abolitionist movement did feel the need to celebrate this “Quaker comet,” as he came to be known. Benjamin Rush, one of his earliest biographers, said Lay was known to virtually everyone in Pennsylvania; his curious portrait was said to hang in many Philadelphia homes. This early abolitionist burned bright, and, despite his exclusion from many abolitionist narratives, refuses to be extinguished from history. All Rights Reserved for Natasha Frost	<urn:uuid:c58a8004-ddc6-4015-a4fb-fce50a3134ac>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://productivityhub.org/2019/10/15/the-18th-century-quaker-dwarf-who-challenged-slavery-meat-eating-and-racism/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00185.warc.gz	en	0.989551	1,838	3.3125	3	[ -0.11875873804092407, 0.15673577785491943, 0.24031955003738403, 0.16823740303516388, -0.16247862577438354, 0.06748748570680618, 0.2677644193172455, 0.4111595153808594, -0.5123570561408997, -0.058015868067741394, 0.02618790604174137, -0.328891783952713, 0.3132275342941284, 0.225941956043243...	1	Benjamin Lay is not to be overlooked. This 1790 portrait of Benjamin Lay, by William Williams and his apprentice, depicts Lay in front of his cave. The basket of vegetables beside him is a hint of his vegetarianism. Public Domain. One Sunday, 18th-century Quakers living in Abington, Pennsylvania, near Philadelphia, were met with a strange sight outside their morning meeting. The snow lay thick on the ground and there was Benjamin Lay, a member of the congregation, wearing little clothing, with his “right leg and foot uncovered,” almost knee-deep in the snow. When one Quaker after the next told him that he would get sick or that he should get inside and cover up, he turned to them. “Ah,” he said, “you pretend compassion for me, but you do not feel for the poor slaves in your fields, who go all winter half-clad.” Lay always cut a striking figure. An 1818 article, republished in the newspaper The Friend in 1911, many years after his death, described him thus: … only four foot seven in height; his head was large in proportion to his body, the features of his face were remarkable … He was hunch-backed, with a projecting chest, below which his body become much contracted. His legs were so slender, as to appear almost unequal to the purpose of supporting him. His act of protest in the snow is of the sort that might make the news today, but in the 1730s it would have been radical almost beyond understanding. This was a time, writes Marcus Rediker in his recent book The Fearless Benjamin Lay: The Quaker Dwarf Who Became the First Revolutionary Abolitionist, when “slavery seemed to many people around the world as natural and unchangeable as the sun, the moon, and the stars in the heavens.” Lay was an abolitionist, vegetarian, pacifist, gender-conscious, anti-capitalist, environmentalist Quaker, with dwarfism and a hunchback, and he wanted to change the apparently “natural” order of things. Despite his ultra-radical leanings, Lay has been almost entirely excised from modern history books. “The wildness of his methods of approaching antislavery is part of it,” Rediker says. “He was extremely militant and completely uncompromising.” This level of abolitionist militance was unprecedented, and only began to become common after the 1830s. Lay sits outside of the standard narrative of the movement, and his disability and lower socioeconomic status make him difficult to place in a clear historical model. “He just didn’t fit the story,” Rediker says. The snow protest was by no means Lay’s only performed, dramatic, nonviolent act of radicalism. Quaker neighbors of his kept a young “negro girl” as a slave, and continued to justify the practice, even in the face of his exhortations on both the evil of slavery in general and the “wickedness” of separating enslaved children from their parents. When the neighbors refused to listen, Lay invited their six-year-old son into the cave where he lived and innocently entertained him throughout the day. The boy’s parents panicked. The Village Record, a local newspaper, later described how Lay “observed the father and mother running towards his dwelling; as they drew near, discovering their distress, he advanced and met them, enquiring in a feeling manner: ‘What is the matter?’” The parents, understandably terrified, explained that the boy had been missing all day. Lay is said to have paused, and said: “Your child is safe in my house, and you may now conceive of the sorrow you inflict upon the parents of the negro girl you hold in slavery, for she was torn from them by avarice.” Taking the Bible as his model, he seems to have generated living parables to show people the evil of their ways. (Another version of this story claims that the child was a three-year-old girl.) Lay seems to have had big dreams and ideals to match. Born to a family of common Quakers in Colchester, England, he left his work as a glover at 21, eschewed his likely inheritance, and went to London in pursuit of his fortune. There he became a sailor, desperate to see the world despite the risk of injury or death. (That year, 1703, as many as 10,000 British sailors and crew members lost their lives in a major cyclone.) For more than a decade at sea, he slept in a hammock and lived among people of all ethnicities, shapes, and sizes. For the rest of his life, even after years on land, Lay thought of himself in some sense as a sailor. “At the end of his life,” writes Rediker, “he made a request that shocked his friends and acquaintances: he asked a man to ‘burn his body, and throw the ashes into the sea.’” It was on his voyages that Lay first became aware of slavery. Fellow sailors told him horror stories about working in the African slave trade, where hundreds of thousands died in transit. Still a devout Quaker, Lay began to connect these practices to Biblical verses about racial equality—that God “hath made of one Blood all Nations of Men for to dwell on all the Face of the Earth.” He soon concluded that slave traders were murderers, and that the practice was barbarous. In time, Lay married. Like him, his wife Sarah was a Quaker. She had similar physical conditions, and shared many of his forward-thinking beliefs. The Lays moved, in 1718, to Barbados, a place with some vestiges of a Quaker community. They were appalled to find themselves on an island built on slavery, “barbary and ill-gotten gains,” where slaves were treated worse than horses. The Lays held open meetings and offered meals to the island’s enslaved population, which drew the opprobrium of the island’s white population. Though the Lays had already made plans to leave, these “Masters and Mistresses of Slaves” called for them to be banished. In 1720, they returned to England. Lay was just getting started ruffling feathers in Quaker communities. Twelve years later they moved to Pennsylvania, where they established themselves in the local Quaker community again. Lay was shocked to find slavery a common practice there, too, after more than a decade in England, where it was rare. At that time, around 10 percent of Pennsylvanians were enslaved, compared with around 90 percent in Barbados. In Pennsylvania, Lay performed some of his most dramatic protest stunts, including disrupting Quaker meetings with abolitionist messages. He is said to have stood up in meetings whenever a slaveholder attempted to speak, and shout: “There’s another negro-master!” Three years later, Sarah died, unexpectedly. Lay was heartbroken. By the time he himself died, in 1759, Lay had eked out a strange and deeply principled life for himself in the Philadelphia area. He lived in a cave, made his own clothes, and walked everywhere. He had become a vegetarian and felt that animals, including horses, should not be exploited for their labor or their meat. In 1737 he published the revolutionary tract All Slaveholders That Keep the Innocent in Bondage, Apostates, a mixture of polemic, musings, and autobiography, put together in a curiously nonlinear, almost postmodern, format. (The publisher—Benjamin Franklin, a longtime, if a little wary, friend—chose to keep his own name off the text.) Despite his requests to be cremated, which would have been tantamount to paganism, Lay was buried in an unmarked grave close to his wife’s, in the Quaker burial ground. During his life and after his death, many people, Rediker says, thought of Lay as deranged. “[Historians] thought he was not sane, and this was a very effective way of putting him at the margins.” Ableism, too, seems to have factored in this general unwillingness to take him seriously. But some of those in the abolitionist movement did feel the need to celebrate this “Quaker comet,” as he came to be known. Benjamin Rush, one of his earliest biographers, said Lay was known to virtually everyone in Pennsylvania; his curious portrait was said to hang in many Philadelphia homes. This early abolitionist burned bright, and, despite his exclusion from many abolitionist narratives, refuses to be extinguished from history. All Rights Reserved for Natasha Frost	1,797	ENGLISH	1
