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During Medieval times, it was common to construct castles and fortifications as a protection against enemy invasion. It was a common practice amongst kings all over the world to construct castles soon after conquering a country in order to solidify their hold on the new kingdom.
William the Conqueror had a string of castles constructed all over England after the Norman conquest of the country in 1066. Thus medieval castle defences played a very important role in the defence of the country and a kingdom with a batch of impenetrable castles had a clear edge over its enemies.
Medieval Castle Defence – Strategic Location
Like any defence mechanism, strategic locations were very important in medieval castle defences. The most important component in the defence was the location of the castle itself.
It was a common practice to construct the castle on high places such as mountain passes where it would be difficult for the enemy armies to attack. In actual defence, the walls of the castle served as the primary strategic location.
If the castle was located on plain land, it could be surrounded with a ditch of water to provide for solid defence.
Medieval Castle Defensive Arrow slat corfe castle
Medieval Castle Defence Tactics
Various defence tactics or methods were used for medieval castle defences.
For instance, it was common to construct castles of a circular shape which left no corners for miners of the enemy army to explore.
Another important tactic was to construct concentric castles with multiple walls which made invasion progressively difficult.
Finally, archers could shower arrows on the invading armies and stones and hot liquids could be poured over the approaching enemy if the walls were think and spacious enough.
Defensive Parts of a Medieval Castle
There were various defensive parts of castles which served as strategic locations during invasions.
For instance, round towers were constructed because they provided a clear line of sight to the archers.
There were also slots in the walls that were used to shoot arrows through. These slots were called arrow loops and acted as an important component of medieval castle defences.
Among other defensive parts, there was an opening over the entrance to the castle known as murder hole which could be used to drop projectiles or burning liquids over the invaders.
Castle Military who defended Medieval Castles
During the early medieval ages, defending the castle was the responsibility of individual feudal lords who used their vessels to accomplish this.
This was true for the castles which did not have regular armies. In case of the latter, soldiers were responsible for the defence. Eventually, however, paid soldiers were used everywhere for medieval castle defences.
The soldiers were usually commanded by a constable who was responsible for the medieval castle defences in the absence of the owner.
Medieval Castle defensive Weapons
Various weapons were prevalent for medieval castle defences.
The most important of these was the simple crossbow, considering the central role of archers in medieval castle defences.
One of the most important defensive devices designed during the high Middle Ages was a Trebuchet which, however, was mostly used against the fortifications instead of their defense.
Once the castle was penetrated and hand to hand battle ensued, common weapons of swords, spears, sling etc.were used.
Summary of Medieval Castle defences
Early medieval castles did not have the sophisticated defences of their later counterparts and were easier to attack and overrun, this led to constant improvements being made to keep pace with the advancements in medieval armoury and led to all round improvements in medieval castle defences and design.
In the later parts of medieval times with the invention of Gun-powder and Cannons Castles were fairly easy to destroy and the walls could easily be taken out, this and the new age of enlightenment at the start of the renaissance period led to the decline of Castles and this type of medieval warfare. | <urn:uuid:97ec60a2-7d8d-456f-8112-c460e181036f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-castles/medieval-castle-defences/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00362.warc.gz | en | 0.982132 | 764 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.1166459247469... | 4 | During Medieval times, it was common to construct castles and fortifications as a protection against enemy invasion. It was a common practice amongst kings all over the world to construct castles soon after conquering a country in order to solidify their hold on the new kingdom.
William the Conqueror had a string of castles constructed all over England after the Norman conquest of the country in 1066. Thus medieval castle defences played a very important role in the defence of the country and a kingdom with a batch of impenetrable castles had a clear edge over its enemies.
Medieval Castle Defence – Strategic Location
Like any defence mechanism, strategic locations were very important in medieval castle defences. The most important component in the defence was the location of the castle itself.
It was a common practice to construct the castle on high places such as mountain passes where it would be difficult for the enemy armies to attack. In actual defence, the walls of the castle served as the primary strategic location.
If the castle was located on plain land, it could be surrounded with a ditch of water to provide for solid defence.
Medieval Castle Defensive Arrow slat corfe castle
Medieval Castle Defence Tactics
Various defence tactics or methods were used for medieval castle defences.
For instance, it was common to construct castles of a circular shape which left no corners for miners of the enemy army to explore.
Another important tactic was to construct concentric castles with multiple walls which made invasion progressively difficult.
Finally, archers could shower arrows on the invading armies and stones and hot liquids could be poured over the approaching enemy if the walls were think and spacious enough.
Defensive Parts of a Medieval Castle
There were various defensive parts of castles which served as strategic locations during invasions.
For instance, round towers were constructed because they provided a clear line of sight to the archers.
There were also slots in the walls that were used to shoot arrows through. These slots were called arrow loops and acted as an important component of medieval castle defences.
Among other defensive parts, there was an opening over the entrance to the castle known as murder hole which could be used to drop projectiles or burning liquids over the invaders.
Castle Military who defended Medieval Castles
During the early medieval ages, defending the castle was the responsibility of individual feudal lords who used their vessels to accomplish this.
This was true for the castles which did not have regular armies. In case of the latter, soldiers were responsible for the defence. Eventually, however, paid soldiers were used everywhere for medieval castle defences.
The soldiers were usually commanded by a constable who was responsible for the medieval castle defences in the absence of the owner.
Medieval Castle defensive Weapons
Various weapons were prevalent for medieval castle defences.
The most important of these was the simple crossbow, considering the central role of archers in medieval castle defences.
One of the most important defensive devices designed during the high Middle Ages was a Trebuchet which, however, was mostly used against the fortifications instead of their defense.
Once the castle was penetrated and hand to hand battle ensued, common weapons of swords, spears, sling etc.were used.
Summary of Medieval Castle defences
Early medieval castles did not have the sophisticated defences of their later counterparts and were easier to attack and overrun, this led to constant improvements being made to keep pace with the advancements in medieval armoury and led to all round improvements in medieval castle defences and design.
In the later parts of medieval times with the invention of Gun-powder and Cannons Castles were fairly easy to destroy and the walls could easily be taken out, this and the new age of enlightenment at the start of the renaissance period led to the decline of Castles and this type of medieval warfare. | 769 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This paper will compare and contrast Franklin D. Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln. I will compare and contrast both of their childhood and education. Then I will compare and contrast their presidency. This paper will also cover the similarities and differences on how they tried to improve our country and what they wanted to happen when they were in office. Finally, I will close with the similarities and differences about both of their deaths.
Franklin D. Roosevelt was the 32nd president of the United States.
He became president in March of 1933. He led a big part in the World War Two . He died while he was still in office on April 12 1945 of a cerebral hemorrhage.
Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States. He became president on November 6, 1860. He helped free the slaves and he was a great speech and poem writer. He was murdered when he went to a play on April 14, 1865, with a gun shot to his head.
The comparison of these two presidents early life is not really good comparison, But let me tell you the similarities. They both went to school and got an education. They loved to read and they preferred learning to working physical labor. They both would set there and read a book–after a book–after a book. This led to a difficult relationship with their fathers, who was just the opposite. Abraham and Franklin were constantly borrowing books from the neighbors. They both lived a sheltered life and never really got into big trouble. They were both Tall, handsome, athletic, and outgoing. They loved to go outside and play with the neighbors or just go out side and play by themselves Abraham and Franklin both moved around when they were little. They both adapted to their environment quickly. It never seemed to bother them. They both had to go threw the feeling of losing a member of their family at such a young age.
The differences of Abraham and Franklin’s childhood were not much of a difference, But there was some differences Abraham was taller than all of the men in his neighborhood and Franklin was tall, but he wasn’t taller than everyone else. Abraham loved to go out and help his dad chop wood or do any other chore that was needed to be done around the house. But Franklin on the other hand, He would help his dad and his mom but, he would rather read a book or go outside and play. Franklin went to a prep school, while Abraham went to a school that all you did was study at your own pace and and work indivitualy. This school was more like independent studies, yet, it wasn’t for bad children.
“When Abraham was around 9 years old, his mother; Nancy Hanks Lincoln, died from milk sickness, a disease obtained from drinking the milk of cows which had grazed on poisonous white snakeroot.” (1) His sister, also died, But she died from childbirth. As you can see, Abraham went threw allot of deaths as a young boy. He had to deal with the mental pain of all of these feelings that come along with death. Roosevelt never had to go threw any deaths in tell he was much older.
When they started to grow up, they started to explore the world. Abraham started to travel. But Franklin was a student at Harvard University. Then he went to Law school, but he never graduated. In Springfield, Lincoln met Mary Todd. Three years later they were married and over the next 11 years had 4 children. Lincoln became a successful attorney, and the family bought a home on Jackson. In 1846 Lincoln ran for the United States House of Representatives and won. When he was in Washington he became known for his dedication to the Mexican War and to slavery. He returned home after his term and resumed his law practice more seriously than before.
Franklin married a distant cousin, Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, on Mar. 17, 1905. They had six children, but the sixth one died at birth. The Roosevelt’s were active in New York social circles and Franklin handled small-claims cases. He also won a seat as a Democrat in the New York state senate. Lincoln was against the spread of slavery into the territories but was not an abolitionist. He also ran for Senate, but someone else won. But after that, he gained national recognition. They both were trying really hard to get into politics, and they seemed to be doing fine. The Roosevelt name and his new image helped him win the Vice-Presidential nomination in 1920. The Democrats had little hope for him winning.
The number one similarity of these two presidents was that they were both presidents of the United States. Lincoln won on the 3rd ballot of the Presidential nomination in 1860. Lincoln was elected the 16th President on November 6, 1860. In 1930, Roosevelt began to campaign for the presidency. He started to run because the economic depression damaged Hoover, and it was a better chance for him to win. In 1932, Roosevelt won the nomination as the Democratic Party candidate for president. In November 1932, Roosevelt beat Hoover by seven million votes. They both wanted the best for the country and they tried their hardest to make the country the best it can be.
There are so many differences between the two Presidents and what they had to do when they were in office. Lincoln really didn’t have much to do compared to Roosevelt. Roosevelt ran four terms and he had to make decisions for World War Two. In taking office in 1933, Roosevelt had promised the United States to a “good neighbor” policy. He had carried out this pledge in Latin America. He tried to follow the policy of goodwill with all of the world. As war became more likely to happen in the 1930’s, both the president and the American public wished to remain neutral. But at the same time, Roosevelt did not want to see the aggressors get mad. War finally broke out in Europe when Germany invaded Poland in 1939.
Roosevelt wanted to help the democratic nations without bringing the United States into the war. But after a while, it was harder to keep the US out of the war. After the fall of France in 1940, Roosevelt rushed allot of weapons to Britain to help the British in the war against Germany. As you can tell, Roosevelt was a really busy man. Abraham on the other hand, Had a totally different kind of presidency. He played a big role in freeing slaves and he also gave really good speeches One of his favorite poems was: “Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud? Like a swift-fleeting meteor, a fast-flying cloud, A flash of the lightning, a break of the wave, He passes from life to his rest in the grave.
The leaves of the oak and the willow shall fade, Be scattered around, and together be laid; And the young and the old, the low and the high, Shall molder to dust, and together shall lie.
The infant a mother attended and loved; The mother that infant’s affection who proved; The husband, that mother and infant who blessed; Each, all, are away to their dwelling of rest.
The maid on whose cheek, on whose brow, in whose eye, Shone beauty and pleasure – her triumphs are by; And the memory of those who loved her and praised, Are alike from the minds of the living erased.
The hand of the king that the sceptre hath borne, The brow of the priest that the mitre hath worn, The eye of the sage, and the heart of the brave, Are hidden and lost in the depths of the grave.
The peasant, whose lot was to sow and to reap, The herdsman, who climbed with his goats up the steep, The beggar, who wandered in search of his bread, Have faded away like the grass that we tread.
The saint, who enjoyed the communion of Heaven, The sinner, who dared to remain unforgiven, The wise and the foolish, the guilty and just, Have quietly mingled their bones in the dust.
So the multitude goes – like the flower or the weed That withers away to let others succeed; So the multitude comes – even those we behold, To repeat every tale that has often been told.
For we are the same that our fathers have been; We see the same sights that our fathers have seen; We drink the same stream, we feel the same sun, And run the same course that our fathers have run.
The thoughts we are thinking, our fathers would think; From the death we are shrinking, our fathers would shrink; To the life we are clinging, they also would cling – But it speeds from us all like a bird on the wing.
They loved – but the story we cannot unfold; They scorned – but the heart of the haughty is cold; They grieved – but no wail from their slumber will come; They joyed – but the tongue of their gladness is dumb.
They died – aye, they died – we things that are now, That walk on the turf that lies over their brow, And make in their dwellings a transient abode, Meet the things that they met on their pilgrimage road.
Yea, hope and despondency, pleasure and pain, Are mingled together in sunshine and rain; And the smile and the tear, the song and the dirge, Still follow each other, like surge upon surge.
“˜Tis the wink of an eye – “˜tis the draught of a breath – From the blossom of health to the paleness of death, From the gilded saloon to the bier and the shroud Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud?” (2) The deaths of theis two presidents are very different. Let me tell you how they both happened. On Good Friday, April 14, 1865, the Lincoln’s went to a play called Our American Cousin at Ford’s Theater During the performance Booth arrived at the theater, entered the State Box from the back, and shot the Lincoln in the back of his head at about 10:15 P.M. Lincoln was carried across the street to the Petersen House where he passed away the next day at 7:22 A.M.
This was the first Presidential assassination in American history, and the nation mourned its leader. Lincoln’s body was taken to Springfield by train, and he was buried in the Lincoln Tomb in Oak Ridge Cemetery on May 4, 1865. Roosevelt’s health, which had been getting worse and worse ever since early 1944, did not improve. After returning from the Yalta Conference, he went to Warm Springs, Georgia, to rest. He was laying in bed on April 12, 1945 and he died he of a cerebral hemorrhage. As you can tell, The deaths of these two great men were very different and hard for the American people to handle, But they changed out history of our country in a big way.
In conclusion, You can see how these two president were so alike yet so different at the same time. I believe that we can learn so much from these two people and benefit off of it in a great deal. If more of our presidents would be more like these brave, kind, intelligent men; our world be in a lot better condition than it is today. If these two men were not in out history, I think that our whole life would be so different. And that’s in more ways that one. I hope you have learned a couple of things from this report. Because I know I sure have.
Cite this page
Franklin D. Roosevelt Vs. Abraham Lincoln. (2016, Jul 15). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/franklin-d-roosevelt-vs-abraham-lincoln-essay | <urn:uuid:afa993a1-49fa-4c66-a780-5c0d300a437d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/franklin-d-roosevelt-vs-abraham-lincoln-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00025.warc.gz | en | 0.986809 | 2,434 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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... | 2 | This paper will compare and contrast Franklin D. Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln. I will compare and contrast both of their childhood and education. Then I will compare and contrast their presidency. This paper will also cover the similarities and differences on how they tried to improve our country and what they wanted to happen when they were in office. Finally, I will close with the similarities and differences about both of their deaths.
Franklin D. Roosevelt was the 32nd president of the United States.
He became president in March of 1933. He led a big part in the World War Two . He died while he was still in office on April 12 1945 of a cerebral hemorrhage.
Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States. He became president on November 6, 1860. He helped free the slaves and he was a great speech and poem writer. He was murdered when he went to a play on April 14, 1865, with a gun shot to his head.
The comparison of these two presidents early life is not really good comparison, But let me tell you the similarities. They both went to school and got an education. They loved to read and they preferred learning to working physical labor. They both would set there and read a book–after a book–after a book. This led to a difficult relationship with their fathers, who was just the opposite. Abraham and Franklin were constantly borrowing books from the neighbors. They both lived a sheltered life and never really got into big trouble. They were both Tall, handsome, athletic, and outgoing. They loved to go outside and play with the neighbors or just go out side and play by themselves Abraham and Franklin both moved around when they were little. They both adapted to their environment quickly. It never seemed to bother them. They both had to go threw the feeling of losing a member of their family at such a young age.
The differences of Abraham and Franklin’s childhood were not much of a difference, But there was some differences Abraham was taller than all of the men in his neighborhood and Franklin was tall, but he wasn’t taller than everyone else. Abraham loved to go out and help his dad chop wood or do any other chore that was needed to be done around the house. But Franklin on the other hand, He would help his dad and his mom but, he would rather read a book or go outside and play. Franklin went to a prep school, while Abraham went to a school that all you did was study at your own pace and and work indivitualy. This school was more like independent studies, yet, it wasn’t for bad children.
“When Abraham was around 9 years old, his mother; Nancy Hanks Lincoln, died from milk sickness, a disease obtained from drinking the milk of cows which had grazed on poisonous white snakeroot.” (1) His sister, also died, But she died from childbirth. As you can see, Abraham went threw allot of deaths as a young boy. He had to deal with the mental pain of all of these feelings that come along with death. Roosevelt never had to go threw any deaths in tell he was much older.
When they started to grow up, they started to explore the world. Abraham started to travel. But Franklin was a student at Harvard University. Then he went to Law school, but he never graduated. In Springfield, Lincoln met Mary Todd. Three years later they were married and over the next 11 years had 4 children. Lincoln became a successful attorney, and the family bought a home on Jackson. In 1846 Lincoln ran for the United States House of Representatives and won. When he was in Washington he became known for his dedication to the Mexican War and to slavery. He returned home after his term and resumed his law practice more seriously than before.
Franklin married a distant cousin, Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, on Mar. 17, 1905. They had six children, but the sixth one died at birth. The Roosevelt’s were active in New York social circles and Franklin handled small-claims cases. He also won a seat as a Democrat in the New York state senate. Lincoln was against the spread of slavery into the territories but was not an abolitionist. He also ran for Senate, but someone else won. But after that, he gained national recognition. They both were trying really hard to get into politics, and they seemed to be doing fine. The Roosevelt name and his new image helped him win the Vice-Presidential nomination in 1920. The Democrats had little hope for him winning.
The number one similarity of these two presidents was that they were both presidents of the United States. Lincoln won on the 3rd ballot of the Presidential nomination in 1860. Lincoln was elected the 16th President on November 6, 1860. In 1930, Roosevelt began to campaign for the presidency. He started to run because the economic depression damaged Hoover, and it was a better chance for him to win. In 1932, Roosevelt won the nomination as the Democratic Party candidate for president. In November 1932, Roosevelt beat Hoover by seven million votes. They both wanted the best for the country and they tried their hardest to make the country the best it can be.
There are so many differences between the two Presidents and what they had to do when they were in office. Lincoln really didn’t have much to do compared to Roosevelt. Roosevelt ran four terms and he had to make decisions for World War Two. In taking office in 1933, Roosevelt had promised the United States to a “good neighbor” policy. He had carried out this pledge in Latin America. He tried to follow the policy of goodwill with all of the world. As war became more likely to happen in the 1930’s, both the president and the American public wished to remain neutral. But at the same time, Roosevelt did not want to see the aggressors get mad. War finally broke out in Europe when Germany invaded Poland in 1939.
Roosevelt wanted to help the democratic nations without bringing the United States into the war. But after a while, it was harder to keep the US out of the war. After the fall of France in 1940, Roosevelt rushed allot of weapons to Britain to help the British in the war against Germany. As you can tell, Roosevelt was a really busy man. Abraham on the other hand, Had a totally different kind of presidency. He played a big role in freeing slaves and he also gave really good speeches One of his favorite poems was: “Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud? Like a swift-fleeting meteor, a fast-flying cloud, A flash of the lightning, a break of the wave, He passes from life to his rest in the grave.
The leaves of the oak and the willow shall fade, Be scattered around, and together be laid; And the young and the old, the low and the high, Shall molder to dust, and together shall lie.
The infant a mother attended and loved; The mother that infant’s affection who proved; The husband, that mother and infant who blessed; Each, all, are away to their dwelling of rest.
The maid on whose cheek, on whose brow, in whose eye, Shone beauty and pleasure – her triumphs are by; And the memory of those who loved her and praised, Are alike from the minds of the living erased.
The hand of the king that the sceptre hath borne, The brow of the priest that the mitre hath worn, The eye of the sage, and the heart of the brave, Are hidden and lost in the depths of the grave.
The peasant, whose lot was to sow and to reap, The herdsman, who climbed with his goats up the steep, The beggar, who wandered in search of his bread, Have faded away like the grass that we tread.
The saint, who enjoyed the communion of Heaven, The sinner, who dared to remain unforgiven, The wise and the foolish, the guilty and just, Have quietly mingled their bones in the dust.
So the multitude goes – like the flower or the weed That withers away to let others succeed; So the multitude comes – even those we behold, To repeat every tale that has often been told.
For we are the same that our fathers have been; We see the same sights that our fathers have seen; We drink the same stream, we feel the same sun, And run the same course that our fathers have run.
The thoughts we are thinking, our fathers would think; From the death we are shrinking, our fathers would shrink; To the life we are clinging, they also would cling – But it speeds from us all like a bird on the wing.
They loved – but the story we cannot unfold; They scorned – but the heart of the haughty is cold; They grieved – but no wail from their slumber will come; They joyed – but the tongue of their gladness is dumb.
They died – aye, they died – we things that are now, That walk on the turf that lies over their brow, And make in their dwellings a transient abode, Meet the things that they met on their pilgrimage road.
Yea, hope and despondency, pleasure and pain, Are mingled together in sunshine and rain; And the smile and the tear, the song and the dirge, Still follow each other, like surge upon surge.
“˜Tis the wink of an eye – “˜tis the draught of a breath – From the blossom of health to the paleness of death, From the gilded saloon to the bier and the shroud Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud?” (2) The deaths of theis two presidents are very different. Let me tell you how they both happened. On Good Friday, April 14, 1865, the Lincoln’s went to a play called Our American Cousin at Ford’s Theater During the performance Booth arrived at the theater, entered the State Box from the back, and shot the Lincoln in the back of his head at about 10:15 P.M. Lincoln was carried across the street to the Petersen House where he passed away the next day at 7:22 A.M.
This was the first Presidential assassination in American history, and the nation mourned its leader. Lincoln’s body was taken to Springfield by train, and he was buried in the Lincoln Tomb in Oak Ridge Cemetery on May 4, 1865. Roosevelt’s health, which had been getting worse and worse ever since early 1944, did not improve. After returning from the Yalta Conference, he went to Warm Springs, Georgia, to rest. He was laying in bed on April 12, 1945 and he died he of a cerebral hemorrhage. As you can tell, The deaths of these two great men were very different and hard for the American people to handle, But they changed out history of our country in a big way.
In conclusion, You can see how these two president were so alike yet so different at the same time. I believe that we can learn so much from these two people and benefit off of it in a great deal. If more of our presidents would be more like these brave, kind, intelligent men; our world be in a lot better condition than it is today. If these two men were not in out history, I think that our whole life would be so different. And that’s in more ways that one. I hope you have learned a couple of things from this report. Because I know I sure have.
Cite this page
Franklin D. Roosevelt Vs. Abraham Lincoln. (2016, Jul 15). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/franklin-d-roosevelt-vs-abraham-lincoln-essay | 2,477 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Charles-Edouard Jeanneret was a French architect during the 20th century. He was born in Sweden in 1887 where he spent most of his early life. However, in 1930, he changed his nationality and became a French citizen. He was an urban developer, architect, writer, designer and painter (Lang, 1994).
It is through his remarkable designs that he received his nickname, Le Corbusier that was a rather annoying resemblance to his ancestor. Despite the fact that he did not like the name, Charles decided to keep his nickname. Le Corbusier career lasted five decades from the early 1900s to late 1950s. In the course of his career, he was able to design several buildings in Europe, North America, South America, India and Russia (Barnerjee, 2011). It is through his remarkable designs that many scholars refer to him as the father of modern architecture.
Throughout his career, Le Corbusier experienced a lot of achievement. Le Corbusier finished his studies just after the end of the First World War. During this time, he taught at his old school. However, he spent much of his time practicing the theory of architecture. He presented his ideas through plans and models.
Just before the onset of the first world war, he teamed up with his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret to start an architectural firm that would last up to the 1950s (Barnerjee, 2011). They also formed a studio for painting and photography in France during the early 1920s. However, Le Corbusier grand debut came about in 1922 when he presented a solution of increased number of city dwellers in the cities of France.
The French officials had for a long time experienced the problem of increased population from the individuals of the lower class. This problem had led to the growth of slums within the cities. Le Corbusier presented a model of cell like houses that could be built on top of one another to create more space. In addition, this design allowed for each cell to have a bedroom, kitchen, bathroom and living room. This allowed for more people to live decently in a small area. This design is still in use up to the present moment.
At the same, Le Corbusier presented a contemporary city model to the government of France that would accommodate approximately three million people. This model comprised of a city with huge skyscrapers covered with glass, steel-framed office building, residential areas, a transportation hub including an airport, a train station and a bus terminus, recreation facilities and many other accessories.
Although not all of these were adopted but most modern contemporary models for many other cities in the world adopted this model. It is due to these works and many others that Le Corbusier was regarded as the father of modern architecture. In 1961, he was awarded with the Frank P. Brown medal for his hard work (Moos, 2009).
Due to his achievements, it will be an honour to write a book on such an individual. He is the pioneer of modern architecture. Most of his styles and designs are still being used up to the present moment. The buildings that he designed are of great historical value. Some of them serve as monuments of the cities in which they are found in. It will therefore be essential for many people to have more information of the individual behind these designs and ideas. This can only be achieved by writing a book that details his life, personal life and career.
Barnerjee, T. (2011).Companion to Urban Design. Boston: Taylor & Francis
Lang, J. (1994).Urban Design: The American Experience. Manhattan: John Wiley and Sons
Moos, S. (2009). Le Corbusier: Elements of a Synthesis. New York: 010 Publishers | <urn:uuid:894e8ffa-d809-45f1-b72c-1780e8583a8a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pennsylvaniaangerclass.com/le-corbusier/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00230.warc.gz | en | 0.986446 | 773 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.14134569466... | 3 | Charles-Edouard Jeanneret was a French architect during the 20th century. He was born in Sweden in 1887 where he spent most of his early life. However, in 1930, he changed his nationality and became a French citizen. He was an urban developer, architect, writer, designer and painter (Lang, 1994).
It is through his remarkable designs that he received his nickname, Le Corbusier that was a rather annoying resemblance to his ancestor. Despite the fact that he did not like the name, Charles decided to keep his nickname. Le Corbusier career lasted five decades from the early 1900s to late 1950s. In the course of his career, he was able to design several buildings in Europe, North America, South America, India and Russia (Barnerjee, 2011). It is through his remarkable designs that many scholars refer to him as the father of modern architecture.
Throughout his career, Le Corbusier experienced a lot of achievement. Le Corbusier finished his studies just after the end of the First World War. During this time, he taught at his old school. However, he spent much of his time practicing the theory of architecture. He presented his ideas through plans and models.
Just before the onset of the first world war, he teamed up with his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret to start an architectural firm that would last up to the 1950s (Barnerjee, 2011). They also formed a studio for painting and photography in France during the early 1920s. However, Le Corbusier grand debut came about in 1922 when he presented a solution of increased number of city dwellers in the cities of France.
The French officials had for a long time experienced the problem of increased population from the individuals of the lower class. This problem had led to the growth of slums within the cities. Le Corbusier presented a model of cell like houses that could be built on top of one another to create more space. In addition, this design allowed for each cell to have a bedroom, kitchen, bathroom and living room. This allowed for more people to live decently in a small area. This design is still in use up to the present moment.
At the same, Le Corbusier presented a contemporary city model to the government of France that would accommodate approximately three million people. This model comprised of a city with huge skyscrapers covered with glass, steel-framed office building, residential areas, a transportation hub including an airport, a train station and a bus terminus, recreation facilities and many other accessories.
Although not all of these were adopted but most modern contemporary models for many other cities in the world adopted this model. It is due to these works and many others that Le Corbusier was regarded as the father of modern architecture. In 1961, he was awarded with the Frank P. Brown medal for his hard work (Moos, 2009).
Due to his achievements, it will be an honour to write a book on such an individual. He is the pioneer of modern architecture. Most of his styles and designs are still being used up to the present moment. The buildings that he designed are of great historical value. Some of them serve as monuments of the cities in which they are found in. It will therefore be essential for many people to have more information of the individual behind these designs and ideas. This can only be achieved by writing a book that details his life, personal life and career.
Barnerjee, T. (2011).Companion to Urban Design. Boston: Taylor & Francis
Lang, J. (1994).Urban Design: The American Experience. Manhattan: John Wiley and Sons
Moos, S. (2009). Le Corbusier: Elements of a Synthesis. New York: 010 Publishers | 822 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After almost three centuries of on-again, off-again persecution by the Roman government, the Edict of Toleration was issued at Milan in 313AD. Soon after, Christianity went from simply being officially tolerated by the Roman Empire, to actually becoming the official state religion of the empire. Did this represent a success story for the Church that Jesus Christ built? Had true, biblical Christianity triumphed in the Roman Empire?
Far from it! What we have seen is a Gentile-influenced religion that appropriated Christian terminology while retaining pagan traditions—all enforced by the Roman emperor, Constantine. It was vastly different from the persecuted, Judeo-Christian Church established by Jesus Christ Himself in the first century. Constantine recognized the important role that religion could play in uniting his empire and giving his populace a common identity. Motivated primarily by these political concerns, Constantine forged an alliance with the bishop of Rome and began the process of creating a "standard brand" of "Christianity" throughout his empire. He was instrumental in calling the Council of Nicea in 325AD and actually presided over it himself. Keep in mind that Constantine was not even baptized yet! In fact he put off baptism until he was on his deathbed, at which point he was too ill to be immersed. His personal example of being sprinkled contributed much to an abandonment of immersion in favor of sprinkling.
The Council of Nicea primarily sought to resolve two thorny issues that had not been fully settled earlier. These involved controversies about the nature of God as well as the Easter/Passover question. Backed up by imperial muscle, the views of the Roman church prevailed at the council. All opposition was squelched.
Constantine was also responsible for making "the venerable day of the Sun" a state holiday when the courts were to be closed and most businesses were to shut their doors.
This Roman emperor had previously been a devotee of Sol Invictus ("the Unconquered Sun") and with his "conversion," many motifs of sun worship, such as the use of the cross and the halo in art, entered "Christianity." Also at this time, there began to be mass conversions of the populace. To facilitate this, popular holidays such as Saturnalia and Lupercalia were recycled into new "Christian" observances, now called Christmas and St. Valentine's Day. The leaders of the church at Rome claimed that they were merely broadening the way, making Christianity more accessible to the masses and certainly much less "Jewish." Anti-Semitism was a motivating force in Roman Christianity.
Was this article helpful? | <urn:uuid:1b04bc59-5f1b-4a43-be75-d7e5c5ae853b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wilmingtonfavs.com/true-church/the-imperial-church.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00526.warc.gz | en | 0.98292 | 534 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.19862145185... | 1 | After almost three centuries of on-again, off-again persecution by the Roman government, the Edict of Toleration was issued at Milan in 313AD. Soon after, Christianity went from simply being officially tolerated by the Roman Empire, to actually becoming the official state religion of the empire. Did this represent a success story for the Church that Jesus Christ built? Had true, biblical Christianity triumphed in the Roman Empire?
Far from it! What we have seen is a Gentile-influenced religion that appropriated Christian terminology while retaining pagan traditions—all enforced by the Roman emperor, Constantine. It was vastly different from the persecuted, Judeo-Christian Church established by Jesus Christ Himself in the first century. Constantine recognized the important role that religion could play in uniting his empire and giving his populace a common identity. Motivated primarily by these political concerns, Constantine forged an alliance with the bishop of Rome and began the process of creating a "standard brand" of "Christianity" throughout his empire. He was instrumental in calling the Council of Nicea in 325AD and actually presided over it himself. Keep in mind that Constantine was not even baptized yet! In fact he put off baptism until he was on his deathbed, at which point he was too ill to be immersed. His personal example of being sprinkled contributed much to an abandonment of immersion in favor of sprinkling.
The Council of Nicea primarily sought to resolve two thorny issues that had not been fully settled earlier. These involved controversies about the nature of God as well as the Easter/Passover question. Backed up by imperial muscle, the views of the Roman church prevailed at the council. All opposition was squelched.
Constantine was also responsible for making "the venerable day of the Sun" a state holiday when the courts were to be closed and most businesses were to shut their doors.
This Roman emperor had previously been a devotee of Sol Invictus ("the Unconquered Sun") and with his "conversion," many motifs of sun worship, such as the use of the cross and the halo in art, entered "Christianity." Also at this time, there began to be mass conversions of the populace. To facilitate this, popular holidays such as Saturnalia and Lupercalia were recycled into new "Christian" observances, now called Christmas and St. Valentine's Day. The leaders of the church at Rome claimed that they were merely broadening the way, making Christianity more accessible to the masses and certainly much less "Jewish." Anti-Semitism was a motivating force in Roman Christianity.
Was this article helpful? | 532 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Draco – Lawgiver of Ancient Greece
Comments Off on Draco – Lawgiver of Ancient Greece
Born in 650 B.C., Drako, also spelled as Draco or Drakon, was the first Athenian legislator according to the dates on records we have found. His greatest contribution, the one which allows his name to carry on, would be the “Draconian Constitution,” or Draconian law. Prior to Drako’s constitution, laws were nothing more than oral and often involved blood feuding. While Drako was able to create legible, unwavering coes of law, his name has been synonymous with cruel and heartless legislation since the 19th Century.
Not much is known about the life of Drako. There is the possibility that he was of Attican nobility; records sync up that he was around during the same era. A dramatization of his death was performed in the Aeginetan theatre, having Drako crushed to death from all of the clothes thrown at him on the stage-it used to be clothing that the audience threw to performers, rather than roses like it is now. While we are unsure how he died, it is fact that he was chased out of Athens and lived out the rest of his days on Aegina.
These were the very first laws written out for everyone, posted on wooden pivoting tablets, called axones, that survived for nearly 200 years. Notable elements off the constitution include the following:
All laws were written down, rather than kept hidden away by a special social class.
- Murder and involuntary homicide were distinct, separate crimes.
- Those indebted to those of higher status were enslaved but those indebted to those of lower status suffered far less severe a punishment. The death penalty was a regular punishment for major and minor offenses. When asked for his reasoning behind the proliferation of the death penalty, Drako remarked that minor offenses deserved nothing less and major offenses were too great for the death penalty to be sufficient.
- With the sole exception of the homicide law, the Draconian Constitution was entirely repealed by Solon in the early 6th Century BCE.
After a considerably amount of debate, Athens revised its laws in 409 BCE. While the law on homicide is only in fragments, it mentions that the burden of prosecution falls upon the deceased’s relatives. The punishment for unintentional homicide was exile. It remains unclear whether Drako’s initial draft was intended for all homicides or just deliberate instances.
Council of Four Hundred
This was an oligarchic group established by Drako during the Peloponnesian War and tasked with keeping the peace. Plaintiffs could inform the Council of an injustice, cite the law that was broken and seek the dispensation of justice. It also handled the money used in repaying debts.
While the code bearing his name is infamous for its ruthlessness, Drako remains a notable figure in history for his codifying laws that any literate person could learn. The fact he drew a distinction between murder and homicide is also a major legal development.
Categorized in: Ancient Greek History
This post was written by GreekBoston.com | <urn:uuid:10c18b6d-a7f7-4e2e-b269-955292af9f73> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.greekboston.com/culture/ancient-history/draco/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00039.warc.gz | en | 0.980464 | 649 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.253112494... | 9 | Draco – Lawgiver of Ancient Greece
Comments Off on Draco – Lawgiver of Ancient Greece
Born in 650 B.C., Drako, also spelled as Draco or Drakon, was the first Athenian legislator according to the dates on records we have found. His greatest contribution, the one which allows his name to carry on, would be the “Draconian Constitution,” or Draconian law. Prior to Drako’s constitution, laws were nothing more than oral and often involved blood feuding. While Drako was able to create legible, unwavering coes of law, his name has been synonymous with cruel and heartless legislation since the 19th Century.
Not much is known about the life of Drako. There is the possibility that he was of Attican nobility; records sync up that he was around during the same era. A dramatization of his death was performed in the Aeginetan theatre, having Drako crushed to death from all of the clothes thrown at him on the stage-it used to be clothing that the audience threw to performers, rather than roses like it is now. While we are unsure how he died, it is fact that he was chased out of Athens and lived out the rest of his days on Aegina.
These were the very first laws written out for everyone, posted on wooden pivoting tablets, called axones, that survived for nearly 200 years. Notable elements off the constitution include the following:
All laws were written down, rather than kept hidden away by a special social class.
- Murder and involuntary homicide were distinct, separate crimes.
- Those indebted to those of higher status were enslaved but those indebted to those of lower status suffered far less severe a punishment. The death penalty was a regular punishment for major and minor offenses. When asked for his reasoning behind the proliferation of the death penalty, Drako remarked that minor offenses deserved nothing less and major offenses were too great for the death penalty to be sufficient.
- With the sole exception of the homicide law, the Draconian Constitution was entirely repealed by Solon in the early 6th Century BCE.
After a considerably amount of debate, Athens revised its laws in 409 BCE. While the law on homicide is only in fragments, it mentions that the burden of prosecution falls upon the deceased’s relatives. The punishment for unintentional homicide was exile. It remains unclear whether Drako’s initial draft was intended for all homicides or just deliberate instances.
Council of Four Hundred
This was an oligarchic group established by Drako during the Peloponnesian War and tasked with keeping the peace. Plaintiffs could inform the Council of an injustice, cite the law that was broken and seek the dispensation of justice. It also handled the money used in repaying debts.
While the code bearing his name is infamous for its ruthlessness, Drako remains a notable figure in history for his codifying laws that any literate person could learn. The fact he drew a distinction between murder and homicide is also a major legal development.
Categorized in: Ancient Greek History
This post was written by GreekBoston.com | 645 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Music It is understandable that when Africans were torn from their homes and families, lashed into submissionand forced into lifelong slave labor, they would be, on the most part, resentful and angry. Various forms of expression, clandestine yet lucent, developed out of these feelings. One such form was music.
View Full Essay Words: Early in the nineteenth century, slaveholders began to view their slaves as property that needed protecting. Conditions improved slightly and slaves were given better food, clothing and housing. This was not done out of kindness, but because of a need to protect their property.
Eventually laws were passed in southern states that limited the physical punishment that slaveholders could inflict upon slaves, and set the age at which slaves could be separated from their mothers. Slavery needed to be protected from capitalism and democracy because these forces were inherently in opposition to slavery.
Democracy declared all men equal before the law, but Paternalism provided the basis for a justification by saying these were not men, but some inferior being that needed to be ruled by whites.
Slavery…… [Read More] White northerners of all classes were opposed to slavery, but were overwhelmingly not abolitionists.
Only about one percent of the white population would have called for an end to slavery by In the s, the term anti-slavery came to mean opposition to expansion of slavery, but not abolition in states where it already existed.
White northern workers viewed slaves as a threat. How could they sell their services for wages when slaves worked for free? Equating them with slaves also diminished their social standing. White capitalists were opposed to slavery because they saw that the capital resources devoted to slavery could be better used elsewhere.
Northerners of all classes wanted the western states to be Free because they needed the support of the west in expanding the power of the federal government, something that would not happen if the western states became Slave states.
Most northerners realized that the South would never give up slavery willingly.
They knew that unless the South would accept an arrangement to pay for slaves which would have been very costlyit would take armed conflict to remove slavery, and they were unwilling to resort to that. They just did not want to pay the costs necessary to end slavery.
The North also had a vested interest in continuing slavery in the South. The cotton plantations provided ample amounts of cheap cotton for northern mills.
Without slavery, this might not have been available, and northern industrialists would have had to look elsewhere for more costly alternatives. Northern wage earners also feared that the end of slavery in the South would mean a large influx of southern blacks to northern cities which did eventually happenproviding competition for jobs and lowering wages.
Farmers also were opposed to ending slavery. They did not want to compete with blacks for free land. So, while northerners did not want to see slavery expanded any further, they also did not want it to go away.- Essay on African American Culture Works Cited Missing African American culture is defined as the learned, shared and transmitted values, beliefs, norms, and life ways carried by this group of people, which guides their decisions, thinking, and .
American Cultures are created through the slave culture and popular culture proving there is more than one American Culture. People can argue though that these cultures make one American Culture instead of many making this decision very difficult.
Sep 11, · In conclusion the readings of Ellen Foster and Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave illustrate the plight and struggle of people in different times and periods.
Ellen had to deal with poverty and abuse in 's American south and Douglass had to deal with existing during the period of American slavery.
Essay about Slavery: American Civil War and Slavery economics, and culture of slavery both in the White House and in the Supreme Court and the outrageous differences in opinions the North and South had the Civil War was in fact inevitable. Slave culture in colonial North America was largely a combination of tribal African culture, Christian worship, and resistance.
In many respects, American slave culture was a culture of survival and defiance against the American slave system.
Moreover, American life changed in having slaves by which, they have abolished the notion of having slaves that would cater their needs like some household chores and farm works. Reports show that slavery in America can be seen widely among its places especially in the northernmost colonies. | <urn:uuid:6911b9f0-49cf-4c5e-a8ec-a65634d8dd44> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://xisyduguhej.torosgazete.com/american-slave-culture-essay-31259gs.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00405.warc.gz | en | 0.983924 | 902 | 4.4375 | 4 | [
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0.13461947441... | 1 | Music It is understandable that when Africans were torn from their homes and families, lashed into submissionand forced into lifelong slave labor, they would be, on the most part, resentful and angry. Various forms of expression, clandestine yet lucent, developed out of these feelings. One such form was music.
View Full Essay Words: Early in the nineteenth century, slaveholders began to view their slaves as property that needed protecting. Conditions improved slightly and slaves were given better food, clothing and housing. This was not done out of kindness, but because of a need to protect their property.
Eventually laws were passed in southern states that limited the physical punishment that slaveholders could inflict upon slaves, and set the age at which slaves could be separated from their mothers. Slavery needed to be protected from capitalism and democracy because these forces were inherently in opposition to slavery.
Democracy declared all men equal before the law, but Paternalism provided the basis for a justification by saying these were not men, but some inferior being that needed to be ruled by whites.
Slavery…… [Read More] White northerners of all classes were opposed to slavery, but were overwhelmingly not abolitionists.
Only about one percent of the white population would have called for an end to slavery by In the s, the term anti-slavery came to mean opposition to expansion of slavery, but not abolition in states where it already existed.
White northern workers viewed slaves as a threat. How could they sell their services for wages when slaves worked for free? Equating them with slaves also diminished their social standing. White capitalists were opposed to slavery because they saw that the capital resources devoted to slavery could be better used elsewhere.
Northerners of all classes wanted the western states to be Free because they needed the support of the west in expanding the power of the federal government, something that would not happen if the western states became Slave states.
Most northerners realized that the South would never give up slavery willingly.
They knew that unless the South would accept an arrangement to pay for slaves which would have been very costlyit would take armed conflict to remove slavery, and they were unwilling to resort to that. They just did not want to pay the costs necessary to end slavery.
The North also had a vested interest in continuing slavery in the South. The cotton plantations provided ample amounts of cheap cotton for northern mills.
Without slavery, this might not have been available, and northern industrialists would have had to look elsewhere for more costly alternatives. Northern wage earners also feared that the end of slavery in the South would mean a large influx of southern blacks to northern cities which did eventually happenproviding competition for jobs and lowering wages.
Farmers also were opposed to ending slavery. They did not want to compete with blacks for free land. So, while northerners did not want to see slavery expanded any further, they also did not want it to go away.- Essay on African American Culture Works Cited Missing African American culture is defined as the learned, shared and transmitted values, beliefs, norms, and life ways carried by this group of people, which guides their decisions, thinking, and .
American Cultures are created through the slave culture and popular culture proving there is more than one American Culture. People can argue though that these cultures make one American Culture instead of many making this decision very difficult.
Sep 11, · In conclusion the readings of Ellen Foster and Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave illustrate the plight and struggle of people in different times and periods.
Ellen had to deal with poverty and abuse in 's American south and Douglass had to deal with existing during the period of American slavery.
Essay about Slavery: American Civil War and Slavery economics, and culture of slavery both in the White House and in the Supreme Court and the outrageous differences in opinions the North and South had the Civil War was in fact inevitable. Slave culture in colonial North America was largely a combination of tribal African culture, Christian worship, and resistance.
In many respects, American slave culture was a culture of survival and defiance against the American slave system.
Moreover, American life changed in having slaves by which, they have abolished the notion of having slaves that would cater their needs like some household chores and farm works. Reports show that slavery in America can be seen widely among its places especially in the northernmost colonies. | 881 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bloody, brutal but popular, gladiatorial contests are often seen as the dark side of Roman civilization. Historians have struggled to explain how a country that civilized so much of the world could be so keen on watching men and women fight to the death. Ritualized violence Ritualized, public violence had been a favorite entertainment of the Romans for centuries. The practice began as an ancient Etruscan funeral ritual:
The Paestum frescoes may represent the continuation of a much older tradition, acquired or inherited from Greek colonists of the 8th century BC.
This is described as a munus plural: The enemy, besides their other warlike preparation, had made their battle-line to glitter with new and splendid arms.
There were two corps: The Romans had already heard of these splendid accoutrements, but their generals had taught them that a soldier should be rough to look on, not adorned with gold and silver but putting his trust in iron and in courage The Dictatoras decreed by the senatecelebrated a triumph, in which by far the finest show was afforded by the captured armour.
So the Romans made use of the splendid armour of their enemies to do honour to their gods; while the Campanians, in consequence of their pride and in hatred of the Samnites, equipped after this fashion the gladiators who furnished them entertainment at their feasts, and bestowed on them the name Samnites.
Their Campanian allies stage a dinner entertainment using gladiators who may not be Samnites, but play the Samnite role. Other groups and tribes would join the cast list as Roman territories expanded.
Most gladiators were armed and armoured in the manner of the enemies of Rome. High status non-Romans, and possibly Romans too, volunteered as his gladiators. By BC, "small" Roman munera private or publicprovided by an editor of relatively low importance, may have been so commonplace and unremarkable they were not considered worth recording: The climax of the show which was big for the time was that in three days seventy four gladiators fought.
It proved immensely popular. Gladiator games offered their sponsors extravagantly expensive but effective opportunities for self-promotion, and gave their clients and potential voters exciting entertainment at little or no cost to themselves.
Despite an already enormous personal debt, he used gladiator pairs in silvered armour. Legislation of AD by Marcus Aurelius did little to stop it, and was completely ignored by his son, Commodus. Later games were held by an editor, either identical with the munerator or an official employed by him.
As time passed, these titles and meanings may have merged. From the Principate onwards, private citizens could hold munera and own gladiators only under Imperial permission, and the role of editor was increasingly tied to state officialdom.
Bigger games were put on by senior magistrates, who could better afford them. The largest and most lavish of all were paid for by the emperor himself. In the mid-republican munus, each type seems to have fought against a similar or identical type.
In the later Republic and early Empire, various "fantasy" types were introduced, and were set against dissimilar but complementary types. For example, the bareheaded, nimble retiarius "net-man"armoured only at the left arm and shoulder, pitted his net, trident and dagger against the more heavily armoured, helmeted Secutor.
Passing literary references to others has allowed their tentative reconstruction. Other novelties introduced around this time included gladiators who fought from chariots or cartsor from horseback.The Roman Empire had gladiatorial barracks that were marked by heterogeneity as membership and life of brotherhood constantly fluctuated due to betrayal and tours by troupes in the local circuit.
Some gladiators survived up to retirement as fresh recruits were brought in to train as gladiators. Other Roman emperors such as Titus, Hadrian, Geta, Caracalla, and Didius Julianus, were also known to have occasionally taken part in gladiatorial contests.
The emperor Caligula was also known to force members of the audience to fight gladiators or animals in the arena. For instance, gladiator contests did often reconstruct famous battles or scenes using characters from history or legends.
Gladiator contests did take place in many places around the empire. Animals, such as tigers, were often used in arenas, where gladiators might fight each other as well as animals. Roman Spectacles: General knowledge of gladiators: A gladiator in ancient times was an armed combatant who entered gladiatorial arenas to entertain the Roman Republic and Roman Empire for violent, gore and bloody purpose, all in which was to keep the people of Rome entertained.