In the fall of the year 1780, when the American cause wore a very gloomy aspect in the Southern States, Cols. Arthur and William Campbell, hearing of the advance of Colonel Ferguson along the mountains in the State of North Carolina, and that the Whigs were retreating before him, unable to make any effectual resistance, formed a plan to intercept him, and communicated it to the commanding officers of Sullivan and Washington Counties, in the State of North Carolina. They readily agreed to co-operate in any expedition against Col. Ferguson. Col. Arthur Campbell immediately ordered the militia of Washington Co., Virginia, amounting to near four hundred, to make ready to march under command of Col. Wm. Campbell, who was known to be an enterprising and active officer. Cols. Shelby and Sevier raised a party of three hundred, joined him on his march, and moved with forced marches toward Col. Ferguson. At the same time Cols. Williams, Cleveland, Lacey, and Brandon, of the States of North and South Carolina, each conducted a small party toward the same point, amounting to near three hundred. Col. Ferguson had notice of their approach by a deserter that left the army on the Yellow Mountain, and immediately commenced his march for Charlotte, dispatching at the same time different messengers to Lord Cornwallis with information of his danger. These messengers being intercepted on their way, no movement was made to favor his retreat. These several corps of American volunteers, amounting to near one thousand men, met at Gilbert Town, and the officers unanimously chose Colonel Campbell to the command. About seven hundred choice riflemen mounted their horses for the purpose of following the retreating army. The balance being chiefly footmen, were left to follow on and come up as soon as they could. The pursuit was too rapid to render an escape. practicable. Ferguson, finding that he must inevitably be over-taken, chose his ground, and waited for the attack on King’s Mountain. On the 7th of October, in the afternoon, after a forced march of forty-five miles on that day and the night before; the volunteers came up with him. The forenoon of the day was wet, but they were fortunate enough to come on him undiscovered, and took his pickets, they not having it in their power to give an alarm. They were soon formed in such order as to attack the enemy on all sides. The Washington and Sullivan regiments were formed in the front and on the right flank; the North and South Carolina troops, under Cols. Williams, Sevier, Cleveland, Lacey, and Brandon, on the left. The two armies being in full view, the center of the one nearly opposite the center of the other-the British main guard posted nearly half way down the mountain-the commanding officer gave the word of command to raise the Indian war-whoop and charge. In a moment, King’s Mountain resounded with their shouts, and on the first fire the guard retreated, leaving some of their men to crimson the earth. The British beat to arms, and immediately formed on the top of the mountain, behind a chain of rocks that appeared impregnable, and had their wagons drawn up on their flank across the end of the mountain, by which they made a strong breast-work. Thus concealed, the American army advanced to the charge. In ten or fifteen minutes the wings came round, and the action became general. The enemy annoyed our troops very much from their advantageous position. Col. Shelby, being previously ordered to reconnoitre their position, observing their situation, and what a destructive fire was kept up from behind those rocks, ordered Robert Campbell, one of the officers of the Virginia Line, to move to the right with a small company to endeavor to dislodge them, and lead them on. nearly to the ground to which he had ordered them, under fire of the enemy’s lines and within forty steps of the same; but discovering that our men were repulsed on the other side of the mountain, he gave orders to advance, and post themselves opposite to the rocks, and near to the enemy, and then returned to assist in bringing up the men in order, who had been charged with the bayonet. These orders were punctually obeyed, and they kept up such a galling fire as to compel Ferguson to order a company of regulars to fact them, with a view to cover his men that were posted behind the rocks. At this time, a considerable fire was drawn to this side of the mountain by the repulse of those on the other, and the Loyalists not being permitted to leave their posts. This scene was not of long duration, for it was the brave Virginia volunteers, and those under Col. Shelby, on their attempting rapidly to ascend the mountain, that were charged with the bayonet. They obstinately stood until some of them were thrust through the body, and having nothing but their rifle, by which to defend themselves, they were forced to retreat. They were soon rallied by their gallant commanders, Campbell, Shelby and other brave officers, and by a constant and well-directed fire of their rifles, drove them back in id-lei I turn, strewing the face of the mountain with their assailant: and kept advancing until they drove them from some of their posts. Ferguson being heavily pressed on all sides, ordered Capt. DePeyster to reinforce some of the extreme posts with a full company of British regulars. He marched, but to his astonishment when he arrived at the place of destination, he had almost no men, being exposed in that short distance to the constant fire of their rifles. He then ordered his cavalry to mount, but to no purpose. As quick as they were mounted, they were taken down by some bold marksmen. Being driven to desperation by such a scene of misfortune, Col. Ferguson endeavored to make his escape, and, with two Colonels of the Loyalists, mounted his horse, and charged on that part of the line which was defended by the party who had been ordered round the mountain by Col. Shelby, it appearing too weak to resist them. But as soon as he got to the line he fell, and the other two officers, attempting to retreat, soon shared the same fate. It was about this time that Col. Campbell advanced in front of his men, and climbed over a steep rock close by the enemy’s lines, to get a view of their situation, and saw they were retreating from behind the rocks that were near to him. As soon as Capt. DePeyster observed that Col. Ferguson was killed, he raised a flag and called for quarters. It was soon taken out of his hand by one of the officers on horseback, and raised so high that it could be seen by our line, and the firing immediately ceased. The Loyalists, at the time of their surrender, were driven into a crowd, and being closely surrounded, they could not have made any further resistance. In this sharp action, one hundred and fifty of Col. Ferguson’s party were killed, and something over that number were wounded. Eight hundred and ten, of whom one hundred were British regulars, surrendered themselves prisoners, and one thousand five hundred stand of arms were taken. The loss of the American army on this occasion amounted to thirty killed, and something over fifty wounded, among whom were a number of brave officers. Col. Williams, who has been so much lamented, was shot through the body, near the close of the action, in making an attempt to charge upon Ferguson. He lived long enough to hear of the surrender of the British army. He then said, “I die contented, since we have gained the victory,” and expired. The third night after the action, the officers of the Carolinas complained to Col. Campbell, that there were among he prisoners a number who had, previous to the action on King’s Mountain, committed cool and deliberate murder, and other enormities alike atrocious, and requested him to order a court-martial to examine into the matter. They stated that if they should escape, they were exasperated, and they feared they would commit other enormities worse than they had formerly done. Col. Campbell complied, and ordered a court-martial immediately to sit, composed of the Field Officers and Captains, who were ordered to inquire into the complaints which had been made. The court was conducted orderly, and witnesses were called and examined in each case. The consequence was that there were thirty-two condemned. Out of these, nine who were thought the most dangerous, and who had committed the most atrocious crimes, were executed. The others were pardoned by the commanding officer. One of the crimes proven against a Captain that was executed was, that he had called at the house of a Whig, and inquired if he was at home, and being informed by his son, a small boy, that he was not, he immediately drew out his pistol and shot him. The officers on the occasion acted from an honorable motive to do the greatest good in their power for the public service, and to check those enormities so frequently committed in the States of North and South Carolina at that time, their distress being almost unequaled in the annals of the American Revolution.	