The Roman Empire had gladiatorial barracks that were marked by heterogeneity as membership and life of brotherhood constantly fluctuated due to betrayal and tours by troupes in the local circuit.
Some gladiators survived up to retirement as fresh recruits were brought in to train as gladiators. Ironically gladiatorial contests were held to appease the crowd, and there are no recorded instances in Livy, or any of the other Roman authors about protests against gladiators. Protests occurred, and in the arenas, but they were usually directed towards the rulers. | <urn:uuid:9ae4e53f-2d30-4e04-b1b3-8a260c8cb298> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sunuwyhekuhahoze.srmvision.com/a-history-of-gladiatorial-contests-in-the-roman-empire-24627bl.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.983928 | 1,107 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.3289003372192... | 1 | Bloody, brutal but popular, gladiatorial contests are often seen as the dark side of Roman civilization. Historians have struggled to explain how a country that civilized so much of the world could be so keen on watching men and women fight to the death. Ritualized violence Ritualized, public violence had been a favorite entertainment of the Romans for centuries. The practice began as an ancient Etruscan funeral ritual:
The Paestum frescoes may represent the continuation of a much older tradition, acquired or inherited from Greek colonists of the 8th century BC.
This is described as a munus plural: The enemy, besides their other warlike preparation, had made their battle-line to glitter with new and splendid arms.
There were two corps: The Romans had already heard of these splendid accoutrements, but their generals had taught them that a soldier should be rough to look on, not adorned with gold and silver but putting his trust in iron and in courage The Dictatoras decreed by the senatecelebrated a triumph, in which by far the finest show was afforded by the captured armour.
So the Romans made use of the splendid armour of their enemies to do honour to their gods; while the Campanians, in consequence of their pride and in hatred of the Samnites, equipped after this fashion the gladiators who furnished them entertainment at their feasts, and bestowed on them the name Samnites.
Their Campanian allies stage a dinner entertainment using gladiators who may not be Samnites, but play the Samnite role. Other groups and tribes would join the cast list as Roman territories expanded.
Most gladiators were armed and armoured in the manner of the enemies of Rome. High status non-Romans, and possibly Romans too, volunteered as his gladiators. By BC, "small" Roman munera private or publicprovided by an editor of relatively low importance, may have been so commonplace and unremarkable they were not considered worth recording: The climax of the show which was big for the time was that in three days seventy four gladiators fought.
It proved immensely popular. Gladiator games offered their sponsors extravagantly expensive but effective opportunities for self-promotion, and gave their clients and potential voters exciting entertainment at little or no cost to themselves.
Despite an already enormous personal debt, he used gladiator pairs in silvered armour. Legislation of AD by Marcus Aurelius did little to stop it, and was completely ignored by his son, Commodus. Later games were held by an editor, either identical with the munerator or an official employed by him.
As time passed, these titles and meanings may have merged. From the Principate onwards, private citizens could hold munera and own gladiators only under Imperial permission, and the role of editor was increasingly tied to state officialdom.
Bigger games were put on by senior magistrates, who could better afford them. The largest and most lavish of all were paid for by the emperor himself. In the mid-republican munus, each type seems to have fought against a similar or identical type.
In the later Republic and early Empire, various "fantasy" types were introduced, and were set against dissimilar but complementary types. For example, the bareheaded, nimble retiarius "net-man"armoured only at the left arm and shoulder, pitted his net, trident and dagger against the more heavily armoured, helmeted Secutor.
Passing literary references to others has allowed their tentative reconstruction. Other novelties introduced around this time included gladiators who fought from chariots or cartsor from horseback.The Roman Empire had gladiatorial barracks that were marked by heterogeneity as membership and life of brotherhood constantly fluctuated due to betrayal and tours by troupes in the local circuit.
Some gladiators survived up to retirement as fresh recruits were brought in to train as gladiators. Other Roman emperors such as Titus, Hadrian, Geta, Caracalla, and Didius Julianus, were also known to have occasionally taken part in gladiatorial contests.
The emperor Caligula was also known to force members of the audience to fight gladiators or animals in the arena. For instance, gladiator contests did often reconstruct famous battles or scenes using characters from history or legends.
Gladiator contests did take place in many places around the empire. Animals, such as tigers, were often used in arenas, where gladiators might fight each other as well as animals. Roman Spectacles: General knowledge of gladiators: A gladiator in ancient times was an armed combatant who entered gladiatorial arenas to entertain the Roman Republic and Roman Empire for violent, gore and bloody purpose, all in which was to keep the people of Rome entertained.
The Roman Empire had gladiatorial barracks that were marked by heterogeneity as membership and life of brotherhood constantly fluctuated due to betrayal and tours by troupes in the local circuit.
Some gladiators survived up to retirement as fresh recruits were brought in to train as gladiators. Ironically gladiatorial contests were held to appease the crowd, and there are no recorded instances in Livy, or any of the other Roman authors about protests against gladiators. Protests occurred, and in the arenas, but they were usually directed towards the rulers. | 1,094 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Daniel Defoe (1660-1731)
Novelist, pamphleteer and journalist, Daniel Defoe is considered, along with Richardson, the founder of the English novel. He was born in London in 1660 to a family of Noncomformists, also called “Dissenters” – Protestant groups separated from the church of England. His father was the typical lower class man, practical minded, with a sound Protestant religious spirit and deep sense of duty and responsibility.
Although Defoe did not attend university, he received a good education, and in his early twenties set up as a merchant. This allowed him to travel largely and to become an excellent economic theorist. In 1692 Defoe went bankrupt, and this marked the beginning of a lifelong struggle with debts and fear of prison. This experience, however, gave him a deep understanding of the outcasts of society, like thieves and adventurers, who may be led to crime by fear of starvation and by circumstances. He expressed his views – particularly on politics – in numerous pamphlets, the most famous being The Shortest way with the Dissenters (1702), which he ironically pretended to advocate harsher persecution against this Puritan sect, thus showing the absurdity of intollerance. Defoe was arrested, fined and condemned to the pillory. Because he was unable to pay the fine he was imprisoned, but he was soon released.
From this moment on Defoe worked for the government as a secret agent; he wrote reports, pamphlets, and travelled widely; he also worked for actively as a journalist. From 1704 to 1713 he wrote the periodical The Review, the main government organ. As a dissenter and a representative of the middle class, Defoe could not but support the Hanoverians succession, which he did with various pamphlets. But he was not exclusively concerned with politics; he also wrote on current affairs, religion, and various subjects, and his prose was so effective that he is considered the father of modern journalism. It was only in 1719 that he wrote Robin Crusoe. This book became immensely popular, and was widely translated and limitaed. It particularly appealed to the middle and lower classes, who identified themselves with the hero.
1722 saw the publication of three masterpieces: Moll Flanders, A Journal of the plague Year, Colonel Jack. Moll Flanders is perhaps the most interesting of his novels, after Robin Crusoe: it reads like the autobiography of a prostitute, in fact a lively, sympathetic and generous woman who uses her beauty as a commodity to exchange for money – money being the only value she recognise in life. A Journal of the plague Year is a pseudo-historical account of terrible plague which struck London in 1665. The wealth of vivid details fully convey the horror of the plague, and makes this work very convincing. In spite of declining health Defoe continued his incessant activities and his last novel, Roxana, appeared in 1724, followed by other prose works. Daniel Defoe died in 1731. | <urn:uuid:628a0556-00f4-4963-a13e-5c1ceb3a0b67> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.skuola.net/letteratura-inglese-1700/defoe-daniel.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00035.warc.gz | en | 0.983961 | 621 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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Novelist, pamphleteer and journalist, Daniel Defoe is considered, along with Richardson, the founder of the English novel. He was born in London in 1660 to a family of Noncomformists, also called “Dissenters” – Protestant groups separated from the church of England. His father was the typical lower class man, practical minded, with a sound Protestant religious spirit and deep sense of duty and responsibility.
Although Defoe did not attend university, he received a good education, and in his early twenties set up as a merchant. This allowed him to travel largely and to become an excellent economic theorist. In 1692 Defoe went bankrupt, and this marked the beginning of a lifelong struggle with debts and fear of prison. This experience, however, gave him a deep understanding of the outcasts of society, like thieves and adventurers, who may be led to crime by fear of starvation and by circumstances. He expressed his views – particularly on politics – in numerous pamphlets, the most famous being The Shortest way with the Dissenters (1702), which he ironically pretended to advocate harsher persecution against this Puritan sect, thus showing the absurdity of intollerance. Defoe was arrested, fined and condemned to the pillory. Because he was unable to pay the fine he was imprisoned, but he was soon released.
From this moment on Defoe worked for the government as a secret agent; he wrote reports, pamphlets, and travelled widely; he also worked for actively as a journalist. From 1704 to 1713 he wrote the periodical The Review, the main government organ. As a dissenter and a representative of the middle class, Defoe could not but support the Hanoverians succession, which he did with various pamphlets. But he was not exclusively concerned with politics; he also wrote on current affairs, religion, and various subjects, and his prose was so effective that he is considered the father of modern journalism. It was only in 1719 that he wrote Robin Crusoe. This book became immensely popular, and was widely translated and limitaed. It particularly appealed to the middle and lower classes, who identified themselves with the hero.
1722 saw the publication of three masterpieces: Moll Flanders, A Journal of the plague Year, Colonel Jack. Moll Flanders is perhaps the most interesting of his novels, after Robin Crusoe: it reads like the autobiography of a prostitute, in fact a lively, sympathetic and generous woman who uses her beauty as a commodity to exchange for money – money being the only value she recognise in life. A Journal of the plague Year is a pseudo-historical account of terrible plague which struck London in 1665. The wealth of vivid details fully convey the horror of the plague, and makes this work very convincing. In spite of declining health Defoe continued his incessant activities and his last novel, Roxana, appeared in 1724, followed by other prose works. Daniel Defoe died in 1731. | 647 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One Never forgets What They are Taught
James Baldwin, an African American author born in Harlem, was raised by his violent step-father, David. His father was a lay preacher who hated whites and felt that “all whites would be judged as they deserve” by a “vengeful God” (Klinkowitz and Pritchard, p.1999). Usually, the father’s anger was directed toward his son through violence.Baldwin’s history, in part, aids him in his insight of racism within the family. He understands that racists are not born, but rather racists’ attitudes and behaviors are learned in the early stages of childhood. Baldwin’s Going to Meet the Man is a perfect example of his capability to analyze the growth of a innocent child to a racist.
Every child is born with innocence. During the flashback to Jesse’s childhood, where he witnesses the mutilation and torture of a blackman, Jesse’s innocence is apparent. Jesse has a black friend named Otis who he hasn’t seen for a few days. When he asks his father where Otis is, the father replies, “I reckon Otis’s folks was afrad to let him show himself this morning”(Baldwin, p. 2006). Jesse naturally responds, “But Otis ain’t do nothing.” His father explains, “We just wanna make sure Otis don’t do nothing, and you tell him what your Daddy said”(Baldwin, p. 2006). This statement implies that because Otis is black, he is eventually going to do something wrong. The father has subconsciously put negative thoughts inside of Jesse’s head. Baldwin’s own father also acted in this way when he stereotyped all whites as being bad and claimed they would be punished by a vengeful God.
In the midst of all the commotion, Jesse is unable to sleep the night before the lynching. Within another flashback to that night, Jesse feels a strong need to have his mother close to him but “he knew his father would not like this”(Baldwin, p. 2006). “He wanted to call his mother” and becomes very frustrated and angry with his father because the father is the reason that he could not got to his mother. He knows that they are going to have intercourse and this bothers him. “He heard his mother’s moan, his father’s sigh; he gritted his teeth”(Baldwin, p. 2006). Sigmund Freud’s Edipus Complex explains Jesse’s reaction. The Edipus Complex is a son’s sexual longing for his mother. Jesse becomes jealous and “his father’s breathing seemed to fill the world”(Baldwin, p. 2006). As result of the longing for the mother, a resentment toward the father arises because the father has the mother all to himself. Jesse, in this situation, would like to replace the father so that he may experience the mother in a sexual manner.Jesse does not shake this feeling until he replaces the longing of his mother with a clossnes to the father, a common effect of the Edipus complex.
Jesse’s innocence disappears completely during the flashback of the day of the lynching. The father is getting Jesse excited about the violence to come as he assures him, “We’re going on a picnic. You won’t ever forget this picnic”(Baldwin, p. 2007), Jesse replies, “Are we going to see the bad nigger?”(Baldwin, p. 2007). He uses the adjective bad, revealing the influence of the father ‘s previous comments about the black man. They arrive at the lynching and Jesse’s father shows concern toward how Jesse is feeling, “you all right?”(Baldwin, p. 2009). Then, the father “reached down suddenly and sat Jesse on his shoulders,” making Jesse feel like he was bonding with his father. He felt secure. They watched the relentless burning of the negro together and Jesse last thought of innocence arouse, “What did the man do?”(Baldwin, p. 2010). After asking himself he looked to his mother and felt, “she was more beautiful than he had ever seen her before” and “he began to feel a joy he had never felt before”(Baldwin, p. 2010). After the Negro genitals were mutilated he was left to slowly die, the father looked to Jesse with peaceful eyes and said, “Well, I told you, you wasn’t ever going to forget this picnic”(Baldwin, p.2010). It is as this moment that Freud’s Edipus complex is once again displayed. The bonding and identification felt by Jesse toward the father has replaced the longing for the mother. “Jesse loved his father more than he had ever loved him”(Baldwin, p. 2010). He feels like a man because, “his father had carried throught a mighty test, had revealed to him a great secret which would be the key to his life forever.” He subconsciously traded his innocence for closness to his father.
“There has surely been no black writer better able to imagine whit experience, to speack in various tones of differents kinds and behaviors of people or places other than his own”(Klinkowtiz and Pritchard, p. 1999). Going to Meet the Man allows readers to recongnize how a racist is built through ingnorance. Baldwin ends his story with Jesse in bed with his wife. The memories of the mutilation of the negro arise in his mind and he feels arrounsed. He turns to his wife and says, “Come on sugar, I’m going to do you like a nigger.” Jesse cannot recognize that these memories of the lynching have made him sexually arroused by violence. As a result, he has become a violent man with a disturbed idea of love, sex and blacks. | <urn:uuid:ab5810be-0c41-4fde-9a77-7c965a8bbaa0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aero-net.org/response-to-going-to-meet-the-man-by-james-baldwin/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00261.warc.gz | en | 0.981915 | 1,310 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.17400805652... | 1 | One Never forgets What They are Taught
James Baldwin, an African American author born in Harlem, was raised by his violent step-father, David. His father was a lay preacher who hated whites and felt that “all whites would be judged as they deserve” by a “vengeful God” (Klinkowitz and Pritchard, p.1999). Usually, the father’s anger was directed toward his son through violence.Baldwin’s history, in part, aids him in his insight of racism within the family. He understands that racists are not born, but rather racists’ attitudes and behaviors are learned in the early stages of childhood. Baldwin’s Going to Meet the Man is a perfect example of his capability to analyze the growth of a innocent child to a racist.
Every child is born with innocence. During the flashback to Jesse’s childhood, where he witnesses the mutilation and torture of a blackman, Jesse’s innocence is apparent. Jesse has a black friend named Otis who he hasn’t seen for a few days. When he asks his father where Otis is, the father replies, “I reckon Otis’s folks was afrad to let him show himself this morning”(Baldwin, p. 2006). Jesse naturally responds, “But Otis ain’t do nothing.” His father explains, “We just wanna make sure Otis don’t do nothing, and you tell him what your Daddy said”(Baldwin, p. 2006). This statement implies that because Otis is black, he is eventually going to do something wrong. The father has subconsciously put negative thoughts inside of Jesse’s head. Baldwin’s own father also acted in this way when he stereotyped all whites as being bad and claimed they would be punished by a vengeful God.
In the midst of all the commotion, Jesse is unable to sleep the night before the lynching. Within another flashback to that night, Jesse feels a strong need to have his mother close to him but “he knew his father would not like this”(Baldwin, p. 2006). “He wanted to call his mother” and becomes very frustrated and angry with his father because the father is the reason that he could not got to his mother. He knows that they are going to have intercourse and this bothers him. “He heard his mother’s moan, his father’s sigh; he gritted his teeth”(Baldwin, p. 2006). Sigmund Freud’s Edipus Complex explains Jesse’s reaction. The Edipus Complex is a son’s sexual longing for his mother. Jesse becomes jealous and “his father’s breathing seemed to fill the world”(Baldwin, p. 2006). As result of the longing for the mother, a resentment toward the father arises because the father has the mother all to himself. Jesse, in this situation, would like to replace the father so that he may experience the mother in a sexual manner.Jesse does not shake this feeling until he replaces the longing of his mother with a clossnes to the father, a common effect of the Edipus complex.
Jesse’s innocence disappears completely during the flashback of the day of the lynching. The father is getting Jesse excited about the violence to come as he assures him, “We’re going on a picnic. You won’t ever forget this picnic”(Baldwin, p. 2007), Jesse replies, “Are we going to see the bad nigger?”(Baldwin, p. 2007). He uses the adjective bad, revealing the influence of the father ‘s previous comments about the black man. They arrive at the lynching and Jesse’s father shows concern toward how Jesse is feeling, “you all right?”(Baldwin, p. 2009). Then, the father “reached down suddenly and sat Jesse on his shoulders,” making Jesse feel like he was bonding with his father. He felt secure. They watched the relentless burning of the negro together and Jesse last thought of innocence arouse, “What did the man do?”(Baldwin, p. 2010). After asking himself he looked to his mother and felt, “she was more beautiful than he had ever seen her before” and “he began to feel a joy he had never felt before”(Baldwin, p. 2010). After the Negro genitals were mutilated he was left to slowly die, the father looked to Jesse with peaceful eyes and said, “Well, I told you, you wasn’t ever going to forget this picnic”(Baldwin, p.2010). It is as this moment that Freud’s Edipus complex is once again displayed. The bonding and identification felt by Jesse toward the father has replaced the longing for the mother. “Jesse loved his father more than he had ever loved him”(Baldwin, p. 2010). He feels like a man because, “his father had carried throught a mighty test, had revealed to him a great secret which would be the key to his life forever.” He subconsciously traded his innocence for closness to his father.
“There has surely been no black writer better able to imagine whit experience, to speack in various tones of differents kinds and behaviors of people or places other than his own”(Klinkowtiz and Pritchard, p. 1999). Going to Meet the Man allows readers to recongnize how a racist is built through ingnorance. Baldwin ends his story with Jesse in bed with his wife. The memories of the mutilation of the negro arise in his mind and he feels arrounsed. He turns to his wife and says, “Come on sugar, I’m going to do you like a nigger.” Jesse cannot recognize that these memories of the lynching have made him sexually arroused by violence. As a result, he has become a violent man with a disturbed idea of love, sex and blacks. | 1,263 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Evolution Of Coin Grading
By the middle of the 18th century, some coin dealers started to make a distinction between a coin that possessed an “excellent” appearance versus one that was “unremarkable” or otherwise not remarked about on its condition. By the turn of the 19th century, most collectors still didn’t collect the existing coinage of their day. Coin collecting in this time frame was literally the “hobby of kings” as they were the only ones who could afford to do so. Coins were not collected for their grade or condition, rather they were collected for their types.
The first real interest in collecting contemporary coinage started in the late 1850’s in the U.S. The U.S. Mint started issuing the first of the Small Cents, the Flying Eagle type cent. People started to become nostalgic for the old large pennies they were used to seeing in circulation, and started to hoard them. Some people even attempted to find one of each date. Thus was the collecting of U.S. coins established.
As collectors tried to complete their penny sets, they began to acquire an awareness of replacing a given specimen they already possessed with one in better condition. Coin dealers began to emerge to help collectors find these better specimens. Distinctions started to be made between a specimen that was in a “pretty good” condition versus one in a “rather poor” condition. Over time more detailed distinctions arose, such as “uncommonly fine” and “quite uncirculated.”
Coin collectors debated the subject of creating a standard coin grading scale for years before any kind of consensus was ever achieved. Over time certain standard terms came into a common usage. The first four were “poor,” “good,” “fine,” and “uncirculated.” Price was the determining factor that forced the addition of grades in between these four designations.
If a coin was worth $2 in a “fine” condition and a coin in “uncirculated” condition was worth $10, what would a coin that was in better condition than “fine” but wasn’t good enough to be make “uncirculated be worth? Out of questions such as this came finer grading distinctions. Intermediate grades continued to be added in this way, until a consensus eventually emerged. Another trend that was developing was that one coin grading system didn’t fit all types of coins. As such coin grading became more specialized relative to the type of coin being graded.
In 1949 Dr. William Sheldon developed what became known as the Sheldon Scale of coin grading. His system was designed to give a more precise meaning to subjective and often abused terms such as “fine,” “very fine,” “extremely fine,” etc. While most coin collectors were aware of the Sheldon Scale, it wasn’t until the advent of third-party coin grading services in the 1980’s that his system became the established standard used to grade coins.
The greatest challenge for any coin grading system is in minimizing the subjective factor. Two different coin graders can examine the same coin and arrive at completely opposite opinions of the coin’s grade. The Sheldon System goes a long ways towards correcting this problem.
The Sheldon Scale is a 70-point scale for grading coins. A slightly modified form of his legendary system has become the de facto standard for grading U.S. coins today. On a scale of 1 the coin’s type is barely discernable, but little else, due to the coin being badly damaged or well worn. On a scale of 70, the coin is in excellent condition and virtually free of flaws.
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Content copyright © 2019 by Gary Eggleston. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Gary Eggleston. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Gary Eggleston for details. | <urn:uuid:6ecf2418-f89a-4ad2-8e92-37d4e69f2e0a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art51598.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00228.warc.gz | en | 0.98037 | 840 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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By the middle of the 18th century, some coin dealers started to make a distinction between a coin that possessed an “excellent” appearance versus one that was “unremarkable” or otherwise not remarked about on its condition. By the turn of the 19th century, most collectors still didn’t collect the existing coinage of their day. Coin collecting in this time frame was literally the “hobby of kings” as they were the only ones who could afford to do so. Coins were not collected for their grade or condition, rather they were collected for their types.
The first real interest in collecting contemporary coinage started in the late 1850’s in the U.S. The U.S. Mint started issuing the first of the Small Cents, the Flying Eagle type cent. People started to become nostalgic for the old large pennies they were used to seeing in circulation, and started to hoard them. Some people even attempted to find one of each date. Thus was the collecting of U.S. coins established.
As collectors tried to complete their penny sets, they began to acquire an awareness of replacing a given specimen they already possessed with one in better condition. Coin dealers began to emerge to help collectors find these better specimens. Distinctions started to be made between a specimen that was in a “pretty good” condition versus one in a “rather poor” condition. Over time more detailed distinctions arose, such as “uncommonly fine” and “quite uncirculated.”
Coin collectors debated the subject of creating a standard coin grading scale for years before any kind of consensus was ever achieved. Over time certain standard terms came into a common usage. The first four were “poor,” “good,” “fine,” and “uncirculated.” Price was the determining factor that forced the addition of grades in between these four designations.
If a coin was worth $2 in a “fine” condition and a coin in “uncirculated” condition was worth $10, what would a coin that was in better condition than “fine” but wasn’t good enough to be make “uncirculated be worth? Out of questions such as this came finer grading distinctions. Intermediate grades continued to be added in this way, until a consensus eventually emerged. Another trend that was developing was that one coin grading system didn’t fit all types of coins. As such coin grading became more specialized relative to the type of coin being graded.
In 1949 Dr. William Sheldon developed what became known as the Sheldon Scale of coin grading. His system was designed to give a more precise meaning to subjective and often abused terms such as “fine,” “very fine,” “extremely fine,” etc. While most coin collectors were aware of the Sheldon Scale, it wasn’t until the advent of third-party coin grading services in the 1980’s that his system became the established standard used to grade coins.
The greatest challenge for any coin grading system is in minimizing the subjective factor. Two different coin graders can examine the same coin and arrive at completely opposite opinions of the coin’s grade. The Sheldon System goes a long ways towards correcting this problem.
The Sheldon Scale is a 70-point scale for grading coins. A slightly modified form of his legendary system has become the de facto standard for grading U.S. coins today. On a scale of 1 the coin’s type is barely discernable, but little else, due to the coin being badly damaged or well worn. On a scale of 70, the coin is in excellent condition and virtually free of flaws.
Editor's Picks Articles
Top Ten Articles
Content copyright © 2019 by Gary Eggleston. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Gary Eggleston. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Gary Eggleston for details. | 795 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this day 74 years ago the Allied invasion of Europe that would eventually bring about the end of World War 2 and the defeat of Nazism began on the beaches of Normandy in France.
Today those same stretches of sand are home to sunbathers and tourists and apart from the odd bunker, little evidence remains of the 156,000 soldiers who took part in Operation Overlord, the largest seaborne operation in history.
Prime Minister Winston Churchill described it as: “Undoubtedly the most complicated and difficult that has ever taken place.”
Some 10,000 Allied men were killed or wounded on the first day.
It marked the beginning of an 80-day campaign to liberate Normandy which involved three million troops and cost the lives of 250,000 people.
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The original invasion was scheduled for 5 June but adverse weather meant it was postponed by 24 hours. Any further delays could have caused the entire operation to be cancelled as seasonal tides were crucial to the plan.
Of the troops that took part in the initial invasion, 61,715 were British, 73,000 American and 21,400 Canadian.
The first stage of the invasion, Operation Neptune, lasted from 6th to 30th June and involved 6,939 vessels.
The Allies landed on five different beaches codenamed Juno, Gold, Omaha, Utah, and Sword.
Within five days 326,547 troops and 104,428 tons of equipment had been brought ashore. Entire harbours and pipes to carry fuel were carried across the English Channel.
Around 20,000 Allied airborne troopers were also sent to France to capture key strategic objectives such as bridges and roads.
A massive deception campaign was launched in the months leading up to D-Day to deceive the Germans into thinking the invasion would take place around the Pas de Calais.
Around 15,000 French civilians were also killed during the Normandy campaign, both from Allied bombing and combat between Allied and German ground forces. | <urn:uuid:dab015d3-5caf-41cb-9233-f62ff7cec7f0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/2018/06/06/d-day-beaches-then-and-now-incredible-photographs-bring-past-and-present-together_a_23452662/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00054.warc.gz | en | 0.980849 | 407 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.352852880954... | 4 | On this day 74 years ago the Allied invasion of Europe that would eventually bring about the end of World War 2 and the defeat of Nazism began on the beaches of Normandy in France.
Today those same stretches of sand are home to sunbathers and tourists and apart from the odd bunker, little evidence remains of the 156,000 soldiers who took part in Operation Overlord, the largest seaborne operation in history.
Prime Minister Winston Churchill described it as: “Undoubtedly the most complicated and difficult that has ever taken place.”
Some 10,000 Allied men were killed or wounded on the first day.
It marked the beginning of an 80-day campaign to liberate Normandy which involved three million troops and cost the lives of 250,000 people.
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The original invasion was scheduled for 5 June but adverse weather meant it was postponed by 24 hours. Any further delays could have caused the entire operation to be cancelled as seasonal tides were crucial to the plan.
Of the troops that took part in the initial invasion, 61,715 were British, 73,000 American and 21,400 Canadian.
The first stage of the invasion, Operation Neptune, lasted from 6th to 30th June and involved 6,939 vessels.
The Allies landed on five different beaches codenamed Juno, Gold, Omaha, Utah, and Sword.
Within five days 326,547 troops and 104,428 tons of equipment had been brought ashore. Entire harbours and pipes to carry fuel were carried across the English Channel.
Around 20,000 Allied airborne troopers were also sent to France to capture key strategic objectives such as bridges and roads.
A massive deception campaign was launched in the months leading up to D-Day to deceive the Germans into thinking the invasion would take place around the Pas de Calais.
Around 15,000 French civilians were also killed during the Normandy campaign, both from Allied bombing and combat between Allied and German ground forces. | 448 | ENGLISH | 1 |
England's Peterloo Massacre victims and their shocking stories
Relive harrowing blow-by-blow accounts of how lives were lost at the Peterloo Massacre of 1819.
The Peterloo Massacre took place when army cavalry charged a crowd of 60,000 plus protestors in Manchester, England on August 16 1819. Around 18 people were killed and upwards of 400 were injured in the incident, making Peterloo one of the most horrific cases of mass brutality to ever take place on British soil.
What caused the Peterloo Massacre?
In the years directly following the Napoleonic Wars, a combination of famine and widespread unemployment led to a drive for political reform in Northern England. A peaceful rally was organised by the Manchester Patriotic Union, led by Henry Hunt. At the demonstration the Manchester and Salford Yeomanry were instructed to disperse the crowd but did so violently with their weapons drawn. The fatalities occurred in the ensuing melee. The massacre is sometimes dubbed the Battle of Peterloo because it took place on St. Peter’s Field just four years after the famous Battle of Waterloo.
A special collection of Findmypast records detail the witnesses and casualties who were involved that fateful day in Manchester. Here are their traumatic stories.
Explore the Peterloo Collection
The Waterloo veteran
Ironically, John Lees served at the Battle of Waterloo. His military record shows he was a wagon driver in the Royal Artillery. During Peterloo, Lees survived the initial attack by the Yeomanry but died weeks later from his injuries.
Before his death, it’s claimed Lees told a friend:
“At Waterloo there was man to man but here it was murder.”
As an army veteran, he was the only victim to receive a full inquest into his death but after interference from the authorities, no verdict was returned.
The standard bearer
41-year-old weaver and member of the Saddleworth, Lees and Mossley Union, John Ashton died at Peterloo after being sabred and trampled to death by the crowd.
The father of one carried a black banner at the rally inscribed with words;
"Taxation without representation is unjust and tyrannical. NO CORN LAWS."
Undoubtedly, this made him an easy target for the cavalry.
The innocent child
The first fatality of the day was also the youngest. Two-year-old William Fildes was killed after his mother, Mrs Anne Fildes was trampled by a horse while carrying him in her arms. In a most unfortunate turn of events, Mrs Fildes wasn’t even part of the protest. She was caught up in the unrest while running errands.
The constable killed in revenge
As rioting continued around the city, a 1,000 strong mob descended on the Mill Street home of Robert Campbell, one of the special constables brought in by the magistrates to police the assembly. As they chanted “villain” and “kill him” outside his window, Campbell fired a pistol from the upstairs window and attempted to flee but the mob caught up, dragged him into the street and beat him to death.
The constable killed by friendly fire
50-year-old Thomas John Ashworth was Landlord of the Bulls Head Inn in Marketplace, Manchester. Sworn in as one of 400 special constables by Magistrates (prior to the formation of the Police Force) to assist in policing the public meeting on Peter’s Fields, he was mistakenly cut down with a sabre by one of his own and trampled to death by the panicked crowd.
The teenagers who fought back
16-year-old William Bradshaw of Lilly Hill joined the throngs of angry protestors who began rioting in New Cross once word of the massacre began to spread. When the rioters began attacking a grocer's shop, the soldiers opened fire striking at least four members of the crowd, one of whom was Bradshaw. He died at the scene.
17-year-old Joseph Whitworth was also part of the same revolting crowd. Despite being struck in the back of the head by a musket ball, he survived for four days before dying in Manchester’s Royal Infirmary on 20 August.
The bayoneted gardener
62-year-old Gardener Thomas Buckley was described by his neighbours as a;
“person fanciful to the fruit garden, a staunch patriot, an enemy to oppression.”
He was bayoneted and slashed by a sabre during Peterloo but did not die from his wounds until 1 November that year.
The pregnant mother of six
Mary Heyes of Chortlon Row was a 44-year-old, pregnant with her seventh child. She was trampled by a horse on the field and sustained injuries that left her severely disabled. The stress placed on her body caused her to go into early labour on 17 December 1819 and she died as a result. Her premature baby survived.
The cellar casualty
While fleeing St Peter’s Field, 38-year-old Martha Partington was either thrown or fell into a cellar. During the crush, more panicked victims either fell or jumped down the cellar steps to escape and she was crushed to death. Her husband and two children were awarded just £5, roughly £430 today, in relief.
The dyer trampled to death
41-year-old James Crompton of Barton-upon-Irwell was trampled by horses and died in late August from his wounds. Little is known about his life but records suggest he worked as a dyer and was unmarried without children.
The father denied justice
David Dawson, the father of 19-year old victim Edmund, submitted two petitions seeking justice after his son’s murder. However, his death was covered up. At the coroner’s inquest, while the jury agreed Edmund had died from a head wound caused by a sabre or other sharp instrument;
“how such a wound was given no satisfactory evidence was adduced.”
The man who was dissected and demeaned
22-year-old John Rhodes died three months after he was horrifically injured at Peterloo. After his death, Rhodes's body was dissected by order of the local magistrates who wished to prove that his death was not a result of the massacre. Unsurprisingly, the coroner's inquest found that he had died from "natural causes" and his father received just over £6 (roughly £350 today) in compensation.
The weaver imprisoned without trial
Arthur O’Neill, a weaver of Pigeon Street, was badly beaten about the head by constables before being trampled by the stampeding crowd. According to his widow Sarah, he was captured and imprisoned for five months without trial or bail before being released in December. He died three weeks later on 1 January 1820.
The hastily buried
42-year-old cotton spinner, Samuel Hall was cut on the temple by a sabre and trampled by horses. He was carried straight to the infirmary where he died three weeks later and was quickly buried in Hulme without a coroner’s inquest.
The unborn child whose mother was imprisoned without trial
Despite being heavily pregnant, prominent rally member Elizabeth Gaunt was brutalised by constables after she was found hiding from them. She was held in solitary confinement for 11 days without trial, received no medical attention and was also barred from seeing her husband. Elizabeth miscarried as a result of her treatment.
The key player killed by her neighbour?
Sarah Jones helped erect the hustings and gave a warm-up speech for Henry Hunt at the rally. It’s claimed she knew the special constable who apprehended her, a neighbour Thomas Wordsworth, and was able to identify him by name. A year later she was listed as “still unwell” by the relief committee and was dead within three years.
The mystery woman?
Margaret Downes is perhaps the most puzzling victim of the massacre. Very little is known about her or her eventual fate. While Downes’ death has not been 100% verified, it was reported that she was;
“secreted clandestinely and not heard of since, supposed dead”
Some historians think the authorities realized how damaging news of such grievous wounds being inflicted on a woman would be and covered it up.
The constable crushed to death
William Evans, another special constable sworn in by the magistrates, was a carter by trade. In a cruel twist of fate, he was trampled to death by the very same horses he worked with after losing his footing in the chaos. He was reported as being in a “dying state from crushes and internal bruises” in December that year. | <urn:uuid:77d02a8d-134a-47e9-8f91-5adbeeab0daa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.findmypast.com/blog/history/peterloo-massacre | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00412.warc.gz | en | 0.987951 | 1,823 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.351243734359... | 6 | England's Peterloo Massacre victims and their shocking stories
Relive harrowing blow-by-blow accounts of how lives were lost at the Peterloo Massacre of 1819.
The Peterloo Massacre took place when army cavalry charged a crowd of 60,000 plus protestors in Manchester, England on August 16 1819. Around 18 people were killed and upwards of 400 were injured in the incident, making Peterloo one of the most horrific cases of mass brutality to ever take place on British soil.
What caused the Peterloo Massacre?
In the years directly following the Napoleonic Wars, a combination of famine and widespread unemployment led to a drive for political reform in Northern England. A peaceful rally was organised by the Manchester Patriotic Union, led by Henry Hunt. At the demonstration the Manchester and Salford Yeomanry were instructed to disperse the crowd but did so violently with their weapons drawn. The fatalities occurred in the ensuing melee. The massacre is sometimes dubbed the Battle of Peterloo because it took place on St. Peter’s Field just four years after the famous Battle of Waterloo.
A special collection of Findmypast records detail the witnesses and casualties who were involved that fateful day in Manchester. Here are their traumatic stories.
Explore the Peterloo Collection
The Waterloo veteran
Ironically, John Lees served at the Battle of Waterloo. His military record shows he was a wagon driver in the Royal Artillery. During Peterloo, Lees survived the initial attack by the Yeomanry but died weeks later from his injuries.
Before his death, it’s claimed Lees told a friend:
“At Waterloo there was man to man but here it was murder.”
As an army veteran, he was the only victim to receive a full inquest into his death but after interference from the authorities, no verdict was returned.
The standard bearer
41-year-old weaver and member of the Saddleworth, Lees and Mossley Union, John Ashton died at Peterloo after being sabred and trampled to death by the crowd.
The father of one carried a black banner at the rally inscribed with words;
"Taxation without representation is unjust and tyrannical. NO CORN LAWS."
Undoubtedly, this made him an easy target for the cavalry.
The innocent child
The first fatality of the day was also the youngest. Two-year-old William Fildes was killed after his mother, Mrs Anne Fildes was trampled by a horse while carrying him in her arms. In a most unfortunate turn of events, Mrs Fildes wasn’t even part of the protest. She was caught up in the unrest while running errands.
The constable killed in revenge
As rioting continued around the city, a 1,000 strong mob descended on the Mill Street home of Robert Campbell, one of the special constables brought in by the magistrates to police the assembly. As they chanted “villain” and “kill him” outside his window, Campbell fired a pistol from the upstairs window and attempted to flee but the mob caught up, dragged him into the street and beat him to death.
The constable killed by friendly fire
50-year-old Thomas John Ashworth was Landlord of the Bulls Head Inn in Marketplace, Manchester. Sworn in as one of 400 special constables by Magistrates (prior to the formation of the Police Force) to assist in policing the public meeting on Peter’s Fields, he was mistakenly cut down with a sabre by one of his own and trampled to death by the panicked crowd.
The teenagers who fought back
16-year-old William Bradshaw of Lilly Hill joined the throngs of angry protestors who began rioting in New Cross once word of the massacre began to spread. When the rioters began attacking a grocer's shop, the soldiers opened fire striking at least four members of the crowd, one of whom was Bradshaw. He died at the scene.
17-year-old Joseph Whitworth was also part of the same revolting crowd. Despite being struck in the back of the head by a musket ball, he survived for four days before dying in Manchester’s Royal Infirmary on 20 August.
The bayoneted gardener
62-year-old Gardener Thomas Buckley was described by his neighbours as a;
“person fanciful to the fruit garden, a staunch patriot, an enemy to oppression.”
He was bayoneted and slashed by a sabre during Peterloo but did not die from his wounds until 1 November that year.
The pregnant mother of six
Mary Heyes of Chortlon Row was a 44-year-old, pregnant with her seventh child. She was trampled by a horse on the field and sustained injuries that left her severely disabled. The stress placed on her body caused her to go into early labour on 17 December 1819 and she died as a result. Her premature baby survived.
The cellar casualty
While fleeing St Peter’s Field, 38-year-old Martha Partington was either thrown or fell into a cellar. During the crush, more panicked victims either fell or jumped down the cellar steps to escape and she was crushed to death. Her husband and two children were awarded just £5, roughly £430 today, in relief.
The dyer trampled to death
41-year-old James Crompton of Barton-upon-Irwell was trampled by horses and died in late August from his wounds. Little is known about his life but records suggest he worked as a dyer and was unmarried without children.
The father denied justice
David Dawson, the father of 19-year old victim Edmund, submitted two petitions seeking justice after his son’s murder. However, his death was covered up. At the coroner’s inquest, while the jury agreed Edmund had died from a head wound caused by a sabre or other sharp instrument;
“how such a wound was given no satisfactory evidence was adduced.”
The man who was dissected and demeaned
22-year-old John Rhodes died three months after he was horrifically injured at Peterloo. After his death, Rhodes's body was dissected by order of the local magistrates who wished to prove that his death was not a result of the massacre. Unsurprisingly, the coroner's inquest found that he had died from "natural causes" and his father received just over £6 (roughly £350 today) in compensation.
The weaver imprisoned without trial
Arthur O’Neill, a weaver of Pigeon Street, was badly beaten about the head by constables before being trampled by the stampeding crowd. According to his widow Sarah, he was captured and imprisoned for five months without trial or bail before being released in December. He died three weeks later on 1 January 1820.
The hastily buried
42-year-old cotton spinner, Samuel Hall was cut on the temple by a sabre and trampled by horses. He was carried straight to the infirmary where he died three weeks later and was quickly buried in Hulme without a coroner’s inquest.
The unborn child whose mother was imprisoned without trial
Despite being heavily pregnant, prominent rally member Elizabeth Gaunt was brutalised by constables after she was found hiding from them. She was held in solitary confinement for 11 days without trial, received no medical attention and was also barred from seeing her husband. Elizabeth miscarried as a result of her treatment.
The key player killed by her neighbour?
Sarah Jones helped erect the hustings and gave a warm-up speech for Henry Hunt at the rally. It’s claimed she knew the special constable who apprehended her, a neighbour Thomas Wordsworth, and was able to identify him by name. A year later she was listed as “still unwell” by the relief committee and was dead within three years.
The mystery woman?
Margaret Downes is perhaps the most puzzling victim of the massacre. Very little is known about her or her eventual fate. While Downes’ death has not been 100% verified, it was reported that she was;
“secreted clandestinely and not heard of since, supposed dead”
Some historians think the authorities realized how damaging news of such grievous wounds being inflicted on a woman would be and covered it up.
The constable crushed to death
William Evans, another special constable sworn in by the magistrates, was a carter by trade. In a cruel twist of fate, he was trampled to death by the very same horses he worked with after losing his footing in the chaos. He was reported as being in a “dying state from crushes and internal bruises” in December that year. | 1,799 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This chapter focuses on the influence of the kings of England on the conquests in Ireland. The English legal and institutional imprint was deep, as was the impact of men from the centre of the Plantagenet polity. In Ireland, the native laws had never been countenanced; there seems to be no evidence that they had been explored or evaluated by the English authorities. So whereas the stance of Welsh leaders was to defend the laws of Wales, the only option in Ireland was to try to buy in to English law, which the cosmopolitan MacCarwell may have regarded as preferable in any case. In Ireland, by contrast, they were the privileged possession of those who remained subjects of the king of England. Thus underlying attitudes, the chronology of legal and governmental development and the political context all combined to create, at an official level, a presumption against cultural exchange. | <urn:uuid:b7deb3af-a367-4851-91c6-6fd4434d1cf9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781315598550/chapters/10.4324/9781315598550-5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00224.warc.gz | en | 0.985462 | 175 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.3419972360134... | 1 | This chapter focuses on the influence of the kings of England on the conquests in Ireland. The English legal and institutional imprint was deep, as was the impact of men from the centre of the Plantagenet polity. In Ireland, the native laws had never been countenanced; there seems to be no evidence that they had been explored or evaluated by the English authorities. So whereas the stance of Welsh leaders was to defend the laws of Wales, the only option in Ireland was to try to buy in to English law, which the cosmopolitan MacCarwell may have regarded as preferable in any case. In Ireland, by contrast, they were the privileged possession of those who remained subjects of the king of England. Thus underlying attitudes, the chronology of legal and governmental development and the political context all combined to create, at an official level, a presumption against cultural exchange. | 175 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Archaeologists have been investigating the lost, ancient city of Thonis-Heracleion, which sunk under the Mediterranean Sea thousands of years ago.
It was discovered in 2000 in the Abu Qir Bay near Alexandria, Egypt by a team of archaeologists led by Franck Goddio.
The city had been a port in northern Egypt. According to The Mirror, archaeologists have discovered the wreckages of sunken ships, gold coins, and statues.
Stone slabs with Greek and Ancient Egyptian inscriptions were also discovered.
It’s unclear why the city–built in the eighth century BC–sunk into the Mediterranean Sea. It was located in the mouth of the Nile River delta.
Some say that Paris and Helen of Troy were stranded in the city as they were fleeing from Menelaus before the Trojan War started. The city was also mentioned by Greek historians.
Underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio said the city was found after a three-year expedition.
He told the paper: “The discoveries enhance the importance of the specific location of the city standing at the ‘Mouth of the Sea of the Greek’.”
He added: “We will probably have to continue working for the next 200 years for Thonis-Heracleion to be fully revealed and understood.”
As the Daily Telegraph notes, the city was the main customs transport hub into ancient Egypt.
Damian Robinson, the head of the Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology at the University of Oxford, told the Telegraph: “The site has amazing preservation. We are now starting to look at some of the more interesting areas within it to try to understand life there.
“We are getting a rich picture of things like the trade that was going on there and the nature of the maritime economy in the Egyptian late period. There were things were coming in from Greece and the Phoenicians.”
The city is believed to have flourished in the 6th to the 4th century BC.
Archaeologists believe it sank in the 8th century AD because of liquefaction of the silts the it was built on. “The city was founded probably around the 8th century BC, underwent diverse natural catastrophes, and finally sunk entirely into the depths of the Mediterranean in the 8th century AD,” says Goddio on his website. | <urn:uuid:d6d09d2f-a4ca-4344-a382-a624d5b50d2a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theepochtimes.com/real-life-atlantis-lost-ancient-egyptian-city-sunk-underwater-centuries-ago_1134068.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00057.warc.gz | en | 0.981178 | 488 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.215887874364... | 3 | Archaeologists have been investigating the lost, ancient city of Thonis-Heracleion, which sunk under the Mediterranean Sea thousands of years ago.
It was discovered in 2000 in the Abu Qir Bay near Alexandria, Egypt by a team of archaeologists led by Franck Goddio.
The city had been a port in northern Egypt. According to The Mirror, archaeologists have discovered the wreckages of sunken ships, gold coins, and statues.
Stone slabs with Greek and Ancient Egyptian inscriptions were also discovered.
It’s unclear why the city–built in the eighth century BC–sunk into the Mediterranean Sea. It was located in the mouth of the Nile River delta.
Some say that Paris and Helen of Troy were stranded in the city as they were fleeing from Menelaus before the Trojan War started. The city was also mentioned by Greek historians.
Underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio said the city was found after a three-year expedition.
He told the paper: “The discoveries enhance the importance of the specific location of the city standing at the ‘Mouth of the Sea of the Greek’.”
He added: “We will probably have to continue working for the next 200 years for Thonis-Heracleion to be fully revealed and understood.”
As the Daily Telegraph notes, the city was the main customs transport hub into ancient Egypt.
Damian Robinson, the head of the Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology at the University of Oxford, told the Telegraph: “The site has amazing preservation. We are now starting to look at some of the more interesting areas within it to try to understand life there.
“We are getting a rich picture of things like the trade that was going on there and the nature of the maritime economy in the Egyptian late period. There were things were coming in from Greece and the Phoenicians.”
The city is believed to have flourished in the 6th to the 4th century BC.
Archaeologists believe it sank in the 8th century AD because of liquefaction of the silts the it was built on. “The city was founded probably around the 8th century BC, underwent diverse natural catastrophes, and finally sunk entirely into the depths of the Mediterranean in the 8th century AD,” says Goddio on his website. | 470 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hamlet, is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare at the end of the fifteenth century / beginning of the sixteenth century. The story takes place in the Kingdom of Denmark, and deals with the revenge of Prince Hamlet about his uncle Claudius, who killed Hamlet’s father, King Hamlet.
Two months after his death, King Hamlet’s ghost appeared in front his son, Hamlet, and tell him that he was killed by Claudius (by putting poison in his ear), now king and husband of Gertrude, King Hamlet’s widow.
Hamlet decides to take his revenge, by pretending craziness. He wants to make Claudius admit, during a play, that he killed King Hamlet, but he fails. Later, Claudius, who has doubt about Hamlet, starts mounting a conspiracy against his nephew.
Hamlet is probably one of the most famous play of Shakespeare, and of the entire world. Moreover, everybody know the famous monologue of Hamlet, holding a skull : « To be, or not to be : that is the question »
I saw this play three years ago, and, I liked it, even though I fell asleep at the end of it.. | <urn:uuid:7f676883-a451-492e-8322-e0f79eb3e46d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lewebpedagogique.com/literatureinenglishccharlettelyceealaincolasnevers/2015/01/03/to-be-or-not-to-be-that-is-the-question-hamlet-by-w-shakespeare/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00114.warc.gz | en | 0.980652 | 256 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.351792633... | 2 | Hamlet, is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare at the end of the fifteenth century / beginning of the sixteenth century. The story takes place in the Kingdom of Denmark, and deals with the revenge of Prince Hamlet about his uncle Claudius, who killed Hamlet’s father, King Hamlet.