<urn:uuid:88c257f6-6504-48bb-bcd5-18409a055732>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/narrative-of-the-battle-of-kings-mountain/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00199.warc.gz	en	0.991316	1,919	3.375	3	[ -0.7081982493400574, 0.1383354216814041, 0.13469377160072327, 0.39783531427383423, -0.10509799420833588, 0.14452259242534637, 0.03228706121444702, 0.20483198761940002, -0.1884014904499054, 0.027354521676898003, 0.39681708812713623, 0.10627400875091553, 0.5049158930778503, 0.043328829109668...	5	In the fall of the year 1780, when the American cause wore a very gloomy aspect in the Southern States, Cols. Arthur and William Campbell, hearing of the advance of Colonel Ferguson along the mountains in the State of North Carolina, and that the Whigs were retreating before him, unable to make any effectual resistance, formed a plan to intercept him, and communicated it to the commanding officers of Sullivan and Washington Counties, in the State of North Carolina. They readily agreed to co-operate in any expedition against Col. Ferguson. Col. Arthur Campbell immediately ordered the militia of Washington Co., Virginia, amounting to near four hundred, to make ready to march under command of Col. Wm. Campbell, who was known to be an enterprising and active officer. Cols. Shelby and Sevier raised a party of three hundred, joined him on his march, and moved with forced marches toward Col. Ferguson. At the same time Cols. Williams, Cleveland, Lacey, and Brandon, of the States of North and South Carolina, each conducted a small party toward the same point, amounting to near three hundred. Col. Ferguson had notice of their approach by a deserter that left the army on the Yellow Mountain, and immediately commenced his march for Charlotte, dispatching at the same time different messengers to Lord Cornwallis with information of his danger. These messengers being intercepted on their way, no movement was made to favor his retreat. These several corps of American volunteers, amounting to near one thousand men, met at Gilbert Town, and the officers unanimously chose Colonel Campbell to the command. About seven hundred choice riflemen mounted their horses for the purpose of following the retreating army. The balance being chiefly footmen, were left to follow on and come up as soon as they could. The pursuit was too rapid to render an escape. practicable. Ferguson, finding that he must inevitably be over-taken, chose his ground, and waited for the attack on King’s Mountain. On the 7th of October, in the afternoon, after a forced march of forty-five miles on that day and the night before; the volunteers came up with him. The forenoon of the day was wet, but they were fortunate enough to come on him undiscovered, and took his pickets, they not having it in their power to give an alarm. They were soon formed in such order as to attack the enemy on all sides. The Washington and Sullivan regiments were formed in the front and on the right flank; the North and South Carolina troops, under Cols. Williams, Sevier, Cleveland, Lacey, and Brandon, on the left. The two armies being in full view, the center of the one nearly opposite the center of the other-the British main guard posted nearly half way down the mountain-the commanding officer gave the word of command to raise the Indian war-whoop and charge. In a moment, King’s Mountain resounded with their shouts, and on the first fire the guard retreated, leaving some of their men to crimson the earth. The British beat to arms, and immediately formed on the top of the mountain, behind a chain of rocks that appeared impregnable, and had their wagons drawn up on their flank across the end of the mountain, by which they made a strong breast-work. Thus concealed, the American army advanced to the charge. In ten or fifteen minutes the wings came round, and the action became general. The enemy annoyed our troops very much from their advantageous position. Col. Shelby, being previously ordered to reconnoitre their position, observing their situation, and what a destructive fire was kept up from behind those rocks, ordered Robert Campbell, one of the officers of the Virginia Line, to move to the right with a small company to endeavor to dislodge them, and lead them on. nearly to the ground to which he had ordered them, under fire of the enemy’s lines and within forty steps of the same; but discovering that our men were repulsed on the other side of the mountain, he gave orders to advance, and post themselves opposite to the rocks, and near to the enemy, and then returned to assist in bringing up the men in order, who had been charged with the bayonet. These orders were punctually obeyed, and they kept up such a galling fire as to compel Ferguson to order a company of regulars to fact them, with a view to cover his men that were posted behind the rocks. At this time, a considerable fire was drawn to this side of the mountain by the repulse of those on the other, and the Loyalists not being permitted to leave their posts. This scene was not of long duration, for it was the brave Virginia volunteers, and those under Col. Shelby, on their attempting rapidly to ascend the mountain, that were charged with the bayonet. They obstinately stood until some of them were thrust through the body, and having nothing but their rifle, by which to defend themselves, they were forced to retreat. They were soon rallied by their gallant commanders, Campbell, Shelby and other brave officers, and by a constant and well-directed fire of their rifles, drove them back in id-lei I turn, strewing the face of the mountain with their assailant: and kept advancing until they drove them from some of their posts. Ferguson being heavily pressed on all sides, ordered Capt. DePeyster to reinforce some of the extreme posts with a full company of British regulars. He marched, but to his astonishment when he arrived at the place of destination, he had almost no men, being exposed in that short distance to the constant fire of their rifles. He then ordered his cavalry to mount, but to no purpose. As quick as they were mounted, they were taken down by some bold marksmen. Being driven to desperation by such a scene of misfortune, Col. Ferguson endeavored to make his escape, and, with two Colonels of the Loyalists, mounted his horse, and charged on that part of the line which was defended by the party who had been ordered round the mountain by Col. Shelby, it appearing too weak to resist them. But as soon as he got to the line he fell, and the other two officers, attempting to retreat, soon shared the same fate. It was about this time that Col. Campbell advanced in front of his men, and climbed over a steep rock close by the enemy’s lines, to get a view of their situation, and saw they were retreating from behind the rocks that were near to him. As soon as Capt. DePeyster observed that Col. Ferguson was killed, he raised a flag and called for quarters. It was soon taken out of his hand by one of the officers on horseback, and raised so high that it could be seen by our line, and the firing immediately ceased. The Loyalists, at the time of their surrender, were driven into a crowd, and being closely surrounded, they could not have made any further resistance. In this sharp action, one hundred and fifty of Col. Ferguson’s party were killed, and something over that number were wounded. Eight hundred and ten, of whom one hundred were British regulars, surrendered themselves prisoners, and one thousand five hundred stand of arms were taken. The loss of the American army on this occasion amounted to thirty killed, and something over fifty wounded, among whom were a number of brave officers. Col. Williams, who has been so much lamented, was shot through the body, near the close of the action, in making an attempt to charge upon Ferguson. He lived long enough to hear of the surrender of the British army. He then said, “I die contented, since we have gained the victory,” and expired. The third night after the action, the officers of the Carolinas complained to Col. Campbell, that there were among he prisoners a number who had, previous to the action on King’s Mountain, committed cool and deliberate murder, and other enormities alike atrocious, and requested him to order a court-martial to examine into the matter. They stated that if they should escape, they were exasperated, and they feared they would commit other enormities worse than they had formerly done. Col. Campbell complied, and ordered a court-martial immediately to sit, composed of the Field Officers and Captains, who were ordered to inquire into the complaints which had been made. The court was conducted orderly, and witnesses were called and examined in each case. The consequence was that there were thirty-two condemned. Out of these, nine who were thought the most dangerous, and who had committed the most atrocious crimes, were executed. The others were pardoned by the commanding officer. One of the crimes proven against a Captain that was executed was, that he had called at the house of a Whig, and inquired if he was at home, and being informed by his son, a small boy, that he was not, he immediately drew out his pistol and shot him. The officers on the occasion acted from an honorable motive to do the greatest good in their power for the public service, and to check those enormities so frequently committed in the States of North and South Carolina at that time, their distress being almost unequaled in the annals of the American Revolution.	1,907	ENGLISH	1
Bloat is also known as gastric dilatation and volvulus. This is the medical term for bloat. This word pretty much means that the stomach has become enlarged, flipped over, and twisted on itself — this cause and obstruction of the outflow and sometimes intake of the stomach. Bloat can occur in many different ways, what most commonly happens is if your dog eats and drinks to quickly and swallowing air as they do or exercising too quickly after. Once your dog's stomach has twist causes, your dog's stomach will become distended. You will notice that the belly has become swollen. This usually happens very quickly. Bloat is very common in deep-chested dogs such as German shepherds, Standard poodles, and Great Danes. A bloated dog needs to go to the veterinarian as soon as possible. Due to the high-risk factors, this is usually a life-threatening emergency because of the blood flow that gets cut off from the heart and stomach lining. Bloating will also cause a blockage in your dog's GI tract, which can be very painful. While there are other things that could cause your dog's stomach to become distended, such as pregnancy or heart disease, it is better to make sure as soon as possible. If you notice your dog's abdomen becoming swollen, seek veterinary care immediately.	<urn:uuid:448fd61a-4cba-4adf-aabb-e80ffbb4677e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sitstay.com/blogs/good-dog-blog/symptoms-of-bloat-in-dogs	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00504.warc.gz	en	0.9804	278	3.28125	3	[ 0.1596900224685669, -0.5163478255271912, 0.30738332867622375, 0.3760118782520294, -0.019067665562033653, -0.15277281403541565, 0.448087215423584, 0.4071212112903595, 0.015813978388905525, -0.33760443329811096, 0.049373265355825424, -0.7145856022834778, -0.033113837242126465, -0.07585924118...	6	Bloat is also known as gastric dilatation and volvulus. This is the medical term for bloat. This word pretty much means that the stomach has become enlarged, flipped over, and twisted on itself — this cause and obstruction of the outflow and sometimes intake of the stomach. Bloat can occur in many different ways, what most commonly happens is if your dog eats and drinks to quickly and swallowing air as they do or exercising too quickly after. Once your dog's stomach has twist causes, your dog's stomach will become distended. You will notice that the belly has become swollen. This usually happens very quickly. Bloat is very common in deep-chested dogs such as German shepherds, Standard poodles, and Great Danes. A bloated dog needs to go to the veterinarian as soon as possible. Due to the high-risk factors, this is usually a life-threatening emergency because of the blood flow that gets cut off from the heart and stomach lining. Bloating will also cause a blockage in your dog's GI tract, which can be very painful. While there are other things that could cause your dog's stomach to become distended, such as pregnancy or heart disease, it is better to make sure as soon as possible. If you notice your dog's abdomen becoming swollen, seek veterinary care immediately.	269	ENGLISH	1
Henry Clay Sr. (April 12, 1777 – June 29, 1852) was an American attorney and statesman who represented Kentucky in both the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives, served as seventh speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives, and served as the ninth U.S. secretary of state. He received electoral votes for president in the 1824, 1832, and 1844 presidential elections and helped found both the National Republican Party and the Whig Party. For his role in defusing sectional crises, he earned the appellation of the “Great Compromiser.” Clay was born in Hanover County, Virginia in 1777 and launched a legal career in Lexington, Kentucky, in 1797. As a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, Clay won election to the Kentucky state legislature in 1803 and to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1810. He was chosen as speaker of the House in early 1811 and, along with President James Madison, led the United States into the War of 1812 against Britain. In 1814, he helped negotiate the Treaty of Ghent, which brought an end to the War of 1812. After the war, Clay returned to his position as speaker of the House and developed the American System, which called for federal infrastructure investments, support for the national bank, and protective tariff rates. In 1820, he helped bring an end to a sectional crisis over slavery by leading the passage of the Missouri Compromise. Clay finished with the fourth-most electoral votes in the multi-candidate 1824 presidential election, and he helped John Quincy Adams win the contingent election held to select the president. President Adams appointed Clay to the prestigious position of secretary of state; critics alleged that the two had agreed to a “corrupt bargain.” Despite receiving support from Clay and other National Republicans, Adams was defeated by Democrat Andrew Jackson in the 1828 presidential election. Clay won election to the Senate in 1831 and ran as the National Republican nominee in the 1832 presidential election, but he was defeated by President Jackson. After the 1832 election, Clay helped bring an end to the Nullification Crisis by leading passage of the Tariff of 1833. During Jackson’s second term, opponents of the president coalesced into the Whig Party, and Clay became a leading congressional Whig. Clay sought the presidency in the 1840 election but was defeated at the Whig National Convention by William Henry Harrison. He clashed with Harrison’s running mate and successor, John Tyler, who broke with Clay and other congressional Whigs after taking office in 1841. Clay resigned from the Senate in 1842 and won the 1844 Whig presidential nomination, but he was defeated in the general election by Democrat James K. Polk, who made the annexation of the Republic of Texas his key issue. Clay strongly criticized the subsequent Mexican–American War and sought the Whig presidential nomination in 1848, but was defeated by General Zachary Taylor. After returning to the Senate in 1849, Clay played a key role in passing the Compromise of 1850, which resolved a crisis over the status of slavery in the territories. Clay is generally regarded as one of the most important and influential political figures of his era.	<urn:uuid:f4efd668-732a-4f5a-8635-ad90f9602e65>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://goodquotes.me/authors/henry-clay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00357.warc.gz	en	0.982684	674	3.6875	4	[ -0.07451366633176804, -0.0506962314248085, 0.5084168910980225, -0.03468714654445648, -0.4646869897842407, -0.1117628887295723, 0.35757386684417725, -0.02290874347090721, -0.4328012764453888, 0.1613527238368988, -0.214790940284729, -0.22532962262630463, 0.2512238621711731, 0.467236280441284...	