Two months after his death, King Hamlet’s ghost appeared in front his son, Hamlet, and tell him that he was killed by Claudius (by putting poison in his ear), now king and husband of Gertrude, King Hamlet’s widow.
Hamlet decides to take his revenge, by pretending craziness. He wants to make Claudius admit, during a play, that he killed King Hamlet, but he fails. Later, Claudius, who has doubt about Hamlet, starts mounting a conspiracy against his nephew.
Hamlet is probably one of the most famous play of Shakespeare, and of the entire world. Moreover, everybody know the famous monologue of Hamlet, holding a skull : « To be, or not to be : that is the question »
I saw this play three years ago, and, I liked it, even though I fell asleep at the end of it.. | 246 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pythagoras of Samos was a famous Greek mathematician and philosopher (c. 570 – c. 495 BC). He is known best for the proof of the important Pythagorean theorem, which is about right angle triangles. He started a group of mathematicians, called the Pythagoreans, who worshiped numbers and lived like monks. He had an influence on Plato.
Pythagoras was born in Samos, a little island off the western coast of Asia Minor. There is not much information about his life. He was said to have had a good childhood. Growing up with two or three brothers, he was well educated. He did not agree with the government and their schooling, so he moved to Croton and set up his own cult (little society) of followers under his rule. His followers did not have any personal possessions, and they were all vegetarians. Pythagoras taught them all, and they had to obey strict rules.
Some say he was the first person to use the term philosophy. Since he worked very closely with his group, the Pythagoreans, it is sometimes hard to tell his works from those of his followers.
Religion was important to the Pythagoreans. They swore their oaths by "1+2+3+4" (which equals 10). They also believed the soul is immortal and goes through a cycle of rebirths until it can become pure. They believed that these souls were in both animal and plant life.
His beliefs[change | change source]
Pythagoras' most important belief was that the physical world was mathematical and that numbers were the real reality.
- that at its deepest level, reality is mathematical in nature,
- that philosophy can be used for spiritual purification,
- that the soul can rise to union with the divine,
- that certain symbols have a mystical significance, and
- that all brothers of the order should observe strict loyalty and secrecy.
Pythagorean theorem[change | change source]
Pythagoras is most famous for his theorem to do with right triangles. He said that the length of the longest side of the right angled triangle called the hypotenuse (C) squared would equal the area of the other sides squared. And so (a x a) + (b x b) = (c x c) was born. There are many different proofs for this Pythagorean theorem.
References[change | change source]
- "The dates of his life cannot be fixed exactly, but assuming the approximate correctness of the statement of Aristoxenus (ap. Porph. V.P. 9) that he left Samos to escape the tyranny of Polycrates at the age of forty, we may put his birth round about 570 BC, or a few years earlier. The length of his life was variously estimated in antiquity, but it is agreed that he lived to a fairly ripe old age, and most probably he died at about seventy-five or eighty". Guthrie W.K.C. 1978. A history of Greek philosophy, volume 1: The earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans. Cambridge University Press, page 173.
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0.2390195876... | 1 | Pythagoras of Samos was a famous Greek mathematician and philosopher (c. 570 – c. 495 BC). He is known best for the proof of the important Pythagorean theorem, which is about right angle triangles. He started a group of mathematicians, called the Pythagoreans, who worshiped numbers and lived like monks. He had an influence on Plato.
Pythagoras was born in Samos, a little island off the western coast of Asia Minor. There is not much information about his life. He was said to have had a good childhood. Growing up with two or three brothers, he was well educated. He did not agree with the government and their schooling, so he moved to Croton and set up his own cult (little society) of followers under his rule. His followers did not have any personal possessions, and they were all vegetarians. Pythagoras taught them all, and they had to obey strict rules.
Some say he was the first person to use the term philosophy. Since he worked very closely with his group, the Pythagoreans, it is sometimes hard to tell his works from those of his followers.
Religion was important to the Pythagoreans. They swore their oaths by "1+2+3+4" (which equals 10). They also believed the soul is immortal and goes through a cycle of rebirths until it can become pure. They believed that these souls were in both animal and plant life.
His beliefs[change | change source]
Pythagoras' most important belief was that the physical world was mathematical and that numbers were the real reality.
- that at its deepest level, reality is mathematical in nature,
- that philosophy can be used for spiritual purification,
- that the soul can rise to union with the divine,
- that certain symbols have a mystical significance, and
- that all brothers of the order should observe strict loyalty and secrecy.
Pythagorean theorem[change | change source]
Pythagoras is most famous for his theorem to do with right triangles. He said that the length of the longest side of the right angled triangle called the hypotenuse (C) squared would equal the area of the other sides squared. And so (a x a) + (b x b) = (c x c) was born. There are many different proofs for this Pythagorean theorem.
References[change | change source]
- "The dates of his life cannot be fixed exactly, but assuming the approximate correctness of the statement of Aristoxenus (ap. Porph. V.P. 9) that he left Samos to escape the tyranny of Polycrates at the age of forty, we may put his birth round about 570 BC, or a few years earlier. The length of his life was variously estimated in antiquity, but it is agreed that he lived to a fairly ripe old age, and most probably he died at about seventy-five or eighty". Guthrie W.K.C. 1978. A history of Greek philosophy, volume 1: The earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans. Cambridge University Press, page 173.
- JOC/EFR 1999. Pythagoras of Samos. | 673 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Linking your favorite traveling artists across the globe
Pirates were known as sea robbers who prey on other ships and rob them of their goods and sometimes capture the ship itself for their own purposes. Piracy began over 2000 years ago in Ancient Greece, when sea robbers threatened the trading routes of Ancient Greece. Since then, this threat has continued amongst seafaring nations ever since, until the birth of regular navies. Roman ships were attacked by pirates who seized their cargoes of grain, and olive oil. The Vikings (which means sea-raider) were renowned for attacking shipping and coastal settlements. However, piracy really flourished between 1620 and 1720, and this period is known as the golden age of piracy. Between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, there have been different types of pirates, these being, privateers, buccaneers, and corsairs.
Privateers were lawful pirates who were authorised by their government to attack and pillage ships of enemy nations. They shared their profits with the government. Between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries governments issued ‘letters of marque’ which licenced these sailors to plunder ships. This was to prevent privateers from being charged with piracy, which was an offence punishable by death. Francis Drake was England’s most famous privateer. In the sixteenth century he attacked Spanish treasure ships returning from the new world, sharing his profits with Elizabeth I, who knighted him for his services. Buccaneers were pirates and privateers who operated from bases in the West Indies, and attacked Spanish shipping in the Caribbean. Corsairs were Muslim or Christian pirates who were active in the Mediterranean from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. The Barbary Corsairs were Muslim, and operated solely from the North African states of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli and Morocco, and were authorised by their government to attack the ships of Christian countries. In contrast the Maltese Corsairs were Christian and were granted a licence by the Christian Knights of St John to attack the ‘barbarian’ Turks.
Many pirates had served in merchant or naval ships prior to turning to piracy. Life on a pirate ship appeared more attractive as they were independent of national laws, the crew were treated much better than normal sailors and prize money was shared out equally. Many seamen became pirates as they hoped to become rich on plunders of treasure and cargo ships. When pirate ships captured merchant ships, the pirate captain would ask for volunteers to serve under him. Many of the crew would volunteer as life on a merchant ship was harsh and conditions awful
There were not many women pirates, as seamen believed that it was unlucky to have women onboard ships. Women therefore had to disguise themselves as men. However there were some extremely powerful women pirates, such as Ching Shih who commanded a pirate community of 80,000. The two most famous women pirates were Anne Bonney and Mary Reed, who were captured in 1720 and put on trial in Jamaica. They were both sentenced to death, but escaped execution as they were both pregnant. Mary Reed died of fever a few months after the trial, but Anne Bonney was released.
Becoming a pirate was called ‘going on the account’ and they had to agree to live by the rules of the ship. These rules were often strict and breaking them could mean flogging or even death.
( Flogging was disdained by most Pirates as it was known on Naval ships as a form of cruel and brutal punishment that many died from infected wounds ) Todays Pirate re-enactors need to take that in mind the practice flogging as very, very few Pirates did this on their own ships
If a pirate was found stealing from their comrades or deserting during battle, they were marooned on a desert island with meagre supplies. Most would die a slow death from starvation if they could not hunt or fish.
Pirates used flags to frighten passing ships into surrendering without a fight. The original pirate flags were blood red, and this signalled that no mercy would be shown once the pirates boarded and battle ensued. As piracy developed, more flags were used, and pirates often had their own flags. The Jolly Roger, (a skull and crossbone) is the most famous pirate flag. The symbol had been appropriated from the symbol used in ships’ logs, where it represented death on board. It was first used as pirate flag around 1700 and quickly became popular with pirates, who designed their own version of the flag, e.g. a skull and crossed swords.
Pirates required ships that were fast, powerful, and had as shallow a depth below the water as possible. This was because surprise was vital to a pirate attack, and they needed to be able to navigate in shallow coastal waters and hide in secluded coves and inlets. Schooners were used by pirates in North American waters. They were fast, easily manoeuvred, with a shallow draught but were large enough to carry many guns and a large crew. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Barbary Corsairs used galleys, which were long and narrow with a sail. During action, these vessels were rowed to allow travel at speed. Each oar was manned by up to six slaves who were chained to benches. The aim of the corsairs was to ram the enemy ship, board and defeat the crew in hand-to-hand battle. The galleys were only suited to the Mediterranean where conditions were calm. Junks which were flat bottomed boats, with three masts and sails held together with bamboo rods, were used in Chinese waters. The largest junks held twelve guns and carried rowing boats to raid coastal villages or board enemy ships. Pirates often took over captured merchant ships and altered them to suit their purpose, such as to increase speed, cut more gunports, and also to hide the true identity of the ship. They also utilised weapons, clothes, medicines, and food found on board.
Some Pirates boarded ships by jamming the rudder with wooden wedges so that the ship could not be steered. They would then use grappling hooks to board the ship, heavily armed with pistols, daggers and cutlasses, which were suited to hand-to-hand fighting. Pirates also used homemade weapons, such as hand grenades made by filling wine bottles with gunpowder and created smoke screens by setting fire to yellow sulphur. Merchant seamen under attack tried to prevent pirates boarding by greasing decks or scattering dried peas or broken glass on the decks. However, they knew if they put up a strong resistance and lost, the pirates would show no mercy and they would be seriously maimed or murdered. The pirates would take all the treasure or cargo that the ship carried. These might include silks, jewels, spices, wine, brandy, linen, coin and even slaves. Sometimes pirates added the captured ship to their fleet or sank it to get rid of any evidence that would convict them. The seamen would be killed, ransomed, taken as slaves or joined the pirate crew.
Pirates also became involved in the lucrative slave trade. The Barbary Corsairs found that by selling ships’ crews slaves or demanding a ransom for them was more profitable than the ship’s cargo. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when the slave trade was a lucrative business, the profits from slavery attracted many pirates. Some became slavers, whilst others sold cargoes of slaves captured from the merchant ships bound for the American colonies, or from raids on the West African slave ports. Thus many pirates became a combination of slaver, privateer and pirate, and by the 1830’s the term picaroon had come to mean both pirate and slaver. John Hawkins (1532-95) was the first English privateer to realise that the slave trade was a profitable trade. In 1562 he made the first of three voyages as a slaver, sailing from England to West Africa to load up 3000 slaves and took them to the Caribbean to be sold on the island of Hispaniola. Pirate captains in the Caribbean welcomed runaway slaves, who made up as much as one-third of some pirate crews. For slaves joining a pirate ship was more appealing than living the harsh life on the plantations as a slave.
The punishment for piracy was death by public hanging. The bodies of executed pirates were often tarred to preserve them to be hung from a gibbet. The corpse would be chained into an iron cage to prevent relatives from burying the body. The notable pirate, William Kidd, received this fate and his body hung for three years at Tilbury Point in the Thames estuary as a warning to seamen and pirates. A condemned man was measured for his iron cage before his execution, and many pirates feared this more than the hanging. After Blackbeard was killed in battle, his head was cut off and tied as a trophy to the yardarm of HMS Pearl.
Organised piracy and privateering was finally ended in the nineteenth century. In 1816, the bombardment of Algiers marked the end of the Barbary pirates power in the Mediterranean. Dutch warships patrolled Southeast Asia, and the British navy attacked pirates in the South China seas. However, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, lawful privateers were still flourishing until 1856 when the majority of maritime nations signed the Declaration of Paris. This banned letters of marque, and therefore outlawed privateering. Navies of each country were used to enforce this law. The age of steam also helped to end piracy as anti-slavery operations were now undertaken by steam ships. These could sail without wind and at great speed, while pirates still relied upon more cumbersome sailing ships. By 1850 there were only a small number of pirates remaining.
Although piracy has never returned to the level it was in previous centuries, it has not completely disappeared and the world’s navies continue to try to prevent piracy. Attacks occur worldwide, mainly in developing countries. In the 1990s, political groups hijacked ships, threatening crews and passengers with death if their demands were not met. Pirates in South East Asia have attacked merchant shipping and in the Caribbean, ships have been attacked and robbed. Modern day pirates still rely on speed and surprise in their attacks. They use fast dinghies and arm themselves with assault rifles to overpower ships. Many ships today have smaller crews, relying on technology and so can be easily overpowered.
In the 1700s songs, plays, operas and novels were written about buccaneers, and during the nineteenth century storybook pirates were more famous than the real ones. Almost as soon as the world’s navies had made the oceans safe, people quickly began to forget the reality of piracy. Many writers turned pirates into heroes. Byron (1788-1824) did much to create the myth of the romantic pirate hero in his poem ‘The Corsair’. However such books as Robert Louis Stevenson’s ‘Treasure Island’ portrayed a more realistic view of pirates as villains.
My question is if we had lived in the early years how would we live? Would it be by tyrannical rule with harsh and brutal punishment for not following orders of the tyrants that ruled those times? Would we be farmers that would give a majority share to the kingdom that ruled or would we stand and fight for a better life that may end quicker to not be under cruel rule? People turned to Piracy for many different reasons | <urn:uuid:a10c1324-1154-481c-bca4-56e6d34277cd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://travelingwithintheworld.ning.com/group/piratefactsthingsandgeneralarrrrrrr/forum/topics/2185477:Topic:192973 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00382.warc.gz | en | 0.989288 | 2,343 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.1722922027... | 5 | Linking your favorite traveling artists across the globe
Pirates were known as sea robbers who prey on other ships and rob them of their goods and sometimes capture the ship itself for their own purposes. Piracy began over 2000 years ago in Ancient Greece, when sea robbers threatened the trading routes of Ancient Greece. Since then, this threat has continued amongst seafaring nations ever since, until the birth of regular navies. Roman ships were attacked by pirates who seized their cargoes of grain, and olive oil. The Vikings (which means sea-raider) were renowned for attacking shipping and coastal settlements. However, piracy really flourished between 1620 and 1720, and this period is known as the golden age of piracy. Between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, there have been different types of pirates, these being, privateers, buccaneers, and corsairs.
Privateers were lawful pirates who were authorised by their government to attack and pillage ships of enemy nations. They shared their profits with the government. Between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries governments issued ‘letters of marque’ which licenced these sailors to plunder ships. This was to prevent privateers from being charged with piracy, which was an offence punishable by death. Francis Drake was England’s most famous privateer. In the sixteenth century he attacked Spanish treasure ships returning from the new world, sharing his profits with Elizabeth I, who knighted him for his services. Buccaneers were pirates and privateers who operated from bases in the West Indies, and attacked Spanish shipping in the Caribbean. Corsairs were Muslim or Christian pirates who were active in the Mediterranean from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. The Barbary Corsairs were Muslim, and operated solely from the North African states of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli and Morocco, and were authorised by their government to attack the ships of Christian countries. In contrast the Maltese Corsairs were Christian and were granted a licence by the Christian Knights of St John to attack the ‘barbarian’ Turks.
Many pirates had served in merchant or naval ships prior to turning to piracy. Life on a pirate ship appeared more attractive as they were independent of national laws, the crew were treated much better than normal sailors and prize money was shared out equally. Many seamen became pirates as they hoped to become rich on plunders of treasure and cargo ships. When pirate ships captured merchant ships, the pirate captain would ask for volunteers to serve under him. Many of the crew would volunteer as life on a merchant ship was harsh and conditions awful
There were not many women pirates, as seamen believed that it was unlucky to have women onboard ships. Women therefore had to disguise themselves as men. However there were some extremely powerful women pirates, such as Ching Shih who commanded a pirate community of 80,000. The two most famous women pirates were Anne Bonney and Mary Reed, who were captured in 1720 and put on trial in Jamaica. They were both sentenced to death, but escaped execution as they were both pregnant. Mary Reed died of fever a few months after the trial, but Anne Bonney was released.
Becoming a pirate was called ‘going on the account’ and they had to agree to live by the rules of the ship. These rules were often strict and breaking them could mean flogging or even death.
( Flogging was disdained by most Pirates as it was known on Naval ships as a form of cruel and brutal punishment that many died from infected wounds ) Todays Pirate re-enactors need to take that in mind the practice flogging as very, very few Pirates did this on their own ships
If a pirate was found stealing from their comrades or deserting during battle, they were marooned on a desert island with meagre supplies. Most would die a slow death from starvation if they could not hunt or fish.
Pirates used flags to frighten passing ships into surrendering without a fight. The original pirate flags were blood red, and this signalled that no mercy would be shown once the pirates boarded and battle ensued. As piracy developed, more flags were used, and pirates often had their own flags. The Jolly Roger, (a skull and crossbone) is the most famous pirate flag. The symbol had been appropriated from the symbol used in ships’ logs, where it represented death on board. It was first used as pirate flag around 1700 and quickly became popular with pirates, who designed their own version of the flag, e.g. a skull and crossed swords.
Pirates required ships that were fast, powerful, and had as shallow a depth below the water as possible. This was because surprise was vital to a pirate attack, and they needed to be able to navigate in shallow coastal waters and hide in secluded coves and inlets. Schooners were used by pirates in North American waters. They were fast, easily manoeuvred, with a shallow draught but were large enough to carry many guns and a large crew. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Barbary Corsairs used galleys, which were long and narrow with a sail. During action, these vessels were rowed to allow travel at speed. Each oar was manned by up to six slaves who were chained to benches. The aim of the corsairs was to ram the enemy ship, board and defeat the crew in hand-to-hand battle. The galleys were only suited to the Mediterranean where conditions were calm. Junks which were flat bottomed boats, with three masts and sails held together with bamboo rods, were used in Chinese waters. The largest junks held twelve guns and carried rowing boats to raid coastal villages or board enemy ships. Pirates often took over captured merchant ships and altered them to suit their purpose, such as to increase speed, cut more gunports, and also to hide the true identity of the ship. They also utilised weapons, clothes, medicines, and food found on board.
Some Pirates boarded ships by jamming the rudder with wooden wedges so that the ship could not be steered. They would then use grappling hooks to board the ship, heavily armed with pistols, daggers and cutlasses, which were suited to hand-to-hand fighting. Pirates also used homemade weapons, such as hand grenades made by filling wine bottles with gunpowder and created smoke screens by setting fire to yellow sulphur. Merchant seamen under attack tried to prevent pirates boarding by greasing decks or scattering dried peas or broken glass on the decks. However, they knew if they put up a strong resistance and lost, the pirates would show no mercy and they would be seriously maimed or murdered. The pirates would take all the treasure or cargo that the ship carried. These might include silks, jewels, spices, wine, brandy, linen, coin and even slaves. Sometimes pirates added the captured ship to their fleet or sank it to get rid of any evidence that would convict them. The seamen would be killed, ransomed, taken as slaves or joined the pirate crew.
Pirates also became involved in the lucrative slave trade. The Barbary Corsairs found that by selling ships’ crews slaves or demanding a ransom for them was more profitable than the ship’s cargo. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when the slave trade was a lucrative business, the profits from slavery attracted many pirates. Some became slavers, whilst others sold cargoes of slaves captured from the merchant ships bound for the American colonies, or from raids on the West African slave ports. Thus many pirates became a combination of slaver, privateer and pirate, and by the 1830’s the term picaroon had come to mean both pirate and slaver. John Hawkins (1532-95) was the first English privateer to realise that the slave trade was a profitable trade. In 1562 he made the first of three voyages as a slaver, sailing from England to West Africa to load up 3000 slaves and took them to the Caribbean to be sold on the island of Hispaniola. Pirate captains in the Caribbean welcomed runaway slaves, who made up as much as one-third of some pirate crews. For slaves joining a pirate ship was more appealing than living the harsh life on the plantations as a slave.
The punishment for piracy was death by public hanging. The bodies of executed pirates were often tarred to preserve them to be hung from a gibbet. The corpse would be chained into an iron cage to prevent relatives from burying the body. The notable pirate, William Kidd, received this fate and his body hung for three years at Tilbury Point in the Thames estuary as a warning to seamen and pirates. A condemned man was measured for his iron cage before his execution, and many pirates feared this more than the hanging. After Blackbeard was killed in battle, his head was cut off and tied as a trophy to the yardarm of HMS Pearl.
Organised piracy and privateering was finally ended in the nineteenth century. In 1816, the bombardment of Algiers marked the end of the Barbary pirates power in the Mediterranean. Dutch warships patrolled Southeast Asia, and the British navy attacked pirates in the South China seas. However, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, lawful privateers were still flourishing until 1856 when the majority of maritime nations signed the Declaration of Paris. This banned letters of marque, and therefore outlawed privateering. Navies of each country were used to enforce this law. The age of steam also helped to end piracy as anti-slavery operations were now undertaken by steam ships. These could sail without wind and at great speed, while pirates still relied upon more cumbersome sailing ships. By 1850 there were only a small number of pirates remaining.
Although piracy has never returned to the level it was in previous centuries, it has not completely disappeared and the world’s navies continue to try to prevent piracy. Attacks occur worldwide, mainly in developing countries. In the 1990s, political groups hijacked ships, threatening crews and passengers with death if their demands were not met. Pirates in South East Asia have attacked merchant shipping and in the Caribbean, ships have been attacked and robbed. Modern day pirates still rely on speed and surprise in their attacks. They use fast dinghies and arm themselves with assault rifles to overpower ships. Many ships today have smaller crews, relying on technology and so can be easily overpowered.
In the 1700s songs, plays, operas and novels were written about buccaneers, and during the nineteenth century storybook pirates were more famous than the real ones. Almost as soon as the world’s navies had made the oceans safe, people quickly began to forget the reality of piracy. Many writers turned pirates into heroes. Byron (1788-1824) did much to create the myth of the romantic pirate hero in his poem ‘The Corsair’. However such books as Robert Louis Stevenson’s ‘Treasure Island’ portrayed a more realistic view of pirates as villains.
My question is if we had lived in the early years how would we live? Would it be by tyrannical rule with harsh and brutal punishment for not following orders of the tyrants that ruled those times? Would we be farmers that would give a majority share to the kingdom that ruled or would we stand and fight for a better life that may end quicker to not be under cruel rule? People turned to Piracy for many different reasons | 2,367 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings is an autobiographical book by Maya Angelou who is an African American poet and writer. This is her first book in a series of books she writes depicting her life. In this 1969 book, the author talks about her early life as a girl growing in a racial American society. She writes about her life experiences she undergoes from the age of three to the teenage. I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings shows how the love of literature and strong character can bring out the power in a person to overcome childhood trauma and racism. The society she and her elder brother lives in is dominated by the racial power. The blacks are seen as inferior and most of the time they are defenseless as they are looked down upon. The story starts when Angelou and her elder brother are taken to live with their partial grandmother in Arkansas, this is the place she witnesses a lot of racial injustices done against the blacks. Her life changes when she becomes 17. From this point, she decides to use her power to transform to a strong woman who beats inferiority complex (Gilbert, Susan, 1999).
Buy I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings essay paper online
Angelou and Bailey, her older brother, undergo suffering as victims of circumstances. Their parents get divorced and due to this, they are unable to look after their children. This prompts the father to send them to Stamp, Arkansas from Long Beach, California on a train as a luggage. Although Angelou is too young, she is able to understand what is happening, something that adds more sorrow of racism that she later experiences. The whites are vested with more power in the world she faces than the blacks. Life has actually gone worse than it earlier was.
The book clearly gives the description of the kind of treatment that Angelou and her family goes through from the white neighbors. Her grandmother, Momma, at some point has to hide the crippled uncle when they are invaded by the Ku Klux Klan. This was a white organization that lived in the southern part of the United States. They believed that blacks did not deserve any respect at all, and for this reason, they used to attack the blacks at will. Their attacks were majorly done at night, something that led to the demise of many blacks. When they come at Angelou’s family house, the grandmother had to hide the uncle just to preserve his life as he was crippled. The clan believed that the blacks were only to be employed as house helps and could be done away with at will (BBC World Service).
The injustices are also done by the children of the whites. Although Momma, Angelou’s grandmother is not very poor because she owns the store, the white neighborhood continues to look down upon them as they are black. A young girl who Angelou calls “po white trash girl” humiliates her grandmother by showing her pubic hair. This family undergoes many other challenges from these neighbors who feel superior to the rest. At a given point, Maya is employed by a racist who forcibly changes her name to Mary against her will. What discourages her more is the invited speaker at her eighth grade graduation who says that the black community has limited chances of getting jobs. This is a clear show of how the society has been divided. Circumstances around Maya only discourage her of ever gaining anything better in life.
In another instance, Maya has a rotten tooth that needs to be medicated. A white dentist refuses to attend to her due to the fact that she is black. Earlier, Momma had loaned him some money at a time of depression. He still refuses to attend to Maya after her grandmother reminds of this fact. Despite all these, some ray of hope is seen when Joe Louis, a black, wins a fight championship.
A turnaround happens when her father suddenly appears and takes them to see their mother in St. Louis. Her father decides to leave them with their mother for a moment. At this place, she is unexpectedly raped by Mr. Freeman, her mother’s boyfriend. Due to the fact that she has less physical strength, this man takes advantage to defile her. Her sorrows doubles and she refuses to confide to anyone except her older brother. Maya does not only experience injustices done by the whites but also by the black males. Mr. Freeman is the face of the males who take advantage of the young defenseless females in the society. He is later convicted, however not jailed because he is found dead.
In conclusion, Maya comes out as a success in a society that was mostly racial. Her growing up is full of challenges that seem to shape the way she deals with issues. She grows up believing that the whites are superior and the blacks cannot achieve anything. However, she changes her opinion when she is challenged by her friend who encourages her to continue the education. She gains courage, goes to college and graduates. Her later life is full of excellence in her specialization of dance and drama.
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0.12049671... | 1 | I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings is an autobiographical book by Maya Angelou who is an African American poet and writer. This is her first book in a series of books she writes depicting her life. In this 1969 book, the author talks about her early life as a girl growing in a racial American society. She writes about her life experiences she undergoes from the age of three to the teenage. I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings shows how the love of literature and strong character can bring out the power in a person to overcome childhood trauma and racism. The society she and her elder brother lives in is dominated by the racial power. The blacks are seen as inferior and most of the time they are defenseless as they are looked down upon. The story starts when Angelou and her elder brother are taken to live with their partial grandmother in Arkansas, this is the place she witnesses a lot of racial injustices done against the blacks. Her life changes when she becomes 17. From this point, she decides to use her power to transform to a strong woman who beats inferiority complex (Gilbert, Susan, 1999).
Buy I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings essay paper online
Angelou and Bailey, her older brother, undergo suffering as victims of circumstances. Their parents get divorced and due to this, they are unable to look after their children. This prompts the father to send them to Stamp, Arkansas from Long Beach, California on a train as a luggage. Although Angelou is too young, she is able to understand what is happening, something that adds more sorrow of racism that she later experiences. The whites are vested with more power in the world she faces than the blacks. Life has actually gone worse than it earlier was.
The book clearly gives the description of the kind of treatment that Angelou and her family goes through from the white neighbors. Her grandmother, Momma, at some point has to hide the crippled uncle when they are invaded by the Ku Klux Klan. This was a white organization that lived in the southern part of the United States. They believed that blacks did not deserve any respect at all, and for this reason, they used to attack the blacks at will. Their attacks were majorly done at night, something that led to the demise of many blacks. When they come at Angelou’s family house, the grandmother had to hide the uncle just to preserve his life as he was crippled. The clan believed that the blacks were only to be employed as house helps and could be done away with at will (BBC World Service).
The injustices are also done by the children of the whites. Although Momma, Angelou’s grandmother is not very poor because she owns the store, the white neighborhood continues to look down upon them as they are black. A young girl who Angelou calls “po white trash girl” humiliates her grandmother by showing her pubic hair. This family undergoes many other challenges from these neighbors who feel superior to the rest. At a given point, Maya is employed by a racist who forcibly changes her name to Mary against her will. What discourages her more is the invited speaker at her eighth grade graduation who says that the black community has limited chances of getting jobs. This is a clear show of how the society has been divided. Circumstances around Maya only discourage her of ever gaining anything better in life.
In another instance, Maya has a rotten tooth that needs to be medicated. A white dentist refuses to attend to her due to the fact that she is black. Earlier, Momma had loaned him some money at a time of depression. He still refuses to attend to Maya after her grandmother reminds of this fact. Despite all these, some ray of hope is seen when Joe Louis, a black, wins a fight championship.
A turnaround happens when her father suddenly appears and takes them to see their mother in St. Louis. Her father decides to leave them with their mother for a moment. At this place, she is unexpectedly raped by Mr. Freeman, her mother’s boyfriend. Due to the fact that she has less physical strength, this man takes advantage to defile her. Her sorrows doubles and she refuses to confide to anyone except her older brother. Maya does not only experience injustices done by the whites but also by the black males. Mr. Freeman is the face of the males who take advantage of the young defenseless females in the society. He is later convicted, however not jailed because he is found dead.
In conclusion, Maya comes out as a success in a society that was mostly racial. Her growing up is full of challenges that seem to shape the way she deals with issues. She grows up believing that the whites are superior and the blacks cannot achieve anything. However, she changes her opinion when she is challenged by her friend who encourages her to continue the education. She gains courage, goes to college and graduates. Her later life is full of excellence in her specialization of dance and drama.
Most popular orders | 1,021 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why did the Ottoman Empire join Germany's side in WWI?
There were two major reasons for this.
First, the Ottomans had had fairly shaky relations with the Allied Powers. This was especially true with regard to Russia. Russia had a strategic interest in controlling the Dardanelles and its desire to do so led to conflict with the Ottomans since the Dardanelles were in their territory. Since the Ottomans did not have great relations with Britain or France, they were inclined to side with the Germans.
Second, the Ottomans thought that German victories early in the war meant that Germany would win. They thought that if they got into the war on Germany's side they would be able to gain new territories for their empire after the Central Powers won the war.
So, the Ottoman decision to enter the war was based partly on a desire for more power and partly on the enmity between the Ottoman Empire and Russia.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:7f2e9912-7465-48a4-bf84-eb540da9575f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/why-does-ottoman-empire-join-germanys-side-ww1-328789 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00358.warc.gz | en | 0.989058 | 205 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.364676624536514... | 1 | Why did the Ottoman Empire join Germany's side in WWI?
There were two major reasons for this.
First, the Ottomans had had fairly shaky relations with the Allied Powers. This was especially true with regard to Russia. Russia had a strategic interest in controlling the Dardanelles and its desire to do so led to conflict with the Ottomans since the Dardanelles were in their territory. Since the Ottomans did not have great relations with Britain or France, they were inclined to side with the Germans.
Second, the Ottomans thought that German victories early in the war meant that Germany would win. They thought that if they got into the war on Germany's side they would be able to gain new territories for their empire after the Central Powers won the war.
So, the Ottoman decision to enter the war was based partly on a desire for more power and partly on the enmity between the Ottoman Empire and Russia.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 197 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Suppressed Women in The Story of an Hour
“The Story of an Hour ,” by Kate Chopin, focuses on the character, Mrs. Louise Mallard, and one very sensitive hour in her life. Louise Mallard, who had a weakening heart condition, appeared to live an apathetic and frail life, until she received the news that her husband had died in a tragic railroad accident. Keeping in mind her frailty, Mrs. Mallard’s sister, Josephine, gently informs her of her husband’s death. Mrs. Mallard upon hearing the news broke into tears, after some time she went to her room to be alone with her thoughts.
Like Mrs. Mallard women in the 1900’s had very little control over their own lives, the men in the family made most if not all financial decisions for the family along with most other major decisions. Many women felt like they had little control over their own lives. What did this mean for Mrs. Mallard now What would happen Sitting alone in her room, she looked out at the sky with a dull expression. All of a sudden it hit her, it was joy. She was free.
She knew there would still be sadness but right now she was thinking about the fact that she was free. She could make her own decisions, she could live for herself. “There would be no powerful will bending hers in that blind persistence with which men and women believe they have the right to impose a private will upon a fellow-creature . (477) Mrs. Mallard did love her husband, not always be she did love him and life would be different without him, but beneath that sadness she kept coming back to the fact that she was now free.
Before this event she had thought that life might be long and now she was praying that life would be long, long so she could live. Live free and do what pleased her to do. When so many other women might have been paralyzed from the fear of being alone, she seemed to be awakened from her passive and anemic kind of life, she no longer has to look at life as meaningless and just pass the time she now thinks of the new freedom. Until that moment when she realized she now had that freedom her emotions had been suppressed to fit into what social conventions said they should be.
She had, like so many other women of that time not only surrendered her heart but also our identity as an individual when she married. In the late nineteenth century women’s suffrage was happening, women were fighting to get the right to vote, to hold public office. Women had a difficult time getting a divorce and were even barred from speaking publicly against their husband, even if he had acted in a way that way harmful to the family. Women had very little right to do anything that wasn’t approved of by their husband or their father.
They went from being controlled by their father to getting married and being controlled by their husband. All laws and social standards were made by men. Even after the right to vote was given to women, many things were still limited only to men. Women were still not equal in the eyes of most, still thought of as the inferior or weaker sex (J. J. Lewis). After her sister convinced her to open the door she hugged her and went to walk down the stairs with her sister where their family friend was waiting for them.
She holds herself differently after those moments of discovery. She is walking almost victoriously, knowing that she has this life to live ahead of her. When she descended the stairs she came down as Louise no longer as Mrs. Mallard, she had been renewed, reborn in herself. It is no surprise that Mrs. Mallard (Louise) suffers a painful and ultimately fatal shock to the heart when her husband returns home. He had missed the train, he wasn’t on it the train that had the accident, and he wasn’t dead.
He comes home and walks in the front door as if nothing had happened, just as Louise is making her way down the stairs. When she sees her husband, she screams and it is as though she has realized that life she had come to believe would happen could no longer be in her future. Many men at that time would never go along with a woman who was independent, who had discovered who she really wanted to be. They wanted the submissive wife that live the apathetic life. Not a wife that wanted adventure, fun and freedom to be herself. How would Mr.
Mallard feel, he loved her would he be ok with the change in her It’s possible he would have supported her and been happy that she was happier in their life. She didn’t take the time to find out, she just knew should could not go back to the way it was, she couldn’t just let go of what she now felt. At that moment when she sees him, after her scream, she falls over dead. Everyone assumes it’s the shock the joy of her husband coming home and she had a weak heart, it was just too much for her to take in one day, one hour. But that wasn’t it.
He heart wasn’t weak it was just so confined by society, imprisoned by her marriage that it could not beat in the rhythm of a happy life. That is until she thought she had found her freedom. Once she had that freedom in her heart she was alive again. Her heart could not take going back to that life, she couldn’t face living that way any longer. It was too much to ask of her heart. It stopped beating instead of going back. Mrs. Mallard didn’t die from a weak heart, she died from a heart that couldn’t bear the thought of a long life with no meaning or joy” (Chopin). | <urn:uuid:15d146c4-fc48-4072-92de-7a5d12f5c1e0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/suppressed-women-in-the-story-of-an-hour-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00397.warc.gz | en | 0.993899 | 1,212 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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-0.126357272267341... | 1 | Suppressed Women in The Story of an Hour
“The Story of an Hour ,” by Kate Chopin, focuses on the character, Mrs. Louise Mallard, and one very sensitive hour in her life. Louise Mallard, who had a weakening heart condition, appeared to live an apathetic and frail life, until she received the news that her husband had died in a tragic railroad accident. Keeping in mind her frailty, Mrs. Mallard’s sister, Josephine, gently informs her of her husband’s death. Mrs. Mallard upon hearing the news broke into tears, after some time she went to her room to be alone with her thoughts.
Like Mrs. Mallard women in the 1900’s had very little control over their own lives, the men in the family made most if not all financial decisions for the family along with most other major decisions. Many women felt like they had little control over their own lives. What did this mean for Mrs. Mallard now What would happen Sitting alone in her room, she looked out at the sky with a dull expression. All of a sudden it hit her, it was joy. She was free.
She knew there would still be sadness but right now she was thinking about the fact that she was free. She could make her own decisions, she could live for herself. “There would be no powerful will bending hers in that blind persistence with which men and women believe they have the right to impose a private will upon a fellow-creature . (477) Mrs. Mallard did love her husband, not always be she did love him and life would be different without him, but beneath that sadness she kept coming back to the fact that she was now free.
Before this event she had thought that life might be long and now she was praying that life would be long, long so she could live. Live free and do what pleased her to do. When so many other women might have been paralyzed from the fear of being alone, she seemed to be awakened from her passive and anemic kind of life, she no longer has to look at life as meaningless and just pass the time she now thinks of the new freedom. Until that moment when she realized she now had that freedom her emotions had been suppressed to fit into what social conventions said they should be.
She had, like so many other women of that time not only surrendered her heart but also our identity as an individual when she married. In the late nineteenth century women’s suffrage was happening, women were fighting to get the right to vote, to hold public office. Women had a difficult time getting a divorce and were even barred from speaking publicly against their husband, even if he had acted in a way that way harmful to the family. Women had very little right to do anything that wasn’t approved of by their husband or their father.
They went from being controlled by their father to getting married and being controlled by their husband. All laws and social standards were made by men. Even after the right to vote was given to women, many things were still limited only to men. Women were still not equal in the eyes of most, still thought of as the inferior or weaker sex (J. J. Lewis). After her sister convinced her to open the door she hugged her and went to walk down the stairs with her sister where their family friend was waiting for them.
She holds herself differently after those moments of discovery. She is walking almost victoriously, knowing that she has this life to live ahead of her. When she descended the stairs she came down as Louise no longer as Mrs. Mallard, she had been renewed, reborn in herself. It is no surprise that Mrs. Mallard (Louise) suffers a painful and ultimately fatal shock to the heart when her husband returns home. He had missed the train, he wasn’t on it the train that had the accident, and he wasn’t dead.
He comes home and walks in the front door as if nothing had happened, just as Louise is making her way down the stairs. When she sees her husband, she screams and it is as though she has realized that life she had come to believe would happen could no longer be in her future. Many men at that time would never go along with a woman who was independent, who had discovered who she really wanted to be. They wanted the submissive wife that live the apathetic life. Not a wife that wanted adventure, fun and freedom to be herself. How would Mr.
Mallard feel, he loved her would he be ok with the change in her It’s possible he would have supported her and been happy that she was happier in their life. She didn’t take the time to find out, she just knew should could not go back to the way it was, she couldn’t just let go of what she now felt. At that moment when she sees him, after her scream, she falls over dead. Everyone assumes it’s the shock the joy of her husband coming home and she had a weak heart, it was just too much for her to take in one day, one hour. But that wasn’t it.
He heart wasn’t weak it was just so confined by society, imprisoned by her marriage that it could not beat in the rhythm of a happy life. That is until she thought she had found her freedom. Once she had that freedom in her heart she was alive again. Her heart could not take going back to that life, she couldn’t face living that way any longer. It was too much to ask of her heart. It stopped beating instead of going back. Mrs. Mallard didn’t die from a weak heart, she died from a heart that couldn’t bear the thought of a long life with no meaning or joy” (Chopin). | 1,172 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Plumbing is a normal day to day term used by Americans, but where did the word plumbing come from? Where did plumbers who fix our clogged drains and broken pipes get their title from? The answer very well might surprise you.
The term plumber and plumbing does not come from anything in the modern world, it actually comes from ancient Roman times. When the Roman Empire was the epitome of civilization, they used lead pipes within their cities. Lead was called plumbum. Lead was used for many things within the Roman Empire. Lead was used on the roofs of Roman buildings. Drain pipes also were made of lead. The famous Roman baths also used lead piping to bring water to them. Then as medieval times continued, anyone who worked with lead was called a plumbarius. Later the word for anyone working with pipes, especially water and sewer pipes was shortened from plumbarius to the modern word plumber.
As a side note, this is also why the abbreviation for lead in the periodic table of elements is Pb.
Today, if you were to look in the dictionary under the word plumber, you would find a simple definition that explains that a plumber is one who installs and repairs pipes and plumbing.
When you look up plumbing, you would see a definition of what a plumbing system really is. In most definitions, plumbing includes three aspects of the plumbing systems which are fixtures, apparatus, and of course pipes. Plumbing can also include not just water and sewer, but gas pipes as well.
Today plumbing is a very common job. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, there are approximately four hundred and twenty thousand plumbers working in the United States of America. Most plumbers are making just over twenty dollars per hour, and just over forty six thousand dollars per year. Plumbers do not need a college degree. Most plumbers have a high school education, and then have been trained through an apprenticeship. There are no federal laws about plumbing licenses, but each state has their own regulations for how plumbers should be licensed and educated within their jurisdiction.
So plumbing is very popular today as a career, but as popular as it is in the United States, it will never change the fact that the trade of plumbing and the name that goes along with it came from much farther back in time, back to the time of the Roman Empire. | <urn:uuid:ccc5ccb4-250a-4cfe-a5a0-4b2059d26db8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.auburnplumbers.net/plumbing-tips/where-does-the-word-plumbing-come-from/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00528.warc.gz | en | 0.984063 | 483 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.3547801673412... | 9 | Plumbing is a normal day to day term used by Americans, but where did the word plumbing come from? Where did plumbers who fix our clogged drains and broken pipes get their title from? The answer very well might surprise you.
The term plumber and plumbing does not come from anything in the modern world, it actually comes from ancient Roman times. When the Roman Empire was the epitome of civilization, they used lead pipes within their cities. Lead was called plumbum. Lead was used for many things within the Roman Empire. Lead was used on the roofs of Roman buildings. Drain pipes also were made of lead. The famous Roman baths also used lead piping to bring water to them. Then as medieval times continued, anyone who worked with lead was called a plumbarius. Later the word for anyone working with pipes, especially water and sewer pipes was shortened from plumbarius to the modern word plumber.
As a side note, this is also why the abbreviation for lead in the periodic table of elements is Pb.
Today, if you were to look in the dictionary under the word plumber, you would find a simple definition that explains that a plumber is one who installs and repairs pipes and plumbing.
When you look up plumbing, you would see a definition of what a plumbing system really is. In most definitions, plumbing includes three aspects of the plumbing systems which are fixtures, apparatus, and of course pipes. Plumbing can also include not just water and sewer, but gas pipes as well.
Today plumbing is a very common job. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, there are approximately four hundred and twenty thousand plumbers working in the United States of America. Most plumbers are making just over twenty dollars per hour, and just over forty six thousand dollars per year. Plumbers do not need a college degree. Most plumbers have a high school education, and then have been trained through an apprenticeship. There are no federal laws about plumbing licenses, but each state has their own regulations for how plumbers should be licensed and educated within their jurisdiction.
So plumbing is very popular today as a career, but as popular as it is in the United States, it will never change the fact that the trade of plumbing and the name that goes along with it came from much farther back in time, back to the time of the Roman Empire. | 470 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Era of Romanticism:
William Blake is considered a marginal member of the early Romantic movement. The Romantics wrote with many of the following characteristics in their work: In this publication was Coleridge's epic poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which displayed many of the above-listed characteristics.
The most outstanding of these was his theme regarding a respect for nature. This is not a surprise as the Romantic movement was propelled forward in response to England's Industrial Revolution, which not only exploited women and children, but poisoned the environment with pollution.
Blake was, however, different from other first-generation Romantic writers. First, he was a very mystical man—some believed he was crazy.
He claimed to have seen an angel when he was very young. Religion had a strong influence on Blake—perhaps because it is believed by some he was raised by his parents following the doctrine of the Moravian Church.
As an adult Blake was Blake was a gifted artist, "illuminating" many books, and also a supporter of the revolutions in both America and France. In terms of his writing, Blake's This would align Blake to the other Romantic writers as champions of personal freedom. Romantics were attracted to rebellion and revolution, especially concerned with human rights, individualism, freedom from oppression.
Blake rebelled against England's church. He found it difficult to abide matrimonial laws regarding monogamy—especially when his wife could no longer have children. This seems to contradict religious doctrine, but Blake was an unusual man.
And he was, as mentioned, a strong advocate of the revolutions of the day. Other characteristics that can be found in Blake's poetry are his tendency to rely on his imagination and a great many references to the supernatural anything that is beyond the natural world, i.
For example, in his poem, "The Tiger," note imagination in personifying the tiger, the reference to nature, and the supernatural in Blake's allusion to God: Tiger, tiger, burning bright In the forests of the night, What immortal hand or eye Could frame thy fearful symmetry?
He speaks to a tiger and asks it questions throughout the poem personification.William Blake was a first generation Romantic poet. Many of his poems were critical of a society who thought themselves to be almost perfect, a society run by, not . William Blake is considered a marginal member of the early Romantic movement.
Romanticism is generally thought to have started with the publication of Lyrical Ballads, written by Romantic. A reading of a classic poem. William Blake () wrote many great poems which remain widely read and studied. But ‘London’ is, along with ‘The Tyger’, possibly the most famous of all his poems.
Blake is often labeled as one of the Romantic poets, and the setting of "The Lamb" is Romantic in the sense that it finds the workings of the supernatural within the rhythms of nature. But neither the poem nor the painting are particularly Romantic compared to the works of later British artists like the poet Percy Shelley or the painter J.M.W.
Characteristics of Romantic Poets include an appreciation for nature, mistrust of technology, and the championing of the individual. British Romanticism produced many of the world's greatest poets. Romantic Poets include Keats, Shelley, Byron, Coleridge, Blake, and Keats.
Characteristics of Romantic Poetry The Romantic Period stretched from to , a time of great change in England. Industrialization was in progress, and cities like London were growing rapidly to become teeming, polluted centres.5/5(1). | <urn:uuid:36f60970-835c-4f75-b8ad-3a352dc9aa01> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jylykoqegymev.alphabetnyc.com/an-analysis-of-romanticist-characteristics-in-the-works-of-william-blake-44042ev.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.980951 | 739 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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-0.1440637856721878... | 1 | The Era of Romanticism:
William Blake is considered a marginal member of the early Romantic movement. The Romantics wrote with many of the following characteristics in their work: In this publication was Coleridge's epic poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which displayed many of the above-listed characteristics.
The most outstanding of these was his theme regarding a respect for nature. This is not a surprise as the Romantic movement was propelled forward in response to England's Industrial Revolution, which not only exploited women and children, but poisoned the environment with pollution.
Blake was, however, different from other first-generation Romantic writers. First, he was a very mystical man—some believed he was crazy.
He claimed to have seen an angel when he was very young. Religion had a strong influence on Blake—perhaps because it is believed by some he was raised by his parents following the doctrine of the Moravian Church.
As an adult Blake was Blake was a gifted artist, "illuminating" many books, and also a supporter of the revolutions in both America and France. In terms of his writing, Blake's This would align Blake to the other Romantic writers as champions of personal freedom. Romantics were attracted to rebellion and revolution, especially concerned with human rights, individualism, freedom from oppression.
Blake rebelled against England's church. He found it difficult to abide matrimonial laws regarding monogamy—especially when his wife could no longer have children. This seems to contradict religious doctrine, but Blake was an unusual man.
And he was, as mentioned, a strong advocate of the revolutions of the day. Other characteristics that can be found in Blake's poetry are his tendency to rely on his imagination and a great many references to the supernatural anything that is beyond the natural world, i.