2	Henry Clay Sr. (April 12, 1777 – June 29, 1852) was an American attorney and statesman who represented Kentucky in both the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives, served as seventh speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives, and served as the ninth U.S. secretary of state. He received electoral votes for president in the 1824, 1832, and 1844 presidential elections and helped found both the National Republican Party and the Whig Party. For his role in defusing sectional crises, he earned the appellation of the “Great Compromiser.” Clay was born in Hanover County, Virginia in 1777 and launched a legal career in Lexington, Kentucky, in 1797. As a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, Clay won election to the Kentucky state legislature in 1803 and to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1810. He was chosen as speaker of the House in early 1811 and, along with President James Madison, led the United States into the War of 1812 against Britain. In 1814, he helped negotiate the Treaty of Ghent, which brought an end to the War of 1812. After the war, Clay returned to his position as speaker of the House and developed the American System, which called for federal infrastructure investments, support for the national bank, and protective tariff rates. In 1820, he helped bring an end to a sectional crisis over slavery by leading the passage of the Missouri Compromise. Clay finished with the fourth-most electoral votes in the multi-candidate 1824 presidential election, and he helped John Quincy Adams win the contingent election held to select the president. President Adams appointed Clay to the prestigious position of secretary of state; critics alleged that the two had agreed to a “corrupt bargain.” Despite receiving support from Clay and other National Republicans, Adams was defeated by Democrat Andrew Jackson in the 1828 presidential election. Clay won election to the Senate in 1831 and ran as the National Republican nominee in the 1832 presidential election, but he was defeated by President Jackson. After the 1832 election, Clay helped bring an end to the Nullification Crisis by leading passage of the Tariff of 1833. During Jackson’s second term, opponents of the president coalesced into the Whig Party, and Clay became a leading congressional Whig. Clay sought the presidency in the 1840 election but was defeated at the Whig National Convention by William Henry Harrison. He clashed with Harrison’s running mate and successor, John Tyler, who broke with Clay and other congressional Whigs after taking office in 1841. Clay resigned from the Senate in 1842 and won the 1844 Whig presidential nomination, but he was defeated in the general election by Democrat James K. Polk, who made the annexation of the Republic of Texas his key issue. Clay strongly criticized the subsequent Mexican–American War and sought the Whig presidential nomination in 1848, but was defeated by General Zachary Taylor. After returning to the Senate in 1849, Clay played a key role in passing the Compromise of 1850, which resolved a crisis over the status of slavery in the territories. Clay is generally regarded as one of the most important and influential political figures of his era.	742	ENGLISH	1
Painted and unpainted burial pottery from Harappa. The two largest vessels were found in the same burial and are described below. The other smaller vessels were found in an earlier burial and represent an older style of pottery. The bottom images shows a collection of burial pottery which come from one of the later burials towards the end of the Harappan period, possibly dating to 1900 BCE. Tall jar with concave neck and flaring rim: The rounded base was originally supported in a ring stand. The black painted geometric designs are arranged in panels with a red slip as background. After initial firing, the entire painted design was obliterated with a red slip and fired again at a low temperature that turned the exterior layer of the slip red through oxidation, but the inner layer remained gray. This overslip was not well bonded to the previously slipped surface and was partially eroded when first discovered. After initial conservation and documentation, one half of the overslip was removed to reveal the original painted design. The lid and ring stand with this vessel were also covered with an overslip. This tall jar was located at the foot of the burial pit for burial 148a. Read more here.	<urn:uuid:19bb32a3-a7d0-489c-9ea4-fe5be8d5d0c9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.harappa.com/blog/harappan-burial-pottery	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00346.warc.gz	en	0.98407	244	3.265625	3	[ -0.4166443645954132, 0.07094348222017288, 0.32233819365501404, -0.09330432116985321, -0.1785462498664856, -0.07269547134637833, 0.1123112216591835, 0.10480288416147232, -0.3285786509513855, -0.2356598824262619, 0.1582825481891632, -0.5641177892684937, 0.1231328547000885, 0.6855917572975159...	11	Painted and unpainted burial pottery from Harappa. The two largest vessels were found in the same burial and are described below. The other smaller vessels were found in an earlier burial and represent an older style of pottery. The bottom images shows a collection of burial pottery which come from one of the later burials towards the end of the Harappan period, possibly dating to 1900 BCE. Tall jar with concave neck and flaring rim: The rounded base was originally supported in a ring stand. The black painted geometric designs are arranged in panels with a red slip as background. After initial firing, the entire painted design was obliterated with a red slip and fired again at a low temperature that turned the exterior layer of the slip red through oxidation, but the inner layer remained gray. This overslip was not well bonded to the previously slipped surface and was partially eroded when first discovered. After initial conservation and documentation, one half of the overslip was removed to reveal the original painted design. The lid and ring stand with this vessel were also covered with an overslip. This tall jar was located at the foot of the burial pit for burial 148a. Read more here.	244	ENGLISH	1
World War II exhibit opens NEW ORLEANS – About to be overrun by Germans, a young black lieutenant called in an artillery barrage on his own position, knowing he'd be killed. It was the only way to hold off the enemy. The sacrifice by 1st Lt. John Fox is one of many endured by the 100,000 African-American service members during World War II and is now the focus of an exhibit at the National World War II Museum in New Orleans. "Fighting for the Right to Fight: The African American Experience in WWII" o runs through May 30, 2016. It describes discrimination before and after the war as well as in the military during World War II. The exhibit also includes an original 81/2-minute video about the famed Tuskegee Airmen and video interviews with 10 veterans, including Rothacker Smith of Huntsville, Alabama, who served in the 366th Infantry Regiment. A Seventh-Day Adventist and conscientious objector to combat, Smith — serving in the same segregated 92nd Infantry Division to which Fox also belonged — was drafted and became a medic. Often Smith was the only African-American on the bus back from town to Camp Stewart, Georgia, on Saturday nights. He remembers being made to sit in the baggage compartment. Smith was stationed in southern Italy, where his unit guarded airfields, one of many noncombat jobs to which black troops were relegated. But the war's heavy death toll eventually sent more African-American troops into combat. Smith was assigned to a machine-gun nest in Sommocolonia, Italy, where Fox was a forward observer directing fire for one of the 366th's artillery units. By that time, ammunition was running so short in Italy that it was rationed, said John H. Morrow, a University of Georgia history professor and co-chair of the national advisory committee that drew up plans for the exhibit. Smith said that when the sergeant in charge of the machine gun crew called on Christmas Day for a barrage on German artillery, he was told, "We can't fire until tomorrow morning because we used up our 16 rounds for today." The morning of Dec. 26, 1944, a German mortar shell hit the window of the stone house where the machine-gunners and Smith were holed up. Smith was hit in several places, including his right hip, elbow, upper back and cheek. He used his teeth and left hand to bandage the sergeant, who was more severely injured. Later in the day, as the Germans pressed their attack toward Fox, he made the ultimate sacrifice: He called in artillery fire right on his own position. Smith was captured and taken prisoner by the Germans until his release April 29, 1945. Copyright 2015 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.	