For example, in his poem, "The Tiger," note imagination in personifying the tiger, the reference to nature, and the supernatural in Blake's allusion to God: Tiger, tiger, burning bright In the forests of the night, What immortal hand or eye Could frame thy fearful symmetry?
He speaks to a tiger and asks it questions throughout the poem personification.William Blake was a first generation Romantic poet. Many of his poems were critical of a society who thought themselves to be almost perfect, a society run by, not . William Blake is considered a marginal member of the early Romantic movement.
Romanticism is generally thought to have started with the publication of Lyrical Ballads, written by Romantic. A reading of a classic poem. William Blake () wrote many great poems which remain widely read and studied. But ‘London’ is, along with ‘The Tyger’, possibly the most famous of all his poems.
Blake is often labeled as one of the Romantic poets, and the setting of "The Lamb" is Romantic in the sense that it finds the workings of the supernatural within the rhythms of nature. But neither the poem nor the painting are particularly Romantic compared to the works of later British artists like the poet Percy Shelley or the painter J.M.W.
Characteristics of Romantic Poets include an appreciation for nature, mistrust of technology, and the championing of the individual. British Romanticism produced many of the world's greatest poets. Romantic Poets include Keats, Shelley, Byron, Coleridge, Blake, and Keats.
Characteristics of Romantic Poetry The Romantic Period stretched from to , a time of great change in England. Industrialization was in progress, and cities like London were growing rapidly to become teeming, polluted centres.5/5(1). | 718 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Bedford Colliery explosion occurred on Friday 13 August 1886, when firedampDamps is the collective name given to all gases other than air found in coal mines in Great Britain. The chief pollutants are carbon dioxide and methane, known as blackdamp and firedamp respectively. ignited and caused the death of thirty-eight miners at Bedford No.2 Pit in Leigh, on the Lancashire CoalfieldThe Lancashire and Cheshire Coalfield in North West England was one of the most important British coalfields. Its coal seams were formed from the vegetation of tropical swampy forests in the Carboniferous period more than 300 million years ago..
Bedford Colliery, usually known as Wood End Pit, was sunk by John Speakman between 1875 and 1878. The colliery had two shafts. The Seven feet mine[a]In this part of Lancashire a coal seam is referred to as a mine and the coal mine as a colliery or pit. was fiery and only safety lamps were allowed underground.
On the day of the disaster Mining disasters in Lancashire in which five or more people were killed occurred most frequently in the 1850s, 1860s and 1870s. 159 men and boys were underground working a shift that started at 6.00 a.m. and would have ended mid afternoon. The disaster took place at about 10.45a.m. in the Crombouke mine at a depth of about 530 yards (485 m) and 700 yards (640 m) from the pit bottom. Miners from other areas of the pit were wound to the surface after they became aware of the explosion when afterdamp spread into their workings. One man working at the seat of the explosion, John Woolley a dataller, (day wage man) survived, and though burned, managed to get to the bottom of the shaft. When the alarm was raised, the pit manager W. Horrobin, underlooker James Calland and the mine owner’s son, Harry Speakman led a rescue party to investigate but were impeded by the presence of afterdamp. According to Calland the afterdamp was “very strong and makes the men very dizzy. When they have this feeling they have to come up quickly to the fresh air”. The Mines Inspector, Joseph Dickinson of Pendleton was contacted by telegraph.
The explosion occurred before the formation of mines rescue Mines rescue is the specialised job of rescuing miners and others who have become trapped or injured in underground mines because of accidents, roof falls or floods and disasters such as explosions caused by firedamp. teams but assistance arrived from nearby collieries and an exploring party of men from Bickershaw Colliery, Astley and Tyldesley CollieriesThe Astley and Tyldesley Collieries Company was formed in 1900. It became part of Manchester Collieries in 1929, and some of its collieries were nationalised in 1947. and the Wigan Coal and Iron Company went underground but considered there would be no survivors. The underground fires were eventually extinguished and bodies brought to the surface.
News of the explosion travelled quickly and by 11 o’clock a crowd of women had arrived at the pit. In the evening a crowd, estimated to be between eight and ten thousand, gathered at the pit head. The burned and mutilated bodies of the 38 men who died were brought to the surface wrapped in tarpaulins and taken to the wheelwrights shop and the joiners shop which were used as a mortuary. The youngest victim was 15 years old and the oldest 65. The average age of those who died was 32 and 48 children were left fatherless. Some families lost more than one member.
The colliery subscribed to the Lancashire and Cheshire Miners’ Permanent Relief SocietyThe Lancashire and Cheshire Miners Permanent Relief Society (LCMPRS) was a form of friendly society started in 1872 to provide financial assistance to miners who were unable to work after being injured in industrial accidents in collieries on the Lancashire Coalfield. whose officials attended at the colliery. A committee of local dignitaries was formed to raise monies for the “Relief of Widows, orphans and others placed in distress by the explosion” and an appeal advertised in The Times newspaper.
The coroner’s inquest was not heard until 23 September 1886 so that John Woolley, who had survived the explosion, could give evidence. The coalface where the explosion occurred was being worked on the retreating principle. Headings had been driven into the coal and a working face established between them. As the coal was worked back along the headings, waste material accumulated in the goaf behind it. Pit props were progressively removed and the roof was allowed to subside into the goaf a short distance behind the working face. Woolley was removing pit props when the fracturing roof released firedamp. The flame in Woolley’s Davy lamp turned blue indicating explosive gas. Instead of reporting it, work continued. A few minutes later the flame in the lamp of a nearby miner “fired”. The established procedure should this happen was “lowering his lamp to the floor [firedamp is lighter than air] and taking it steadily into the fresh air, avoiding jerks”. Instead the miner shook it and attempted to blow it out at which point the flame passed through the gauze and caused the explosion.
The verdict of the coroner’s jury was accidental death caused by an explosion of firedamp. The coroner commented that the fireman should spend more time examining the workings before the men went down the pit and that greater care should be taken examining the lamps. It was regretted that the gas was not reported by the prop-takers.
After the explosion, the colliery owners bought 150 Masault safety lamps and 50 improved Clanny lamps which had bonnets fitted. The effect of the bonnet was to protect the gauze from draughts and reduce the risk of the flame passing through.
Notes [ + ]
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0.129121690988540... | 5 | The Bedford Colliery explosion occurred on Friday 13 August 1886, when firedampDamps is the collective name given to all gases other than air found in coal mines in Great Britain. The chief pollutants are carbon dioxide and methane, known as blackdamp and firedamp respectively. ignited and caused the death of thirty-eight miners at Bedford No.2 Pit in Leigh, on the Lancashire CoalfieldThe Lancashire and Cheshire Coalfield in North West England was one of the most important British coalfields. Its coal seams were formed from the vegetation of tropical swampy forests in the Carboniferous period more than 300 million years ago..
Bedford Colliery, usually known as Wood End Pit, was sunk by John Speakman between 1875 and 1878. The colliery had two shafts. The Seven feet mine[a]In this part of Lancashire a coal seam is referred to as a mine and the coal mine as a colliery or pit. was fiery and only safety lamps were allowed underground.
On the day of the disaster Mining disasters in Lancashire in which five or more people were killed occurred most frequently in the 1850s, 1860s and 1870s. 159 men and boys were underground working a shift that started at 6.00 a.m. and would have ended mid afternoon. The disaster took place at about 10.45a.m. in the Crombouke mine at a depth of about 530 yards (485 m) and 700 yards (640 m) from the pit bottom. Miners from other areas of the pit were wound to the surface after they became aware of the explosion when afterdamp spread into their workings. One man working at the seat of the explosion, John Woolley a dataller, (day wage man) survived, and though burned, managed to get to the bottom of the shaft. When the alarm was raised, the pit manager W. Horrobin, underlooker James Calland and the mine owner’s son, Harry Speakman led a rescue party to investigate but were impeded by the presence of afterdamp. According to Calland the afterdamp was “very strong and makes the men very dizzy. When they have this feeling they have to come up quickly to the fresh air”. The Mines Inspector, Joseph Dickinson of Pendleton was contacted by telegraph.
The explosion occurred before the formation of mines rescue Mines rescue is the specialised job of rescuing miners and others who have become trapped or injured in underground mines because of accidents, roof falls or floods and disasters such as explosions caused by firedamp. teams but assistance arrived from nearby collieries and an exploring party of men from Bickershaw Colliery, Astley and Tyldesley CollieriesThe Astley and Tyldesley Collieries Company was formed in 1900. It became part of Manchester Collieries in 1929, and some of its collieries were nationalised in 1947. and the Wigan Coal and Iron Company went underground but considered there would be no survivors. The underground fires were eventually extinguished and bodies brought to the surface.
News of the explosion travelled quickly and by 11 o’clock a crowd of women had arrived at the pit. In the evening a crowd, estimated to be between eight and ten thousand, gathered at the pit head. The burned and mutilated bodies of the 38 men who died were brought to the surface wrapped in tarpaulins and taken to the wheelwrights shop and the joiners shop which were used as a mortuary. The youngest victim was 15 years old and the oldest 65. The average age of those who died was 32 and 48 children were left fatherless. Some families lost more than one member.
The colliery subscribed to the Lancashire and Cheshire Miners’ Permanent Relief SocietyThe Lancashire and Cheshire Miners Permanent Relief Society (LCMPRS) was a form of friendly society started in 1872 to provide financial assistance to miners who were unable to work after being injured in industrial accidents in collieries on the Lancashire Coalfield. whose officials attended at the colliery. A committee of local dignitaries was formed to raise monies for the “Relief of Widows, orphans and others placed in distress by the explosion” and an appeal advertised in The Times newspaper.
The coroner’s inquest was not heard until 23 September 1886 so that John Woolley, who had survived the explosion, could give evidence. The coalface where the explosion occurred was being worked on the retreating principle. Headings had been driven into the coal and a working face established between them. As the coal was worked back along the headings, waste material accumulated in the goaf behind it. Pit props were progressively removed and the roof was allowed to subside into the goaf a short distance behind the working face. Woolley was removing pit props when the fracturing roof released firedamp. The flame in Woolley’s Davy lamp turned blue indicating explosive gas. Instead of reporting it, work continued. A few minutes later the flame in the lamp of a nearby miner “fired”. The established procedure should this happen was “lowering his lamp to the floor [firedamp is lighter than air] and taking it steadily into the fresh air, avoiding jerks”. Instead the miner shook it and attempted to blow it out at which point the flame passed through the gauze and caused the explosion.
The verdict of the coroner’s jury was accidental death caused by an explosion of firedamp. The coroner commented that the fireman should spend more time examining the workings before the men went down the pit and that greater care should be taken examining the lamps. It was regretted that the gas was not reported by the prop-takers.
After the explosion, the colliery owners bought 150 Masault safety lamps and 50 improved Clanny lamps which had bonnets fitted. The effect of the bonnet was to protect the gauze from draughts and reduce the risk of the flame passing through.
Notes [ + ]
|a.||^||In this part of Lancashire a coal seam is referred to as a mine and the coal mine as a colliery or pit.| | 1,341 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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William I of England
William I of England was king of England from 1066 to 1087. He was known as William the Conqueror. He was born at Falaise, France, about 1028, and died at Rouen on 9 September 1087. In the 1050s, he married Matilda of Flanders and had 9 or 10 children.
William I was the illegitimate son of Robert I of Normandy, who recognized him as heir. His cousin, Edward the Confessor, king of England, recognized him as successor. But at Edward's death Harold, a Saxon nobleman, was proclaimed king. William invaded England and defeated king Harold II at the Battle of Hastings in 1066.
William introduced Norman institutions and customs (including feudalism) and the Domesday Book. William I was the father of William II of England and Henry I of England. He fought against king of France Philip I who supported the rebellion of his son Henri Curthose.
|History Portal — All articles about history.| | <urn:uuid:4dd58473-a75b-4124-853b-8cdbe96226f3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.vikidia.org/wiki/William_the_Conqueror | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00544.warc.gz | en | 0.981156 | 235 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.0990438535... | 1 | Vikidia currently has 3,011 articles. Improve it!
Join Vikidia: create your account now and improve it!
William I of England
William I of England was king of England from 1066 to 1087. He was known as William the Conqueror. He was born at Falaise, France, about 1028, and died at Rouen on 9 September 1087. In the 1050s, he married Matilda of Flanders and had 9 or 10 children.
William I was the illegitimate son of Robert I of Normandy, who recognized him as heir. His cousin, Edward the Confessor, king of England, recognized him as successor. But at Edward's death Harold, a Saxon nobleman, was proclaimed king. William invaded England and defeated king Harold II at the Battle of Hastings in 1066.
William introduced Norman institutions and customs (including feudalism) and the Domesday Book. William I was the father of William II of England and Henry I of England. He fought against king of France Philip I who supported the rebellion of his son Henri Curthose.
|History Portal — All articles about history.| | 257 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to the Greek researcher Herodotus of Halicarnassus, Dorieus was a Spartan prince from the Agiad dynasty.note[The story is told in Histories 5.42-48.] His father was Anaxandridas II, who ruled from c.560 to c.520. His queen could not have children, and therefore, the Spartan magistrates suggested their king to remarry, in order to procure a son. And so it happened. Anaxandridas took a second wife, who gave birth to a boy called Cleomenes. Unexpectedly, his first wife became pregnant too, and three boys were born: Dorieus, Leonidas, and Cleombrotus. This is, at least, the story of Herodotus, but it is likely that he is repeating a tradition that is hostile towards Cleomenes and denied that he was born from the king's first and most important marriage.
However this may be, Cleomenes became king in c.520 and turned out to be an energetic ruler, who often broke with conventions and ruthlessly pursued his aims. For example, he decisively defeated Argos and expelled the tyrant Hippias from Athens.
According to Herodotus, Dorieus was a proud man and could not stand to be in the shadow of Cleomenes - a madman, according to Herodotus. Therefore, he asked the Spartans to be send abroad to found a colony in northern Africa. The truth may be that Cleomenes, whose horizon was larger than that of any other Spartan leader of his age, was behind this plan. It must be noted that the Spartan intervention in Africa is contemporary with an attempt by king Arcesilas III of Cyrene, also in Libya, to enlarge his powers. Was Dorieus supposed to support Arcesilas or his opponents? Or were the Spartans benefiting from the weakness of Cyrene?
So, Dorieus and other Spartans set out to the south, and founded a new town near the river Cinyps (Wadi Qaam) in what was is now Libya, in 515/514. Their city was not the first Greek settlement in the area, but the native nomadic tribes did not appreciate their presence so far west from the other Greek towns. The native population joined forces with the Carthaginians, and expelled the Spartans in the third year of their stay in Africa. Dorieus returned home.
Two years later, in 510 BCE, there was a second attempt to found a colony. This time, Dorieus was to go to the far west, to a place called Heraclea on Sicily. Unfortunately, the site cannot be identified, but there are tow possibilities:
- There was a Greek town named Heraclea Minoa, "king Minos' city of Heracles", in the southwestern part of the island. As we will see an instant, this town played a role in the Spartan adventures, and Diodorus of Sicily was confident that this was the right place.note[Diodorus, World History 10.18.6.]
- However, the story by Herodotus suggests another location, not far from a native town called Segesta and close to mount Eryx in the westernmost part of Sicily. This location may originally have been a Carthaginian settlement, because the Carthaginian god Melqart ("king of the city") was often identified with the Greek demigod Heracles.
Herodotus was already aware of conflicting reports about Dorieus' trip to the west. At that very moment, a war was being waged in southern Italy between the inhabitants of two Greek cities, Sybaris and Croton, and in 510, Sybaris was sacked. Herodotus tells that the surviving Sybarites blamed Dorieus for helping the Crotoniates, and adds that the latter denied having received Spartan help.
However this may be, Dorieus reached Sicily and moved to Heraclea. Here, he encountered an alliance of Segestans and Carthaginians, was decisively defeated, and lost his life. One of his adjutants, Euryleon, managed to regroup the survivors, and became master of a Greek town called Heraclea Minoa. From here, he attacked another Greek city, Selinus, and expelled its tyrant Peithagoras. However, now that Euryleon's power was rising, he became dangerous and was killed by the Selinuntines he had liberated.
This was the end of the Spartan intervention in Sicily. The future belonged to native Sicilian leaders like Hippocrates of Gela and Gelon of Syracuse. The age of colonialism was over.
Dorieus had a son named Euryanax, who was second in command during the Battle of Plataea (479) and had the suggestive nickname "the wandering king". | <urn:uuid:aa0fa645-40f5-42eb-97e1-73859770167d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.livius.org/articles/person/dorieus/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00234.warc.gz | en | 0.985185 | 1,008 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.13834725320339... | 12 | According to the Greek researcher Herodotus of Halicarnassus, Dorieus was a Spartan prince from the Agiad dynasty.note[The story is told in Histories 5.42-48.] His father was Anaxandridas II, who ruled from c.560 to c.520. His queen could not have children, and therefore, the Spartan magistrates suggested their king to remarry, in order to procure a son. And so it happened. Anaxandridas took a second wife, who gave birth to a boy called Cleomenes. Unexpectedly, his first wife became pregnant too, and three boys were born: Dorieus, Leonidas, and Cleombrotus. This is, at least, the story of Herodotus, but it is likely that he is repeating a tradition that is hostile towards Cleomenes and denied that he was born from the king's first and most important marriage.
However this may be, Cleomenes became king in c.520 and turned out to be an energetic ruler, who often broke with conventions and ruthlessly pursued his aims. For example, he decisively defeated Argos and expelled the tyrant Hippias from Athens.
According to Herodotus, Dorieus was a proud man and could not stand to be in the shadow of Cleomenes - a madman, according to Herodotus. Therefore, he asked the Spartans to be send abroad to found a colony in northern Africa. The truth may be that Cleomenes, whose horizon was larger than that of any other Spartan leader of his age, was behind this plan. It must be noted that the Spartan intervention in Africa is contemporary with an attempt by king Arcesilas III of Cyrene, also in Libya, to enlarge his powers. Was Dorieus supposed to support Arcesilas or his opponents? Or were the Spartans benefiting from the weakness of Cyrene?
So, Dorieus and other Spartans set out to the south, and founded a new town near the river Cinyps (Wadi Qaam) in what was is now Libya, in 515/514. Their city was not the first Greek settlement in the area, but the native nomadic tribes did not appreciate their presence so far west from the other Greek towns. The native population joined forces with the Carthaginians, and expelled the Spartans in the third year of their stay in Africa. Dorieus returned home.
Two years later, in 510 BCE, there was a second attempt to found a colony. This time, Dorieus was to go to the far west, to a place called Heraclea on Sicily. Unfortunately, the site cannot be identified, but there are tow possibilities:
- There was a Greek town named Heraclea Minoa, "king Minos' city of Heracles", in the southwestern part of the island. As we will see an instant, this town played a role in the Spartan adventures, and Diodorus of Sicily was confident that this was the right place.note[Diodorus, World History 10.18.6.]
- However, the story by Herodotus suggests another location, not far from a native town called Segesta and close to mount Eryx in the westernmost part of Sicily. This location may originally have been a Carthaginian settlement, because the Carthaginian god Melqart ("king of the city") was often identified with the Greek demigod Heracles.
Herodotus was already aware of conflicting reports about Dorieus' trip to the west. At that very moment, a war was being waged in southern Italy between the inhabitants of two Greek cities, Sybaris and Croton, and in 510, Sybaris was sacked. Herodotus tells that the surviving Sybarites blamed Dorieus for helping the Crotoniates, and adds that the latter denied having received Spartan help.
However this may be, Dorieus reached Sicily and moved to Heraclea. Here, he encountered an alliance of Segestans and Carthaginians, was decisively defeated, and lost his life. One of his adjutants, Euryleon, managed to regroup the survivors, and became master of a Greek town called Heraclea Minoa. From here, he attacked another Greek city, Selinus, and expelled its tyrant Peithagoras. However, now that Euryleon's power was rising, he became dangerous and was killed by the Selinuntines he had liberated.
This was the end of the Spartan intervention in Sicily. The future belonged to native Sicilian leaders like Hippocrates of Gela and Gelon of Syracuse. The age of colonialism was over.
Dorieus had a son named Euryanax, who was second in command during the Battle of Plataea (479) and had the suggestive nickname "the wandering king". | 1,040 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There were some features of the Mongol empire that were different from what had occurred in previous civilizations, such as the enormous size of their empire, their tolerance of different religions, the equality of men and women and their global integration. Prior to the time they built their empire, pastoral people rarely banded together at all, but stayed in kinship groups that often competed with each other. Although other civilizations such as the Romans and the Chinese had amassed large empires, the Mongols did have some things that were different from these earlier civilizations.
The Mongols were pastoral people skilled in horsemanship with a well-organized military. Under the leadership of Chinggis Khan, Mongols amassed the largest land based empire in history. Not only was their army extremely well organized, their talented mounted warriors could bring down an army on foot quickly with their powerful bows and arrows. The Mongols left a path of destruction in their wake that was more devastating to people and the land than any other empire before them. The Mongol army destroyed any city that resisted them, killing every man, woman and child, razing the buildings and deliberately ruining the land.
Although the Mongols had their own kinship-based form of religion, they did not impose it upon others. They maintained a policy of tolerating all religions alike, as long as the religions stayed away from politics. In the Mongolian empire, Buddhism, Islam, Christian and other religions were encouraged and were exempt from taxation. Previous world empires had generally followed the religion of the leader’s preference, and others were persecuted or taxed.
Another feature of the Mongols that was new to the world was their attitude toward women. In Mongolian society, women were considered equals with few restrictions and they participated in government as well as sometimes fought beside the men in battle. Like other pastoral societies, the women were on an equal basis with men because they were equally needed to provide. Boys and girls were both taught to become skilled at riding horses from a young age. At the same time that Chinese women were binding their feet, Mongolian women often wore pants and rode into battle as skilled warriors. | <urn:uuid:7aec0e51-68c7-4468-b552-c73c55d988d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Mongol-Empire-582502.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.990403 | 430 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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0.000091223329... | 2 | There were some features of the Mongol empire that were different from what had occurred in previous civilizations, such as the enormous size of their empire, their tolerance of different religions, the equality of men and women and their global integration. Prior to the time they built their empire, pastoral people rarely banded together at all, but stayed in kinship groups that often competed with each other. Although other civilizations such as the Romans and the Chinese had amassed large empires, the Mongols did have some things that were different from these earlier civilizations.
The Mongols were pastoral people skilled in horsemanship with a well-organized military. Under the leadership of Chinggis Khan, Mongols amassed the largest land based empire in history. Not only was their army extremely well organized, their talented mounted warriors could bring down an army on foot quickly with their powerful bows and arrows. The Mongols left a path of destruction in their wake that was more devastating to people and the land than any other empire before them. The Mongol army destroyed any city that resisted them, killing every man, woman and child, razing the buildings and deliberately ruining the land.
Although the Mongols had their own kinship-based form of religion, they did not impose it upon others. They maintained a policy of tolerating all religions alike, as long as the religions stayed away from politics. In the Mongolian empire, Buddhism, Islam, Christian and other religions were encouraged and were exempt from taxation. Previous world empires had generally followed the religion of the leader’s preference, and others were persecuted or taxed.
Another feature of the Mongols that was new to the world was their attitude toward women. In Mongolian society, women were considered equals with few restrictions and they participated in government as well as sometimes fought beside the men in battle. Like other pastoral societies, the women were on an equal basis with men because they were equally needed to provide. Boys and girls were both taught to become skilled at riding horses from a young age. At the same time that Chinese women were binding their feet, Mongolian women often wore pants and rode into battle as skilled warriors. | 428 | ENGLISH | 1 |
English Honors 11-4
06 October 2014
When man believes a delusion long enough, it soon will replace reality. The novel The Scarlet Letter, written by Nathaniel Hawthorne, tells the story of a young woman, Hester Prynne, and a young minister, Arthur Dimmesdale, who must deal with the shame of their adultery. Hester’s scarlet letter A publicly disgraces her every day, whereas Arthur’s sin is hidden from everyone in colonial Boston. Hawthorne shows through Arthur Dimmesdale that when man refuses to accept moral responsibility for his actions he lives in self-deception.
Dimmesdale cannot let go of his pride and chooses to live in a lie instead. Arthur knows that God’s calling for him is to the church. Dimmesdale thinks that his calling to the ministry justifies himself from telling the truth. Dimmesdale feels he has a responsibility to his congregation and God, and Dimmesdale could not fulfil his duty if he confessed. When Robert Chillingworth, Hester’s husband, lives with Dimmesdale they talk one day on the subject of misleading oneself and Chillingworth says to Dimmesdale, “These men deceive themselves, they fear to take up the shame that rightfully belongs to them. Their love for man, their zeal for God’s service. These holy impulses may or may not coexist in their hearts with the evil inmates to which their guilt has unbarred the door” (110). Dimmesdale is afraid of what might happen if he speaks up. The fear of losing his job and failing God scares him, and makes him a coward. Arthur wants to be a minister and maintain his reputation and followers so much that pride blinds him from seeing what the right choice is. However, Dimmesdale cannot both be a minister and live in the sin of adultery; one cannot coexist with the other. Arthur’s status and self-importance gets in the way of his redemption. Dimmesdale makes himself believe that he can push aside his immorality, in order for him to keep his position and pride.
Many times Dimmesdale comes close to confessing his sin to his congregation. At times he even does, but only in an ambiguous sort of way. Dimmesdale is too weak to own up to his mistake and tell the truth. Dimmesdale tries to find redemption in these cryptic confessions, but in his heart, “the minister well knew-subtle, but remorseful hypocrite that he was- the light in which his vague confession would be viewed” (120). Dimmesdale knows that the people will interpret his vague confession as him being humble and selfless. Dimmesdale’s redemption could be gained if he just would confess, but he deceives himself in thinking that these half-truthful statements will gain that for him. Dimmesdale cannot find any satisfaction from these declarations of sin, because he only deceives himself through them even more. Arthur yearns for the burden of his adultery to be lifted off his shoulders and be redeemed, but he will not simply admit to his adultery.
The penalty of adultery is the scarlet letter A, which Hester wears in public. Arthur has his own secretive version on his very skin under his shirt. However, unlike Hester he keeps it hidden. Another physical affliction Dimmesdale brings on himself is beating his body with a bloody scourge. At night in secret he hits himself, “rigorously, and until his knees trembled beneath him, as an act of penance” (120). These afflictions that blight Dimmesdale remind him of his sin. He deludes himself in thinking somehow these acts pays for some of the punishment of his adultery. It gives Dimmesdale a taste of the consequences and shame, without actually suffering. He cannot take the shame and responsibility that the real letter would bring him, so he makes a secretive one on himself. This is a step forward, in Arthur’s mind, towards sanctification. These actions will not amend the mistake he made, nor will they ever. However Arthur deceives himself in thinking that these afflictions will make him feel less… | <urn:uuid:b8d841e1-80be-4111-8c3d-385c550db1da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Roe-Vs-Wade-559498.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00297.warc.gz | en | 0.980899 | 868 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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06 October 2014
When man believes a delusion long enough, it soon will replace reality. The novel The Scarlet Letter, written by Nathaniel Hawthorne, tells the story of a young woman, Hester Prynne, and a young minister, Arthur Dimmesdale, who must deal with the shame of their adultery. Hester’s scarlet letter A publicly disgraces her every day, whereas Arthur’s sin is hidden from everyone in colonial Boston. Hawthorne shows through Arthur Dimmesdale that when man refuses to accept moral responsibility for his actions he lives in self-deception.
Dimmesdale cannot let go of his pride and chooses to live in a lie instead. Arthur knows that God’s calling for him is to the church. Dimmesdale thinks that his calling to the ministry justifies himself from telling the truth. Dimmesdale feels he has a responsibility to his congregation and God, and Dimmesdale could not fulfil his duty if he confessed. When Robert Chillingworth, Hester’s husband, lives with Dimmesdale they talk one day on the subject of misleading oneself and Chillingworth says to Dimmesdale, “These men deceive themselves, they fear to take up the shame that rightfully belongs to them. Their love for man, their zeal for God’s service. These holy impulses may or may not coexist in their hearts with the evil inmates to which their guilt has unbarred the door” (110). Dimmesdale is afraid of what might happen if he speaks up. The fear of losing his job and failing God scares him, and makes him a coward. Arthur wants to be a minister and maintain his reputation and followers so much that pride blinds him from seeing what the right choice is. However, Dimmesdale cannot both be a minister and live in the sin of adultery; one cannot coexist with the other. Arthur’s status and self-importance gets in the way of his redemption. Dimmesdale makes himself believe that he can push aside his immorality, in order for him to keep his position and pride.
Many times Dimmesdale comes close to confessing his sin to his congregation. At times he even does, but only in an ambiguous sort of way. Dimmesdale is too weak to own up to his mistake and tell the truth. Dimmesdale tries to find redemption in these cryptic confessions, but in his heart, “the minister well knew-subtle, but remorseful hypocrite that he was- the light in which his vague confession would be viewed” (120). Dimmesdale knows that the people will interpret his vague confession as him being humble and selfless. Dimmesdale’s redemption could be gained if he just would confess, but he deceives himself in thinking that these half-truthful statements will gain that for him. Dimmesdale cannot find any satisfaction from these declarations of sin, because he only deceives himself through them even more. Arthur yearns for the burden of his adultery to be lifted off his shoulders and be redeemed, but he will not simply admit to his adultery.
The penalty of adultery is the scarlet letter A, which Hester wears in public. Arthur has his own secretive version on his very skin under his shirt. However, unlike Hester he keeps it hidden. Another physical affliction Dimmesdale brings on himself is beating his body with a bloody scourge. At night in secret he hits himself, “rigorously, and until his knees trembled beneath him, as an act of penance” (120). These afflictions that blight Dimmesdale remind him of his sin. He deludes himself in thinking somehow these acts pays for some of the punishment of his adultery. It gives Dimmesdale a taste of the consequences and shame, without actually suffering. He cannot take the shame and responsibility that the real letter would bring him, so he makes a secretive one on himself. This is a step forward, in Arthur’s mind, towards sanctification. These actions will not amend the mistake he made, nor will they ever. However Arthur deceives himself in thinking that these afflictions will make him feel less… | 858 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 8 (1830 words)
The Battle of Antietam was one of the bloodiest in American history. In the midst of a battle that rages on, often senselessly, a woman works relentlessly to help the wounded and dying. The suffering from battle wounds, psychological trauma and infectious diseases is almost unimaginable. The woman bends to treat another wounded soldier when a stray bullet passes through her sleeve and kills the soldier. The nurse was Clara Barton. She works on, undaunted. Why, time and time again, would she put herself in these dire, life-threatening situations? Soldiers referred to Barton as the “angel of the battlefield”.
No doubt she was a humanitarian. Barton was also driven by other unique qualities and experiences, however. An examination of Barton’s life can help shed light on the motivations of this unique leader. Three broad questions will be addressed in this paper – Why did she do it? , What did she face? And how did these events affect her future pursuits? Why Did She Do It? The seeds for the person Clara Barton would become were planted decades before the Civil War.
Her full name was Clarissa Harlowe Barton. She was barn in Oxford, Mass. On Christmas Day, 1821. A critical experience in Barton’s life occurred when she was only eleven years old.
Her brother David became seriously ill. Clara would assume the primary job of caring for him. It would prove to be a formative experience for the young girl. She was faced with suffering for the first time in her life. The empathy and thought process that would lead to her future career was triggered. She also discovered the need for knowledgeable nurses, along with her own talent for the job. Even so, Clara did not begin her career as a nurse. Barton became a schoolteacher at the age of seventeen. Her inquisitive, independent nature served her well as she crafted a successful career in education.
The onset of the Civil War changed everything. The impact of this war on the psyche of all Americans cannot be underestimated. The war was brutal on a scale never before seen. New weapons and tactics would result in the deaths of more than 600,000 by the end of the war (Nofi, 1992). Many more were maimed, psychologically traumatized or morphine addicted. Very few American families were left untouched by the suffering. Like many who would eventually enter the nursing corps, Clara Barton simply could not stand to watch the suffering without taking action.
The same instincts that compelled her to care faithfully for her brother overcame her again. Refusing to take any pay, Barton went directly to the front lines. Initially there was some criticism and doubt that she could withstand the brutality of war. Barton herself writes of this in a poem: What did they go for? – Just to be in the way? They’d know not the difference between work and play. (Barton, 2008) Always independent and determined, the initial resistence only served to motivate Clara. Her determination quickly became apparent to the Army, government and private donors.
Supplies began to flow in from all parts of the country. By 1864 she was in charge of a growing nursing corps. When the war started the corps had not even existed. Barton was not only motivated by suffering. She was deeply patriotic. Her father, a farmer and politician, had infused her with this love of country as a child. She believed that it was her duty to serve the nation she loved. Nearing his death, her father gave Clara some advice she would never forget. “As a patriot he had me [Clara] serve my country with all I had even with my life if need be” (Women in History, 2008).
As long as she lived, Clara remained true to those ideals. Religion was also an early influence on Clara’s life. Her parents had founded the Universalist Church in Massachusetts. At the time, most nurses came from religious orders. Clara did not come from this background but her Christian influences are still apparent. She says of her father: “He had me seek and comfort the afflicted everywhere. As a Christian he charged me to honor God and love mankind” (Women in History, 2008). Barton gained inspiration from Florence Nightingale, a nurse who revolutionized the profession in Europe.
Nightingale had become a nursing professor. She believed professional training was the logical future for the nursing profession. Until that point, nurses were essentially charity workers. their levels of expertise varied widely. The need for nurse far exceeded what charity could provide. According to Nightingale, it is a “necessity for recruits to receive a thorough training in nursing theory and practice” (Porter, 1997). Barton was career minded, patriotic and carried a strong sense of morality. In the end the thought of suffering was more than she could bear. In her own words she writes:
Of pity for woe and help for its need They saw, in high purpose a duty to do. (Barton, 2008) What did she experience? Clara was once a shy girl. She went into teaching in an attempt to cure this problem. If any shyness was left, the crucible of war would make her fearless. She went to where the worst suffering was. She was not afforded, nor would she have accepted any special protection. Barton was present at many of the most tragic and hard-fought battles of the war. Many times she was in danger from enemy fire. “Often arriving while the fighting was still going on, Barton was frequently under fire” (Nofi, 1992).
As terrible as it was the armed conflict was not the greatest danger of the war. More soldiers actually succumbed to infectious disease than to enemy fire. In the bloodbath that was the Civil War field hospital Barton was under constant risk of contracting diseases. In addition she was face to face with the tremendous psychological trauma the war caused. At the close of the war Barton went to the notorious Andersonville prison in Georgia to search for missing Union soldiers. She attacked the grim task in the same manner as every other in the war.
Not only did she help to identify thousands of dead and missing in Andersonville, she also started a national drive to locate all people missing during the war. If there was somehow a bright side to the war for Clara, it increased her confidence and resolve. Nofi writes that “For many people the war was a liberating and maturing experience” (1992). Clara emerged from the war experience knowing that the potential contributions of nurses, and of women, had been grossly underestimated by society. How did these events affect her future pursuits? The war was a defining experience for Clara and many other women.
It was here that a growing women’s rights movement would take hold with Clara as a part of it. Clara embarked on her post-war career with an increased sense of defiance. In her poem she asks: Did these women [nurses] quail at the sight of a gun? Will some soldier tell us of one he saw run? (Barton, 2008) All of Barton’s influences, experiences and personality traits would merge in her postwar career. Barton wanted to transform nursing into a true profession, rather than just a charitable act performed by volunteers. Anyone who underestimated her ability to do so would be mistaken.
Barton was a rare leader who was only motivated further by resistence. Earlier in her career she had helped found a thriving school. Instead of hiring her as the superintendent, the school hired a man from outside. The man was paid double Clara’s salary. Clara was expected to remain subordinant. She did not. She left the school and became the first woman to work as a clerk in the U. S. Patent Office. Barton’s Civil War work would have been more than enough to secure her legacy. Her most well known legacy, however, was established after the war. With characteristic determination Barton founded the American chapter of the Red Cross.
At the same time she expanded its mission from wartime aid to general disaster relief. Establishment of the American chapter had not been a foregone conclusion. The International Red Cross was founded as a provision in the Geneva Convention of 1892. Since the U. S. had not signed the Geneva Convention, no Red Cross chapter was established there. Barton not only convinced the U. S. to form a chapter with an expanded mission statement, she eventually convinced it to sign on to the Geneva treaty as well. Conclusion A personality sketch of Clara Barton would contain many adjectives.
Caring, determined, moralistic, energetic, empathetic and driven would be just a few. She was a woman ahead of her time, but also intimately connected to it. Her goals were big, and, in many cases, she achieved them. Ultimately all her actions were driven by a well-defined sense of right and wrong. Suffering and discrimination, to Clara, were clearly wrong. She did not decide to do something about it. It was her life long duty as a human and as a Christian to do something about it. That sense of duty came from a combination of innate qualities, upbringing and experience.
Clara’s parents infused her not only with the confidence to take action but also with the responsibility to do so. The early experience with her brother prepared her for facing the horrors of war. She learned then that getting upset will only prevent a person from getting the job done. “Clara Barton’s two rules for action were unconcern for what cannot be helped and control under pressure” (Women in History, 2008). These rules show her pragmatic side and explain a lot about why she was able to accomplish so much. Barton died in 1912 at the age of ninety, undoubtedly feeling that she had much left to accomplish.
She taught, gave speeches and helped with relief efforts well into her eighties. She was a complex personality. Deeply caring, stoic and driven all at the same time. She forged a new path for women. That societal revaluing of women would be realized more fully in the 20th century. She also revolutionized the field of nursing, paving the way for the highly skilled and well-paid nurses of today. Would Clara Barton have called herself a feminist. She exhibited many of the qualities of a modern-day feminist. The likely answer, however, would be “no”. Her motivations came from a much deeper place.
She was only doing what needed to be done. To Clara, that was the responsibility of every human being. Sources Barton, Clara. (2008). “The Women Who Went to the Field. ” Accessed 10/5/2008 from: http://www. geocities. com/athens/aegean/6732/files/valor_barton. html. Nofi, Albert A. (1992). A Civil War Treasury. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books. Porter, Roy. (1997). The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A medical history of humanity. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. Women in History. (2008). “Clara Barton Biography. ” Lakewood Public Library. Accessed 10/5/2008 from: http://www. lkwdpl. org/WIHOHIO/bart-cla. htm.
Cite this page
The Duty of Clara Barton. (2016, Aug 07). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-duty-of-clara-barton-essay | <urn:uuid:cebceb8f-0f90-4778-bacd-ab2718e9d74f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/the-duty-of-clara-barton-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00119.warc.gz | en | 0.984387 | 2,386 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.26083371043205... | 1 | Paper type: Essay Pages: 8 (1830 words)
The Battle of Antietam was one of the bloodiest in American history. In the midst of a battle that rages on, often senselessly, a woman works relentlessly to help the wounded and dying. The suffering from battle wounds, psychological trauma and infectious diseases is almost unimaginable. The woman bends to treat another wounded soldier when a stray bullet passes through her sleeve and kills the soldier. The nurse was Clara Barton. She works on, undaunted. Why, time and time again, would she put herself in these dire, life-threatening situations? Soldiers referred to Barton as the “angel of the battlefield”.
No doubt she was a humanitarian. Barton was also driven by other unique qualities and experiences, however. An examination of Barton’s life can help shed light on the motivations of this unique leader. Three broad questions will be addressed in this paper – Why did she do it? , What did she face? And how did these events affect her future pursuits? Why Did She Do It? The seeds for the person Clara Barton would become were planted decades before the Civil War.
Her full name was Clarissa Harlowe Barton. She was barn in Oxford, Mass. On Christmas Day, 1821. A critical experience in Barton’s life occurred when she was only eleven years old.
Her brother David became seriously ill. Clara would assume the primary job of caring for him. It would prove to be a formative experience for the young girl. She was faced with suffering for the first time in her life. The empathy and thought process that would lead to her future career was triggered. She also discovered the need for knowledgeable nurses, along with her own talent for the job. Even so, Clara did not begin her career as a nurse. Barton became a schoolteacher at the age of seventeen. Her inquisitive, independent nature served her well as she crafted a successful career in education.
The onset of the Civil War changed everything. The impact of this war on the psyche of all Americans cannot be underestimated. The war was brutal on a scale never before seen. New weapons and tactics would result in the deaths of more than 600,000 by the end of the war (Nofi, 1992). Many more were maimed, psychologically traumatized or morphine addicted. Very few American families were left untouched by the suffering. Like many who would eventually enter the nursing corps, Clara Barton simply could not stand to watch the suffering without taking action.
The same instincts that compelled her to care faithfully for her brother overcame her again. Refusing to take any pay, Barton went directly to the front lines. Initially there was some criticism and doubt that she could withstand the brutality of war. Barton herself writes of this in a poem: What did they go for? – Just to be in the way? They’d know not the difference between work and play. (Barton, 2008) Always independent and determined, the initial resistence only served to motivate Clara. Her determination quickly became apparent to the Army, government and private donors.
Supplies began to flow in from all parts of the country. By 1864 she was in charge of a growing nursing corps. When the war started the corps had not even existed. Barton was not only motivated by suffering. She was deeply patriotic. Her father, a farmer and politician, had infused her with this love of country as a child. She believed that it was her duty to serve the nation she loved. Nearing his death, her father gave Clara some advice she would never forget. “As a patriot he had me [Clara] serve my country with all I had even with my life if need be” (Women in History, 2008).
As long as she lived, Clara remained true to those ideals. Religion was also an early influence on Clara’s life. Her parents had founded the Universalist Church in Massachusetts. At the time, most nurses came from religious orders. Clara did not come from this background but her Christian influences are still apparent. She says of her father: “He had me seek and comfort the afflicted everywhere. As a Christian he charged me to honor God and love mankind” (Women in History, 2008). Barton gained inspiration from Florence Nightingale, a nurse who revolutionized the profession in Europe.
Nightingale had become a nursing professor. She believed professional training was the logical future for the nursing profession. Until that point, nurses were essentially charity workers. their levels of expertise varied widely. The need for nurse far exceeded what charity could provide. According to Nightingale, it is a “necessity for recruits to receive a thorough training in nursing theory and practice” (Porter, 1997). Barton was career minded, patriotic and carried a strong sense of morality. In the end the thought of suffering was more than she could bear. In her own words she writes:
Of pity for woe and help for its need They saw, in high purpose a duty to do. (Barton, 2008) What did she experience? Clara was once a shy girl. She went into teaching in an attempt to cure this problem. If any shyness was left, the crucible of war would make her fearless. She went to where the worst suffering was. She was not afforded, nor would she have accepted any special protection. Barton was present at many of the most tragic and hard-fought battles of the war. Many times she was in danger from enemy fire. “Often arriving while the fighting was still going on, Barton was frequently under fire” (Nofi, 1992).
As terrible as it was the armed conflict was not the greatest danger of the war. More soldiers actually succumbed to infectious disease than to enemy fire. In the bloodbath that was the Civil War field hospital Barton was under constant risk of contracting diseases. In addition she was face to face with the tremendous psychological trauma the war caused. At the close of the war Barton went to the notorious Andersonville prison in Georgia to search for missing Union soldiers. She attacked the grim task in the same manner as every other in the war.
Not only did she help to identify thousands of dead and missing in Andersonville, she also started a national drive to locate all people missing during the war. If there was somehow a bright side to the war for Clara, it increased her confidence and resolve. Nofi writes that “For many people the war was a liberating and maturing experience” (1992). Clara emerged from the war experience knowing that the potential contributions of nurses, and of women, had been grossly underestimated by society. How did these events affect her future pursuits? The war was a defining experience for Clara and many other women.
It was here that a growing women’s rights movement would take hold with Clara as a part of it. Clara embarked on her post-war career with an increased sense of defiance. In her poem she asks: Did these women [nurses] quail at the sight of a gun? Will some soldier tell us of one he saw run? (Barton, 2008) All of Barton’s influences, experiences and personality traits would merge in her postwar career. Barton wanted to transform nursing into a true profession, rather than just a charitable act performed by volunteers. Anyone who underestimated her ability to do so would be mistaken.
Barton was a rare leader who was only motivated further by resistence. Earlier in her career she had helped found a thriving school. Instead of hiring her as the superintendent, the school hired a man from outside. The man was paid double Clara’s salary. Clara was expected to remain subordinant. She did not. She left the school and became the first woman to work as a clerk in the U. S. Patent Office. Barton’s Civil War work would have been more than enough to secure her legacy. Her most well known legacy, however, was established after the war. With characteristic determination Barton founded the American chapter of the Red Cross.
At the same time she expanded its mission from wartime aid to general disaster relief. Establishment of the American chapter had not been a foregone conclusion. The International Red Cross was founded as a provision in the Geneva Convention of 1892. Since the U. S. had not signed the Geneva Convention, no Red Cross chapter was established there. Barton not only convinced the U. S. to form a chapter with an expanded mission statement, she eventually convinced it to sign on to the Geneva treaty as well. Conclusion A personality sketch of Clara Barton would contain many adjectives.
Caring, determined, moralistic, energetic, empathetic and driven would be just a few. She was a woman ahead of her time, but also intimately connected to it. Her goals were big, and, in many cases, she achieved them. Ultimately all her actions were driven by a well-defined sense of right and wrong. Suffering and discrimination, to Clara, were clearly wrong. She did not decide to do something about it. It was her life long duty as a human and as a Christian to do something about it. That sense of duty came from a combination of innate qualities, upbringing and experience.
Clara’s parents infused her not only with the confidence to take action but also with the responsibility to do so. The early experience with her brother prepared her for facing the horrors of war. She learned then that getting upset will only prevent a person from getting the job done. “Clara Barton’s two rules for action were unconcern for what cannot be helped and control under pressure” (Women in History, 2008). These rules show her pragmatic side and explain a lot about why she was able to accomplish so much. Barton died in 1912 at the age of ninety, undoubtedly feeling that she had much left to accomplish.
She taught, gave speeches and helped with relief efforts well into her eighties. She was a complex personality. Deeply caring, stoic and driven all at the same time. She forged a new path for women. That societal revaluing of women would be realized more fully in the 20th century. She also revolutionized the field of nursing, paving the way for the highly skilled and well-paid nurses of today. Would Clara Barton have called herself a feminist. She exhibited many of the qualities of a modern-day feminist. The likely answer, however, would be “no”. Her motivations came from a much deeper place.
She was only doing what needed to be done. To Clara, that was the responsibility of every human being. Sources Barton, Clara. (2008). “The Women Who Went to the Field. ” Accessed 10/5/2008 from: http://www. geocities. com/athens/aegean/6732/files/valor_barton. html. Nofi, Albert A. (1992). A Civil War Treasury. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books. Porter, Roy. (1997). The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A medical history of humanity. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. Women in History. (2008). “Clara Barton Biography. ” Lakewood Public Library. Accessed 10/5/2008 from: http://www. lkwdpl. org/WIHOHIO/bart-cla. htm.
Cite this page
The Duty of Clara Barton. (2016, Aug 07). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-duty-of-clara-barton-essay | 2,406 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The History of Senoia
Coweta County (pronounced “Cow-eeta” or “Ky-eeta” and meaning “water falls”) was formed in Georgia on June 9, 1825 as Chief William McIntosh signed the Treaty of Indian Springs, for which he was soon killed by his fellow Creek Indians. There are several variations of the origin of the name Senoia. The most well-known is Senoia was named for Princess Senoyah, the mother of Chief McIntosh.
Settlers migrated to the area following the Fifth Land Lottery of 1827. Gerard M. Veal, a minor, received land lot 279, of the 202.5 acres that became present day Senoia. Around 1826, a large number of people traveled from Newberry, South Carolina in covered wagons, oxcarts, on horseback and by foot. They scattered across the countryside raising cotton, corn and livestock; the area was an agricultural Utopia.
The founding date for Senoia is 1860, in which the Rev. Francis Warren Baggarly bought land on which the town of Senoia now sits. The first building, to be erected was known as the Rock House. Intended for mercantile purposes, it soon became a commissary for the Confederacy, as the war broke out soon after its completion.