<urn:uuid:fc14cc25-c023-47f0-9faf-a07ab9898f66>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.hattiesburgamerican.com/story/news/local/2015/07/07/black-experience-world-war-ii-subject-exhibition/29801253/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00526.warc.gz	en	0.982491	580	3.359375	3	[ -0.11164554953575134, 0.7342643737792969, 0.08194785565137863, 0.18107178807258606, -0.03298601880669594, 0.3857671618461609, -0.07617084681987762, 0.20915678143501282, -0.6391044855117798, -0.17900846898555756, 0.10974378883838654, 0.31329938769340515, 0.1929592788219452, 0.69703376293182...	1	World War II exhibit opens NEW ORLEANS – About to be overrun by Germans, a young black lieutenant called in an artillery barrage on his own position, knowing he'd be killed. It was the only way to hold off the enemy. The sacrifice by 1st Lt. John Fox is one of many endured by the 100,000 African-American service members during World War II and is now the focus of an exhibit at the National World War II Museum in New Orleans. "Fighting for the Right to Fight: The African American Experience in WWII" o runs through May 30, 2016. It describes discrimination before and after the war as well as in the military during World War II. The exhibit also includes an original 81/2-minute video about the famed Tuskegee Airmen and video interviews with 10 veterans, including Rothacker Smith of Huntsville, Alabama, who served in the 366th Infantry Regiment. A Seventh-Day Adventist and conscientious objector to combat, Smith — serving in the same segregated 92nd Infantry Division to which Fox also belonged — was drafted and became a medic. Often Smith was the only African-American on the bus back from town to Camp Stewart, Georgia, on Saturday nights. He remembers being made to sit in the baggage compartment. Smith was stationed in southern Italy, where his unit guarded airfields, one of many noncombat jobs to which black troops were relegated. But the war's heavy death toll eventually sent more African-American troops into combat. Smith was assigned to a machine-gun nest in Sommocolonia, Italy, where Fox was a forward observer directing fire for one of the 366th's artillery units. By that time, ammunition was running so short in Italy that it was rationed, said John H. Morrow, a University of Georgia history professor and co-chair of the national advisory committee that drew up plans for the exhibit. Smith said that when the sergeant in charge of the machine gun crew called on Christmas Day for a barrage on German artillery, he was told, "We can't fire until tomorrow morning because we used up our 16 rounds for today." The morning of Dec. 26, 1944, a German mortar shell hit the window of the stone house where the machine-gunners and Smith were holed up. Smith was hit in several places, including his right hip, elbow, upper back and cheek. He used his teeth and left hand to bandage the sergeant, who was more severely injured. Later in the day, as the Germans pressed their attack toward Fox, he made the ultimate sacrifice: He called in artillery fire right on his own position. Smith was captured and taken prisoner by the Germans until his release April 29, 1945. Copyright 2015 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.	605	ENGLISH	1
During his fabled pilgrimage to Mecca of 1324, the Islamic emperor's unimaginable wealth would prove a weighty moral burden, causing an unintended economic whirlwind that devastated the lands through which he passed. History is filled with tales of outlandishly wealthy figures. Gordon Bennett, for example, has made such an enduring impression on popular culture that his name has become an expression of astonishment, his fabulous wealth and extravagant lifestyle becoming part of our folklore. Yet curiously, the man widely considered to have been the richest in human history – by far – is virtually unknown outside West Africa. The enigmatic figure in question is one Musa Keita I of Mali, more commonly known as Mansa Musa – ‘Mansa’ being a title roughly translated as ‘emperor’ from the Mandinka language of West Africa. He was the tenth Mansa of the medieval Islamic Mali Empire, which existed between the 13th and 16th centuries. Mali was one of the largest pre-colonial African empires and the dominant power in West Africa at the time. At its zenith, the empire spanned nearly 1.3 million square kilometres between the Atlantic coast of modern Senegal and the cities of Timuktu and Gao in the East. It boasted over fifty per cent of the world’s salt production, a precious commodity in West Africa at the time, seeing regular use as currency. It was also the largest gold producer in the world. Professor Richard Smith estimates its mines produced around a ton of the precious metal each year, constituting over half the world’s gold production during the period. Naturally, the Mali Empire – and its rulers in particular – grew enormously wealthy as a consequence. Even in the context of such affluence, Mansa Musa would prove to be the wealthiest of his line. Modern inflation-adjusted estimates of his wealth are truly mind-boggling, ranging from $400B to claims of over $4.6T. The upper estimates simply assume Mansa Musa was wealthier than Augustus Caesar, who held assets amounting to a fifth of Roman GDP, including personally owning Egypt. Born in c. 1280, Mansa Musa’s quarter-century reign lasted between c. 1312 and his death in c. 1337. He came to the throne in mysterious circumstances, after his predecessor, Abu Bakr II, took several ships on an apparent voyage of discovery into the Atlantic and did not return. Musa would become known as the ‘Lion of Mali’, presumably due to his military exploits. It was said he could field an army of up to 200,000 men – though this is presumably an exaggeration, we can take it as evidence of his relative military clout in the region. He would have used his military to maintain control of lucrative trade caravan routes, which stretched through the Sahara as far as Egypt, as well as policing the strategically important Niger waterway, which flowed through the centre of his empire. He also conquered several cities from the neighboring Songhai Empire, including Timbuktu and Gao, taking two of the Songhai Emperor’s sons as hostages in the process. The most notable event of his reign, as well as the best illustration of his unfathomable wealth, was his 4,000-mile pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324. Mounted heralds dressed in fine Persian silks and carrying golden staves led an army of 48,000 men and 12,000 slaves, who supposedly each carried 1.8kg of gold. This opulent cavalcade was joined by an 80-camel train, with each animal carrying up to 136kg of gold dust. Mansa Musa gifted gold to the poor he encountered on his journey, as well as presenting large sums to the cities of Medina and Cairo. He also traded gold for trinkets and souvenirs. Yet his penchant for charity ultimately caused such an inflow of gold within the region that its price collapsed, severely damaging the economies of Cairo, Medina and Mecca and causing the price of goods to inflate considerably. Realising the destructive effects of his generosity, he tried to rectify the situation by borrowing vast quantities of gold (as much as his camel train and slaves could carry) from Egyptian money lenders at very high interest rates. In spite of this, gold prices took over a decade to recover. On his return to Mali, he brought back with him numerous architects and intellectuals, in the hope of enriching the material and intellectual life of his empire. Most were Arabs, though he also persuaded some Moorish Andalusians present in Mecca at the time into his service. These architects were put to work in the construction of a new palace. He also put his wealth to use by constructing numerous mosques, particularly in Timbuktu and Gao, leading to fanciful claims that he built a new mosque weekly. Mansa Musa I was also Patron of the arts, notably commissioning the University of Sankore Madrasah, a centre of Islamic learning. This was an institution which supposedly boasted 25,000 students and a library containing up to a million manuscripts, which would have made it one of the world’s largest at the time. Sadly, his mighty empire fell into financial ruin only two generations later, due to the (presumably monumental) profligacy of his heirs.	