After the war, Senoia saw the completion of the Savannah, Griffin and North Alabama Railroad, which crossed through the town. Agricultural products such as cotton and peaches were shipped by rail from Senoia. Today with its collection of architectural treasures most of the town comprises a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places. The city still features many styles of architecture – including structures dating back to the 1840’s, with most of them being built at the turn of the last century. Senoia was officially incorporated as a city on December 12, 1866. | <urn:uuid:0c171a6f-9de1-4ec9-a68a-0f64e4a151aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://senoiatours.com/history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00519.warc.gz | en | 0.982727 | 403 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.0057091224007308... | 2 | The History of Senoia
Coweta County (pronounced “Cow-eeta” or “Ky-eeta” and meaning “water falls”) was formed in Georgia on June 9, 1825 as Chief William McIntosh signed the Treaty of Indian Springs, for which he was soon killed by his fellow Creek Indians. There are several variations of the origin of the name Senoia. The most well-known is Senoia was named for Princess Senoyah, the mother of Chief McIntosh.
Settlers migrated to the area following the Fifth Land Lottery of 1827. Gerard M. Veal, a minor, received land lot 279, of the 202.5 acres that became present day Senoia. Around 1826, a large number of people traveled from Newberry, South Carolina in covered wagons, oxcarts, on horseback and by foot. They scattered across the countryside raising cotton, corn and livestock; the area was an agricultural Utopia.
The founding date for Senoia is 1860, in which the Rev. Francis Warren Baggarly bought land on which the town of Senoia now sits. The first building, to be erected was known as the Rock House. Intended for mercantile purposes, it soon became a commissary for the Confederacy, as the war broke out soon after its completion.
After the war, Senoia saw the completion of the Savannah, Griffin and North Alabama Railroad, which crossed through the town. Agricultural products such as cotton and peaches were shipped by rail from Senoia. Today with its collection of architectural treasures most of the town comprises a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places. The city still features many styles of architecture – including structures dating back to the 1840’s, with most of them being built at the turn of the last century. Senoia was officially incorporated as a city on December 12, 1866. | 418 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Cavendish Professorship is one of the senior faculty positions in physics at the University of Cambridge. It was founded on 9 February 1871 alongside the famous Cavendish Laboratory, which was completed three years later. William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire endowed both the professorship and laboratory in honor of his relative, chemist and physicist Henry Cavendish.
Before the middle of the nineteenth century, science was largely pursued by individuals, either wealthy amateurs or academics working in their college accommodation. In 1869, a committee formed by the Senate reported that creating a dedicated Laboratory and Professorship would cost £6,300. The then chancellor of the university, William Cavendish met that cost privately 18 months later, and named the department in honor of his relative, the 18th century natural philosopher Henry Cavendish.
The first Cavendish Professor was the then relatively obscure James Clerk Maxwell, who had yet to complete the work that would make him the most renowned physicist of the nineteenth century. His appointment was announced on 8 March 1871, and despite initial disappointment at his being offered the place, his inaugural lecture was looked forward to by his likely students as well as his future colleagues. However, it was poorly advertised, so it was only to his students that he laid out his plans for physics at Cambridge. When Maxwell began the actual course a few days later with a lecture on heat, it was attended by academics in formal dress, in the belief that it was the first lecture. Maxwell spent the next three years supervising the construction of the dedicated Cavendish Laboratory, and published in 1873 A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Maxwell's health deteriorated a short time into his tenure, and he died in 1879, aged 48.
Lord Rayleigh replaced Maxwell immediately upon his death, being universally agreed upon as the only successor. Raleigh spent £1500 updating the laboratory, and created a new practical course, revolutionising practical instruction, and in 1882 he allowed women to take the course as well. In his five years as Cavendish Professor, he published 50 papers and expanded the number of students to 48.
J. J. Thomson was made Cavendish Professor in 1884 at the age of 28, leading one senior member of the University to comment that "Matters have come to a pretty pass when they elect mere boys Professors." In 1895, a change was made to the university regulations which allowed students who had not studied at Cambridge to receive a B.A. by submitting a thesis which was judged "of distinction as a record of original research." Among the students attracted by this change was future Cavendish Professor Ernest Rutherford. Whilst Thomson was Cavendish Professor, he discovered the electron and the existence of isotopes, and also fostered an atmosphere of friendliness and mutual helpfulness.
Rutherford returned to Cambridge in 1918, and spent the last 19 years of his life there. This was around the time of the change from classical to modern physics, and Rutherford was something of a contradiction, dressing as a Victorian gentleman but working on the cutting edge of physics. Rutherford died suddenly in 1937, marking the end of an era for the Cavendish.
Sir Lawrence Bragg became Cavendish Professor just before the outbreak of the Second World War, which resulted in many staff joining various defence research establishments, notably to develop radar. Work on neutron physics performed at this time was translated into the Manhattan Project to build an atom bomb.
In 1971 it was renamed from the "Cavendish Professorship of Experimental Physics" to the "Cavendish Professorship of Physics".
There have been nine Cavendish Professors since its inception: | <urn:uuid:43c10a1a-d21c-4452-adf0-75dd565d198b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://popflock.com/learn?s=Cavendish_Professor_of_Physics | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00387.warc.gz | en | 0.983125 | 739 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.33216804265975... | 1 | The Cavendish Professorship is one of the senior faculty positions in physics at the University of Cambridge. It was founded on 9 February 1871 alongside the famous Cavendish Laboratory, which was completed three years later. William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire endowed both the professorship and laboratory in honor of his relative, chemist and physicist Henry Cavendish.
Before the middle of the nineteenth century, science was largely pursued by individuals, either wealthy amateurs or academics working in their college accommodation. In 1869, a committee formed by the Senate reported that creating a dedicated Laboratory and Professorship would cost £6,300. The then chancellor of the university, William Cavendish met that cost privately 18 months later, and named the department in honor of his relative, the 18th century natural philosopher Henry Cavendish.
The first Cavendish Professor was the then relatively obscure James Clerk Maxwell, who had yet to complete the work that would make him the most renowned physicist of the nineteenth century. His appointment was announced on 8 March 1871, and despite initial disappointment at his being offered the place, his inaugural lecture was looked forward to by his likely students as well as his future colleagues. However, it was poorly advertised, so it was only to his students that he laid out his plans for physics at Cambridge. When Maxwell began the actual course a few days later with a lecture on heat, it was attended by academics in formal dress, in the belief that it was the first lecture. Maxwell spent the next three years supervising the construction of the dedicated Cavendish Laboratory, and published in 1873 A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Maxwell's health deteriorated a short time into his tenure, and he died in 1879, aged 48.
Lord Rayleigh replaced Maxwell immediately upon his death, being universally agreed upon as the only successor. Raleigh spent £1500 updating the laboratory, and created a new practical course, revolutionising practical instruction, and in 1882 he allowed women to take the course as well. In his five years as Cavendish Professor, he published 50 papers and expanded the number of students to 48.
J. J. Thomson was made Cavendish Professor in 1884 at the age of 28, leading one senior member of the University to comment that "Matters have come to a pretty pass when they elect mere boys Professors." In 1895, a change was made to the university regulations which allowed students who had not studied at Cambridge to receive a B.A. by submitting a thesis which was judged "of distinction as a record of original research." Among the students attracted by this change was future Cavendish Professor Ernest Rutherford. Whilst Thomson was Cavendish Professor, he discovered the electron and the existence of isotopes, and also fostered an atmosphere of friendliness and mutual helpfulness.
Rutherford returned to Cambridge in 1918, and spent the last 19 years of his life there. This was around the time of the change from classical to modern physics, and Rutherford was something of a contradiction, dressing as a Victorian gentleman but working on the cutting edge of physics. Rutherford died suddenly in 1937, marking the end of an era for the Cavendish.
Sir Lawrence Bragg became Cavendish Professor just before the outbreak of the Second World War, which resulted in many staff joining various defence research establishments, notably to develop radar. Work on neutron physics performed at this time was translated into the Manhattan Project to build an atom bomb.
In 1971 it was renamed from the "Cavendish Professorship of Experimental Physics" to the "Cavendish Professorship of Physics".
There have been nine Cavendish Professors since its inception: | 807 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is Punishment?
Punishment is an intervention that instills a penalty for a child’s offense. It often results from a parent’s feelings of frustration and desperation. It usually gives kids the message that “I’m bad.” Often the focus is on the parent trying desperately to maintain control and trying to prove to the child that “I’m in charge whether you like it or not.”
Authoritarian parents often offer punishments to children. When children ask why they can’t do something, they are often told, “Because I said so.” These sorts of answers often give children the message that their opinions don’t matter and that they lack the ability to make any decisions on their own.
An example of a punishment would include things such as spanking. If a child hits his brother and then receives a spanking from his parent, he learns, “I’m bad. Mom hits me.” Other examples of punishment include things such as a teenager getting grounded indefinitely or when a parent throws away a child’s toys because he didn’t clean his room.
The Problems with Punishments
There are several problems with punishments. One problem is that children are not taught how to behave. For example, if a child hits his brother and then receives a spanking, he is not taught what to do the next time he feels angry with his brother.
Punishment also teaches kids that they are not able to be in control of themselves. They often learn that their parents must manage their behaviors and feelings because they are not able to do it on their own. They also tend to lack the ability to make good decisions because their parents have always made their decisions for them.
What is Discipline?
Discipline focuses on teaching children new skills, such as how to manage their behaviors, solve problems, and deal with their feelings. Discipline focuses on training kids to learn from their mistakes and find better ways to solve problems in the future.
Discipline techniques include things such as time out. For example, if a child becomes angry and throws a toy, he is given a time out where he can calm down. The goal of time out is to teach children how to calm themselves down when they are upset so that in the future they can seek time out on their own before they throw a toy.
Discipline takes an authoritative approach where kids learn alternatives to their behaviors. When they are given negative consequences, the consequences make sense and are time sensitive. For example, a child who does not eat all of his dinner, is not allowed to have desert but is told how he can get desert the next night if wants it.
To learn more about the sharp differences between punishing and disciplining a child and other important suggestions, check from the article source below :
Source : Check Here
Photo Source : Jon Siegel | <urn:uuid:1813390a-17d4-4a8d-9f52-b4e00972420a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://managingpregnancy.com/the-big-difference-punishing-and-disciplining-a-child/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00308.warc.gz | en | 0.980135 | 599 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.6122847... | 6 | What is Punishment?
Punishment is an intervention that instills a penalty for a child’s offense. It often results from a parent’s feelings of frustration and desperation. It usually gives kids the message that “I’m bad.” Often the focus is on the parent trying desperately to maintain control and trying to prove to the child that “I’m in charge whether you like it or not.”
Authoritarian parents often offer punishments to children. When children ask why they can’t do something, they are often told, “Because I said so.” These sorts of answers often give children the message that their opinions don’t matter and that they lack the ability to make any decisions on their own.
An example of a punishment would include things such as spanking. If a child hits his brother and then receives a spanking from his parent, he learns, “I’m bad. Mom hits me.” Other examples of punishment include things such as a teenager getting grounded indefinitely or when a parent throws away a child’s toys because he didn’t clean his room.
The Problems with Punishments
There are several problems with punishments. One problem is that children are not taught how to behave. For example, if a child hits his brother and then receives a spanking, he is not taught what to do the next time he feels angry with his brother.
Punishment also teaches kids that they are not able to be in control of themselves. They often learn that their parents must manage their behaviors and feelings because they are not able to do it on their own. They also tend to lack the ability to make good decisions because their parents have always made their decisions for them.
What is Discipline?
Discipline focuses on teaching children new skills, such as how to manage their behaviors, solve problems, and deal with their feelings. Discipline focuses on training kids to learn from their mistakes and find better ways to solve problems in the future.
Discipline techniques include things such as time out. For example, if a child becomes angry and throws a toy, he is given a time out where he can calm down. The goal of time out is to teach children how to calm themselves down when they are upset so that in the future they can seek time out on their own before they throw a toy.
Discipline takes an authoritative approach where kids learn alternatives to their behaviors. When they are given negative consequences, the consequences make sense and are time sensitive. For example, a child who does not eat all of his dinner, is not allowed to have desert but is told how he can get desert the next night if wants it.
To learn more about the sharp differences between punishing and disciplining a child and other important suggestions, check from the article source below :
Source : Check Here
Photo Source : Jon Siegel | 554 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When it comes to Passover, most of the attention is placed on Moses (realizing this, the Jewish Sages who composed the Passover Haggada omitted any mention of Moshe!) Few give credit to Moses’ elder siblings (and prophets) Aaron and Miriam. It was the prophecy of the eldest Miriam that inspired the Israelites in Egypt to start procreating again, after they had previously decided not to bring any more children into such a cruel existence. That stimulus gave birth to Moses. It was Miriam who ensured the basket stayed afloat in the Nile, and who made sure Moses received a Jewish wet nurse (his mother!) even though he grew up in Pharaoh’s palace. Later, we are told that Miriam had a mystical well that supplied the Israelites with all their water needs during their travels through the wilderness. The Talmud explains Miriam was nicknamed Azuva (“left behind”) since she was physically unappealing and had a hard time finding a husband. However, a great man named Caleb married her for her spiritual holiness. Miraculously, she transformed into a very beautiful woman, and was thus renamed Efrat (which means “beauty”). This marriage gave birth to the ancestor of King David (and therefore Mashiach)!
Meanwhile, Aaron was the leader of the Jews in Egypt. Because Moses had a speech impediment, Aaron was the official mouthpiece and spokesperson of God. He also carried out the first three of the 10 plagues that struck the Egyptians. For his peace-loving and self-sacrificing ways, Aaron was later granted the high priesthood, and all his descendants became Cohanim. Amazingly, scientists have discovered a gene on the Y-chromosome that is shared by cohanim around the world, whether Ashkenazi, Sephardic or other. The gene traces back 3300 years, which is precisely the time of the Exodus!
Words of the Week
There are none so hopelessly enslaved as those who believe they are free.
– Von Goethe | <urn:uuid:9bd0f41e-d534-4fbc-b253-9e2475208249> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jewoftheweek.net/2012/04/04/jews-of-the-week-miriam-and-aaron/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00526.warc.gz | en | 0.982137 | 427 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.1483724564... | 22 | When it comes to Passover, most of the attention is placed on Moses (realizing this, the Jewish Sages who composed the Passover Haggada omitted any mention of Moshe!) Few give credit to Moses’ elder siblings (and prophets) Aaron and Miriam. It was the prophecy of the eldest Miriam that inspired the Israelites in Egypt to start procreating again, after they had previously decided not to bring any more children into such a cruel existence. That stimulus gave birth to Moses. It was Miriam who ensured the basket stayed afloat in the Nile, and who made sure Moses received a Jewish wet nurse (his mother!) even though he grew up in Pharaoh’s palace. Later, we are told that Miriam had a mystical well that supplied the Israelites with all their water needs during their travels through the wilderness. The Talmud explains Miriam was nicknamed Azuva (“left behind”) since she was physically unappealing and had a hard time finding a husband. However, a great man named Caleb married her for her spiritual holiness. Miraculously, she transformed into a very beautiful woman, and was thus renamed Efrat (which means “beauty”). This marriage gave birth to the ancestor of King David (and therefore Mashiach)!
Meanwhile, Aaron was the leader of the Jews in Egypt. Because Moses had a speech impediment, Aaron was the official mouthpiece and spokesperson of God. He also carried out the first three of the 10 plagues that struck the Egyptians. For his peace-loving and self-sacrificing ways, Aaron was later granted the high priesthood, and all his descendants became Cohanim. Amazingly, scientists have discovered a gene on the Y-chromosome that is shared by cohanim around the world, whether Ashkenazi, Sephardic or other. The gene traces back 3300 years, which is precisely the time of the Exodus!
Words of the Week
There are none so hopelessly enslaved as those who believe they are free.
– Von Goethe | 418 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This week, the students found another series of notes from Ginger the Gingerbread man. In Ginger's first note he let us know that he had gone to learn about Kwanzaa. He then gave us clues to where in the school he went to learn about Kwanzaa. One day the students followed the trail and found Ginger sitting in the Runnymede office with a book on Kwanzaa. On another day they followed the clues and found him with another book in with our reading buddies in room 125. Through reading different books on Kwanzaa, the students made connections to how Christmas, Hanukkah and Kwanzaa were similar. The students found that all of these celebrations involved lights. The kinara which holds 7 candles reminded the students of a menorah. The colours of Kwanzaa are red, green and black which the students found were very simialar to Christmas colours. The students also found that these celebrations also involved family, food, music and presents.
After the students had finished studying Christmas, Hanukkah and Kwanzaa they shared with holidays and traditions were important to them. Over the course of the week, the students completed artwork surrounding their favourite family celebration on tradition. Some students wrote and drew about family trips to the cottage each summer, decorating the Christmas tree or playing dreidel with their family over Hanukkah. The students worked to create patterns around the border of their artwork using fingerprints or symbols.
To celebrate the last week of school before the holidays, the students had the opportunity to participate in a variety of holiday/winter crafts and activities. They made winter soaps, had the chance to meet Santa, make holiday trees and gingerbread houses. The students also made gingerbread play-dough and made their own gingerbread people.
This week, when the students came in on Monday, they found that our classroom fairy had left us a poem about December celebrations. As we had studied Hanukkah last week the students began talking about other celebrations their families celebrated this month. We uncovered that Christmas was another holiday many of our students celebrated with their families.
The students had the opportunity to explore symbols from this holiday in many hands on ways. We made our weekly batch of play dough as a Christmas tree themed batch. The students were able to create and decorate Christmas trees during sensory play.
As we read books about Christmas and learned factual information around this holiday we also looked to see if we could find any similarities between Christmas and Hanukkah. The students made the connection that both of these holidays use lights. One students said that during Hanukkah Jewish families light candles on the menorah each night and families who celebrate Christmas put lights on their trees and sometimes outside their homes. Another child pointed out that the Star of David is an important symbol during Hanukkah and during Christmas many people put a star on the top of their Christmas tree. Another student said that during Christmas they liked to eat lots of yummy food with their families and during Hanukkah families ate lots of food together too.
During a discussion about what kinds of treats the students like eating at Christmas time a few students spoke about how much they love to eat gingerbread and decorate gingerbread houses. The next day after this conversation the students found a gingerbread person waiting them in the class. Ginger the Gingerbread person had told the students that she loved our class. She was wondering if they could build a home for her using 3D shapes that we had been learning about.
The students used examples from the song Geometric Shapes to decide which shapes they would incorporate into their houses for Ginger. They build pyramids, triangular and rectangular prisms and cubes for Ginger to live in. The students took pictures of their work and wrote about what they had created for Ginger. We also extended this writing piece by having the students write letters to Ginger. Magically, Ginger answered all of the students' questions in his daily letters.
After attending the grade 6&7 musical instrument symposium our Kindergarten class started asking if they could work with these students to create their own musical instruments. This provided us with a wonderful opportunity to build community in our school and work on a special project for our Kindergarten yard. Last week for the first time, the grade 6&7 students gathered to start working on a music wall. As they took turns rotating through centres and building together it worked to strengthen our community as the students got to know each other in a meaningful way.
Later in the week, all of the Mountview classes gathered together for the first time to rehearse the finale for our school concert. As they did so we started to look at how music can bring us together as a community over the holiday season and throughout the year. This led to student talk around holidays, traditions, ceremonies and memorials that they experienced throughout the year. During this study, we started to look at one holiday that some of our students celebrate in December. This celebration was Hanukkah.
Students listened to books to understand the tradition and celebrations surrounding Hanukkah. They learned that Hanukah is also referred to as The Festival of Lights. The students learned that more than 2,000 years ago, the Jewish people fought against an enemy who would not allow them to practice their religious traditions. Their enemy destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem, which contained many holy objects including a sacred lamp called the menorah. One small band of people, called the Maccabees fought their enemies and won. When they returned to the Temple in Jerusalem the first thing they did was restore the sacred lamp. But there was almost no oil left -- only enough for one day. The lamp was filled with this oil and lit. Instead of lasting only one day, it burned brighter, and brighter, lasting eight days. This was considered a miracle!
During our daily math routine, the students continued to study 2D & 3D shapes. At one centre they were given the opportunity to make menorahs and the Star of David using pattern blocks. After being introduced to a dreidel game, some students participated in the STEM challenge of building a spinning dreidel with connecting cubes. They then counted how many cubes they used.
As a sensory & math activity, the students looked at different symbols of Hanukkah and used hollow dreidels to explore capacity. After learning that Hanukkah lasts 8 nights they were able to use loose parts to build pretend candles and represent numbers from 1-8 on a tens frame.
Students also had the chance to examine a menorah. After they learned that a menorah has 9 candles they were able to examine a menorah and make one out of plates, paint and clothespins. | <urn:uuid:94348f78-d188-478c-8877-0ef2a623ad63> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mountviewcommunitykindergarten.com/classroom-blog/archives/12-2019 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00419.warc.gz | en | 0.980824 | 1,384 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.087563462555408... | 5 | This week, the students found another series of notes from Ginger the Gingerbread man. In Ginger's first note he let us know that he had gone to learn about Kwanzaa. He then gave us clues to where in the school he went to learn about Kwanzaa. One day the students followed the trail and found Ginger sitting in the Runnymede office with a book on Kwanzaa. On another day they followed the clues and found him with another book in with our reading buddies in room 125. Through reading different books on Kwanzaa, the students made connections to how Christmas, Hanukkah and Kwanzaa were similar. The students found that all of these celebrations involved lights. The kinara which holds 7 candles reminded the students of a menorah. The colours of Kwanzaa are red, green and black which the students found were very simialar to Christmas colours. The students also found that these celebrations also involved family, food, music and presents.
After the students had finished studying Christmas, Hanukkah and Kwanzaa they shared with holidays and traditions were important to them. Over the course of the week, the students completed artwork surrounding their favourite family celebration on tradition. Some students wrote and drew about family trips to the cottage each summer, decorating the Christmas tree or playing dreidel with their family over Hanukkah. The students worked to create patterns around the border of their artwork using fingerprints or symbols.
To celebrate the last week of school before the holidays, the students had the opportunity to participate in a variety of holiday/winter crafts and activities. They made winter soaps, had the chance to meet Santa, make holiday trees and gingerbread houses. The students also made gingerbread play-dough and made their own gingerbread people.
This week, when the students came in on Monday, they found that our classroom fairy had left us a poem about December celebrations. As we had studied Hanukkah last week the students began talking about other celebrations their families celebrated this month. We uncovered that Christmas was another holiday many of our students celebrated with their families.
The students had the opportunity to explore symbols from this holiday in many hands on ways. We made our weekly batch of play dough as a Christmas tree themed batch. The students were able to create and decorate Christmas trees during sensory play.
As we read books about Christmas and learned factual information around this holiday we also looked to see if we could find any similarities between Christmas and Hanukkah. The students made the connection that both of these holidays use lights. One students said that during Hanukkah Jewish families light candles on the menorah each night and families who celebrate Christmas put lights on their trees and sometimes outside their homes. Another child pointed out that the Star of David is an important symbol during Hanukkah and during Christmas many people put a star on the top of their Christmas tree. Another student said that during Christmas they liked to eat lots of yummy food with their families and during Hanukkah families ate lots of food together too.
During a discussion about what kinds of treats the students like eating at Christmas time a few students spoke about how much they love to eat gingerbread and decorate gingerbread houses. The next day after this conversation the students found a gingerbread person waiting them in the class. Ginger the Gingerbread person had told the students that she loved our class. She was wondering if they could build a home for her using 3D shapes that we had been learning about.
The students used examples from the song Geometric Shapes to decide which shapes they would incorporate into their houses for Ginger. They build pyramids, triangular and rectangular prisms and cubes for Ginger to live in. The students took pictures of their work and wrote about what they had created for Ginger. We also extended this writing piece by having the students write letters to Ginger. Magically, Ginger answered all of the students' questions in his daily letters.
After attending the grade 6&7 musical instrument symposium our Kindergarten class started asking if they could work with these students to create their own musical instruments. This provided us with a wonderful opportunity to build community in our school and work on a special project for our Kindergarten yard. Last week for the first time, the grade 6&7 students gathered to start working on a music wall. As they took turns rotating through centres and building together it worked to strengthen our community as the students got to know each other in a meaningful way.
Later in the week, all of the Mountview classes gathered together for the first time to rehearse the finale for our school concert. As they did so we started to look at how music can bring us together as a community over the holiday season and throughout the year. This led to student talk around holidays, traditions, ceremonies and memorials that they experienced throughout the year. During this study, we started to look at one holiday that some of our students celebrate in December. This celebration was Hanukkah.
Students listened to books to understand the tradition and celebrations surrounding Hanukkah. They learned that Hanukah is also referred to as The Festival of Lights. The students learned that more than 2,000 years ago, the Jewish people fought against an enemy who would not allow them to practice their religious traditions. Their enemy destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem, which contained many holy objects including a sacred lamp called the menorah. One small band of people, called the Maccabees fought their enemies and won. When they returned to the Temple in Jerusalem the first thing they did was restore the sacred lamp. But there was almost no oil left -- only enough for one day. The lamp was filled with this oil and lit. Instead of lasting only one day, it burned brighter, and brighter, lasting eight days. This was considered a miracle!
During our daily math routine, the students continued to study 2D & 3D shapes. At one centre they were given the opportunity to make menorahs and the Star of David using pattern blocks. After being introduced to a dreidel game, some students participated in the STEM challenge of building a spinning dreidel with connecting cubes. They then counted how many cubes they used.
As a sensory & math activity, the students looked at different symbols of Hanukkah and used hollow dreidels to explore capacity. After learning that Hanukkah lasts 8 nights they were able to use loose parts to build pretend candles and represent numbers from 1-8 on a tens frame.
Students also had the chance to examine a menorah. After they learned that a menorah has 9 candles they were able to examine a menorah and make one out of plates, paint and clothespins. | 1,361 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The history of the parking is really intriguing. It began in 1935. The first parking was named Park-O-Meter No. 1 and was built on First Street and Robinson Avenue in Oklahoma City. The idea of creating a place where people can park was owned by Carl. He moved from New Mexico to Oklahoma in 1927 and had a rich past. Working as a reporter for the newspaper “Albuquerque”. Carl had an important role in the so called during that time Teapot Dome bribery scandal in the oil industry in 20th century. This scandal got its name from the oil field Teapot Dome in Wyoming. The scandal discredits president Warren Harding. Albert Fall who was then-secretary of the interior was also involved in the scandal. He was accused of giving government lands for rent to oil companies in exchange for personal gifts and loans. He was the creator of series of articles that disclose criminal activity in the judicial system of New Mexico. He was brought to trial for a murder since he had shot at one of the judges mentioned in the articles during a squabble at a hotel in Las Vegas.
In the period when Magee moves to Oklahoma City in order to begin his work at the local newspaper Oklahoma News, the town had the same problem typical to most of America’s city zones. There wasn’t enough space to park because of the quickly increasing number of cars that were swarming the town’s business district. When he was asked to offer a solution to this problem Carl Magee got the idea of Park-o-Meter. The first operating parking was displayed in public for the first time in the beginning of May 1935. Its appearance stirred up a debate about the advantages and disadvantages of such type of parking meter with coins. The biggest objectors to the idea for a parking with coins considered it un-American. They were against the idea for such a parking because in this way the drivers were obliged to pay taxes on their automobiles without a law process.
Despite the fact that the parking created opposition, the first installation of parking meters was done by Dual Parking Meter Company in July 1935. The parking tax for one hour cost a nickel and the parking lots were set at a distance of 6m. from one another close to the street curb. The separate parking places were marked with paint lines on the asphalt. Very soon Magee’s “creation” gained popularity in the city and became a favourite parking spot for the retailers. They liked the idea of meter parkings because they enhanced a quick and effective regulation of the customers’ cars. Oklahoma drivers started to consider t parking meters as an essential and inevitable factor for proper control over parking.
In the beginning of the 40s coin-paid parking meters were more than 140, 000 in the United States. Today Park-o-Meter No. 1 is put on display in Statehood Gallery of the Oklahoma Historical Society.
Therefore by realizing Carl Magee’s idea an order was put into the parking chaos in Oklahoma City. But this idea created the requirement for every parking to ensure a maximum convenience to the drivers. And this is the main goal of parking Park&Fly situated nearby Sofia Airport. It is very close to Terminals 1 and 2 (at a distance1-1,4 km from Terminal 1 and at a distance of 2- 2,2 km from Terminal 2).
The parking offers all its customers the convenient option to leave their car at a safe place before their flight at an affordable price. It prevents them from worrying about their car during their entire travel. The parking offers 200 covered individual cells and each cell is equipped with a carport which protects the car from rain, snow, hail and sun. The parking has a toilet for the customers and is well-lighted.
This parking offers super convenient and time-saving services such as car wash, fuel recharge, storage of car keys, tires check and tire-pressure regulation if it’s necessary. This will definitely save you the need to worry about where on the road you can check your car’s tires, where you can refuel and whether your car has enough fuel.
The parking offers also accumulator recharge in case it doesn’t work. In this way you can be sure that after arriving from your travel you will find your car in a perfectly clean state.
Besides, all customers of the parking can use additional services like free 24-hour transport to and from the airport with a minivan owned by the parking. It’s offered the additional service of valet parking . One of the parking’s employees meets the customer before their flight and drives their car to the parking. And upon their arrival, the employee drives the car from the parking to the airport and welcomes the customer. If you want this service, you need to request it at least one day in advance.
The polite and professional staff of the parking are available to their customers 24/7 and ready to answer all their questions and requests related to parking. Every customer receives a card with a phone number which they have to call when they arrive. After doing this an employee of the parking will come within 7-8 min. to meet the customer at the airport and drive them to the parking. The parking’s workers will also help you with your luggage.
With the help of Park & Fly it’s no longer necessary to lose your valuable time in searching for a parking lot before your flight. Everything is so easy and handy: you reserve a parking place, park your car and everything that is left to do is enjoy your flight. | <urn:uuid:7ba8570f-ca54-4aa4-84a3-abb49b14d34a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://parkandfly.bg/en/news/history-of-the-parking-how-the-idea-for-the-first-parking-is-born/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00077.warc.gz | en | 0.98022 | 1,146 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.30278271436691284... | 13 | The history of the parking is really intriguing. It began in 1935. The first parking was named Park-O-Meter No. 1 and was built on First Street and Robinson Avenue in Oklahoma City. The idea of creating a place where people can park was owned by Carl. He moved from New Mexico to Oklahoma in 1927 and had a rich past. Working as a reporter for the newspaper “Albuquerque”. Carl had an important role in the so called during that time Teapot Dome bribery scandal in the oil industry in 20th century. This scandal got its name from the oil field Teapot Dome in Wyoming. The scandal discredits president Warren Harding. Albert Fall who was then-secretary of the interior was also involved in the scandal. He was accused of giving government lands for rent to oil companies in exchange for personal gifts and loans. He was the creator of series of articles that disclose criminal activity in the judicial system of New Mexico. He was brought to trial for a murder since he had shot at one of the judges mentioned in the articles during a squabble at a hotel in Las Vegas.
In the period when Magee moves to Oklahoma City in order to begin his work at the local newspaper Oklahoma News, the town had the same problem typical to most of America’s city zones. There wasn’t enough space to park because of the quickly increasing number of cars that were swarming the town’s business district. When he was asked to offer a solution to this problem Carl Magee got the idea of Park-o-Meter. The first operating parking was displayed in public for the first time in the beginning of May 1935. Its appearance stirred up a debate about the advantages and disadvantages of such type of parking meter with coins. The biggest objectors to the idea for a parking with coins considered it un-American. They were against the idea for such a parking because in this way the drivers were obliged to pay taxes on their automobiles without a law process.
Despite the fact that the parking created opposition, the first installation of parking meters was done by Dual Parking Meter Company in July 1935. The parking tax for one hour cost a nickel and the parking lots were set at a distance of 6m. from one another close to the street curb. The separate parking places were marked with paint lines on the asphalt. Very soon Magee’s “creation” gained popularity in the city and became a favourite parking spot for the retailers. They liked the idea of meter parkings because they enhanced a quick and effective regulation of the customers’ cars. Oklahoma drivers started to consider t parking meters as an essential and inevitable factor for proper control over parking.
In the beginning of the 40s coin-paid parking meters were more than 140, 000 in the United States. Today Park-o-Meter No. 1 is put on display in Statehood Gallery of the Oklahoma Historical Society.
Therefore by realizing Carl Magee’s idea an order was put into the parking chaos in Oklahoma City. But this idea created the requirement for every parking to ensure a maximum convenience to the drivers. And this is the main goal of parking Park&Fly situated nearby Sofia Airport. It is very close to Terminals 1 and 2 (at a distance1-1,4 km from Terminal 1 and at a distance of 2- 2,2 km from Terminal 2).
The parking offers all its customers the convenient option to leave their car at a safe place before their flight at an affordable price. It prevents them from worrying about their car during their entire travel. The parking offers 200 covered individual cells and each cell is equipped with a carport which protects the car from rain, snow, hail and sun. The parking has a toilet for the customers and is well-lighted.
This parking offers super convenient and time-saving services such as car wash, fuel recharge, storage of car keys, tires check and tire-pressure regulation if it’s necessary. This will definitely save you the need to worry about where on the road you can check your car’s tires, where you can refuel and whether your car has enough fuel.
The parking offers also accumulator recharge in case it doesn’t work. In this way you can be sure that after arriving from your travel you will find your car in a perfectly clean state.
Besides, all customers of the parking can use additional services like free 24-hour transport to and from the airport with a minivan owned by the parking. It’s offered the additional service of valet parking . One of the parking’s employees meets the customer before their flight and drives their car to the parking. And upon their arrival, the employee drives the car from the parking to the airport and welcomes the customer. If you want this service, you need to request it at least one day in advance.
The polite and professional staff of the parking are available to their customers 24/7 and ready to answer all their questions and requests related to parking. Every customer receives a card with a phone number which they have to call when they arrive. After doing this an employee of the parking will come within 7-8 min. to meet the customer at the airport and drive them to the parking. The parking’s workers will also help you with your luggage.
With the help of Park & Fly it’s no longer necessary to lose your valuable time in searching for a parking lot before your flight. Everything is so easy and handy: you reserve a parking place, park your car and everything that is left to do is enjoy your flight. | 1,132 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Duns from Duns Law
|Population||2,594 (2001 census)|
est. 2,710 (2006)
|OS grid reference|
|Sovereign state||United Kingdom|
Duns Law, the original site of the town of Duns, has the remains of an Iron Age hillfort at its summit. Similar structures nearby, such as the structure at Edin's Hall Broch, suggest the area's domestic and defensive use at a very early stage.
The first written mention of Duns is prior to 1179, when a 'Hugo de Duns' witnessed a charter of Roger d'Eu, of a grant of the benefice of the church of Langton to Kelso Abbey. The town is further mentioned when a 'Robert of Douns' signed the Ragman Roll in 1296. The early settlement was sited on the slopes of Duns Law, close to the original Duns Castle built in 1320 by the Earl of Moray, nephew of Robert the Bruce. The town was frequently attacked by the English in border raids and as they headed north to the Lothians. In 1318 at Duns Park, the Earl of Dunbar, Sir James Douglas, and Sir Thomas Randolph met with their respective forces, prior to the retaking of Berwick by the Scots. In 1333 the Guardian of Scotland, Sir Archibald Douglas, mustered an army in Duns to march on Berwick, which at that time was under siege by the English. The Scots troops were heavily defeated at the Battle of Halidon Hill.
1377 saw the Earl of Northumberland invade Scotland. Camped at Duns, his army's horses were alarmed at night by the rattles used by the inhabitants to scare birds from their crops. The disarrayed English force was routed by the townsmen. The event is known as the Battle of Duns, and is the source of the town's motto, Duns Dings A!
The town was created a Burgh of Barony in 1490 by James IV heritably for John and George Hume of Ayton, and the townsfolk were given the right to hold a market every Wednesday, and to hold a week-long annual fair between Pentecost and Trinity Sunday. Duns suffered badly in cross-border raiding and feuding, and was burned to the ground three times within 14 years, in 1544, 1545 and 1558 during the war of the Rough Wooing.
By 1588 the town had relocated from the ruin at the top of Duns Law to its present location at its foot. The burgh's original location has since been known as the Bruntons (a corruption of Burnt-town).
In the autumn of 1517, Duns Market Cross was also the destination of the head of the Sieur de la Bastie, the French Ambassador and Warden of the Eastern March, following his murder at Preston, by Home of Wedderburn.
"Bautie, tha heidet, and in the toun of Dunce his heid affixt on a staik, that all men mycht se it, September xix."
In 1630 Duns was home to a Margaret Lumsden, who was supposedly the victim of demonic possession. She was brought to Edinburgh to be investigated by John Maitland, 1st Earl of Lauderdale and the Privy Council of Scotland, and arrangements were made to have her and her immediate family lodged in the Canongate Tolbooth. Lauderdale's son John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale recounted the story in a letter to Richard Baxter which he published in his work, The certainty of the World of Spirits. Margaret Lumsden was said to be a poor uneducated woman, yet when spoken to in Latin by the local minister, John Weemes, she is said to have replied in better Latin than he had himself.
In 1639 during the First Bishops' War, Duns became the mustering point for the Covenanting army led by General Leslie, gathered there to face King Charles I's English host encamped at Berwick. Leslie took up residence in the Castle and ordered a redoubt to be constructed on Duns Law. The opposing armies did not engage but on 18 June the Pacification of Berwick was signed. The remains of Leslie's fortifications are still evident on top of Duns Law.
By 1670 the town and the estate were bought by Sir John Cockburn of Cockburn from the Homes of Ayton, who had a regrant of the Burgh charter. The estate was then sold in 1696 to John Hay, 1st Marquess of Tweeddale who granted to his son the Lord William Hay following his marriage to Elizabeth Seton, a daughter of Alexander Seton, 1st Viscount of Kingston.
In the peace following the end of the Jacobite rebellion in 1746, Duns began to expand and many of the administrative functions of Berwickshire were carried out in the town. In 1903, a bill first introduced by the Secretary for Scotland in 1900 was passed confirming Duns as the county town of Berwickshire when nearby Greenlaw lost that status the following year.
Within living memory, Duns had a Tolbooth or town hall on its Market Square. This was used for the administration of the burgh and for dealing with malefactors: the first such structure was built in 1328, presumably in the old town at Duns Law; the second was built following Cockburn's rechartering of the burgh in 1680. The 1680 building was badly damaged by fire in 1795, and was replaced by a third building designed by the architect James Gillespie Graham in 1816. The structure was demolished in 1966.
Duns has the largest shopping facilities in a radius of 15 miles (24 km) and until 28 January 2015 housed the Berwickshire Sheriff Court, it no longer has any principal offices of the Scottish Borders Council, but merely retains a Registry Office.
Since the early 1990s Duns and its immediate vicinity have seen substantial housing development, some controversial. A development near the golf club on the road to Longformacus just outside Duns is one such example, as it was built upon greenfield sites.
Opposite the old Berwickshire High School a new modern High School has been constructed to replace the mid-1950s buildings in which the school was previously housed. The new High School opened in February 2009.
The old high school is now being redeveloped into a primary school, with the rugby and football club using the old playing fields
Duns has many different sports facilities including many rugby pitches, football pitches, a bowling green, tennis courts and a golf course. The tennis courts were recently redone with the addition of a pavilion. The rugby club has teams in many age groups from mini rugby to the first team and have recently brought back an under 18s colts team. The football club recently folded its east of Scotland football team (not long after having their pitch redone and improved) due to lack of commitment but still has and Amateur football team and many junior teams ranging from 5 a side youngsters to the 2001 aged team coached by Steven Baxter and Darren Short who have been runners up in their league for the past three years. The towns badminton club has been very good in finding and improving young players with many going on to play for the borders team in competitions and even become some of the best ranked players in scotland.
The Hay family were responsible for the present Gothic Revival structure; prior to that, it had been a substantial Peel tower built in 1320 by the Earl of Moray who had been granted the estate by Robert I.
The surrounding area once had a considerable number of notable country houses. Those surviving include:
The town hosts the Jim Clark Motorsport Museum. The Clark family lived on a farm by Chirnside, near Duns. Among his many achievements, Jim Clark was Formula 1 World Champion in 1963 and 1965, with 72 Grand Prix starts, 25 Wins, and 33 Pole Positions. Originally opened in 1969 as a Memorial Room, the building was expanded and the museum opened in 2019 and displays his Lotus race car, a rally car, overalls worn by Clark, and over 100 trophies. Other ephemera include numerous archive material from newspapers, books, magazines and films.
During the Second World War, the Scottish Borders was home to many Polish soldiers, who had come here to form new regiments prior to returning south to go the front in Europe. Duns, and the surrounding area, was home to the First and Second Armoured Regiments of the Polish Army, who learned and practised their armoured warfare skills on the moors of Berwickshire. It was as a tribute to the 127 men of these regiments who died in the conflict, that Polish ex-soldiers and the people of Duns, jointly, paid for the erection of this monument. It was unveiled in 1981 by their former Commanding Officer, General Maczek.
As well as this a memorial to Wojtek, a Syrian brown bear which was adopted by the Polish army in 1943, can be found in the Market Square. The memorial was gifted by the twin town of ?aga? in Poland and was unveiled in 2016.
Duns historically was connected to the mainline railway network by the Berwickshire Railway but that closed to passengers on 10 September 1951, and to goods traffic during the Beeching closures on 7 November 1966.
The town is served by the regular Perryman's 60 service between Galashiels and Berwick-upon-Tweed. It is also served by Travelsure service 34 to Eyemouth and Berwick-upon-Tweed, and Travelsure service 260 and Wait's service 18 which both serve Chirnside, Berwick-upon-Tweed and Tweedmouth.
Duns primary school, previously located near the town centre in a Victorian building, moved to refurbished premises in the old Berwickshire High School in 2017. The new Berwickshire High School opened in 2009 and is located to the west of the town on the A6015 and provides higher education not only for pupils from Duns but also the many surrounding villages and wider rural community. Borders College also has a small campus in the town.
This is a kind of medieval football. Three balls or "Ba"s were required for this game; the first was gold, the second silvered, and the third coloured or spotted. A fourth was provided in case of mishap, and if not needed was presented to the subscriber whose entertainment had been most hospitable, the Hay family at Duns Castle usually being the recipients.
At mid-day the honour of throwing up the ball would be auctioned in the Kirkyard. The throw would invariably be performed by a member of the Duns Castle family. At 1 o'clock the game began, the Ba being thrown up in the Market Square. The goal for the married men was the pulpit of the church; if a goal was scored then the church bell would rung by the victors. The goal of the bachelors was the hopper of any of the grinding mills in the district, the nearest being over a mile (1500 m) away. If a bachelor won the Ba he would be dusted with flour and receive a meal of pork and dumplings from the miller.
The game was revived in 1949 as part of the Duns Summer Festival. The goals are now at opposite corners of the Market Square, by the White Swan hotel and the old Post Office.
The game of Hand Ba' takes place at various places throughout the Scottish Borders: Duns, Jedburgh, Denholm, Hobkirk and it is known to take place as far afield as the Orkney Islands - there is a documentary archived of such an event.
Robert Burns 1787 visited. | <urn:uuid:efd287d4-7a61-4107-aeeb-ecdf75eedf7b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Duns | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00095.warc.gz | en | 0.984328 | 2,466 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.324757993221... | 1 | Duns from Duns Law
|Population||2,594 (2001 census)|
est. 2,710 (2006)
|OS grid reference|
|Sovereign state||United Kingdom|
Duns Law, the original site of the town of Duns, has the remains of an Iron Age hillfort at its summit. Similar structures nearby, such as the structure at Edin's Hall Broch, suggest the area's domestic and defensive use at a very early stage.
The first written mention of Duns is prior to 1179, when a 'Hugo de Duns' witnessed a charter of Roger d'Eu, of a grant of the benefice of the church of Langton to Kelso Abbey. The town is further mentioned when a 'Robert of Douns' signed the Ragman Roll in 1296. The early settlement was sited on the slopes of Duns Law, close to the original Duns Castle built in 1320 by the Earl of Moray, nephew of Robert the Bruce. The town was frequently attacked by the English in border raids and as they headed north to the Lothians. In 1318 at Duns Park, the Earl of Dunbar, Sir James Douglas, and Sir Thomas Randolph met with their respective forces, prior to the retaking of Berwick by the Scots. In 1333 the Guardian of Scotland, Sir Archibald Douglas, mustered an army in Duns to march on Berwick, which at that time was under siege by the English. The Scots troops were heavily defeated at the Battle of Halidon Hill.
1377 saw the Earl of Northumberland invade Scotland. Camped at Duns, his army's horses were alarmed at night by the rattles used by the inhabitants to scare birds from their crops. The disarrayed English force was routed by the townsmen. The event is known as the Battle of Duns, and is the source of the town's motto, Duns Dings A!
The town was created a Burgh of Barony in 1490 by James IV heritably for John and George Hume of Ayton, and the townsfolk were given the right to hold a market every Wednesday, and to hold a week-long annual fair between Pentecost and Trinity Sunday. Duns suffered badly in cross-border raiding and feuding, and was burned to the ground three times within 14 years, in 1544, 1545 and 1558 during the war of the Rough Wooing.
By 1588 the town had relocated from the ruin at the top of Duns Law to its present location at its foot. The burgh's original location has since been known as the Bruntons (a corruption of Burnt-town).
In the autumn of 1517, Duns Market Cross was also the destination of the head of the Sieur de la Bastie, the French Ambassador and Warden of the Eastern March, following his murder at Preston, by Home of Wedderburn.
"Bautie, tha heidet, and in the toun of Dunce his heid affixt on a staik, that all men mycht se it, September xix."
In 1630 Duns was home to a Margaret Lumsden, who was supposedly the victim of demonic possession. She was brought to Edinburgh to be investigated by John Maitland, 1st Earl of Lauderdale and the Privy Council of Scotland, and arrangements were made to have her and her immediate family lodged in the Canongate Tolbooth. Lauderdale's son John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale recounted the story in a letter to Richard Baxter which he published in his work, The certainty of the World of Spirits. Margaret Lumsden was said to be a poor uneducated woman, yet when spoken to in Latin by the local minister, John Weemes, she is said to have replied in better Latin than he had himself.
In 1639 during the First Bishops' War, Duns became the mustering point for the Covenanting army led by General Leslie, gathered there to face King Charles I's English host encamped at Berwick. Leslie took up residence in the Castle and ordered a redoubt to be constructed on Duns Law. The opposing armies did not engage but on 18 June the Pacification of Berwick was signed. The remains of Leslie's fortifications are still evident on top of Duns Law.
By 1670 the town and the estate were bought by Sir John Cockburn of Cockburn from the Homes of Ayton, who had a regrant of the Burgh charter. The estate was then sold in 1696 to John Hay, 1st Marquess of Tweeddale who granted to his son the Lord William Hay following his marriage to Elizabeth Seton, a daughter of Alexander Seton, 1st Viscount of Kingston.
In the peace following the end of the Jacobite rebellion in 1746, Duns began to expand and many of the administrative functions of Berwickshire were carried out in the town. In 1903, a bill first introduced by the Secretary for Scotland in 1900 was passed confirming Duns as the county town of Berwickshire when nearby Greenlaw lost that status the following year.
Within living memory, Duns had a Tolbooth or town hall on its Market Square. This was used for the administration of the burgh and for dealing with malefactors: the first such structure was built in 1328, presumably in the old town at Duns Law; the second was built following Cockburn's rechartering of the burgh in 1680. The 1680 building was badly damaged by fire in 1795, and was replaced by a third building designed by the architect James Gillespie Graham in 1816. The structure was demolished in 1966.
Duns has the largest shopping facilities in a radius of 15 miles (24 km) and until 28 January 2015 housed the Berwickshire Sheriff Court, it no longer has any principal offices of the Scottish Borders Council, but merely retains a Registry Office.
Since the early 1990s Duns and its immediate vicinity have seen substantial housing development, some controversial. A development near the golf club on the road to Longformacus just outside Duns is one such example, as it was built upon greenfield sites.