<urn:uuid:ff8b1477-7518-4032-8d02-f46b00e9267e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyrevealed.com/eras/medieval/the-richest-man-in-history-mansa-musa-i-of-mali/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00552.warc.gz	en	0.983401	1,098	3.84375	4	[ -0.05825357139110565, 0.6384121179580688, 0.2873065173625946, -0.03552979975938797, 0.1660940945148468, -0.10857515037059784, 0.2788809537887573, 0.155406191945076, -0.08073735237121582, 0.2023203819990158, 0.38285166025161743, -0.5233772993087769, 0.2071436643600464, -0.020470647141337395...	1	During his fabled pilgrimage to Mecca of 1324, the Islamic emperor's unimaginable wealth would prove a weighty moral burden, causing an unintended economic whirlwind that devastated the lands through which he passed. History is filled with tales of outlandishly wealthy figures. Gordon Bennett, for example, has made such an enduring impression on popular culture that his name has become an expression of astonishment, his fabulous wealth and extravagant lifestyle becoming part of our folklore. Yet curiously, the man widely considered to have been the richest in human history – by far – is virtually unknown outside West Africa. The enigmatic figure in question is one Musa Keita I of Mali, more commonly known as Mansa Musa – ‘Mansa’ being a title roughly translated as ‘emperor’ from the Mandinka language of West Africa. He was the tenth Mansa of the medieval Islamic Mali Empire, which existed between the 13th and 16th centuries. Mali was one of the largest pre-colonial African empires and the dominant power in West Africa at the time. At its zenith, the empire spanned nearly 1.3 million square kilometres between the Atlantic coast of modern Senegal and the cities of Timuktu and Gao in the East. It boasted over fifty per cent of the world’s salt production, a precious commodity in West Africa at the time, seeing regular use as currency. It was also the largest gold producer in the world. Professor Richard Smith estimates its mines produced around a ton of the precious metal each year, constituting over half the world’s gold production during the period. Naturally, the Mali Empire – and its rulers in particular – grew enormously wealthy as a consequence. Even in the context of such affluence, Mansa Musa would prove to be the wealthiest of his line. Modern inflation-adjusted estimates of his wealth are truly mind-boggling, ranging from $400B to claims of over $4.6T. The upper estimates simply assume Mansa Musa was wealthier than Augustus Caesar, who held assets amounting to a fifth of Roman GDP, including personally owning Egypt. Born in c. 1280, Mansa Musa’s quarter-century reign lasted between c. 1312 and his death in c. 1337. He came to the throne in mysterious circumstances, after his predecessor, Abu Bakr II, took several ships on an apparent voyage of discovery into the Atlantic and did not return. Musa would become known as the ‘Lion of Mali’, presumably due to his military exploits. It was said he could field an army of up to 200,000 men – though this is presumably an exaggeration, we can take it as evidence of his relative military clout in the region. He would have used his military to maintain control of lucrative trade caravan routes, which stretched through the Sahara as far as Egypt, as well as policing the strategically important Niger waterway, which flowed through the centre of his empire. He also conquered several cities from the neighboring Songhai Empire, including Timbuktu and Gao, taking two of the Songhai Emperor’s sons as hostages in the process. The most notable event of his reign, as well as the best illustration of his unfathomable wealth, was his 4,000-mile pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324. Mounted heralds dressed in fine Persian silks and carrying golden staves led an army of 48,000 men and 12,000 slaves, who supposedly each carried 1.8kg of gold. This opulent cavalcade was joined by an 80-camel train, with each animal carrying up to 136kg of gold dust. Mansa Musa gifted gold to the poor he encountered on his journey, as well as presenting large sums to the cities of Medina and Cairo. He also traded gold for trinkets and souvenirs. Yet his penchant for charity ultimately caused such an inflow of gold within the region that its price collapsed, severely damaging the economies of Cairo, Medina and Mecca and causing the price of goods to inflate considerably. Realising the destructive effects of his generosity, he tried to rectify the situation by borrowing vast quantities of gold (as much as his camel train and slaves could carry) from Egyptian money lenders at very high interest rates. In spite of this, gold prices took over a decade to recover. On his return to Mali, he brought back with him numerous architects and intellectuals, in the hope of enriching the material and intellectual life of his empire. Most were Arabs, though he also persuaded some Moorish Andalusians present in Mecca at the time into his service. These architects were put to work in the construction of a new palace. He also put his wealth to use by constructing numerous mosques, particularly in Timbuktu and Gao, leading to fanciful claims that he built a new mosque weekly. Mansa Musa I was also Patron of the arts, notably commissioning the University of Sankore Madrasah, a centre of Islamic learning. This was an institution which supposedly boasted 25,000 students and a library containing up to a million manuscripts, which would have made it one of the world’s largest at the time. Sadly, his mighty empire fell into financial ruin only two generations later, due to the (presumably monumental) profligacy of his heirs.	1,129	ENGLISH	1
President Woodrow Wilson a new plan for serenity in the conflict known as the Just fourteen Points. It was also called " Peace With no Victory. ” The plan meant to prevent worldwide problems from causing one more war. In promoting his policy for peace, Pat visited Paris, London, Miami, and The italian capital in The european union. However , the Allies were against Wilson's Fourteen Details. The Allies wanted to discipline Germany for the war. One thought of Wilson's tranquility plan was an end to secret treaties. One issue that brought on World Conflict I that was resolved in that thought was entangling alliances between countries. One other idea was a limit in weapons. The situation that lead to Globe War We that was addressed in that idea was militarism. The most crucial of Wilson's Fourteen Points was a Group Of Nations, to shield the freedom of all countries. The issue that caused Universe War I that was addressed for the reason that was also the entangling alliances. The final treaty that was decided on was the Treaty Of Versailles. Germany believed they were receiving Wilson's peace plan although instead, they will got this kind of. The Treaty of Versailles consisted of many ways of punishing Germany. The war sense of guilt clause was obviously a part of the treaty. The war guilt clause stated that Germany needed to accept the blame of leading to the battle. Another component noted that Germany needed to give up is actually colonies. In addition, it consisted of the very fact that Germany had to pay all battle costs. What this means is they had to pay all their war cost, as well as the Allies‘ war costs, which was more than $200 billion dollars. The Allies also planned to disarm Philippines. This resulted in they planned to cut off Germany's army and navy, so they would not be able to battle another battle for a long time. Performed the Treaty of Versailles lead to World War II? The Treaty of Versailles was the way of the Allies to reprimand Germany. To surrender, Philippines accepted Wilson's Fourteen Items but Germany didn't acquire anything near a tranquility plan. The treaty resulted in bitterness,...	<urn:uuid:1a3a0c5e-2850-43fe-8f53-47541672c0c3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://eduss.org/world-war-1-and-serenity-plan/11790-essay-upon-world-war-1-and.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00063.warc.gz	en	0.98719	443	3.828125	4	[ -0.47970423102378845, 0.049971699714660645, -0.2146455943584442, -0.0938946008682251, 0.08819679915904999, 0.29513150453567505, 0.00473394151777029, 0.28342869877815247, 0.28758636116981506, 0.22141893208026886, 0.43158963322639465, -0.138744056224823, 0.33481597900390625, 1.04564785957336...	