Opposite the old Berwickshire High School a new modern High School has been constructed to replace the mid-1950s buildings in which the school was previously housed. The new High School opened in February 2009.
The old high school is now being redeveloped into a primary school, with the rugby and football club using the old playing fields
Duns has many different sports facilities including many rugby pitches, football pitches, a bowling green, tennis courts and a golf course. The tennis courts were recently redone with the addition of a pavilion. The rugby club has teams in many age groups from mini rugby to the first team and have recently brought back an under 18s colts team. The football club recently folded its east of Scotland football team (not long after having their pitch redone and improved) due to lack of commitment but still has and Amateur football team and many junior teams ranging from 5 a side youngsters to the 2001 aged team coached by Steven Baxter and Darren Short who have been runners up in their league for the past three years. The towns badminton club has been very good in finding and improving young players with many going on to play for the borders team in competitions and even become some of the best ranked players in scotland.
The Hay family were responsible for the present Gothic Revival structure; prior to that, it had been a substantial Peel tower built in 1320 by the Earl of Moray who had been granted the estate by Robert I.
The surrounding area once had a considerable number of notable country houses. Those surviving include:
The town hosts the Jim Clark Motorsport Museum. The Clark family lived on a farm by Chirnside, near Duns. Among his many achievements, Jim Clark was Formula 1 World Champion in 1963 and 1965, with 72 Grand Prix starts, 25 Wins, and 33 Pole Positions. Originally opened in 1969 as a Memorial Room, the building was expanded and the museum opened in 2019 and displays his Lotus race car, a rally car, overalls worn by Clark, and over 100 trophies. Other ephemera include numerous archive material from newspapers, books, magazines and films.
During the Second World War, the Scottish Borders was home to many Polish soldiers, who had come here to form new regiments prior to returning south to go the front in Europe. Duns, and the surrounding area, was home to the First and Second Armoured Regiments of the Polish Army, who learned and practised their armoured warfare skills on the moors of Berwickshire. It was as a tribute to the 127 men of these regiments who died in the conflict, that Polish ex-soldiers and the people of Duns, jointly, paid for the erection of this monument. It was unveiled in 1981 by their former Commanding Officer, General Maczek.
As well as this a memorial to Wojtek, a Syrian brown bear which was adopted by the Polish army in 1943, can be found in the Market Square. The memorial was gifted by the twin town of ?aga? in Poland and was unveiled in 2016.
Duns historically was connected to the mainline railway network by the Berwickshire Railway but that closed to passengers on 10 September 1951, and to goods traffic during the Beeching closures on 7 November 1966.
The town is served by the regular Perryman's 60 service between Galashiels and Berwick-upon-Tweed. It is also served by Travelsure service 34 to Eyemouth and Berwick-upon-Tweed, and Travelsure service 260 and Wait's service 18 which both serve Chirnside, Berwick-upon-Tweed and Tweedmouth.
Duns primary school, previously located near the town centre in a Victorian building, moved to refurbished premises in the old Berwickshire High School in 2017. The new Berwickshire High School opened in 2009 and is located to the west of the town on the A6015 and provides higher education not only for pupils from Duns but also the many surrounding villages and wider rural community. Borders College also has a small campus in the town.
This is a kind of medieval football. Three balls or "Ba"s were required for this game; the first was gold, the second silvered, and the third coloured or spotted. A fourth was provided in case of mishap, and if not needed was presented to the subscriber whose entertainment had been most hospitable, the Hay family at Duns Castle usually being the recipients.
At mid-day the honour of throwing up the ball would be auctioned in the Kirkyard. The throw would invariably be performed by a member of the Duns Castle family. At 1 o'clock the game began, the Ba being thrown up in the Market Square. The goal for the married men was the pulpit of the church; if a goal was scored then the church bell would rung by the victors. The goal of the bachelors was the hopper of any of the grinding mills in the district, the nearest being over a mile (1500 m) away. If a bachelor won the Ba he would be dusted with flour and receive a meal of pork and dumplings from the miller.
The game was revived in 1949 as part of the Duns Summer Festival. The goals are now at opposite corners of the Market Square, by the White Swan hotel and the old Post Office.
The game of Hand Ba' takes place at various places throughout the Scottish Borders: Duns, Jedburgh, Denholm, Hobkirk and it is known to take place as far afield as the Orkney Islands - there is a documentary archived of such an event.
Robert Burns 1787 visited. | 2,623 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We may know the general difference between two kinds of weapons, but a lot more goes through within their system and working to draw a conclusion on how they operate themselves. The two items getting discussed in this article are carbine and rifle, weapons that have become lethal in their way. This article looks at the differences between them and the main variation among them is that a firearm that has a long arm when compared to others but has a shorter barrel gets known as a carbine. Whereas a weapon, especially the one fired from shoulder level, having a long spirally grooved barrel for firing bullet gets referred to as a rifle.
Carbine gets defined as a firearm that has a long arm when compared to others but has a shorter barrel. They are lighter in weight and have a size much smaller than another weapon. Therefore, it becomes easy to handle them over long distances and use them without any problems. Because of the reason mentioned here, such arms mostly get utilized by soldiers who operate in extreme operations such as paratroopers and special army operators. Such weapons also become available for the officials who do not have to participate in wars and have secondary uses of things that are not much related. But when the conditions become severe such as frontline at war, then carbines become useful as they have weights much smaller and load quickly. The word originated as “carabiniers,” from the French word carabine, it also has come relevance from the Old French word carabin, that means soldier armed with a musket. It mostly gets assumed that this term came from escarrabin, gravedigger, which derives from scarabee, scarab beetle. Initially, they got developed because most soldiers had to travel on horses and did not have the capacity to keep bigger guns with them, although they were made for such purposes in the cavalry, the action did not go successfully since the ride was unstable. Such weapons had frequent use in the world wars and took over the role from bigger guns in areas where the war just ended or army needed to stay for a longer time to make arrangements.
Rifle gets defined as a weapon, especially the one fired from shoulder level, having a long spirally grooved barrel for the purpose of making a bullet spin and thereby have greater accuracy over a long distance. Helical grooves are present on the barrel, the areas that get raised from the other parts get known as lands, and get in touch with the projectile. This action helps in making the spin around the axis according to the movement of the weapons. The process of operating such a gun is complicated when we compare with others but has a range that is much more. Bullet present within the weapon comes out because of the deflagration of the explosive compound, which initially was a black power and later changed to cordite. In the modern guns, the power used is nitrocellulose, but other stuff such as compressed air also comes in handy. Initially, the guns made were for the purpose of firing one bullet from with one trigger pull but with time developments took place and the modern version have the capacity of firing one round of shots within few seconds. This action has led to its use in wars and other operations that require more ammunition and rated as important. Most of the countries have developed their versions, but the most famous ones still belong to Russia. The first war of the 20th century between Russia and Japan had such weapons used for the first time, and the world got to see the potential of these hazardous arms.
- Weapons that have a barrel with the size of more than 20 inches get known as rifles, on the other hand, weapons that have a barrel with the size of fewer than 20 inches get known as carbines.
- Carbine gets defined as a firearm that has a long arm when compared to others but has a shorter barrel. On the other hand, Rifle gets defined as a weapon, especially the one fired from shoulder level, having a long spirally grooved barrel for the purpose of making a bullet spin and thereby have greater accuracy over a long distance.
- The weight of carbine is less than that of a rifle due to variations in the sizes.
- Rifles become useful for wars and other long-lasting activities that require proper ammunition and fast speeds whereas carbines come in handy when for purposes such as short-range firing, secret missions, and permanent residencies.
- The primary goal of developing carbines was to have a weapon that becomes useful while moving on a horse whereas the principal aim of the rifle was to have improved armament for warfare.
- A Carbine fires one bullet at one time in a conventional tool whereas the rifle can fire several rounds of bullets at one time. | <urn:uuid:a2e39073-a813-4877-817a-837161d234b6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.difference.wiki/carbine-vs-rifle/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00327.warc.gz | en | 0.980045 | 956 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.08502107113... | 10 | We may know the general difference between two kinds of weapons, but a lot more goes through within their system and working to draw a conclusion on how they operate themselves. The two items getting discussed in this article are carbine and rifle, weapons that have become lethal in their way. This article looks at the differences between them and the main variation among them is that a firearm that has a long arm when compared to others but has a shorter barrel gets known as a carbine. Whereas a weapon, especially the one fired from shoulder level, having a long spirally grooved barrel for firing bullet gets referred to as a rifle.
Carbine gets defined as a firearm that has a long arm when compared to others but has a shorter barrel. They are lighter in weight and have a size much smaller than another weapon. Therefore, it becomes easy to handle them over long distances and use them without any problems. Because of the reason mentioned here, such arms mostly get utilized by soldiers who operate in extreme operations such as paratroopers and special army operators. Such weapons also become available for the officials who do not have to participate in wars and have secondary uses of things that are not much related. But when the conditions become severe such as frontline at war, then carbines become useful as they have weights much smaller and load quickly. The word originated as “carabiniers,” from the French word carabine, it also has come relevance from the Old French word carabin, that means soldier armed with a musket. It mostly gets assumed that this term came from escarrabin, gravedigger, which derives from scarabee, scarab beetle. Initially, they got developed because most soldiers had to travel on horses and did not have the capacity to keep bigger guns with them, although they were made for such purposes in the cavalry, the action did not go successfully since the ride was unstable. Such weapons had frequent use in the world wars and took over the role from bigger guns in areas where the war just ended or army needed to stay for a longer time to make arrangements.
Rifle gets defined as a weapon, especially the one fired from shoulder level, having a long spirally grooved barrel for the purpose of making a bullet spin and thereby have greater accuracy over a long distance. Helical grooves are present on the barrel, the areas that get raised from the other parts get known as lands, and get in touch with the projectile. This action helps in making the spin around the axis according to the movement of the weapons. The process of operating such a gun is complicated when we compare with others but has a range that is much more. Bullet present within the weapon comes out because of the deflagration of the explosive compound, which initially was a black power and later changed to cordite. In the modern guns, the power used is nitrocellulose, but other stuff such as compressed air also comes in handy. Initially, the guns made were for the purpose of firing one bullet from with one trigger pull but with time developments took place and the modern version have the capacity of firing one round of shots within few seconds. This action has led to its use in wars and other operations that require more ammunition and rated as important. Most of the countries have developed their versions, but the most famous ones still belong to Russia. The first war of the 20th century between Russia and Japan had such weapons used for the first time, and the world got to see the potential of these hazardous arms.
- Weapons that have a barrel with the size of more than 20 inches get known as rifles, on the other hand, weapons that have a barrel with the size of fewer than 20 inches get known as carbines.
- Carbine gets defined as a firearm that has a long arm when compared to others but has a shorter barrel. On the other hand, Rifle gets defined as a weapon, especially the one fired from shoulder level, having a long spirally grooved barrel for the purpose of making a bullet spin and thereby have greater accuracy over a long distance.
- The weight of carbine is less than that of a rifle due to variations in the sizes.
- Rifles become useful for wars and other long-lasting activities that require proper ammunition and fast speeds whereas carbines come in handy when for purposes such as short-range firing, secret missions, and permanent residencies.
- The primary goal of developing carbines was to have a weapon that becomes useful while moving on a horse whereas the principal aim of the rifle was to have improved armament for warfare.
- A Carbine fires one bullet at one time in a conventional tool whereas the rifle can fire several rounds of bullets at one time. | 948 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The History of the Death Penalty
Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, has been a part of our judicial system for a very long time. It has been around for longer than people think to acknowledge. Before the United States were founded, even before civilization knew what democracy meant, there has been in some way or some form, capital punishment. There were limited regulations, policies, or liberties that monitored or regulated who would or could be put to death. From where we are today and from where we came from back then, have made a dramatic improvement towards the equality, lawfulness, just, ethical society we have come to know and live upon.
One of the first known and recorded events of capital punishment date back to the 18th Century B.C. under the code of King Hammaurabi of Babylon, which labeled 25 crimes in which the death penalty would be given. (Randa, 1997) The crucifixion of Jesus Christ is also an extremely well known case in which capital punishment was given based solely on the belief of that one man. Cruel and unusual punishment was not a factor in who died, how they died, and/or why they were put to death. The ideology behind how society was, education level, and biasness towards the convicted were clear factors in sentencing and the outcome of the accused.
It was in 1972, that the United States of America received an eye opening case which marked the change to the way capital punishment would be regulated. William Henry Furman was convicted of armed robbery and murder in the state of Georgia which, at that time, had a law called the “Felony Murder Rule” making him eligible for the death penalty. (“Felony-Murder Rule”, n.d.) He was found guilty and indeed sentenced to death. An appeal to the Supreme Court however overturned the ruling stating that the sentence given was in violation of the Eighth and Fourteenth amendment. (Coenen, 2004) It was at this point that capital punishment was brought to the attention of the people as cruel and unusual punishment and demanded a change to the way capital punishment would be handled by judicial systems.
The case of Furman v. Georgia (1972), in my eyes, made a great impact on the way we conduct justice in the United States today. The Constitution and the Bill of Rights were made to preserve our rights as citizens and free us from total government control. That is exactly what this court case proved and now allows us to better understand what was meant and how to interpret cruel and unusual punishment better than what we did before. This court case has possibly saved hundreds to thousands of lives that would now be considered unnecessary to be taken. Another good outcome of this case isn’t the fact that capital punishment cannot be used, but actually the opposite. We now have better guidelines and policies that control how and when capital punishment can be used. These guidelines and policies could be related to the outcome of this trial because of the implementation of the Constitution written hundreds of years ago.
An argument that could be made from people that agree with the death penalty is the lack of justice that could reside from not imposing the death penalty where they thought would be just. They could argue the fact that the Constitution is all based on how the wording is perceived and that capital punishment is not… | <urn:uuid:889150f9-65cc-44e3-b5ed-4ad79bed77ea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/The-History-Of-The-Death-Penalty-526415.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00191.warc.gz | en | 0.984379 | 675 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.08326855301856995... | 1 | The History of the Death Penalty
Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, has been a part of our judicial system for a very long time. It has been around for longer than people think to acknowledge. Before the United States were founded, even before civilization knew what democracy meant, there has been in some way or some form, capital punishment. There were limited regulations, policies, or liberties that monitored or regulated who would or could be put to death. From where we are today and from where we came from back then, have made a dramatic improvement towards the equality, lawfulness, just, ethical society we have come to know and live upon.
One of the first known and recorded events of capital punishment date back to the 18th Century B.C. under the code of King Hammaurabi of Babylon, which labeled 25 crimes in which the death penalty would be given. (Randa, 1997) The crucifixion of Jesus Christ is also an extremely well known case in which capital punishment was given based solely on the belief of that one man. Cruel and unusual punishment was not a factor in who died, how they died, and/or why they were put to death. The ideology behind how society was, education level, and biasness towards the convicted were clear factors in sentencing and the outcome of the accused.
It was in 1972, that the United States of America received an eye opening case which marked the change to the way capital punishment would be regulated. William Henry Furman was convicted of armed robbery and murder in the state of Georgia which, at that time, had a law called the “Felony Murder Rule” making him eligible for the death penalty. (“Felony-Murder Rule”, n.d.) He was found guilty and indeed sentenced to death. An appeal to the Supreme Court however overturned the ruling stating that the sentence given was in violation of the Eighth and Fourteenth amendment. (Coenen, 2004) It was at this point that capital punishment was brought to the attention of the people as cruel and unusual punishment and demanded a change to the way capital punishment would be handled by judicial systems.
The case of Furman v. Georgia (1972), in my eyes, made a great impact on the way we conduct justice in the United States today. The Constitution and the Bill of Rights were made to preserve our rights as citizens and free us from total government control. That is exactly what this court case proved and now allows us to better understand what was meant and how to interpret cruel and unusual punishment better than what we did before. This court case has possibly saved hundreds to thousands of lives that would now be considered unnecessary to be taken. Another good outcome of this case isn’t the fact that capital punishment cannot be used, but actually the opposite. We now have better guidelines and policies that control how and when capital punishment can be used. These guidelines and policies could be related to the outcome of this trial because of the implementation of the Constitution written hundreds of years ago.
An argument that could be made from people that agree with the death penalty is the lack of justice that could reside from not imposing the death penalty where they thought would be just. They could argue the fact that the Constitution is all based on how the wording is perceived and that capital punishment is not… | 680 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It was 140 years ago today that the first passenger-carrying subway was opened in New York City. As an article at Wired reports, it was a demonstration project that ran from a station on Broadway, in the basement of Devlin’s Clothing Store, to Murray Street, a distance of a few hundred feet. The system, which featured pneumatic propulsion, much like the pneumatic tubes you can see today at bank drive-through windows, was built by Alfred Beach:
Beach first demonstrated pneumatic transit at the 1867 American Institute Fair, and sought to build a pneumatic transit system underground to relieve surface-level congestion with a system consisting of, in Beach’s words, merely “a tube, a car, a revolving fan!”
Beach had received permission to build a package delivery tunnel under Broadway, and quietly built his passenger line also. The station and passenger carriage were apparently quite well appointed, and touring the system and its tunnel were popular pastimes.
At the time, pneumatic propulsion was one of the contenders for building underground railways. In London, the idea was explored by the Post Office as a means of transporting mail across the central area, bypassing the congested streets; it was apparently a technical but not a commercial success. (A later version was built, starting in 1915, using electric traction.) The London Underground opened its first lines in 1863, but those initial segments (some of which are still part of the Metropolitan Line) were in shallow tunnels, built using “cut and cover” techniques, because initially steam traction was used, and thus adequate ventilation was quite important.
Unfortunately, nothing really came of Beach’s demonstration project. There was apparently some considerable political wrangling within the Tammany Hall machine of the time, and wealthy real estate owners preferred elevated railways, fearing that the boring of tunnels would damage their buildings’ foundations. Some of these elevated lines were built, but it would be 34 years before the Interborough Rapid Transit company opened the first underground subway line beneath Broadway. | <urn:uuid:afc05700-eb83-46d4-9bb3-69ce0680b2c9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://richg74.wordpress.com/2010/02/26/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00023.warc.gz | en | 0.980248 | 423 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.21490804... | 3 | It was 140 years ago today that the first passenger-carrying subway was opened in New York City. As an article at Wired reports, it was a demonstration project that ran from a station on Broadway, in the basement of Devlin’s Clothing Store, to Murray Street, a distance of a few hundred feet. The system, which featured pneumatic propulsion, much like the pneumatic tubes you can see today at bank drive-through windows, was built by Alfred Beach:
Beach first demonstrated pneumatic transit at the 1867 American Institute Fair, and sought to build a pneumatic transit system underground to relieve surface-level congestion with a system consisting of, in Beach’s words, merely “a tube, a car, a revolving fan!”
Beach had received permission to build a package delivery tunnel under Broadway, and quietly built his passenger line also. The station and passenger carriage were apparently quite well appointed, and touring the system and its tunnel were popular pastimes.
At the time, pneumatic propulsion was one of the contenders for building underground railways. In London, the idea was explored by the Post Office as a means of transporting mail across the central area, bypassing the congested streets; it was apparently a technical but not a commercial success. (A later version was built, starting in 1915, using electric traction.) The London Underground opened its first lines in 1863, but those initial segments (some of which are still part of the Metropolitan Line) were in shallow tunnels, built using “cut and cover” techniques, because initially steam traction was used, and thus adequate ventilation was quite important.
Unfortunately, nothing really came of Beach’s demonstration project. There was apparently some considerable political wrangling within the Tammany Hall machine of the time, and wealthy real estate owners preferred elevated railways, fearing that the boring of tunnels would damage their buildings’ foundations. Some of these elevated lines were built, but it would be 34 years before the Interborough Rapid Transit company opened the first underground subway line beneath Broadway. | 417 | ENGLISH | 1 |
David Crockett (August 17, 1786 – March 6, 1836) was an American folk hero, frontiersman, soldier, and politician. He is commonly referred to in popular culture by the epithet “King of the Wild Frontier”. He represented Tennessee in the U.S. House of Representatives and served in the Texas Revolution.
Crockett grew up in East Tennessee, where he gained a reputation for hunting and storytelling. He was made a colonel in the militia of Lawrence County, Tennessee and was elected to the Tennessee state legislature in 1821. In 1827, he was elected to the U.S. Congress where he vehemently opposed many of the policies of President Andrew Jackson, especially the Indian Removal Act. Crockett’s opposition to Jackson’s policies led to his defeat in the 1831 elections. He was re-elected in 1833, then narrowly lost in 1835, prompting his angry departure to Texas (then the Mexican state of Tejas) shortly thereafter. In early 1836, he took part in the Texas Revolution and was “likely” executed at the Battle of the Alamo after being captured by (and possibly surrendering to) the Mexican Army.Crockett became famous during his lifetime for larger-than-life exploits popularized by stage plays and almanacs. After his death, he continued to be credited with acts of mythical proportion. These led in the 20th century to television and movie portrayals, and he became one of the best-known American folk heroes. | <urn:uuid:9b8a55dd-7b34-4c8b-9459-25d9f49fb886> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://goodquotes.me/authors/davy-crockett/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00473.warc.gz | en | 0.987095 | 317 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.10355491936206818... | 2 | David Crockett (August 17, 1786 – March 6, 1836) was an American folk hero, frontiersman, soldier, and politician. He is commonly referred to in popular culture by the epithet “King of the Wild Frontier”. He represented Tennessee in the U.S. House of Representatives and served in the Texas Revolution.
Crockett grew up in East Tennessee, where he gained a reputation for hunting and storytelling. He was made a colonel in the militia of Lawrence County, Tennessee and was elected to the Tennessee state legislature in 1821. In 1827, he was elected to the U.S. Congress where he vehemently opposed many of the policies of President Andrew Jackson, especially the Indian Removal Act. Crockett’s opposition to Jackson’s policies led to his defeat in the 1831 elections. He was re-elected in 1833, then narrowly lost in 1835, prompting his angry departure to Texas (then the Mexican state of Tejas) shortly thereafter. In early 1836, he took part in the Texas Revolution and was “likely” executed at the Battle of the Alamo after being captured by (and possibly surrendering to) the Mexican Army.Crockett became famous during his lifetime for larger-than-life exploits popularized by stage plays and almanacs. After his death, he continued to be credited with acts of mythical proportion. These led in the 20th century to television and movie portrayals, and he became one of the best-known American folk heroes. | 329 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Life in the Shtetls—Russia in 1905 with Fiddler on the Roof
Posted on 12/09/2019
Learn what it was like to live in Russia the same time the characters in Fiddler on the Roof did before you come see the show yourself at State Theatre New Jersey December 20-22!
Living as a Russian Jew in the 19th and early 20th centuries was a challenge, but is remembered as a cultural phenomenon in history. Russian Jews were living in shtetls, which were small villages. The word “shtetl” is Yiddish and translates to “little town.” Shtetls were isolated from other vibrant towns and cities in Russia, as they were located on the western border of Russia. Russian Jews were ordered to live in these run-down areas by Catherine the Great in 1791 due to business competition and the increase of anti-Semitism. They became the home for Russian Jews and others for over a century.
Although shtetl means little town, history shows that hundreds and thousands of people could live in one shtetl together. Shtetls usually were made up of wooden houses, synagogues, study houses, a marketplace, and a Jewish cemetery. Because Russia was trying to drive out the Jews, some Christian churches could’ve also been found in shtetls. Shtetls were ran under a kahal, which means “community council." History also shows that Jews were not the only groups of people living in shtetls. Many non-Jews lived in shtetls, too. Because of this, no shtetl was a spitting image to another. Each shtetl was distinct in terms of dialect, politics, etc.
As the Russians feared that Jews were interfering with the country’s progress, the Jews were even more scared of the Russian government while they lived in shtetls. The Russian government would invade the shtetls and destroy homes and businesses at any time they pleased. These organized riots were known as pogroms, and they were so violent that they often led to injuries and deaths within the Russian Jewish community. Jews were never at ease while living in shtetls because a pogrom by the Russian government could happen at any minute.
Czar Alexander III implemented the May Laws in 1882, which isolated Russian Jews even further. Under these laws, they were not allowed to live anywhere outside of shtetls and nearby towns. They also had to follow some Christian customs, such as closing businesses on Sundays and Christian holidays. This new law resulted in poverty and hunger amongst the Jewish community.
Although Russian Jews struggled daily, they turned to their faith to find the bright sides about living in shtetls. They thrived on tradition, charity, and family values. They were also able to form close-knit communities, where every neighbor appreciated each other. No matter how hard things got for Russian Jews, they never forgot who they were, where they came from, or who means the most to them.
If you were a Russian Jew living in a shtetl in the western border of 1900s Russia, you would be speaking the Yiddish language. It is believed that Yiddish originated in Germany when Jews migrated there, and then moved more eastward towards Central and Eastern Europe. A production of Fiddler on the Roof is currently running in New York City, where the entire production is performed in the Yiddish language.
Shtetls are no longer around today. The shtetls were destroyed in the Holocaust by the Nazis, but by that time, millions of Jews emigrated or converted to Christainity. However, Fiddler on the Roof keeps the legacy of shtetls alive for audience members to learn about the little towns and to indulge themselves into a completely different setting, and for some, a different religion. Here is a virtual map showing all of the shtetls that once existed to learn more!
By Keriann Ring | <urn:uuid:44b5b5ed-dcf1-48c1-b6b8-51cdd8ce5b13> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.stnj.org/explore/magazine/article/19-12-09-Fiddler-Russia-Scene-Notes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00063.warc.gz | en | 0.98809 | 838 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.368346959352493... | 11 | Life in the Shtetls—Russia in 1905 with Fiddler on the Roof
Posted on 12/09/2019
Learn what it was like to live in Russia the same time the characters in Fiddler on the Roof did before you come see the show yourself at State Theatre New Jersey December 20-22!
Living as a Russian Jew in the 19th and early 20th centuries was a challenge, but is remembered as a cultural phenomenon in history. Russian Jews were living in shtetls, which were small villages. The word “shtetl” is Yiddish and translates to “little town.” Shtetls were isolated from other vibrant towns and cities in Russia, as they were located on the western border of Russia. Russian Jews were ordered to live in these run-down areas by Catherine the Great in 1791 due to business competition and the increase of anti-Semitism. They became the home for Russian Jews and others for over a century.
Although shtetl means little town, history shows that hundreds and thousands of people could live in one shtetl together. Shtetls usually were made up of wooden houses, synagogues, study houses, a marketplace, and a Jewish cemetery. Because Russia was trying to drive out the Jews, some Christian churches could’ve also been found in shtetls. Shtetls were ran under a kahal, which means “community council." History also shows that Jews were not the only groups of people living in shtetls. Many non-Jews lived in shtetls, too. Because of this, no shtetl was a spitting image to another. Each shtetl was distinct in terms of dialect, politics, etc.
As the Russians feared that Jews were interfering with the country’s progress, the Jews were even more scared of the Russian government while they lived in shtetls. The Russian government would invade the shtetls and destroy homes and businesses at any time they pleased. These organized riots were known as pogroms, and they were so violent that they often led to injuries and deaths within the Russian Jewish community. Jews were never at ease while living in shtetls because a pogrom by the Russian government could happen at any minute.
Czar Alexander III implemented the May Laws in 1882, which isolated Russian Jews even further. Under these laws, they were not allowed to live anywhere outside of shtetls and nearby towns. They also had to follow some Christian customs, such as closing businesses on Sundays and Christian holidays. This new law resulted in poverty and hunger amongst the Jewish community.
Although Russian Jews struggled daily, they turned to their faith to find the bright sides about living in shtetls. They thrived on tradition, charity, and family values. They were also able to form close-knit communities, where every neighbor appreciated each other. No matter how hard things got for Russian Jews, they never forgot who they were, where they came from, or who means the most to them.
If you were a Russian Jew living in a shtetl in the western border of 1900s Russia, you would be speaking the Yiddish language. It is believed that Yiddish originated in Germany when Jews migrated there, and then moved more eastward towards Central and Eastern Europe. A production of Fiddler on the Roof is currently running in New York City, where the entire production is performed in the Yiddish language.
Shtetls are no longer around today. The shtetls were destroyed in the Holocaust by the Nazis, but by that time, millions of Jews emigrated or converted to Christainity. However, Fiddler on the Roof keeps the legacy of shtetls alive for audience members to learn about the little towns and to indulge themselves into a completely different setting, and for some, a different religion. Here is a virtual map showing all of the shtetls that once existed to learn more!
By Keriann Ring | 849 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By: GABRIELLE MCKENZIE
Frederick Douglass was born into slavery just over 200 years ago in February 1818. After escaping in 1838, this former slave would become one of the most renowned abolitionists, orators, writers, and statesmen in centuries. Throughout his illustrious career, Douglass tirelessly advocated for equal rights for all. He took on the enormous challenge of convincing slavery’s beneficiaries that black people should be free; that slavery was wrong. Few could have imagined that the words of a self-taught slave born over 200 years ago would still resonate today.
Born a slave, Douglass was not allowed to attend school. He remained illiterate until the age of 12 when one of his masters’ wives taught him to read. Like many slave owners of the time, his master was incredibly threatened by the prospect of his slaves being empowered by an education; an uneducated slave was easier to control. When his master’s wife stopped tutoring him at the influence of her husband, Douglass secretly continued his studies on his own. Much to the dismay of other slave owners, Douglass also taught other slaves to read and write during Sunday school. Eventually, these classes were brutally disrupted, but Douglass continued teaching and preaching after he escaped.
Douglass crossed paths with Anna Murray, a woman who would soon change his life, in Maryland in 1837. History does not remember exactly how or where they met, but it does speak volumes to Murray’s influence on his life. She, a free-born domestic worker five years his senior, and he, still a slave, would eventually get married and start a family. Murray showed Douglass what the life of a free man could look like and inspired him to escape. With her encouragement and financial support, Douglass left his birthplace of Maryland for the free state of New York in September 1838. Behind the scenes, Murray was instrumental in shaping Douglass into the legend he would become.
As the years passed, Douglass’s talents became more well-known. Though he never attended school and essentially taught himself to read and write, Douglass’s name became synonymous with excellence in writing, speaking and teaching. He garnered massive support from other abolitionists in America and Europe. He even frequently corresponded with President Abraham Lincoln and urged him to end slavery and improve the treatment of black soldiers.
As a result of the influential writings he produced and the relationships he garnered, Douglass was entrusted with several monumental speaking engagements. In April 1876, Douglass delivered the keynote speech at the opening of the Emancipation Memorial in Lincoln Park. Just a couple of months later in June 1876, Douglass was invited to speak at the 1876 National Republican Convention. It was there where he spoke the words:
“You say you have emancipated us. You have; and I thank you for it. […] But what is your emancipation? […] [W]hen you turned us loose, you gave us no acres. You turned us loose to the sky, to the storm, to the whirlwind, and, worst of all, you turned us loose to the wrath of our infuriated masters.” -Frederick Douglass, 1876.
His speech describes the extraordinary circumstances under which black people were “emancipated.” The challenges faced after the faulty emancipation of African slaves still impact black Americans to this day. Newly freed black members of society were denied equal access employment, housing, education, and other forms of wealth. Among other things, these challenges resonate in poverty levels and persistent institutional racism.
Similar challenges exist with emancipated human trafficking survivors today. Although applied to a different context, the words of Frederick Douglass very powerfully describe the experience of survivors both then and now. While human trafficking takes a different form than historic slavery in Douglass’s era, his words from his 1876 speech insists we remember that freedom without the proper support does not lead to flourishing. Too often, survivors make it out of a trafficking situation with nowhere to go and no resources to help them re-acclimate into society, often only to end up victimized again. Additionally, with traffickers rarely facing punishment, a freed survivor may always have to live with the constant fear of their trafficker or tormentor finding them again and dragging them back into a life of bondage.
Douglass reminds us that in order to help someone who was once in a position of oppression, we must take into consideration all aspects of their well-being after their escape. While the first step of freedom is certainly essential, it is not enough to stop there. His words also remind us to take a holistic approach to combating slavery in all of its forms. At the Human Trafficking Institute, we keep these words in mind as we strive to ensure that emancipation is a reality rather than a mere declaration. | <urn:uuid:56ce304c-0853-44bb-b020-fea43f8c83bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.traffickinginstitute.org/incontext-frederick-douglass-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00480.warc.gz | en | 0.982459 | 1,000 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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0.05708781629... | 8 | By: GABRIELLE MCKENZIE
Frederick Douglass was born into slavery just over 200 years ago in February 1818. After escaping in 1838, this former slave would become one of the most renowned abolitionists, orators, writers, and statesmen in centuries. Throughout his illustrious career, Douglass tirelessly advocated for equal rights for all. He took on the enormous challenge of convincing slavery’s beneficiaries that black people should be free; that slavery was wrong. Few could have imagined that the words of a self-taught slave born over 200 years ago would still resonate today.
Born a slave, Douglass was not allowed to attend school. He remained illiterate until the age of 12 when one of his masters’ wives taught him to read. Like many slave owners of the time, his master was incredibly threatened by the prospect of his slaves being empowered by an education; an uneducated slave was easier to control. When his master’s wife stopped tutoring him at the influence of her husband, Douglass secretly continued his studies on his own. Much to the dismay of other slave owners, Douglass also taught other slaves to read and write during Sunday school. Eventually, these classes were brutally disrupted, but Douglass continued teaching and preaching after he escaped.
Douglass crossed paths with Anna Murray, a woman who would soon change his life, in Maryland in 1837. History does not remember exactly how or where they met, but it does speak volumes to Murray’s influence on his life. She, a free-born domestic worker five years his senior, and he, still a slave, would eventually get married and start a family. Murray showed Douglass what the life of a free man could look like and inspired him to escape. With her encouragement and financial support, Douglass left his birthplace of Maryland for the free state of New York in September 1838. Behind the scenes, Murray was instrumental in shaping Douglass into the legend he would become.
As the years passed, Douglass’s talents became more well-known. Though he never attended school and essentially taught himself to read and write, Douglass’s name became synonymous with excellence in writing, speaking and teaching. He garnered massive support from other abolitionists in America and Europe. He even frequently corresponded with President Abraham Lincoln and urged him to end slavery and improve the treatment of black soldiers.
As a result of the influential writings he produced and the relationships he garnered, Douglass was entrusted with several monumental speaking engagements. In April 1876, Douglass delivered the keynote speech at the opening of the Emancipation Memorial in Lincoln Park. Just a couple of months later in June 1876, Douglass was invited to speak at the 1876 National Republican Convention. It was there where he spoke the words:
“You say you have emancipated us. You have; and I thank you for it. […] But what is your emancipation? […] [W]hen you turned us loose, you gave us no acres. You turned us loose to the sky, to the storm, to the whirlwind, and, worst of all, you turned us loose to the wrath of our infuriated masters.” -Frederick Douglass, 1876.
His speech describes the extraordinary circumstances under which black people were “emancipated.” The challenges faced after the faulty emancipation of African slaves still impact black Americans to this day. Newly freed black members of society were denied equal access employment, housing, education, and other forms of wealth. Among other things, these challenges resonate in poverty levels and persistent institutional racism.
Similar challenges exist with emancipated human trafficking survivors today. Although applied to a different context, the words of Frederick Douglass very powerfully describe the experience of survivors both then and now. While human trafficking takes a different form than historic slavery in Douglass’s era, his words from his 1876 speech insists we remember that freedom without the proper support does not lead to flourishing. Too often, survivors make it out of a trafficking situation with nowhere to go and no resources to help them re-acclimate into society, often only to end up victimized again. Additionally, with traffickers rarely facing punishment, a freed survivor may always have to live with the constant fear of their trafficker or tormentor finding them again and dragging them back into a life of bondage.
Douglass reminds us that in order to help someone who was once in a position of oppression, we must take into consideration all aspects of their well-being after their escape. While the first step of freedom is certainly essential, it is not enough to stop there. His words also remind us to take a holistic approach to combating slavery in all of its forms. At the Human Trafficking Institute, we keep these words in mind as we strive to ensure that emancipation is a reality rather than a mere declaration. | 1,010 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Mounted Riflemen in Sinai and Palestine: The Story of New Zealand's Crusaders
The formation adopted by the Brigade for its own protection when moving across the Desert, liable at any time to attack by the enemy, was what is now known as the "screen" formation. This method was adopted as the result of Desert experience, and, in the wide unenclosed spaces traversed, proved most efficacious. The advance guard threw out a long screen of men riding some distance apart from each other, who moved forward as feelers on a wide front. From each flank of this moving screen the flank guards were strung out to the rear in another thin line of horse-men, the rear of the force being protected in like manner.
Some distance inside the screens moved the main body, while between it and the long line of scouts were the troops acting in support of the screen. Usually each four men in the scouting line were supported by the remainder of their troop some distance behind them. On the advanced screen of scouts being held up by enemy fire, these supporting troops would be thrown into the part of the line that was menaced with the object of breaking down the page 50opposition and allowing the main force to continue its progress without wasting valuable time in deployment. On coming into contact with a strong body of the enemy, such as in the early stages of a general engagement, the line formed by the screen and its supports would be gradually built up from the rear, as the main body deployed and came into action.
It was from Mustagidda, the last bivouac occupied in this stage of the Desert Campaign, that the New Zealand Brigade made its descent on El Arish, a spot on the coast held by the Turks, long desired by the British. At the time the Brigade moved out from the bivouac it was not known that a march on El Arish was immediately contemplated—all hands thought this was merely another step forward in the Desert to a bivouac a few miles further on. The Christmas mail from home had just been received, and as the column moved out many men resembled travelling Christmas trees, with parcels containing the good things from New Zealand tied all over themselves and horses. Many also carried long "bivvy" sticks for rigging up their next temporary blanket shelter, and these sticking up in the air enhanced the general comical effect. "When it became known that the column was bound for El Arish, where fighting was expected, parcels, sticks, and all other unnecessary gear were shed right and left into the Desert, until everyone was in fighting trim. This necessitated later page 51the telling of many "white lies" in letters home as to the enjoyment of cakes and other good things that were never eaten.
The march on El Arish, a distance of thirty-five miles through the heavy sand, was done in the one night, straight across the Desert on a compass bearing. By those knowing the Desert, and the difficulties of keeping direction, it was recognized as a fine piece of work, and a credit to the young officer who so ably led the column. Contrary to expectations, El Arish was occupied without opposition from the Turks, who had just evacuated it, this making another big step forward for the British troops in the Desert.
The New Zealand Brigade was at this time part of what was known as the Desert Column, under General Sir Philip Chetwoode; this was later, with the addition of other troops, formed into the Desert Mounted Corps, and came under the command of General Sir H. Chauvel.
Leaving El Arish on 22nd December, 1916, a bitterly cold night, the Brigade marched down the Wady El Arish, the River of Egypt of ancient history. This was the first occasion on which the horses had been on hard ground since leaving the Suez Canal. Marching all night, and covering a distance of nearly thirty miles, the New Zealanders shortly after dawn came into collision with the Turks at Magh Daba. After a stiff engagement the place fell into the hands of the Desert Column, which was thus page 52another and important step forward in the campaign to reach the Holy Land; Magh Daba forming, with Rafa, one of the southern outposts of the Turkish Empire.
After the battle at Magh Daba the New Zealanders moved back to El Arish, where they spent Christmas and New Year in bivouac on the beach beside the Mediterranean—the weather, unfortunately, being cold and wet, it being then the middle of the rainy season.
When the Brigade moved back, one regiment was left behind on the scene of the action to clean up, bury the dead, and escort the convoys of wounded back to El Arish. Leaving Magh Daba late in the afternoon, night soon fell, and it was finally decided to camp till daylight. This was on Christmas Eve, which could have been spent in more festive places than the barren gloom of the Desert. Moving at dawn, the bivouac area was soon reached by daylight, where a very tame Christmas was experienced. The central item in the menu was good old "high explosive" army "duff," practically everyone having shed their Christmas gifts, received at Mustagidda, into the Desert on the night of the advance.
It was when our men were in a bivouac, such as that at El Arish, for a brief spell, that neighbouring dumps of Army Service Corps supplies got a bad time. Every New Zealander considered himself in honour bound to "pinch" extra fodder for his horse, to supplement the page 53light ration, so that dumps, even when under guard, were mysteriously depleted of large quantities of tibbin and grain. The more daring spirits aimed at liberally supplementing their own rations as well, and resorted to many ingenious devices towards this end; particularly when such sought-after supplies as condensed milk and rum were known to exist in a nearby dump in any quantify.
The matter of the guard had to be considered—if they could not be "squared" they must be bluffed. The writer knows of one instance in which the guard on the dump at El Arish were Scotties—always the friends of the New Zealanders. Two mounted riflemen, cheery souls, who had "inside information" as to the contents of the dump, engaged the Scottish sentry in talk one evening. After some time a mutual agreement was entered into, the gist of which was, that the descent on the rum known to exist in cases nearby, should coincide with the moment that the sentry reached the most distant point of his beat. This arrangement worked satisfactorily, and the two adventurers each succeeded in getting clear with a fat, heavy case of promising appearance. After having carried the two cases, with much exertion, perhaps two miles along the beach, suspicions arose regarding their contents, and the foragers decided to sample them. Breaking both cases open, great was their disgust to find them containing a compressed dry ration of page 54uninviting appearance, instead of the cheering liquid in jars that they had hoped for.
A trick practised with success by a Colonial horseman one day whilst working with others in a fatigue party, handling stores at a dump, was rather well executed. Waiting till the eye of authority was elsewhere, he dropped a case of tinned milk on its corner "good and hard." His mates, who had been previously rehearsed in their part, quickly gathered the scattered tins from the broken case and concealed them in their clothes. Then, with the most innocent air in the world, and a punctilious salute to the English officer in charge of the dump, this unblinking rascal asked, and obtained, permission to take away the smashed case "he had found" for firewood!
While at El Arish, a "de-lousing" parade was held. These parades were held at odd times when opportunities offered, and were often most amusing. All of a man's wearing apparel, and his blanket, would be put in big batches into a steam disinfector. There it would remain for about twenty minutes, when it would be supposed to be cleared of lice or other vermin—the writer one day heard a man remark that this treatment merely "refreshed them!" The steam disinfectors were either portable, or if on the railway, closed iron cars fitted with shelves and supplied with steam from an old engine.
On this day at El Arish, numbers of men page 55had stripped, and were waiting in most airy attire beside their horses until their clothing should be "cooked." Suddenly a "Jacko" aeroplane appeared, which shortly afterwards dropped a bomb not far from the disinfector. Then ensued a scene that baffles description, as men in all stages of deshabille, from a shirt to nothing at all, sprang on to their horses and scattered for their lives in all directions. It is perhaps superfluous to add that the humour of the situation was only appreciated afterwards.
Something should be said of the work of the Egyptian Labour Corps in this campaign. Thousands of natives, conscripted for terms of a few months, from Egypt, were constantly employed on railway construction. Without this native labour it would have been impossible to have pushed the railway across the Desert in rear of the troops as was done. "When their term of service expired, they could be seen going down the line singing and waving flags like children, as the train bore them towards their homes. As one lot returned to Egypt, their places would be filled by others, and so, throughout the operations, a big body of these natives was constantly at work.
During construction work at El Arish, an enemy aeroplane came over one day. On the sounding of the aeroplane alarm, a mob of these natives made a dive for the shelter of a cutting. The Turk dropped a bomb fairly in the midst of them, killing twenty-seven, and making a horrible mess.page 56
The British surveyors were enterprising, and mapped out the course the line was to take miles ahead of the construction gangs, under the protection of patrols and posts thrown out beyond the British main positions. In parts the Turkish patrols would often remove their survey pegs during the night. Had they gone deeper, however, these smart "Jackoes" would have found that the real pegs, from which the levels were taken, were beneath the ones they made away with, these last being mere "blinds." | <urn:uuid:ce05f225-5359-47db-b879-ce80099d9273> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1MRif-t1-body-d6.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00153.warc.gz | en | 0.984138 | 2,163 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.2215561419725... | 2 | The Mounted Riflemen in Sinai and Palestine: The Story of New Zealand's Crusaders
The formation adopted by the Brigade for its own protection when moving across the Desert, liable at any time to attack by the enemy, was what is now known as the "screen" formation. This method was adopted as the result of Desert experience, and, in the wide unenclosed spaces traversed, proved most efficacious. The advance guard threw out a long screen of men riding some distance apart from each other, who moved forward as feelers on a wide front. From each flank of this moving screen the flank guards were strung out to the rear in another thin line of horse-men, the rear of the force being protected in like manner.
Some distance inside the screens moved the main body, while between it and the long line of scouts were the troops acting in support of the screen. Usually each four men in the scouting line were supported by the remainder of their troop some distance behind them. On the advanced screen of scouts being held up by enemy fire, these supporting troops would be thrown into the part of the line that was menaced with the object of breaking down the page 50opposition and allowing the main force to continue its progress without wasting valuable time in deployment. On coming into contact with a strong body of the enemy, such as in the early stages of a general engagement, the line formed by the screen and its supports would be gradually built up from the rear, as the main body deployed and came into action.
It was from Mustagidda, the last bivouac occupied in this stage of the Desert Campaign, that the New Zealand Brigade made its descent on El Arish, a spot on the coast held by the Turks, long desired by the British. At the time the Brigade moved out from the bivouac it was not known that a march on El Arish was immediately contemplated—all hands thought this was merely another step forward in the Desert to a bivouac a few miles further on. The Christmas mail from home had just been received, and as the column moved out many men resembled travelling Christmas trees, with parcels containing the good things from New Zealand tied all over themselves and horses. Many also carried long "bivvy" sticks for rigging up their next temporary blanket shelter, and these sticking up in the air enhanced the general comical effect. "When it became known that the column was bound for El Arish, where fighting was expected, parcels, sticks, and all other unnecessary gear were shed right and left into the Desert, until everyone was in fighting trim. This necessitated later page 51the telling of many "white lies" in letters home as to the enjoyment of cakes and other good things that were never eaten.
The march on El Arish, a distance of thirty-five miles through the heavy sand, was done in the one night, straight across the Desert on a compass bearing. By those knowing the Desert, and the difficulties of keeping direction, it was recognized as a fine piece of work, and a credit to the young officer who so ably led the column. Contrary to expectations, El Arish was occupied without opposition from the Turks, who had just evacuated it, this making another big step forward for the British troops in the Desert.
The New Zealand Brigade was at this time part of what was known as the Desert Column, under General Sir Philip Chetwoode; this was later, with the addition of other troops, formed into the Desert Mounted Corps, and came under the command of General Sir H. Chauvel.
Leaving El Arish on 22nd December, 1916, a bitterly cold night, the Brigade marched down the Wady El Arish, the River of Egypt of ancient history. This was the first occasion on which the horses had been on hard ground since leaving the Suez Canal. Marching all night, and covering a distance of nearly thirty miles, the New Zealanders shortly after dawn came into collision with the Turks at Magh Daba. After a stiff engagement the place fell into the hands of the Desert Column, which was thus page 52another and important step forward in the campaign to reach the Holy Land; Magh Daba forming, with Rafa, one of the southern outposts of the Turkish Empire.
After the battle at Magh Daba the New Zealanders moved back to El Arish, where they spent Christmas and New Year in bivouac on the beach beside the Mediterranean—the weather, unfortunately, being cold and wet, it being then the middle of the rainy season.
When the Brigade moved back, one regiment was left behind on the scene of the action to clean up, bury the dead, and escort the convoys of wounded back to El Arish. Leaving Magh Daba late in the afternoon, night soon fell, and it was finally decided to camp till daylight. This was on Christmas Eve, which could have been spent in more festive places than the barren gloom of the Desert. Moving at dawn, the bivouac area was soon reached by daylight, where a very tame Christmas was experienced. The central item in the menu was good old "high explosive" army "duff," practically everyone having shed their Christmas gifts, received at Mustagidda, into the Desert on the night of the advance.
It was when our men were in a bivouac, such as that at El Arish, for a brief spell, that neighbouring dumps of Army Service Corps supplies got a bad time. Every New Zealander considered himself in honour bound to "pinch" extra fodder for his horse, to supplement the page 53light ration, so that dumps, even when under guard, were mysteriously depleted of large quantities of tibbin and grain. The more daring spirits aimed at liberally supplementing their own rations as well, and resorted to many ingenious devices towards this end; particularly when such sought-after supplies as condensed milk and rum were known to exist in a nearby dump in any quantify.
The matter of the guard had to be considered—if they could not be "squared" they must be bluffed. The writer knows of one instance in which the guard on the dump at El Arish were Scotties—always the friends of the New Zealanders. Two mounted riflemen, cheery souls, who had "inside information" as to the contents of the dump, engaged the Scottish sentry in talk one evening. After some time a mutual agreement was entered into, the gist of which was, that the descent on the rum known to exist in cases nearby, should coincide with the moment that the sentry reached the most distant point of his beat. This arrangement worked satisfactorily, and the two adventurers each succeeded in getting clear with a fat, heavy case of promising appearance. After having carried the two cases, with much exertion, perhaps two miles along the beach, suspicions arose regarding their contents, and the foragers decided to sample them. Breaking both cases open, great was their disgust to find them containing a compressed dry ration of page 54uninviting appearance, instead of the cheering liquid in jars that they had hoped for.
A trick practised with success by a Colonial horseman one day whilst working with others in a fatigue party, handling stores at a dump, was rather well executed. Waiting till the eye of authority was elsewhere, he dropped a case of tinned milk on its corner "good and hard." His mates, who had been previously rehearsed in their part, quickly gathered the scattered tins from the broken case and concealed them in their clothes. Then, with the most innocent air in the world, and a punctilious salute to the English officer in charge of the dump, this unblinking rascal asked, and obtained, permission to take away the smashed case "he had found" for firewood!
While at El Arish, a "de-lousing" parade was held. These parades were held at odd times when opportunities offered, and were often most amusing. All of a man's wearing apparel, and his blanket, would be put in big batches into a steam disinfector. There it would remain for about twenty minutes, when it would be supposed to be cleared of lice or other vermin—the writer one day heard a man remark that this treatment merely "refreshed them!" The steam disinfectors were either portable, or if on the railway, closed iron cars fitted with shelves and supplied with steam from an old engine.
On this day at El Arish, numbers of men page 55had stripped, and were waiting in most airy attire beside their horses until their clothing should be "cooked." Suddenly a "Jacko" aeroplane appeared, which shortly afterwards dropped a bomb not far from the disinfector. Then ensued a scene that baffles description, as men in all stages of deshabille, from a shirt to nothing at all, sprang on to their horses and scattered for their lives in all directions. It is perhaps superfluous to add that the humour of the situation was only appreciated afterwards.
Something should be said of the work of the Egyptian Labour Corps in this campaign. Thousands of natives, conscripted for terms of a few months, from Egypt, were constantly employed on railway construction. Without this native labour it would have been impossible to have pushed the railway across the Desert in rear of the troops as was done. "When their term of service expired, they could be seen going down the line singing and waving flags like children, as the train bore them towards their homes. As one lot returned to Egypt, their places would be filled by others, and so, throughout the operations, a big body of these natives was constantly at work.
During construction work at El Arish, an enemy aeroplane came over one day. On the sounding of the aeroplane alarm, a mob of these natives made a dive for the shelter of a cutting. The Turk dropped a bomb fairly in the midst of them, killing twenty-seven, and making a horrible mess.page 56
The British surveyors were enterprising, and mapped out the course the line was to take miles ahead of the construction gangs, under the protection of patrols and posts thrown out beyond the British main positions. In parts the Turkish patrols would often remove their survey pegs during the night. Had they gone deeper, however, these smart "Jackoes" would have found that the real pegs, from which the levels were taken, were beneath the ones they made away with, these last being mere "blinds." | 2,167 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay on Langston Hughes As A Poet
He also translated into English the works of foreign poets. Hughes was one of the first black writers who could support himself by his writings. He is praised for his ability to say what was important to millions of blacks. Hughes produced a huge amount of work during his lifetime. He also has influenced the work of many other writers. He wrote for almost fifty years. Langston Hughes was famous for his descriptions of black American life. He used his work to praise his people and voice his concerns about race and social injustice. His work is known all around the world and has been translated into many languages. Hughes’s poetry had serious messages. He often wrote about racial issues, describing his people in realistic way.
Although his story was not often pleasant, he told it with understanding and with hope.
James Mercer Langston Hughes, also known as Langston Hughes was an African
American. Langston was born in 1902, in Joplin, Missouri to James and Carrie Hughes.
Langston father left him and his mother when Langston was still a little boy. Most of Hughes’ time as a child was spent with his grandmother because his mom was always out working and supporting the family. She told him stories about their family and their fight to end slavery. Her storytelling filled him with… | <urn:uuid:540e96da-16c2-4bb8-95ff-34c903d5575a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/Langston-Hughes-As-A-Poet/P32YG653GY3W | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00181.warc.gz | en | 0.997675 | 274 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.32918325066566... | 1 | Essay on Langston Hughes As A Poet
He also translated into English the works of foreign poets. Hughes was one of the first black writers who could support himself by his writings. He is praised for his ability to say what was important to millions of blacks. Hughes produced a huge amount of work during his lifetime. He also has influenced the work of many other writers. He wrote for almost fifty years. Langston Hughes was famous for his descriptions of black American life. He used his work to praise his people and voice his concerns about race and social injustice. His work is known all around the world and has been translated into many languages. Hughes’s poetry had serious messages. He often wrote about racial issues, describing his people in realistic way.
Although his story was not often pleasant, he told it with understanding and with hope.
James Mercer Langston Hughes, also known as Langston Hughes was an African
American. Langston was born in 1902, in Joplin, Missouri to James and Carrie Hughes.
Langston father left him and his mother when Langston was still a little boy. Most of Hughes’ time as a child was spent with his grandmother because his mom was always out working and supporting the family. She told him stories about their family and their fight to end slavery. Her storytelling filled him with… | 270 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How to help kids with homework
As the school year begins, so does the homework season. But homework doesn't just involve students -- parents also should play a role.
According to the U.S. Department of Education, parents should assist their children in daily homework by making sure they have a quiet, well-lit place to complete their assignments.
Parents should also make sure their child has all of the materials he or she needs to complete their homework and they should also help them manage their time to make sure assignments get completed on time.
The U.S. Department of Education also tells parents to know when to help and when to watch. It recommends that parents guide their child without giving them the answers. It also says that when a child brings home an assignment that requires parental involvement, make sure you participate.
It's also important to encourage your child while they do their homework, the U.S. Department of Education says. It suggests to praise your child for good work and to also be aware of their frustration level or when they are struggling to understand an assignment. The U.S. Department of Education also recommends staying in touch with your child's teacher so you know what the assignments are and what they are meant to teach.
The U.S. Department of Education also offers specific tips on aiding your child with reading and math homework.
When working on reading, the U.S. Department of Education suggests having your child read to you aloud every night in a quiet place free from distractions. As they read, point out their mistakes and help them to read it correctly. When they make a mistake, have them re-read the entire sentence, including the new word. The U.S. Department of Education also recommends working with your child on their reading comprehension skills as you read together. To do this, ask your child to give a brief summary of what he or she just read. Also ask questions about the characters in the story and have them make predictions as to what they think will happen next.
One of the most frustrating subjects for children to learn can be math. To help ease the difficulty, the U.S. Department of Education recommends that parents check in with their child every night to see what homework assignment they have so that you stay current on what material they are learning. When helping your child with an assignment, the U.S. Department of Education suggests that you guide your child using the format his or her teacher has taught them, as shortcuts and new methods could just confuse them further. It is also recommended that parents stay in contact with teachers so they know how their child is doing in class and that they arrange for afterschool tutoring sessions when needed.
Source: U.S. Department of Education | <urn:uuid:cbe93472-7be1-4249-ad18-18ce3cd18d21> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.clickondetroit.com/digital%20life%20365/2016/12/19/how-to-help-kids-with-homework/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00068.warc.gz | en | 0.98335 | 556 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.5669100284576... | 2 | How to help kids with homework
As the school year begins, so does the homework season. But homework doesn't just involve students -- parents also should play a role.
According to the U.S. Department of Education, parents should assist their children in daily homework by making sure they have a quiet, well-lit place to complete their assignments.
Parents should also make sure their child has all of the materials he or she needs to complete their homework and they should also help them manage their time to make sure assignments get completed on time.
The U.S. Department of Education also tells parents to know when to help and when to watch. It recommends that parents guide their child without giving them the answers. It also says that when a child brings home an assignment that requires parental involvement, make sure you participate.
It's also important to encourage your child while they do their homework, the U.S. Department of Education says. It suggests to praise your child for good work and to also be aware of their frustration level or when they are struggling to understand an assignment. The U.S. Department of Education also recommends staying in touch with your child's teacher so you know what the assignments are and what they are meant to teach.
The U.S. Department of Education also offers specific tips on aiding your child with reading and math homework.
When working on reading, the U.S. Department of Education suggests having your child read to you aloud every night in a quiet place free from distractions. As they read, point out their mistakes and help them to read it correctly. When they make a mistake, have them re-read the entire sentence, including the new word. The U.S. Department of Education also recommends working with your child on their reading comprehension skills as you read together. To do this, ask your child to give a brief summary of what he or she just read. Also ask questions about the characters in the story and have them make predictions as to what they think will happen next.
One of the most frustrating subjects for children to learn can be math. To help ease the difficulty, the U.S. Department of Education recommends that parents check in with their child every night to see what homework assignment they have so that you stay current on what material they are learning. When helping your child with an assignment, the U.S. Department of Education suggests that you guide your child using the format his or her teacher has taught them, as shortcuts and new methods could just confuse them further. It is also recommended that parents stay in contact with teachers so they know how their child is doing in class and that they arrange for afterschool tutoring sessions when needed.
Source: U.S. Department of Education | 537 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The British had successfully routed his troops and captured his Buck’s county home.
His Bucks County neighbors were generally loyal to the Crown.
He had second thoughts about fighting for the Continental cause.
He would fight back with techniques similar to those of the British.
A continental soldier’s life was not valued.
The paper Continental currency was worthless compared to British coins.
The American colonies were not worth fighting over.
The Continental soldiers were inferior to British soldiers.
Encampment of the Continental Army at Valley Forge
Defense at the Crooked Billet
British occupation of Philadelphia
American victory at the Battle of Valley Forge
Surround Philadelphia to attack the British garrison.
Prevent farmers from supplying the British with food and supplies.
Fool the British as to the whereabouts of the main encampment.
All of the above are correct.
The scouting parties left late because, many of the men overslept.
The scouting parties mistook the British for a column of their own men.
Lieutenant Nelson failed to follow orders to direct his men to fire warning shots.
The orders were confused and the scouting parties began to assemble an hour late.
All three of the scouting parties failed to spot the British.
Both of the men sent back to warn the camp deserted.
Nelson was discharged from service.
The camp was not warned in time to prepare for the attack.
The camp was alerted sooner than if Nelson had followed orders.
Nelson was promoted to commanding officer.
Nelson was court marshaled.
All of the soldiers killed in action were identified and buried by their families.
It is unlikely that a soldier from upstate New York was in the Battle of the Crooked Billet, because only local militia was involved.
Although some soldiers were wounded, there is no record of any deaths at the Battle of The Crooked Billet.
It would have been considered blasphemy in colonial times to disturb a grave.
The British hoped that the scouting parties would not warn the camp.
The British did not realize that Lacy had knowledge of their plan from spies working in the area.
The British thought that Lacy was dependent on the Continental Army and would retreat to the main camp at Valley Forge.
The British assumed that the ambush site would be deserted, when in fact it was occupied by a strong column of Continental Regulars.
The baggage train
The scouting parties
The infantry units
The cavalry unit
The Continental Regulars
The British Regulars
The Continental Militia
The Loyalist Militia
A bounty in gold had been placed on the heads of militiamen by the British Crown.
Many in the area were loyal to the crown and spared no quarter towards those who were not.
Under British law, a loyalist could seize the land of rebel he kills in action.
The militiaman had stolen his neighbor’s donkey and four ducks.
Lacy rebuilt his camp within 48 hours and continued with his mission to harass the enemy.
The British attack alerted Washington to danger and prevented the British from attacking the main camp at Valley Forge.
The area of Bucks and Montgomery Counties where the battle took place had no strategic importance to either side.
Although the British killed some men and took some supplies, they failed to take the field.
All of the wagons and supplies were set ablaze.
The supplies were sold and each soldier was paid a bonus.
The supplies were donated to the Red Cross and given to local loyalist families.
The British returned the wagons and supplies to the farmers.
The obituary was printed by a loyalist newspaper who wanted to frighten the population from joining with the rebels.
The obituary was printed by a Continental newspaper that used it as propaganda to enrage the populace against the British.
It was common to be graphic in obituaries during colonial period and there is likely no political agenda behind the article.
The obituary was created by the filmmakers to sensationalize the event.
Lacy’s troops were taken off guard.
The attack completely decimated Lacy’s command.
Many of those killed were reportedly brutalized and burnt alive.
It was a major tactical error for Washington to assign a small force of militia to such a strategic area.
The brutality inflamed outrage against the British and garnished local support for the rebel cause.
The violence made the King of England question his policies towards the Continentals.
The violence against his own troops permitted Washington to justify the use of “savage tactics” against British soldiers and loyalists.
The brutality resulted in the Geneva Convention. | <urn:uuid:688049a8-9f51-4d83-b69c-11d5cf829d32> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/story.php?title=the-battle-of-crooked-billet | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00501.warc.gz | en | 0.980857 | 963 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.110617987811565... | 1 | The British had successfully routed his troops and captured his Buck’s county home.
His Bucks County neighbors were generally loyal to the Crown.
He had second thoughts about fighting for the Continental cause.
He would fight back with techniques similar to those of the British.
A continental soldier’s life was not valued.
The paper Continental currency was worthless compared to British coins.
The American colonies were not worth fighting over.
The Continental soldiers were inferior to British soldiers.
Encampment of the Continental Army at Valley Forge
Defense at the Crooked Billet
British occupation of Philadelphia
American victory at the Battle of Valley Forge
Surround Philadelphia to attack the British garrison.
Prevent farmers from supplying the British with food and supplies.
Fool the British as to the whereabouts of the main encampment.
All of the above are correct.
The scouting parties left late because, many of the men overslept.
The scouting parties mistook the British for a column of their own men.
Lieutenant Nelson failed to follow orders to direct his men to fire warning shots.
The orders were confused and the scouting parties began to assemble an hour late.
All three of the scouting parties failed to spot the British.
Both of the men sent back to warn the camp deserted.
Nelson was discharged from service.
The camp was not warned in time to prepare for the attack.
The camp was alerted sooner than if Nelson had followed orders.
Nelson was promoted to commanding officer.
Nelson was court marshaled.
All of the soldiers killed in action were identified and buried by their families.
It is unlikely that a soldier from upstate New York was in the Battle of the Crooked Billet, because only local militia was involved.
Although some soldiers were wounded, there is no record of any deaths at the Battle of The Crooked Billet.
It would have been considered blasphemy in colonial times to disturb a grave.
The British hoped that the scouting parties would not warn the camp.
The British did not realize that Lacy had knowledge of their plan from spies working in the area.
The British thought that Lacy was dependent on the Continental Army and would retreat to the main camp at Valley Forge.
The British assumed that the ambush site would be deserted, when in fact it was occupied by a strong column of Continental Regulars.
The baggage train
The scouting parties
The infantry units
The cavalry unit
The Continental Regulars
The British Regulars
The Continental Militia
The Loyalist Militia
A bounty in gold had been placed on the heads of militiamen by the British Crown.
Many in the area were loyal to the crown and spared no quarter towards those who were not.
Under British law, a loyalist could seize the land of rebel he kills in action.
The militiaman had stolen his neighbor’s donkey and four ducks.
Lacy rebuilt his camp within 48 hours and continued with his mission to harass the enemy.
The British attack alerted Washington to danger and prevented the British from attacking the main camp at Valley Forge.
The area of Bucks and Montgomery Counties where the battle took place had no strategic importance to either side.
Although the British killed some men and took some supplies, they failed to take the field.
All of the wagons and supplies were set ablaze.
The supplies were sold and each soldier was paid a bonus.
The supplies were donated to the Red Cross and given to local loyalist families.
The British returned the wagons and supplies to the farmers.
The obituary was printed by a loyalist newspaper who wanted to frighten the population from joining with the rebels.
The obituary was printed by a Continental newspaper that used it as propaganda to enrage the populace against the British.
It was common to be graphic in obituaries during colonial period and there is likely no political agenda behind the article.
The obituary was created by the filmmakers to sensationalize the event.
Lacy’s troops were taken off guard.
The attack completely decimated Lacy’s command.
Many of those killed were reportedly brutalized and burnt alive.
It was a major tactical error for Washington to assign a small force of militia to such a strategic area.
The brutality inflamed outrage against the British and garnished local support for the rebel cause.
The violence made the King of England question his policies towards the Continentals.
The violence against his own troops permitted Washington to justify the use of “savage tactics” against British soldiers and loyalists.
The brutality resulted in the Geneva Convention. | 905 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Abraham Lincoln was the sixteenth president of the United States of America. Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, and died on April 15, 1865. As a young child, Abraham lived in a log cabin in Illinois. Around the age of twelve he began working, wielding an ax, building fences, and cutting wood. Later, Abraham Lincoln married a woman named Mary Todd; together they had four children. Lincoln started his presidency on March 18, 1861, but his term was cut short on April 14, 1865, by the assassin John Wilkes Booth (Abraham).
John Wilkes Booth was born on May 10, 1838, and lived in Maryland. Booth was the eighth of ten children living in his home in the northern part of Maryland. John Wilkes Booth was executed on April 26, 1865, for the act of treason against the United States of America for assassinating President Abraham Lincoln (John).
While Lincoln was serving in the 1860’s, a war broke out between the North and South, also known as the Civil War. This war started over control of nations, but later turned into an argument of slavery. President Lincoln was a strong believer in giving everyone the right to freedom. In a letter addressed to H.L. Pierce, President Lincoln stated, “Those who deny freedom to others deserve it not for themselves” (Letter). As a result of the Civil War, a preliminary proclamation draft was issued on September 22. This proclamation warned the Confederate states that if they did not return to the union by January 1, 1863, he would issue another proclamation stating the people being enslaved in those states would be considered “forever free” (Death). Lincoln considered the ideas as a war measure; the Civil War would cripple the Confederacy. Lincoln assumed that if the slaves in the states in the South were proclaimed free, then the Confederacy could no longer use those slaves as laborers to support the army in battle thus hindering the effectiveness of the Confederate War. This saved the Union, freed the slaves, and allowed African Americans to join the forces to fight against slavery (Emancipation). The Emancipation Proclamation paved the way for the Thirteenth Amendment which was passed on January 1, 1865, and ratified on December 6, 1865, officially abolishing slavery, which began in Virginia in 1619. The Thirteenth Amendment states, “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude except as punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, nor any place subject to their jurisdiction” (Amendment).
Because of the controversy over slavery, President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth. The president was on his way to see the comedy Our American Cousin at Fords Theater with General Grant and his wife. Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, begged the president not to attend the comedy. Disregarding Stanton’s plea for him to stay home in case of an attempted assassination, Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln arrived at Fords Theater a little late and... | <urn:uuid:6c82947d-1d41-4e6b-8485-791cabff9853> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-assassination-of-president-abraham-lincoln | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00121.warc.gz | en | 0.980108 | 624 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.33643743395805... | 1 | Abraham Lincoln was the sixteenth president of the United States of America. Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, and died on April 15, 1865. As a young child, Abraham lived in a log cabin in Illinois. Around the age of twelve he began working, wielding an ax, building fences, and cutting wood. Later, Abraham Lincoln married a woman named Mary Todd; together they had four children. Lincoln started his presidency on March 18, 1861, but his term was cut short on April 14, 1865, by the assassin John Wilkes Booth (Abraham).
John Wilkes Booth was born on May 10, 1838, and lived in Maryland. Booth was the eighth of ten children living in his home in the northern part of Maryland. John Wilkes Booth was executed on April 26, 1865, for the act of treason against the United States of America for assassinating President Abraham Lincoln (John).
While Lincoln was serving in the 1860’s, a war broke out between the North and South, also known as the Civil War. This war started over control of nations, but later turned into an argument of slavery. President Lincoln was a strong believer in giving everyone the right to freedom. In a letter addressed to H.L. Pierce, President Lincoln stated, “Those who deny freedom to others deserve it not for themselves” (Letter). As a result of the Civil War, a preliminary proclamation draft was issued on September 22. This proclamation warned the Confederate states that if they did not return to the union by January 1, 1863, he would issue another proclamation stating the people being enslaved in those states would be considered “forever free” (Death). Lincoln considered the ideas as a war measure; the Civil War would cripple the Confederacy. Lincoln assumed that if the slaves in the states in the South were proclaimed free, then the Confederacy could no longer use those slaves as laborers to support the army in battle thus hindering the effectiveness of the Confederate War. This saved the Union, freed the slaves, and allowed African Americans to join the forces to fight against slavery (Emancipation). The Emancipation Proclamation paved the way for the Thirteenth Amendment which was passed on January 1, 1865, and ratified on December 6, 1865, officially abolishing slavery, which began in Virginia in 1619. The Thirteenth Amendment states, “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude except as punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, nor any place subject to their jurisdiction” (Amendment).
Because of the controversy over slavery, President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth. The president was on his way to see the comedy Our American Cousin at Fords Theater with General Grant and his wife. Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, begged the president not to attend the comedy. Disregarding Stanton’s plea for him to stay home in case of an attempted assassination, Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln arrived at Fords Theater a little late and... | 670 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milcah, and Tirzah
Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milcah, and Tirzah are the five sisters mentioned in Numbers 26:33, Numbers 27:1-11, and again in Numbers 36:1-12. These five sisters were the daughters of a man named Zelophehad. According to the Reformation Study Bible, Zelophehad had died without leaving a male heir, and his daughters petitioned Moses and other leaders to allow them to inherit their father’s portion in the land, and not to let his name be cut off. Because these sisters fought for their rights, they were given exactly what they asked for – their father’s portion in the land. Just as Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milcah, and Tirzah fought for their rights; history is filled with hundreds of different women who fought for, declared their rights, and won. We can learn from all of them to do the same. | <urn:uuid:47db8c82-57b1-42cf-8b94-e2e16a92d125> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://virtuousgirls.wordpress.com/tag/book-of-numbers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00227.warc.gz | en | 0.980134 | 209 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milcah, and Tirzah are the five sisters mentioned in Numbers 26:33, Numbers 27:1-11, and again in Numbers 36:1-12. These five sisters were the daughters of a man named Zelophehad. According to the Reformation Study Bible, Zelophehad had died without leaving a male heir, and his daughters petitioned Moses and other leaders to allow them to inherit their father’s portion in the land, and not to let his name be cut off. Because these sisters fought for their rights, they were given exactly what they asked for – their father’s portion in the land. Just as Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milcah, and Tirzah fought for their rights; history is filled with hundreds of different women who fought for, declared their rights, and won. We can learn from all of them to do the same. | 216 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After the Stuart Restoration, Charles II sought to loosen his dependence on Parliament by among other things receiving subsidies (large cash payments) from Louis XIV, King of France. The ability to supply tax revenue for impoverished Kings is basically the root of all parliamentary power in what is now the United Kingdom. At the time the King being in the pay of a foreign King wasn’t without controversy. But it didn’t seem absurd on its face, as it would to us today, because in many ways the theory was that the King owned the country.
There were limits on his power – the key one being that he could only properly fund his government with taxes from parliament. And that gave Parliament critical leverage. But the King owned his power. His sovereignty and the bundle of powers he used to enforce it were his. Any sense of what was in the public interest or his personal interest was an irrelevancy or not even entirely comprehensible because again, he was King. He didn’t just have the powers. He owned them. In a sense he owned the whole country. | <urn:uuid:ddae7646-0c48-4523-aa87-2a115c94da10> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://talkingpointsmemo.com/edblog/kings-presidents-and-foreign-subversion | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.989844 | 219 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.0090955933555960... | 3 | After the Stuart Restoration, Charles II sought to loosen his dependence on Parliament by among other things receiving subsidies (large cash payments) from Louis XIV, King of France. The ability to supply tax revenue for impoverished Kings is basically the root of all parliamentary power in what is now the United Kingdom. At the time the King being in the pay of a foreign King wasn’t without controversy. But it didn’t seem absurd on its face, as it would to us today, because in many ways the theory was that the King owned the country.
There were limits on his power – the key one being that he could only properly fund his government with taxes from parliament. And that gave Parliament critical leverage. But the King owned his power. His sovereignty and the bundle of powers he used to enforce it were his. Any sense of what was in the public interest or his personal interest was an irrelevancy or not even entirely comprehensible because again, he was King. He didn’t just have the powers. He owned them. In a sense he owned the whole country. | 212 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Everyone knows that Americans vote for the President every four years, but did you know that the Electoral College that actually elects the President? The Electoral College is made up of representatives from each state and Washington DC and the biggest states will have more representatives, which we call “electors.” These electors will give all of their votes to the Presidential candidate that wins the popular vote in each state. The popular vote is to total number of people that vote for each candidate. If this system seems strange to you, then you would be correct, the Electoral College is unique to the United States.
The history of the Electoral College dates back to colonial times, before the thirteen colonies and earliest states became the United States. Back then, each state acted as its own country, printing money and having its own army. Therefore, when these states did become one country, it made sense to have the states send representatives to a convention to choose the President, based on who the voters in each state liked. After all, the President did not have as much power then as he does today.
Although many people want to get rid of the Electoral College, some people fear that small states will get overwhelmed by big states in popular voting. With the Electoral College, every state, even the tiny ones, get at least three representatives in the Electoral College. This means that every state, no matter how small, at least has some say in picking our next President.
Now, we turn our attention to the 12th amendment. Did you know that our 2nd President, John Adams, had a Vice President from the other political party? That would never happen today, thanks to the 12th amendment. Before the 12th amendment, every candidate running for President ran for President by himself, regardless of political party. The electors would pick two of these candidates, one for President and one for Vice President. The way those electors voted was up to the states, so you can see how the system was confusing. The electors did not have to pay attention to the popular vote.
Since communication in the 18th century was very slow, other electors from other states could not coordinate with each other to pick the Vice President with the second vote they were allowed. Therefore, when the votes were tallied in the election of 1796, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson received the most electoral votes, and the man that was supposed to be Vice President, Thomas Pinckney, who was part of the same party as Adams came in third. By the laws of the United States, those that won the top two electoral vote totals would be President and Vice President.
This result and another confusing election in 1800 led to the 12th amendment in 1804. The most important part of the 12th amendment is that instead of casting two votes for President, each elector must pick a President AND a Vice President on his or her ballot. This ensures that the President will be paired with his running mate after the election. This has been the way we have operated the Electoral College since 1804. | <urn:uuid:daaff7f8-60a8-49ac-ba88-7e8f459f9c12> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.laws.com/12th-amendment?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=12th-amendment | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00507.warc.gz | en | 0.986993 | 613 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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-0.0547066032886505... | 3 | Everyone knows that Americans vote for the President every four years, but did you know that the Electoral College that actually elects the President? The Electoral College is made up of representatives from each state and Washington DC and the biggest states will have more representatives, which we call “electors.” These electors will give all of their votes to the Presidential candidate that wins the popular vote in each state. The popular vote is to total number of people that vote for each candidate. If this system seems strange to you, then you would be correct, the Electoral College is unique to the United States.
The history of the Electoral College dates back to colonial times, before the thirteen colonies and earliest states became the United States. Back then, each state acted as its own country, printing money and having its own army. Therefore, when these states did become one country, it made sense to have the states send representatives to a convention to choose the President, based on who the voters in each state liked. After all, the President did not have as much power then as he does today.
Although many people want to get rid of the Electoral College, some people fear that small states will get overwhelmed by big states in popular voting. With the Electoral College, every state, even the tiny ones, get at least three representatives in the Electoral College. This means that every state, no matter how small, at least has some say in picking our next President.
Now, we turn our attention to the 12th amendment. Did you know that our 2nd President, John Adams, had a Vice President from the other political party? That would never happen today, thanks to the 12th amendment. Before the 12th amendment, every candidate running for President ran for President by himself, regardless of political party. The electors would pick two of these candidates, one for President and one for Vice President. The way those electors voted was up to the states, so you can see how the system was confusing. The electors did not have to pay attention to the popular vote.
Since communication in the 18th century was very slow, other electors from other states could not coordinate with each other to pick the Vice President with the second vote they were allowed. Therefore, when the votes were tallied in the election of 1796, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson received the most electoral votes, and the man that was supposed to be Vice President, Thomas Pinckney, who was part of the same party as Adams came in third. By the laws of the United States, those that won the top two electoral vote totals would be President and Vice President.
This result and another confusing election in 1800 led to the 12th amendment in 1804. The most important part of the 12th amendment is that instead of casting two votes for President, each elector must pick a President AND a Vice President on his or her ballot. This ensures that the President will be paired with his running mate after the election. This has been the way we have operated the Electoral College since 1804. | 638 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Bannocks were allowed to retain some of their lands in a treaty, but over time, more settlers arrived and disregarded the terms of the treaty. As a result, the Bannocks were constrained to the Fort Hall Reservation where they faced food scarcity. After American ranchers had let their cattle graze in the Camas Prairie, the Bannocks declared war on the people they viewed as invaders on land that was their according to treaty.
On May 30, 1878, Chief Buffalo Horn and 200 warriors raided a group of settlers and took food and other resources. The chief led a second attack on June 8th at South Mountain, Idaho where he and his warriors faced 26 local militia. Chief Buffalo was wounded in this skirmish, but the war party decided to keep fighting through Idaho and neighboring states. Area settlers began to form militias for protection against the raiders and several skirmishes resulted in the deaths of settlers, American soldiers, and Bannocks warriors.
As US troops arrived in the region, the Bannock's were unable to secure more men and supplies to match the growing force against them. With their warriors exhausted and facing dwindling supplies, several tribal factions broke off and left the area in hopes of finding a new land where they might retain their traditional life. Others abandoned the fight and returned to the Fort Hall Reservation. In response to these skirmishes, the federal officials created stricter laws that severely limited the opportunity to leave the reservation. | <urn:uuid:e8d7de2b-1037-4f2b-b638-fc293311f43e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/60005 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00043.warc.gz | en | 0.983851 | 297 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.088188... | 1 | The Bannocks were allowed to retain some of their lands in a treaty, but over time, more settlers arrived and disregarded the terms of the treaty. As a result, the Bannocks were constrained to the Fort Hall Reservation where they faced food scarcity. After American ranchers had let their cattle graze in the Camas Prairie, the Bannocks declared war on the people they viewed as invaders on land that was their according to treaty.
On May 30, 1878, Chief Buffalo Horn and 200 warriors raided a group of settlers and took food and other resources. The chief led a second attack on June 8th at South Mountain, Idaho where he and his warriors faced 26 local militia. Chief Buffalo was wounded in this skirmish, but the war party decided to keep fighting through Idaho and neighboring states. Area settlers began to form militias for protection against the raiders and several skirmishes resulted in the deaths of settlers, American soldiers, and Bannocks warriors.
As US troops arrived in the region, the Bannock's were unable to secure more men and supplies to match the growing force against them. With their warriors exhausted and facing dwindling supplies, several tribal factions broke off and left the area in hopes of finding a new land where they might retain their traditional life. Others abandoned the fight and returned to the Fort Hall Reservation. In response to these skirmishes, the federal officials created stricter laws that severely limited the opportunity to leave the reservation. | 305 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Most likely, this limestone spring house was built in the 18th century. It is thought that Capt. Andrew Lewis discovered the spring. The area we know as Lewisburg was called Savannah. Fort Savannah, a frontier fort, may have been built near here in the latter half of the 18th century. Ruth Woods Dayton, local historian, believed the spring may have been inside the log fort. Dr. John F. Montgomery, another local historian, thought the fort was on the other side of Jefferson Street. Regardless, the spring was a source of water for the fort and later for the settlement that developed around it.
Andrew Lewis Park was dedicated in 1974 as part of the commemoration of the assembly of the troops in 1774 for the march to the Battle of Point Pleasant.
Born in Ireland, Andrew Lewis (1720-1781) was a surveyor and military officer. He and his father, John, explored much of the Greenbrier Valley. He served as a captain in the French and Indian War and rose to the rank of major when he built frontier forts in nearby Bath County, Virginia, and in the Greenbrier Valley. As a colonel, Lewis defeated Shawnee Chief Cornstalk in the bloody Battle of Point Pleasant. Lewis and his family lived in Salem, Virginia, and he served in the Virginia legislature. The town of Lewisburg is named for him.lf you stand by the spring house, you can hear the spring flowing beneath it. | <urn:uuid:9d4a458a-df89-4bc2-a239-e4d0cf773834> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/72212 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00056.warc.gz | en | 0.980889 | 299 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.0863954573869... | 2 | Most likely, this limestone spring house was built in the 18th century. It is thought that Capt. Andrew Lewis discovered the spring. The area we know as Lewisburg was called Savannah. Fort Savannah, a frontier fort, may have been built near here in the latter half of the 18th century. Ruth Woods Dayton, local historian, believed the spring may have been inside the log fort. Dr. John F. Montgomery, another local historian, thought the fort was on the other side of Jefferson Street. Regardless, the spring was a source of water for the fort and later for the settlement that developed around it.
Andrew Lewis Park was dedicated in 1974 as part of the commemoration of the assembly of the troops in 1774 for the march to the Battle of Point Pleasant.
Born in Ireland, Andrew Lewis (1720-1781) was a surveyor and military officer. He and his father, John, explored much of the Greenbrier Valley. He served as a captain in the French and Indian War and rose to the rank of major when he built frontier forts in nearby Bath County, Virginia, and in the Greenbrier Valley. As a colonel, Lewis defeated Shawnee Chief Cornstalk in the bloody Battle of Point Pleasant. Lewis and his family lived in Salem, Virginia, and he served in the Virginia legislature. The town of Lewisburg is named for him.lf you stand by the spring house, you can hear the spring flowing beneath it. | 311 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay PreviewMore ↓
One of the most remarkable men was born on February 7, 1812: Charles Dickens. Charles Dickens had a talent in the field of writing that was unlike that of any other man in his time. He had a gift that he shared with the rest of the world, a gift that has survived for decades
Charles Dickens was an extraordinary person with an extraordinary life. He was born to John and Elizabeth Dickens (www.perruweb.com/Dickens/second.html ). His child hood was not that of a fortunate child. His parents were not the best parents a child could have. They loved the extraordinary life and they loved to have fun. They put to much importance in their social life and neglected their children often. John and Elizabeth had eight children including Charles (Charles Dickens, p. 129). Because of their expensive social life and their eight children, John and Elizabeth were at the brink of financial bankruptcy. They were forced to move to a new house because they could no longer afford the house that they were living in. Their once glamorous and expensive life was gone. Now they were no more then common people. An education was provided for Charles, but his education never reached college. Charles’s parents never provided a college education for Charles. Because of their financial issues, John and Elizabeth could only afford to send one of their children to college: They picked Fanny. Fanny had a gift for music and so her parent wanted her to expand on it (www.perruweb.com/Dickens/third.html).
Charles only had one dream to begin with. He dreamed of becoming a gentleman, but unfortunately these dreams were killed when his father was arrested in 1824 for failure to pay his debts. John was sent to Marshalsea prison for this crime. Charles was now forced to work at a shoe-polish factory because of all of this. The next year his father was released from jail, but Charles’s dreams of becoming a gentleman were dead (Charles Dickens, p.128).
On 1830 Charles met Maria Beadnell, but unfortunately this affair only lasted for three years. This was more of a sexual relationship then a romance. Maria was never serious about Charles. She “kept him for a while in suspense and then dismissed him with casual thoughtlessness”(A Pitkin Guide, p.
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- Charles Dickens was born of february 7, 1812, Portsmouth, England. Dickens started his career as a freelance reporter meaning he chose when and where to work. Couple of years later he published some sketches about how was life in London. He started the pickwick papers, one of his first recognized works. later on he wrote some couple of books before taking a break to write his major work, " a christmas carol'. When he was young his family moved to London and his father had some inconvenient to make money to his big family.... [tags: christmas carol, scrooge, writer]
751 words (2.1 pages)
- Understanding the experiences of one’s past may inspire the decisions that will lead the course of one’s life. Charles Dickens’s childhood was overwhelming and had many difficult phases. It is truly impressive for a young boy to support his family, mostly on his own, and be able to maintain a suitable education. These hardship episodes may have been difficult for him, but it made him who he had always wanted to be. Eventually, he had been known as one of the most significant writers since Shakespeare.... [tags: Author, Biography]
1200 words (3.4 pages)
- Charles Dickens was born on February 7, 1812 in Landport, Portsea, England as Charles John Huffham Dickens but was known as the great Charles Dickens. After being born into a family of eight children and he being the second of eight; the family decided to move to Chatham, were Dickens considered these years the best childhood years ever, but after a couple of years living in Chatham the family decided to move once again but this time to London in the year 1822. There his father got a job as a clerk in the navy post office.... [tags: biography, writer, Biographical Essay]
745 words (2.1 pages)
- How Charles Dickens’ Life Influenced Oliver Twist “The range of his creative activity is, in the first place, limited to the world of his youth” (Cecil 169). This quote explains many people. What has previously happened to a person has a tremendous impact on them. It can affect their decisions, emotions, and life. The life of a person can sometimes be seen quite easily through what they do. Artists often reveal what their life has been like through the works that they create. The same can be said about writers.... [tags: essays papers]
2071 words (5.9 pages)
- After growing up in London with a long history of social, legal, and economic struggles, Charles Dickens has a lot to say about it. He insinuates his opinions regarding London and its aspects by taking taking shots at the subjects he has problems with. The social classes, legal system, and money problems Dickens grew up with have greatly influenced his views and they show in one of his many novels, Great Expectations. Three paramount issues transpire quite regularly throughout the novel. Dickens is particularly fond of mocking London’s social conditions thanks to economic standing of the residents and the criminal justice system that comes with it.... [tags: social classes, economic struggles]
746 words (2.1 pages)
- How can someone be “recalled to life”. It is a blazing strange statement. In Charles Dickens’ novel, A Tale of Two Cities, there are many people who are or help someone else to be recalled to life. In particular, there are three main characters that experience this. Dr. Manette, Charles Darnay, and Sydney Carton are all resurrected, as implied by the statement “recalled to life”. Dr. Manette is resurrected, or recalled to life, multiple times in A Tale of Two Cities. Lucie Manette, Dr. Manette’s daughter, always helps in saving him.... [tags: lucie, charles darney, dr. manette]
758 words (2.2 pages)
- The Life of Charles Dickens One of the most remarkable men was born on February 7, 1812: Charles Dickens. Charles Dickens had a talent in the field of writing that was unlike that of any other man in his time. He had a gift that he shared with the rest of the world, a gift that has survived for decades Charles Dickens was an extraordinary person with an extraordinary life. He was born to John and Elizabeth Dickens (www.perruweb.com/Dickens/second.html ). His child hood was not that of a fortunate child.... [tags: GCSE English Literature Coursework]
733 words (2.1 pages)
- The Life of Charles Dickens Charles Dickens was a nineteenth-century novelist who was and still is very popular. He was born in Landport, a region of Portsmouth, on February 7, 1812 (Kyle 1). Charles Dickens was the son of John Dickens and Elizabeth Barrow. John Dickens was a minor government official who worked in the Navy Pay Office. Through his work there, he met Elizabeth and eventually married her. By 1821, when Charles was four months old, John Dickens could no longer afford the rent on his house.... [tags: essays research papers fc]
963 words (2.8 pages)
- The Life of Charles Dickens Charles Dickens was on of the literary geniuses of the 19th century. Dickens was the first main stream writer to reach out to the semiliterate class. He did much to make sure his writings were avaliable to the middle class. He published serial novels on a monthly bases. One shilling (one twentieth of a pount) would buy you the next installmenrt to your novell. In a time when novels were almost thirty times as much as one of these serial novels, it put reading within the reach of the middle class, thus highly popularizing charles dickens works.... [tags: essays research papers]
1442 words (4.1 pages)
- Hard Times For These Times In order to improve the sales of his own weekly magazine, Household Words, in which sales had begun to decline in 1854, Charles Dickens (lived 1812 – 1870) began to publish a new series of weekly episodes in the magazine. Hard Times For These Times, an assault on the industrial greed and political economy that exploits the working classes and deadens the soul, ran from April 1 to August 12, 1854. In the opening scenes that take place in the classroom, you become familiarized with the Gradgrind School and its fundamentals.... [tags: GCSE English Literature Coursework]
964 words (2.8 pages)
Everything seemed to be going well. Charles had found s great wife, had had his first child, and his writing was being published. It was not until 1848 that something terrible had happened to the Dickens. Fanny Dickens had died. Then three years later John Dickens died. Even though all of these things had happened Charles’s life was still going pretty well (Charles Dickens, p.129).
Charles’s marriage was suffering a great deal and on the edge of destruction. Then on 1858 Charles and Catherine separated (A Pitkin Guide p.16-18). Charles was never the same after that. No other written works were published after that. Charles had a close call with death in 1864. Charles and Ellen were involved in a rail way accident, fortunately thy both survived. On 1870 Charles Dickens died at the age of 58. The once great man was now gone.
Charles managed to live a great life and left behind many things to remember him by. He published twenty written works (www.perruweb.com/Dickens/second.html, p. 5) Including Tale of two cities, Great Expectations, The old curiosity shop, Master Humphry’s clock, and many others. Each a master piece. He left his legacy behind in his books. His life is interesting to study, his books are great to read.
No Author. Noteworthy Events. November 15, 1999. Online, internet at
No Author. His Child hood. November 15, 1999. Online, internet at www.perruweb.com/Dickens/second.html (11/15/99)
No Author. His life. November 15, 1999. Online, internet at www.perryweb.com/Dickens/third.html (11/15/99
A Pitkin Guide. Charles Dickens. Great Britain: Pitkin Pictorial Ltd.1996
Charles Dickens. Golier Encyclopedia of Knowledge.1998 ed,. 6: 128. | <urn:uuid:1fb1f844-d4af-4765-81ba-4e13d4ea9a53> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=43964 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00088.warc.gz | en | 0.98227 | 2,313 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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One of the most remarkable men was born on February 7, 1812: Charles Dickens. Charles Dickens had a talent in the field of writing that was unlike that of any other man in his time. He had a gift that he shared with the rest of the world, a gift that has survived for decades
Charles Dickens was an extraordinary person with an extraordinary life. He was born to John and Elizabeth Dickens (www.perruweb.com/Dickens/second.html ). His child hood was not that of a fortunate child. His parents were not the best parents a child could have. They loved the extraordinary life and they loved to have fun. They put to much importance in their social life and neglected their children often. John and Elizabeth had eight children including Charles (Charles Dickens, p. 129). Because of their expensive social life and their eight children, John and Elizabeth were at the brink of financial bankruptcy. They were forced to move to a new house because they could no longer afford the house that they were living in. Their once glamorous and expensive life was gone. Now they were no more then common people. An education was provided for Charles, but his education never reached college. Charles’s parents never provided a college education for Charles. Because of their financial issues, John and Elizabeth could only afford to send one of their children to college: They picked Fanny. Fanny had a gift for music and so her parent wanted her to expand on it (www.perruweb.com/Dickens/third.html).
Charles only had one dream to begin with. He dreamed of becoming a gentleman, but unfortunately these dreams were killed when his father was arrested in 1824 for failure to pay his debts. John was sent to Marshalsea prison for this crime. Charles was now forced to work at a shoe-polish factory because of all of this. The next year his father was released from jail, but Charles’s dreams of becoming a gentleman were dead (Charles Dickens, p.128).
On 1830 Charles met Maria Beadnell, but unfortunately this affair only lasted for three years. This was more of a sexual relationship then a romance. Maria was never serious about Charles. She “kept him for a while in suspense and then dismissed him with casual thoughtlessness”(A Pitkin Guide, p.
How to Cite this Page
"The Life of Charles Dickens." 123HelpMe.com. 22 Jan 2020
Need Writing Help?
Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper »
- Charles Dickens was born of february 7, 1812, Portsmouth, England. Dickens started his career as a freelance reporter meaning he chose when and where to work. Couple of years later he published some sketches about how was life in London. He started the pickwick papers, one of his first recognized works. later on he wrote some couple of books before taking a break to write his major work, " a christmas carol'. When he was young his family moved to London and his father had some inconvenient to make money to his big family.... [tags: christmas carol, scrooge, writer]
751 words (2.1 pages)
- Understanding the experiences of one’s past may inspire the decisions that will lead the course of one’s life. Charles Dickens’s childhood was overwhelming and had many difficult phases. It is truly impressive for a young boy to support his family, mostly on his own, and be able to maintain a suitable education. These hardship episodes may have been difficult for him, but it made him who he had always wanted to be. Eventually, he had been known as one of the most significant writers since Shakespeare.... [tags: Author, Biography]
1200 words (3.4 pages)
- Charles Dickens was born on February 7, 1812 in Landport, Portsea, England as Charles John Huffham Dickens but was known as the great Charles Dickens. After being born into a family of eight children and he being the second of eight; the family decided to move to Chatham, were Dickens considered these years the best childhood years ever, but after a couple of years living in Chatham the family decided to move once again but this time to London in the year 1822. There his father got a job as a clerk in the navy post office.... [tags: biography, writer, Biographical Essay]
745 words (2.1 pages)
- How Charles Dickens’ Life Influenced Oliver Twist “The range of his creative activity is, in the first place, limited to the world of his youth” (Cecil 169). This quote explains many people. What has previously happened to a person has a tremendous impact on them. It can affect their decisions, emotions, and life. The life of a person can sometimes be seen quite easily through what they do. Artists often reveal what their life has been like through the works that they create. The same can be said about writers.... [tags: essays papers]
2071 words (5.9 pages)
- After growing up in London with a long history of social, legal, and economic struggles, Charles Dickens has a lot to say about it. He insinuates his opinions regarding London and its aspects by taking taking shots at the subjects he has problems with. The social classes, legal system, and money problems Dickens grew up with have greatly influenced his views and they show in one of his many novels, Great Expectations. Three paramount issues transpire quite regularly throughout the novel. Dickens is particularly fond of mocking London’s social conditions thanks to economic standing of the residents and the criminal justice system that comes with it.... [tags: social classes, economic struggles]
746 words (2.1 pages)
- How can someone be “recalled to life”. It is a blazing strange statement. In Charles Dickens’ novel, A Tale of Two Cities, there are many people who are or help someone else to be recalled to life. In particular, there are three main characters that experience this. Dr. Manette, Charles Darnay, and Sydney Carton are all resurrected, as implied by the statement “recalled to life”. Dr. Manette is resurrected, or recalled to life, multiple times in A Tale of Two Cities. Lucie Manette, Dr. Manette’s daughter, always helps in saving him.... [tags: lucie, charles darney, dr. manette]
758 words (2.2 pages)
- The Life of Charles Dickens One of the most remarkable men was born on February 7, 1812: Charles Dickens. Charles Dickens had a talent in the field of writing that was unlike that of any other man in his time. He had a gift that he shared with the rest of the world, a gift that has survived for decades Charles Dickens was an extraordinary person with an extraordinary life. He was born to John and Elizabeth Dickens (www.perruweb.com/Dickens/second.html ). His child hood was not that of a fortunate child.... [tags: GCSE English Literature Coursework]
733 words (2.1 pages)
- The Life of Charles Dickens Charles Dickens was a nineteenth-century novelist who was and still is very popular. He was born in Landport, a region of Portsmouth, on February 7, 1812 (Kyle 1). Charles Dickens was the son of John Dickens and Elizabeth Barrow. John Dickens was a minor government official who worked in the Navy Pay Office. Through his work there, he met Elizabeth and eventually married her. By 1821, when Charles was four months old, John Dickens could no longer afford the rent on his house.... [tags: essays research papers fc]
963 words (2.8 pages)
- The Life of Charles Dickens Charles Dickens was on of the literary geniuses of the 19th century. Dickens was the first main stream writer to reach out to the semiliterate class. He did much to make sure his writings were avaliable to the middle class. He published serial novels on a monthly bases. One shilling (one twentieth of a pount) would buy you the next installmenrt to your novell. In a time when novels were almost thirty times as much as one of these serial novels, it put reading within the reach of the middle class, thus highly popularizing charles dickens works.... [tags: essays research papers]
1442 words (4.1 pages)
- Hard Times For These Times In order to improve the sales of his own weekly magazine, Household Words, in which sales had begun to decline in 1854, Charles Dickens (lived 1812 – 1870) began to publish a new series of weekly episodes in the magazine. Hard Times For These Times, an assault on the industrial greed and political economy that exploits the working classes and deadens the soul, ran from April 1 to August 12, 1854. In the opening scenes that take place in the classroom, you become familiarized with the Gradgrind School and its fundamentals.... [tags: GCSE English Literature Coursework]
964 words (2.8 pages)
Everything seemed to be going well. Charles had found s great wife, had had his first child, and his writing was being published. It was not until 1848 that something terrible had happened to the Dickens. Fanny Dickens had died. Then three years later John Dickens died. Even though all of these things had happened Charles’s life was still going pretty well (Charles Dickens, p.129).