1	President Woodrow Wilson a new plan for serenity in the conflict known as the Just fourteen Points. It was also called " Peace With no Victory. ” The plan meant to prevent worldwide problems from causing one more war. In promoting his policy for peace, Pat visited Paris, London, Miami, and The italian capital in The european union. However , the Allies were against Wilson's Fourteen Details. The Allies wanted to discipline Germany for the war. One thought of Wilson's tranquility plan was an end to secret treaties. One issue that brought on World Conflict I that was resolved in that thought was entangling alliances between countries. One other idea was a limit in weapons. The situation that lead to Globe War We that was addressed in that idea was militarism. The most crucial of Wilson's Fourteen Points was a Group Of Nations, to shield the freedom of all countries. The issue that caused Universe War I that was addressed for the reason that was also the entangling alliances. The final treaty that was decided on was the Treaty Of Versailles. Germany believed they were receiving Wilson's peace plan although instead, they will got this kind of. The Treaty of Versailles consisted of many ways of punishing Germany. The war sense of guilt clause was obviously a part of the treaty. The war guilt clause stated that Germany needed to accept the blame of leading to the battle. Another component noted that Germany needed to give up is actually colonies. In addition, it consisted of the very fact that Germany had to pay all battle costs. What this means is they had to pay all their war cost, as well as the Allies‘ war costs, which was more than $200 billion dollars. The Allies also planned to disarm Philippines. This resulted in they planned to cut off Germany's army and navy, so they would not be able to battle another battle for a long time. Performed the Treaty of Versailles lead to World War II? The Treaty of Versailles was the way of the Allies to reprimand Germany. To surrender, Philippines accepted Wilson's Fourteen Items but Germany didn't acquire anything near a tranquility plan. The treaty resulted in bitterness,...	433	ENGLISH	1
Legislator, lawyer. Lee was born on November 27, 1844, on the plantation of Samuel J. McGowan in Abbeville District. His mother was a free black woman. Lee asserted that his father was a Samuel J. Lee of Charleston, but no such person appears in any census records, and some historians have opined that McGowan was his father. At age sixteen, Lee accompanied McGowan in the Civil War, and he said that he was wounded at Second Manassas in 1862 and again near Hanover Junction in 1864. McGowan was a Confederate general and later a South Carolina Supreme Court justice. While there is no official record of Lee’s service in the Confederate army, he was photographed with McGowan’s regiment armed and in uniform. After the war, Lee farmed in Abbeville and soon entered politics. He served on the Edgefield County commission in 1868. That same year he was elected to the General Assembly, where he represented Edgefield County from 1868 to 1871 and Aiken County from 1872 to 1874. In 1872 Lee became the first African American elected Speaker of the South Carolina House of Representatives. Two years later he left the legislature and ran unsuccessfully for attorney general. Lee left a trail of scandal in the wake of his political career. He had served as counsel to the legislative committee conducting the investigation that led to the state treasurer Francis Cardozo’s impeachment trial in 1874. In 1875 Lee was convicted of issuing fraudulent checks as an Aiken County commissioner. In 1877 he was indicted on numerous counts of public corruption, but in exchange for his testimony against Francis Cardozo, he was granted immunity from prosecution. Lee was again charged with public corruption in Aiken County in 1879, but the charges were dropped. After relocating to Charleston, Lee began to practice law and went on to become one of the state’s most successful black lawyers. Lee was a member of the South Carolina Bar beginning in 1872, and his connections with McGowan and his cooperation with the white establishment in post-Reconstruction South Carolina may have contributed to his legal success. While Lee was a man of little education, he was known for his oratory and legal acumen. He had an unprecedented twenty-seven appearances before the state supreme court, winning nine. While not a political leader after Reconstruction, Lee was active in Republican Party politics and spoke frequently at party functions. He was appointed a general in the state “colored” militia in 1891 and served until his death in Charleston on April 1, 1895. Upon learning of his death, the U.S. Circuit Court adjourned. Six thousand people attended his funeral. He was buried, with military honors, in Friendly Union Cemetery, Charleston. Oldfield, John. “The African American Bar in South Carolina, 1877–1915.” In At Freedom’s Door: African American Founding Fathers and Lawyers in Reconstruction South Carolina, edited by James Lowell Underwood and W. Lewis Burke, Jr. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2000. Vandervelde, Isabel. Biography of Samuel Jones Lee. Aiken, S.C.: Art Studio Press, 1997.	<urn:uuid:a0f8157f-89c8-4b4c-8eb5-008b85b2df5b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.scencyclopedia.org/sce/entries/lee-samuel-j/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00298.warc.gz	en	0.982441	664	3.265625	3	[ -0.3617926239967346, 0.27727586030960083, 0.3491060733795166, -0.2977027893066406, -0.010678967460989952, -0.061404403299093246, 0.6676691770553589, -0.583608865737915, -0.4127013087272644, 0.09057395905256271, 0.24502559006214142, 0.09603927284479141, 0.03218366205692291, 0.38254541158676...	2	Legislator, lawyer. Lee was born on November 27, 1844, on the plantation of Samuel J. McGowan in Abbeville District. His mother was a free black woman. Lee asserted that his father was a Samuel J. Lee of Charleston, but no such person appears in any census records, and some historians have opined that McGowan was his father. At age sixteen, Lee accompanied McGowan in the Civil War, and he said that he was wounded at Second Manassas in 1862 and again near Hanover Junction in 1864. McGowan was a Confederate general and later a South Carolina Supreme Court justice. While there is no official record of Lee’s service in the Confederate army, he was photographed with McGowan’s regiment armed and in uniform. After the war, Lee farmed in Abbeville and soon entered politics. He served on the Edgefield County commission in 1868. That same year he was elected to the General Assembly, where he represented Edgefield County from 1868 to 1871 and Aiken County from 1872 to 1874. In 1872 Lee became the first African American elected Speaker of the South Carolina House of Representatives. Two years later he left the legislature and ran unsuccessfully for attorney general. Lee left a trail of scandal in the wake of his political career. He had served as counsel to the legislative committee conducting the investigation that led to the state treasurer Francis Cardozo’s impeachment trial in 1874. In 1875 Lee was convicted of issuing fraudulent checks as an Aiken County commissioner. In 1877 he was indicted on numerous counts of public corruption, but in exchange for his testimony against Francis Cardozo, he was granted immunity from prosecution. Lee was again charged with public corruption in Aiken County in 1879, but the charges were dropped. After relocating to Charleston, Lee began to practice law and went on to become one of the state’s most successful black lawyers. Lee was a member of the South Carolina Bar beginning in 1872, and his connections with McGowan and his cooperation with the white establishment in post-Reconstruction South Carolina may have contributed to his legal success. While Lee was a man of little education, he was known for his oratory and legal acumen. He had an unprecedented twenty-seven appearances before the state supreme court, winning nine. While not a political leader after Reconstruction, Lee was active in Republican Party politics and spoke frequently at party functions. He was appointed a general in the state “colored” militia in 1891 and served until his death in Charleston on April 1, 1895. Upon learning of his death, the U.S. Circuit Court adjourned. Six thousand people attended his funeral. He was buried, with military honors, in Friendly Union Cemetery, Charleston. Oldfield, John. “The African American Bar in South Carolina, 1877–1915.” In At Freedom’s Door: African American Founding Fathers and Lawyers in Reconstruction South Carolina, edited by James Lowell Underwood and W. Lewis Burke, Jr. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2000. Vandervelde, Isabel. Biography of Samuel Jones Lee. Aiken, S.C.: Art Studio Press, 1997.	709	ENGLISH	1

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