Charles’s marriage was suffering a great deal and on the edge of destruction. Then on 1858 Charles and Catherine separated (A Pitkin Guide p.16-18). Charles was never the same after that. No other written works were published after that. Charles had a close call with death in 1864. Charles and Ellen were involved in a rail way accident, fortunately thy both survived. On 1870 Charles Dickens died at the age of 58. The once great man was now gone.
Charles managed to live a great life and left behind many things to remember him by. He published twenty written works (www.perruweb.com/Dickens/second.html, p. 5) Including Tale of two cities, Great Expectations, The old curiosity shop, Master Humphry’s clock, and many others. Each a master piece. He left his legacy behind in his books. His life is interesting to study, his books are great to read.
No Author. Noteworthy Events. November 15, 1999. Online, internet at
No Author. His Child hood. November 15, 1999. Online, internet at www.perruweb.com/Dickens/second.html (11/15/99)
No Author. His life. November 15, 1999. Online, internet at www.perryweb.com/Dickens/third.html (11/15/99
A Pitkin Guide. Charles Dickens. Great Britain: Pitkin Pictorial Ltd.1996
Charles Dickens. Golier Encyclopedia of Knowledge.1998 ed,. 6: 128. | 2,371 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On January 13, 1846, the legislative body of the Indiana Territory authorized creation of twelve counties in the Iowa Territory, with general descriptions of their boundaries. This brought the number of counties in the Iowa Territory to 22.
By the end of 1846, the Iowa portion of the Indiana Territory had been accepted into the Union as the State of Iowa (December 28, 1846). By 1851, the new state had grown to the extent that the original 22 counties needed to be divided into smaller, more accessible units. Accordingly, on January 15, 1851, the Iowa General Assembly enacted an omnibus bill which created 43 new counties. by reducing the previous counties. Sac County was named after the Sauk people, at that time called Sac Indians.
It took some time for the new organization to fully function. Sac City was designated the county seat in 1856, and construction of the first county courthouse was complete in 1862. By 1873 the burgeoning population had outgrown that structure and a larger (85 x 56 feet brick) building was authorized to replace it.
The new courthouse, complete with impressive bell tower, was placed in service in January 1874, and was used until 1888 when it burned.
To replace that structure, the present courthouse was built. It was enlarged and remodeled in the 1980s. | <urn:uuid:38997169-8e32-4c30-8b6d-881c5b6ece49> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.destinationsmalltown.com/counties/sac-county-ia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00166.warc.gz | en | 0.983831 | 268 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.044783815741539,
0.4104374051094055,
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0.527093231678009,... | 5 | On January 13, 1846, the legislative body of the Indiana Territory authorized creation of twelve counties in the Iowa Territory, with general descriptions of their boundaries. This brought the number of counties in the Iowa Territory to 22.
By the end of 1846, the Iowa portion of the Indiana Territory had been accepted into the Union as the State of Iowa (December 28, 1846). By 1851, the new state had grown to the extent that the original 22 counties needed to be divided into smaller, more accessible units. Accordingly, on January 15, 1851, the Iowa General Assembly enacted an omnibus bill which created 43 new counties. by reducing the previous counties. Sac County was named after the Sauk people, at that time called Sac Indians.
It took some time for the new organization to fully function. Sac City was designated the county seat in 1856, and construction of the first county courthouse was complete in 1862. By 1873 the burgeoning population had outgrown that structure and a larger (85 x 56 feet brick) building was authorized to replace it.
The new courthouse, complete with impressive bell tower, was placed in service in January 1874, and was used until 1888 when it burned.
To replace that structure, the present courthouse was built. It was enlarged and remodeled in the 1980s. | 315 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ostarbeiter (German: [ˈʔɔstˌaɐ̯baɪtɐ], lit. "Eastern worker") was a Nazi German designation for foreign slave workers gathered from occupied Central and Eastern Europe to perform forced labor in Germany during World War II. Deportations of civilians commenced at the beginning of the war and reached unprecedented levels following Operation Barbarossa of 1941. The Ostarbeiters were apprehended from the newly formed German districts of Reichskommissariat Ukraine, General Government Distrikt Galizien, and Reichskommissariat Ostland which comprised the territories of German occupied Poland as well as formerly Soviet occupied Poland since 1939, and the Soviet Union itself. According to Pavel Polian over 50% of Ostarbeiters were formerly Soviet subjects originating from the territory of modern-day Ukraine, followed by Polish women workers, approaching 30%. Among the Eastern workers were ethnic Ukrainians, Poles, Belarusians, Russians, Tatars, and others. Estimates of the number of Ostarbeiter range between 3 million and 5.5 million.
By 1944 most new workers were very young, under the age of 16, as those older than that were usually conscripted for service in Germany; 30% were as young as 12–14 years of age when they were taken from their homes. The age limit was dropped to 10 in November 1943. Since about half of the adolescents were female, Ostarbeiter were often the victims of rape and tens of thousands of pregnancies due to rape occurred.
Ostarbeiter were often given starvation rations and were forced to live in guarded camps. Many died from starvation, overwork, bombing (they were frequently denied access to bomb shelters), abuse and execution carried out by their German overseers. Ostarbeiter were often denied wages but when they did get paid they received payment in a special currency which could only be used to buy specific products at the camps where they lived.
Following the war, the over 2.5 million liberated Ostarbeiter were often repatriated and in the USSR they suffered from social ostracization as well as deportation to gulags for "re-education." American authorities banned the repatriation of Ostarbeiter in October, 1945 and some immigrated to the U.S. as well as other non eastern-bloc countries. In 2000 the German government and thousands of German companies paid a one-time payment of just over € 5 billion to Ostarbeiter victims of the Nazi regime.
The official German records for the late summer of 1944 listed 7.6 million foreign civilian workers and prisoners of war in the territory of the "Greater German Reich", who for the most part had been brought there for employment by force. Thus, they represent roughly a quarter of all registered workers in the entire economy of the German Reich at that time.
A class system was created amongst the Fremdarbeiter (foreign workers) brought to Germany to work for the Third Reich. The multi-layered system was based on layers of national hierarchies. The Gastarbeitnehmer were the so-called guest workers, Germanic, Scandinavian and Italian. The Zwangsarbeiter, or forced workers included Militärinternierte (military internees), POWs, Zivilarbeiter (civilian workers); and primarily Polish prisoners from the General Government. They received reduced wages and food rations and had to work longer hours than the former, could not use public conveniences (such as public transportation, restaurants, or churches), were forbidden to possess certain items and some were required to wear a sign - the "Polish P" - attached to their clothing. The Ostarbeiter were the Eastern workers, primarily from Reichskommissariat Ukraine. They were marked with a badge reading "OST" (East, similar to Poles from Kresy) and were subject to even harsher conditions than the civilian workers. They were forced to live in special camps that were fenced with barbed wire and under guard, and were particularly exposed to the arbitrariness of the Gestapo and the commercial industrial plant guards. At the end of the war 5.5 million Ostarbeiter were returned to the USSR.
At the end of 1941, a new crisis developed in Nazi Germany. Following the mobilization of men into its massive armies, the country faced a shortage of labour in support of the war industries. To help overcome this shortage, Göring decreed to bring in people from the territories seized during Operation Barbarossa in Central and Eastern Europe. These replacement workers were called Ostarbeiter. The crisis deepened as the war in the East went on. By 1944, the policy turned into mass abductions of virtually anyone to fulfil the labour needs of the Organisation Todt among other similar projects; 40,000 to 50,000 Polish children aged 10 to 14 were kidnapped by the German occupational forces and transported to Germany proper as slave labourers during the so-called Heuaktion. The Heuaktion (German: literally: hay operation) was an acronym for allegedly homeless, parentless and unhoused children gathered in lieu of their guardians. After arriving in Germany, the children were handed over to Reichsarbeitsdienst or the Junkers aircraft works. The secondary purpose of these abductions was to pressure the adult populations further to register in place of children.
Initially a recruiting campaign was launched in January 1942 by Fritz Sauckel for workers to go to Germany. "On January 28 the first special train will leave for Germany with hot meals in Kiev, Zdolbunov and Przemyśl", offered an announcement. The first train was full when it departed from Kiev on January 22.
The advertising continued in the following months. "Germany calls you! Go to Beautiful Germany! 100,000 Ukrainians are already working in free Germany. What about you?" ran a Kiev newspaper ad on March 3, 1942. Word got back however, of the sub-human slave conditions that Ukrainians met in Germany and the campaign failed to attract sufficient volunteers. Forced recruitment and forced labor were implemented, although propaganda still depicted them as volunteers.
With the news about the terrible conditions many Ostarbeiter faced in the Third Reich the pool of volunteers soon dried up. As a result, the Germans were forced to resort to mass round-ups, often using the ploy of targeting large gatherings such as church congregations and crowds at sporting events, with entire groups simply marched off at gunpoint to waiting cattle trucks and deported to Germany.
One special category was that of young women recruited to act as nannies; Hitler argued that many women would like to have children, and many of them were restricted by the lack of domestic help. (This was one of many efforts made to promote the birth rate.) Since the nannies would be in close company with German children as well as in a position where they might be sexually exploited, they were required to be suitable for Germanization. Himmler spoke of thus winning back German blood and benefiting the women, too, who would have a social rise through working in Germany and even the chance to marry there. They could be assigned only to families with many children who would properly train the nannies as well. These assignments were carried out by the NS-Frauenschaft. Originally, this recruitment was carried out only in the annexed territories of Poland, but the lack of women who passed screening extended it to all of Poland, and also to occupied territories in USSR.
Within Germany Ostarbeiter lived either in private camps owned and managed by the large companies, or in special camps guarded by privately paid police services known as the Werkschutz. They worked an average of 12 hours a day, six days a week. They were paid approximately 30% of German workers' wages; however, most of the money went toward food, clothing and board. The labor authorities, the RSHA Arbeitskreis, complained that many firms viewed these former Soviet civilian workers as "civilian prisoners", treated them accordingly, and paid no wages at all to them. Those who received pay got specially printed paper money and savings stamps, which they could use only for the purchase of a limited number of items in special camp stores. By law they were given worse food rations than other forced labor groups. Starvation rations and primitive accommodation were given to these unfortunates in Germany.
The Ostarbeiter were restricted to their compounds, in some cases labor camps. Being ethnically Slavic, they were classified by German authorities as the Untermenschen ("sub-humans"), who could be beaten, terrorized, and killed for their transgressions. Those who tried to escape were hanged where other workers could see their bodies. Leave without authorization or escape was punished by death. The Nazis issued a ban on sexual relations between Germans and the Easterners. On 7 December 1942 Himmler called for any "unauthorized sexual intercourse" to be punishable by death. In accordance with these new racial laws; all sexual relations, even those that did not result in pregnancy, were severely punished as Rassenschande (racial pollution). During the war, hundreds of Easterners were executed for their relations with German women, even though the main offenders by far – wrote Ulrich Herbert – were the French and Italian civilian workers who were not prohibited from social contacts with them.
Rape of female Ostarbeiter was extremely common and led to tens of thousands of pregnancies caused by rape. The victims began giving so many unwanted births that hundreds of special Nazi birthing centres for foreign workers had to be created in order to dispose of their infants.
Many Ostarbeiter died when Allied bombing raids targeted the factories where they worked and the German authorities refused to allow them into bomb shelters. Many also perished because the German authorities ordered that "they should be worked to death".
Nazi authorities attempted to reproduce such conditions on farms, ordering farmers to integrate the workers into their workforce while enforcing total social separation, including not permitting them to eat at the same table, but this proved far more difficult to enforce. Sexual relationships in particular were able to take place despite efforts to raise German women's "racial consciousness". When Germany's military situation worsened, these workers' conditions often improved as the farmers tried to protect themselves against a defeat.
Native German workers served as foremen and supervisors over the forced labour in factories, and therefore no solidarity developed between foreigners and German nationals. The German workers became accustomed to inequalities raised by racism against the workers and became indifferent to their plight.
During the German occupation of Central and Eastern Europe in World War II (1941–44) over 3 million people were taken to Germany as Ostarbeiter. Some estimates put the number up to 5.5 million. Between two-thirds and three-quarters of the over 3,000,000 Ostarbeiter were Ukrainians. Prof. Kondufor's statistic is that 2,244,000 Ukrainians were forced into slave labor in Germany during World War II. Another statistic puts the total at 2,196,166 for Ukrainian Ostarbeiter slaves in Germany (Dallin, p. 452). Both of these statistics probably exclude the several hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians from Halychyna, so a final total could be about 2.5 million.
There were slightly more female than male Ostarbeiter. They were employed in agriculture, mining, manufacturing armaments, metal production, and railroads. Ostarbeiter were initially sent to intermediate camps, where laborers were picked out for their assignments directly by representatives of labor-starved companies. Ford-Werke in Cologne and Opel in Russelsheim and Brandenburg each employed thousands of such Ostarbeiter at their plants.
Some Ostarbeiter worked for private firms, although many were employed in the factories making armaments. These factories were prime targets for Allied bombing. The Ostarbeiter were considered to be quite productive and efficient. Males were thought to be the equivalent of 60-80% of a German worker, and women — 90-100%. Two million Ukrainians worked mostly in the armaments factories including the V-2 rocket factory at Peenemünde.
To prevent Rassenschande (violation of German racial laws by the native Germans), the farmers were given propaganda leaflets about miscegenation, which were completely ineffective. The rampant sexual abuse of Polish and Soviet female Ostarbeiters at the hands of their overseers led to tens of thousands of unwanted births. A staggering 80 percent of rapes occurred on the farms where the Polish girls worked. The newborns were secretly euthanized in Nazi birthing centres. At Arbeitslagers the infants were killed on site. The Western factory workers had brothels. Easterners did not. They were supposed to be recruited in equal numbers of men and women, so brothels would not be needed. Female labourers were always housed in separate barracks. Nevertheless, they were suspected by the SS of "cheating their way out of work" by conceiving. The earlier policy of sending them home to give birth, was replaced by the Reichsführer-SS in 1943 with a special abortion decree. Contrary to the Nazi law against German abortions, the Ostarbeiter women were usually forced to abort.
Occasionally, when the female worker and the baby's father were "of good blood" (for example, Norwegian), the child might prove "racially valuable." In such cases, the parentage was investigated and both parents tested. If they passed, the woman would be permitted to give birth, and the child was removed for Germanization. If the woman was found particularly suitable, she might be placed at a Lebensborn institution. However, when the born children did not pass, they were put in the Ausländerkinder-Pflegestätte facilities, where up to 90 percent of them would die a torturous death due to calculated abandonment.
In some rural areas, the authorities found that the German farm-wives were inclined to care for children born to their workers, along with their own children. Attempts were made to segregate these children and use ruthless propaganda to establish that if a worker of "alien blood" gave birth in Germany, it meant immediate and total separation from the child. Repeated efforts were made to propagate Volkstum (racial consciousness) in order to prevent Rassenschande between Germans and foreign workers, nevertheless, the arrival of trains with Polish girls in German towns and villages usually turned into medieval sex slave markets.
As a result of their abusive treatment Ostarbeiter suffered from high levels of psychological trauma and those admitted to psychiatric hospitals were often the victims of abuse and murder. The Nazi regime also sanctioned the use of Ostarbeiter in medical experiments.
On September 6, 1944 the Reichsminister of the Interior ordered the establishment of special units for Ostarbeiter in several psychiatric hospitals in the Reich. The reason given was: "With the considerable number of Ostarbeiter who have been brought to the German Reich as a labour force, their admission into German psychiatric hospitals as mentally ill patients has become more frequent ... With the shortage of space in German hospitals, it is irresponsible to treat these ill people, who in the foreseeable future will not be fit for work, for a prolonged period in German institutions. "The exact number of Ostarbeiter killed in these psychiatric institutions is as yet not known. 189 Ostarbeiter were admitted to the Ostarbeiter unit of the Heil- und Pflegeanstalt Kaufbeuren; 49 died as a result of the starvation diet, or from deadly injections.
After the war many of the Ostarbeiter were initially placed in DP (displaced person) camps from which they were then moved to Kempten for processing and returned to their country of origin, primarily the USSR. The Soviets also used special Agit brigades to convince many Ostarbeiter to return.
Many Ostarbeiter were still children or young teenagers when they were taken away and wanted to return home to their parents. Others who became aware of or understood the postwar political reality declined to return. Those in the Soviet occupational zones were returned automatically. Those in the French and British zones of occupation were forced to return under the terms of the Yalta Agreement, which stated that "Citizens of the Soviet Union and of Yugoslavia were to be handed over to their respective countries, regardless of their consent".
In October 1945, General Eisenhower banned the use of force in repatriation in the American Zone. As a result, many Ostarbeiter began to escape to the American Zone. Some, when faced with return to Soviet reality, chose to commit suicide.
Upon return to the Soviet Union Ostarbeiter were often treated as traitors. Many were transported to remote locations in the Soviet Union and were denied basic rights and the chance to get further education. Nearly 80 percent of [Russian workers and prisoners of war returning from Germany] were sent to forced labour, some were given fifteen to twenty-five years of "corrective labour", and others sent off to hard labour; all were categorized as "socially dangerous".
Those who returned home were also physically and spiritually broken. Moreover, they were considered by the authorities to have "questionable loyalty", and were therefore discriminated against and deprived of many of their citizenship rights.
Ostarbeiter suffered from state-sanctioned stigmatisation, with special references in their passports (and the passports of their children and relatives) mentioning their time in Germany during the war. As a result, many jobs were off-limits to anyone unlucky enough to carry such a status, and during periods of repression former slave labourers would often be ostracised by the wider Soviet community. Many victims have testified that since the war they have suffered a lifetime of abuse and suspicion from their fellow countrymen, many of whom have accused them of being traitors who helped the Germans and lived comfortably in the Third Reich while Ukraine burned.
When applying for jobs, travel abroad or for certain other, politically sensitive activities which needed sanction by the Party authorities or the KGB, people had to fill out questionnaires (ankety). If a person was deemed to be of the "wrong" nationality or "past", their chances of travel or work (and certain areas of study) were restricted.
In 2000 the Foundation "Remembrance, Responsibility and Future", a project of the German Federal Government and 6,500 companies of the German Industry Foundation Initiative, was established, which disbursed 10 billion Deutsche Mark (5.1 billion €) to the former forced laborers. This is roughly one-off payment of €2,000 per worker, much less than the inflation-adjusted value of their work. Of the over 2 million Ostarbeiter in Ukraine, 467,000 received a total amount of €867 million, with each worker being assigned a one-time payment of 4,300 marks. The last payments were made in 2007.
Published eyewitness accounts of the Ukrainian Ostarbeiter experience are virtually non-existent in Ukraine although there were 2,244,000 of them from Ukraine,[dubious ] according to Ukrainian historian Yuri Kondufor. The State Archival Service of Ukraine now has a collection of documents online showing official notices published by the German government of occupation in Ukraine. A total of 3,000,000 Ostarbeiter were taken to Germany, and it is estimated that Ukrainians constituted about 75% of the total. Ukraine, according to some sources, lost about 10 million people in World War II, which was one of the greatest losses of any country in the war.
Some Ostarbeiter survived the war and emigrated to the countries outside Europe, primarily to the United States, although a handful also made it to Argentina, Australia, Canada, and Brazil. Ostarbeiter who found themselves in the British or French zones were automatically repatriated. Only those who were in the American zone were not forced to return to their countries of origin. In comparison, Ukrainians from western Ukraine and the Baltic region were not forced to return to the Soviet Union, because the UK did not recognize those territories as part of the USSR.
In 1998, only two Ostarbeiter had been located in Canada for interviews for the audio and video archives of the Ukrainian Canadian Research & Documentation Centre in Toronto.
Recently a film was made by Ukrainian television focusing on the plight of the Ukrainian Ostarbeiter who returned to the Soviet Union, demonstrating the harsh and inhumane treatment that they continued to receive after their repatriation. | <urn:uuid:6c0f1be7-f1ec-4d03-95e4-6a7345952525> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://theinfolist.com/php/SummaryGet.php?FindGo=Ostarbeiter | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00542.warc.gz | en | 0.981924 | 4,249 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.16885375... | 1 | Ostarbeiter (German: [ˈʔɔstˌaɐ̯baɪtɐ], lit. "Eastern worker") was a Nazi German designation for foreign slave workers gathered from occupied Central and Eastern Europe to perform forced labor in Germany during World War II. Deportations of civilians commenced at the beginning of the war and reached unprecedented levels following Operation Barbarossa of 1941. The Ostarbeiters were apprehended from the newly formed German districts of Reichskommissariat Ukraine, General Government Distrikt Galizien, and Reichskommissariat Ostland which comprised the territories of German occupied Poland as well as formerly Soviet occupied Poland since 1939, and the Soviet Union itself. According to Pavel Polian over 50% of Ostarbeiters were formerly Soviet subjects originating from the territory of modern-day Ukraine, followed by Polish women workers, approaching 30%. Among the Eastern workers were ethnic Ukrainians, Poles, Belarusians, Russians, Tatars, and others. Estimates of the number of Ostarbeiter range between 3 million and 5.5 million.
By 1944 most new workers were very young, under the age of 16, as those older than that were usually conscripted for service in Germany; 30% were as young as 12–14 years of age when they were taken from their homes. The age limit was dropped to 10 in November 1943. Since about half of the adolescents were female, Ostarbeiter were often the victims of rape and tens of thousands of pregnancies due to rape occurred.
Ostarbeiter were often given starvation rations and were forced to live in guarded camps. Many died from starvation, overwork, bombing (they were frequently denied access to bomb shelters), abuse and execution carried out by their German overseers. Ostarbeiter were often denied wages but when they did get paid they received payment in a special currency which could only be used to buy specific products at the camps where they lived.
Following the war, the over 2.5 million liberated Ostarbeiter were often repatriated and in the USSR they suffered from social ostracization as well as deportation to gulags for "re-education." American authorities banned the repatriation of Ostarbeiter in October, 1945 and some immigrated to the U.S. as well as other non eastern-bloc countries. In 2000 the German government and thousands of German companies paid a one-time payment of just over € 5 billion to Ostarbeiter victims of the Nazi regime.
The official German records for the late summer of 1944 listed 7.6 million foreign civilian workers and prisoners of war in the territory of the "Greater German Reich", who for the most part had been brought there for employment by force. Thus, they represent roughly a quarter of all registered workers in the entire economy of the German Reich at that time.
A class system was created amongst the Fremdarbeiter (foreign workers) brought to Germany to work for the Third Reich. The multi-layered system was based on layers of national hierarchies. The Gastarbeitnehmer were the so-called guest workers, Germanic, Scandinavian and Italian. The Zwangsarbeiter, or forced workers included Militärinternierte (military internees), POWs, Zivilarbeiter (civilian workers); and primarily Polish prisoners from the General Government. They received reduced wages and food rations and had to work longer hours than the former, could not use public conveniences (such as public transportation, restaurants, or churches), were forbidden to possess certain items and some were required to wear a sign - the "Polish P" - attached to their clothing. The Ostarbeiter were the Eastern workers, primarily from Reichskommissariat Ukraine. They were marked with a badge reading "OST" (East, similar to Poles from Kresy) and were subject to even harsher conditions than the civilian workers. They were forced to live in special camps that were fenced with barbed wire and under guard, and were particularly exposed to the arbitrariness of the Gestapo and the commercial industrial plant guards. At the end of the war 5.5 million Ostarbeiter were returned to the USSR.
At the end of 1941, a new crisis developed in Nazi Germany. Following the mobilization of men into its massive armies, the country faced a shortage of labour in support of the war industries. To help overcome this shortage, Göring decreed to bring in people from the territories seized during Operation Barbarossa in Central and Eastern Europe. These replacement workers were called Ostarbeiter. The crisis deepened as the war in the East went on. By 1944, the policy turned into mass abductions of virtually anyone to fulfil the labour needs of the Organisation Todt among other similar projects; 40,000 to 50,000 Polish children aged 10 to 14 were kidnapped by the German occupational forces and transported to Germany proper as slave labourers during the so-called Heuaktion. The Heuaktion (German: literally: hay operation) was an acronym for allegedly homeless, parentless and unhoused children gathered in lieu of their guardians. After arriving in Germany, the children were handed over to Reichsarbeitsdienst or the Junkers aircraft works. The secondary purpose of these abductions was to pressure the adult populations further to register in place of children.
Initially a recruiting campaign was launched in January 1942 by Fritz Sauckel for workers to go to Germany. "On January 28 the first special train will leave for Germany with hot meals in Kiev, Zdolbunov and Przemyśl", offered an announcement. The first train was full when it departed from Kiev on January 22.
The advertising continued in the following months. "Germany calls you! Go to Beautiful Germany! 100,000 Ukrainians are already working in free Germany. What about you?" ran a Kiev newspaper ad on March 3, 1942. Word got back however, of the sub-human slave conditions that Ukrainians met in Germany and the campaign failed to attract sufficient volunteers. Forced recruitment and forced labor were implemented, although propaganda still depicted them as volunteers.
With the news about the terrible conditions many Ostarbeiter faced in the Third Reich the pool of volunteers soon dried up. As a result, the Germans were forced to resort to mass round-ups, often using the ploy of targeting large gatherings such as church congregations and crowds at sporting events, with entire groups simply marched off at gunpoint to waiting cattle trucks and deported to Germany.
One special category was that of young women recruited to act as nannies; Hitler argued that many women would like to have children, and many of them were restricted by the lack of domestic help. (This was one of many efforts made to promote the birth rate.) Since the nannies would be in close company with German children as well as in a position where they might be sexually exploited, they were required to be suitable for Germanization. Himmler spoke of thus winning back German blood and benefiting the women, too, who would have a social rise through working in Germany and even the chance to marry there. They could be assigned only to families with many children who would properly train the nannies as well. These assignments were carried out by the NS-Frauenschaft. Originally, this recruitment was carried out only in the annexed territories of Poland, but the lack of women who passed screening extended it to all of Poland, and also to occupied territories in USSR.
Within Germany Ostarbeiter lived either in private camps owned and managed by the large companies, or in special camps guarded by privately paid police services known as the Werkschutz. They worked an average of 12 hours a day, six days a week. They were paid approximately 30% of German workers' wages; however, most of the money went toward food, clothing and board. The labor authorities, the RSHA Arbeitskreis, complained that many firms viewed these former Soviet civilian workers as "civilian prisoners", treated them accordingly, and paid no wages at all to them. Those who received pay got specially printed paper money and savings stamps, which they could use only for the purchase of a limited number of items in special camp stores. By law they were given worse food rations than other forced labor groups. Starvation rations and primitive accommodation were given to these unfortunates in Germany.
The Ostarbeiter were restricted to their compounds, in some cases labor camps. Being ethnically Slavic, they were classified by German authorities as the Untermenschen ("sub-humans"), who could be beaten, terrorized, and killed for their transgressions. Those who tried to escape were hanged where other workers could see their bodies. Leave without authorization or escape was punished by death. The Nazis issued a ban on sexual relations between Germans and the Easterners. On 7 December 1942 Himmler called for any "unauthorized sexual intercourse" to be punishable by death. In accordance with these new racial laws; all sexual relations, even those that did not result in pregnancy, were severely punished as Rassenschande (racial pollution). During the war, hundreds of Easterners were executed for their relations with German women, even though the main offenders by far – wrote Ulrich Herbert – were the French and Italian civilian workers who were not prohibited from social contacts with them.
Rape of female Ostarbeiter was extremely common and led to tens of thousands of pregnancies caused by rape. The victims began giving so many unwanted births that hundreds of special Nazi birthing centres for foreign workers had to be created in order to dispose of their infants.
Many Ostarbeiter died when Allied bombing raids targeted the factories where they worked and the German authorities refused to allow them into bomb shelters. Many also perished because the German authorities ordered that "they should be worked to death".
Nazi authorities attempted to reproduce such conditions on farms, ordering farmers to integrate the workers into their workforce while enforcing total social separation, including not permitting them to eat at the same table, but this proved far more difficult to enforce. Sexual relationships in particular were able to take place despite efforts to raise German women's "racial consciousness". When Germany's military situation worsened, these workers' conditions often improved as the farmers tried to protect themselves against a defeat.
Native German workers served as foremen and supervisors over the forced labour in factories, and therefore no solidarity developed between foreigners and German nationals. The German workers became accustomed to inequalities raised by racism against the workers and became indifferent to their plight.
During the German occupation of Central and Eastern Europe in World War II (1941–44) over 3 million people were taken to Germany as Ostarbeiter. Some estimates put the number up to 5.5 million. Between two-thirds and three-quarters of the over 3,000,000 Ostarbeiter were Ukrainians. Prof. Kondufor's statistic is that 2,244,000 Ukrainians were forced into slave labor in Germany during World War II. Another statistic puts the total at 2,196,166 for Ukrainian Ostarbeiter slaves in Germany (Dallin, p. 452). Both of these statistics probably exclude the several hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians from Halychyna, so a final total could be about 2.5 million.
There were slightly more female than male Ostarbeiter. They were employed in agriculture, mining, manufacturing armaments, metal production, and railroads. Ostarbeiter were initially sent to intermediate camps, where laborers were picked out for their assignments directly by representatives of labor-starved companies. Ford-Werke in Cologne and Opel in Russelsheim and Brandenburg each employed thousands of such Ostarbeiter at their plants.
Some Ostarbeiter worked for private firms, although many were employed in the factories making armaments. These factories were prime targets for Allied bombing. The Ostarbeiter were considered to be quite productive and efficient. Males were thought to be the equivalent of 60-80% of a German worker, and women — 90-100%. Two million Ukrainians worked mostly in the armaments factories including the V-2 rocket factory at Peenemünde.
To prevent Rassenschande (violation of German racial laws by the native Germans), the farmers were given propaganda leaflets about miscegenation, which were completely ineffective. The rampant sexual abuse of Polish and Soviet female Ostarbeiters at the hands of their overseers led to tens of thousands of unwanted births. A staggering 80 percent of rapes occurred on the farms where the Polish girls worked. The newborns were secretly euthanized in Nazi birthing centres. At Arbeitslagers the infants were killed on site. The Western factory workers had brothels. Easterners did not. They were supposed to be recruited in equal numbers of men and women, so brothels would not be needed. Female labourers were always housed in separate barracks. Nevertheless, they were suspected by the SS of "cheating their way out of work" by conceiving. The earlier policy of sending them home to give birth, was replaced by the Reichsführer-SS in 1943 with a special abortion decree. Contrary to the Nazi law against German abortions, the Ostarbeiter women were usually forced to abort.
Occasionally, when the female worker and the baby's father were "of good blood" (for example, Norwegian), the child might prove "racially valuable." In such cases, the parentage was investigated and both parents tested. If they passed, the woman would be permitted to give birth, and the child was removed for Germanization. If the woman was found particularly suitable, she might be placed at a Lebensborn institution. However, when the born children did not pass, they were put in the Ausländerkinder-Pflegestätte facilities, where up to 90 percent of them would die a torturous death due to calculated abandonment.
In some rural areas, the authorities found that the German farm-wives were inclined to care for children born to their workers, along with their own children. Attempts were made to segregate these children and use ruthless propaganda to establish that if a worker of "alien blood" gave birth in Germany, it meant immediate and total separation from the child. Repeated efforts were made to propagate Volkstum (racial consciousness) in order to prevent Rassenschande between Germans and foreign workers, nevertheless, the arrival of trains with Polish girls in German towns and villages usually turned into medieval sex slave markets.
As a result of their abusive treatment Ostarbeiter suffered from high levels of psychological trauma and those admitted to psychiatric hospitals were often the victims of abuse and murder. The Nazi regime also sanctioned the use of Ostarbeiter in medical experiments.
On September 6, 1944 the Reichsminister of the Interior ordered the establishment of special units for Ostarbeiter in several psychiatric hospitals in the Reich. The reason given was: "With the considerable number of Ostarbeiter who have been brought to the German Reich as a labour force, their admission into German psychiatric hospitals as mentally ill patients has become more frequent ... With the shortage of space in German hospitals, it is irresponsible to treat these ill people, who in the foreseeable future will not be fit for work, for a prolonged period in German institutions. "The exact number of Ostarbeiter killed in these psychiatric institutions is as yet not known. 189 Ostarbeiter were admitted to the Ostarbeiter unit of the Heil- und Pflegeanstalt Kaufbeuren; 49 died as a result of the starvation diet, or from deadly injections.
After the war many of the Ostarbeiter were initially placed in DP (displaced person) camps from which they were then moved to Kempten for processing and returned to their country of origin, primarily the USSR. The Soviets also used special Agit brigades to convince many Ostarbeiter to return.
Many Ostarbeiter were still children or young teenagers when they were taken away and wanted to return home to their parents. Others who became aware of or understood the postwar political reality declined to return. Those in the Soviet occupational zones were returned automatically. Those in the French and British zones of occupation were forced to return under the terms of the Yalta Agreement, which stated that "Citizens of the Soviet Union and of Yugoslavia were to be handed over to their respective countries, regardless of their consent".
In October 1945, General Eisenhower banned the use of force in repatriation in the American Zone. As a result, many Ostarbeiter began to escape to the American Zone. Some, when faced with return to Soviet reality, chose to commit suicide.
Upon return to the Soviet Union Ostarbeiter were often treated as traitors. Many were transported to remote locations in the Soviet Union and were denied basic rights and the chance to get further education. Nearly 80 percent of [Russian workers and prisoners of war returning from Germany] were sent to forced labour, some were given fifteen to twenty-five years of "corrective labour", and others sent off to hard labour; all were categorized as "socially dangerous".
Those who returned home were also physically and spiritually broken. Moreover, they were considered by the authorities to have "questionable loyalty", and were therefore discriminated against and deprived of many of their citizenship rights.
Ostarbeiter suffered from state-sanctioned stigmatisation, with special references in their passports (and the passports of their children and relatives) mentioning their time in Germany during the war. As a result, many jobs were off-limits to anyone unlucky enough to carry such a status, and during periods of repression former slave labourers would often be ostracised by the wider Soviet community. Many victims have testified that since the war they have suffered a lifetime of abuse and suspicion from their fellow countrymen, many of whom have accused them of being traitors who helped the Germans and lived comfortably in the Third Reich while Ukraine burned.
When applying for jobs, travel abroad or for certain other, politically sensitive activities which needed sanction by the Party authorities or the KGB, people had to fill out questionnaires (ankety). If a person was deemed to be of the "wrong" nationality or "past", their chances of travel or work (and certain areas of study) were restricted.
In 2000 the Foundation "Remembrance, Responsibility and Future", a project of the German Federal Government and 6,500 companies of the German Industry Foundation Initiative, was established, which disbursed 10 billion Deutsche Mark (5.1 billion €) to the former forced laborers. This is roughly one-off payment of €2,000 per worker, much less than the inflation-adjusted value of their work. Of the over 2 million Ostarbeiter in Ukraine, 467,000 received a total amount of €867 million, with each worker being assigned a one-time payment of 4,300 marks. The last payments were made in 2007.
Published eyewitness accounts of the Ukrainian Ostarbeiter experience are virtually non-existent in Ukraine although there were 2,244,000 of them from Ukraine,[dubious ] according to Ukrainian historian Yuri Kondufor. The State Archival Service of Ukraine now has a collection of documents online showing official notices published by the German government of occupation in Ukraine. A total of 3,000,000 Ostarbeiter were taken to Germany, and it is estimated that Ukrainians constituted about 75% of the total. Ukraine, according to some sources, lost about 10 million people in World War II, which was one of the greatest losses of any country in the war.
Some Ostarbeiter survived the war and emigrated to the countries outside Europe, primarily to the United States, although a handful also made it to Argentina, Australia, Canada, and Brazil. Ostarbeiter who found themselves in the British or French zones were automatically repatriated. Only those who were in the American zone were not forced to return to their countries of origin. In comparison, Ukrainians from western Ukraine and the Baltic region were not forced to return to the Soviet Union, because the UK did not recognize those territories as part of the USSR.
In 1998, only two Ostarbeiter had been located in Canada for interviews for the audio and video archives of the Ukrainian Canadian Research & Documentation Centre in Toronto.
Recently a film was made by Ukrainian television focusing on the plight of the Ukrainian Ostarbeiter who returned to the Soviet Union, demonstrating the harsh and inhumane treatment that they continued to receive after their repatriation. | 4,320 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jane Bolin was born on April 11th, 1908, in Poughkeepsie, New York. She was raised by her father, Gaius Bolin, following the death of her mother when she was a young child. She was an excellent student and graduated high school at the top of her class. She then attended Massachusetts' Wellesley College, from where she received her Bachelor's of Arts degree. Jane then continued on in her educational pursuits as she earned a Law degree from Yale. In doing so, Jane became the first African-American woman to earn a law degree from the prestigious university. She married Ralph Mizelle in 1933, and they moved to New York City, and from there her career took off.
After arriving in New York, Jane Bolin ran for a New York State Assembly seat. She was unsuccessful in her endeavor, but she found employment working for the Assistant Corporation Counsel in New York City, and she was the first African American woman to reach that position as well. From the years of 1932 through 1937, she worked as a private practice lawyer, until the Mayor of New York offered her a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. Mayor La Guardia swore Jane in as a judge on July 22, 1939, at which time she became the first African-American female judge in the United States.
3. Major Contributions
As a judge Bolin worked a great deal in family courts, and paid special attention to cases involved with children. She also worked to eradicate segregationist policies, and made several contributions to improving the lives of African-Americans in the city and beyond. After her first term, she was appointed to serve three more, stretching her career as a judge over an impressive 40 years. As well as being a judge, she also served on the boards of many important organizations, such the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the Child Welfare League of America, as well as on that of the New York Urban League.
Bolin was constantly facing the challenges associated with being both a woman and an African-American in an American legal system dominated by white males. She was able to overcome the stigmatization and discrimination she received through all of her amazing achievements, such as graduating from Yale and becoming the first African-American female judge. She also had to raise her son by herself following the death of her husband in 1943, all the while trying to further her career as a public official in the legal system.
1. Death and Legacy
Jane Bolin retired at the age of 70, but continued to help out her community by working as a consultant and volunteering at schools to teach math and reading to children. Jane died on January 8th, 2007 in Long Island at the age of 98. Her life story has been recorded in a biography published in 2011 called Daughter of the Empire State: The Life of Judge Jane Bolin. Her legacy continues through all of the work she did to help families and children, as well as her contributions to improving the lives of African-Americans, and advocating for their receiving equal civil rights guaranteed to all Americans.
Who Was Jane Bolin?
Jane Bolin was the first African-American woman to graduate from Yale Law School. She is known for advocating for civil rights.
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Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
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0.383864164... | 1 | Jane Bolin was born on April 11th, 1908, in Poughkeepsie, New York. She was raised by her father, Gaius Bolin, following the death of her mother when she was a young child. She was an excellent student and graduated high school at the top of her class. She then attended Massachusetts' Wellesley College, from where she received her Bachelor's of Arts degree. Jane then continued on in her educational pursuits as she earned a Law degree from Yale. In doing so, Jane became the first African-American woman to earn a law degree from the prestigious university. She married Ralph Mizelle in 1933, and they moved to New York City, and from there her career took off.
After arriving in New York, Jane Bolin ran for a New York State Assembly seat. She was unsuccessful in her endeavor, but she found employment working for the Assistant Corporation Counsel in New York City, and she was the first African American woman to reach that position as well. From the years of 1932 through 1937, she worked as a private practice lawyer, until the Mayor of New York offered her a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. Mayor La Guardia swore Jane in as a judge on July 22, 1939, at which time she became the first African-American female judge in the United States.
3. Major Contributions
As a judge Bolin worked a great deal in family courts, and paid special attention to cases involved with children. She also worked to eradicate segregationist policies, and made several contributions to improving the lives of African-Americans in the city and beyond. After her first term, she was appointed to serve three more, stretching her career as a judge over an impressive 40 years. As well as being a judge, she also served on the boards of many important organizations, such the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the Child Welfare League of America, as well as on that of the New York Urban League.
Bolin was constantly facing the challenges associated with being both a woman and an African-American in an American legal system dominated by white males. She was able to overcome the stigmatization and discrimination she received through all of her amazing achievements, such as graduating from Yale and becoming the first African-American female judge. She also had to raise her son by herself following the death of her husband in 1943, all the while trying to further her career as a public official in the legal system.
1. Death and Legacy
Jane Bolin retired at the age of 70, but continued to help out her community by working as a consultant and volunteering at schools to teach math and reading to children. Jane died on January 8th, 2007 in Long Island at the age of 98. Her life story has been recorded in a biography published in 2011 called Daughter of the Empire State: The Life of Judge Jane Bolin. Her legacy continues through all of the work she did to help families and children, as well as her contributions to improving the lives of African-Americans, and advocating for their receiving equal civil rights guaranteed to all Americans.
Who Was Jane Bolin?
Jane Bolin was the first African-American woman to graduate from Yale Law School. She is known for advocating for civil rights.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 720 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Socrates' Last Error
In the dialogue, Crito, Socrates justified his decision to accept his death penalty. His decision was praised as principled and just. However, such a view was one of the greatest myths in the history of philosophy. Contrary to the accepted ideas, I wish to show that Socrates’ argument was erroneous, the crucial error being his failure to distinguish between substantial and procedural justice. In fact, the whole of the Crito refers to some deeper problems of the philosophy of law and morality.
The dialogue "Crito" recounts Socrates' last days, immediately before his execution. As the text reveals, his friend Crito proposes to Socrates that he escape from prison. In a dialogue with Crito, Socrates considers the proposal, trying to establish whether an act like that would be just and morally justified. Eventually, he came to argue that by rejecting his sentence and by trying to escape from prison he would commit unjust and morally unjustified acts. Therefore, he decided to accept his death penalty and execution. Because of his decision, he became one of the cult figures in the history of philosophy, a man of intact moral integrity who had made his final decision according to the very same principles that guided his entire life. He was praised as a grand rationalist who had acted rationally and justly—a view which, I believe, represents one of the greatest myths in the history of philosophy.
Contrary to this widely accepted myth, I will try to demonstrate that Socrates' argument was erroneous, which made his decision less rational. In fact, had he decided to escape, his behavior would not have represented an unjust act. Although his argumentation and dialogue with Crito seem more like a moral sermon, his ideas are based on some deeper philosophical problems. In fact, Socrates' argument, developed in "Crito," belongs to the domain of the philosophy of law and morality. The argument can be summarized in the following way:
1. Lawbreaking is unjust, while observance of laws is just, because
2. Laws are just.
3. The laws of Athens are just, even if the legitimacy of laws in general can be questioned.
4. Judicial decisions made on the basis of those laws are just.
5. When finally pronounced, judicial decisions must be carried out.
6. Disrespect of judicial decisions produces the destruction of laws.
Conclusion: Escape from prison is an unjust and therefore morally unacceptable act.
The conclusion that Socrates drew from the premises is sound only if the premises themselves are true, and that is why their soundness must be examined first.
ad 1. The first premise cannot be questioned, because its truth seems incontestable. However, this is true only insofar as the first premise is related to the second one. It is assumed that the second premise ("Laws are just") is correct. Indeed, respect of unjust laws must be morally doubtful, which means that the claim for their observance must be based on some other,... | <urn:uuid:6e6c2ca5-f3ef-416f-b649-1337990826da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/socrates-last-mistake | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00059.warc.gz | en | 0.983421 | 608 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.47190475463867... | 1 | Socrates' Last Error
In the dialogue, Crito, Socrates justified his decision to accept his death penalty. His decision was praised as principled and just. However, such a view was one of the greatest myths in the history of philosophy. Contrary to the accepted ideas, I wish to show that Socrates’ argument was erroneous, the crucial error being his failure to distinguish between substantial and procedural justice. In fact, the whole of the Crito refers to some deeper problems of the philosophy of law and morality.
The dialogue "Crito" recounts Socrates' last days, immediately before his execution. As the text reveals, his friend Crito proposes to Socrates that he escape from prison. In a dialogue with Crito, Socrates considers the proposal, trying to establish whether an act like that would be just and morally justified. Eventually, he came to argue that by rejecting his sentence and by trying to escape from prison he would commit unjust and morally unjustified acts. Therefore, he decided to accept his death penalty and execution. Because of his decision, he became one of the cult figures in the history of philosophy, a man of intact moral integrity who had made his final decision according to the very same principles that guided his entire life. He was praised as a grand rationalist who had acted rationally and justly—a view which, I believe, represents one of the greatest myths in the history of philosophy.
Contrary to this widely accepted myth, I will try to demonstrate that Socrates' argument was erroneous, which made his decision less rational. In fact, had he decided to escape, his behavior would not have represented an unjust act. Although his argumentation and dialogue with Crito seem more like a moral sermon, his ideas are based on some deeper philosophical problems. In fact, Socrates' argument, developed in "Crito," belongs to the domain of the philosophy of law and morality. The argument can be summarized in the following way:
1. Lawbreaking is unjust, while observance of laws is just, because
2. Laws are just.
3. The laws of Athens are just, even if the legitimacy of laws in general can be questioned.
4. Judicial decisions made on the basis of those laws are just.
5. When finally pronounced, judicial decisions must be carried out.
6. Disrespect of judicial decisions produces the destruction of laws.
Conclusion: Escape from prison is an unjust and therefore morally unacceptable act.
The conclusion that Socrates drew from the premises is sound only if the premises themselves are true, and that is why their soundness must be examined first.
ad 1. The first premise cannot be questioned, because its truth seems incontestable. However, this is true only insofar as the first premise is related to the second one. It is assumed that the second premise ("Laws are just") is correct. Indeed, respect of unjust laws must be morally doubtful, which means that the claim for their observance must be based on some other,... | 607 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Children with special needs have medical, educational, social and emotional needs which are significantly greater than the average needs of their healthy peers. They and their families have to struggle with the physical, economical and emotional burden imposed on them by their special needs. The role of primary physicians is to lead a team that is capable of diagnosing, treating and coordinating treatment and support for the child and the family. Case management and anticipatory guidance are the cornerstone of the art of dealing with children who have special needs. Primary community physicians are expected to conduct a survey in order to identify the children with special needs in the community and to prepare an intervention plan for each of them. Early detection and proper management of the problems are expected to help these children to maximize their potential and integration in society. | <urn:uuid:a23e6529-f2a2-4d39-a548-5b2c169bd8f1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://scholars.bgu.ac.il/display/n12765518 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00089.warc.gz | en | 0.98159 | 156 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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Viking Clothing - What did the Vikings Wear?
Viking clothing had styles of their own. The social class differences between people inVikings Age society are very evident in the clothing they wore. From the style and cut of the outfit, the materials used and quality of the clothes pins which held it in place, is a clear indication of the owner's wealth and status within their community. This holds true for both men and women.
Typical Viking Female Clothing
Clothing pins which were made of metal have been found in large numbers of Viking Age graves and settlements. The clothing material the used has proved to be much harder to find. The textiles used simply haven’t managed to survive the ravages of time. We have learned a little about the materials used in making Viking Age clothing from small fragments of material which have been found.
The best evidence about the materials the Vikings used comes from some bundles of discarded fabric which were found preserved in the mud in Hedeby port. The materials appear to have been used as packing material or perhaps in connection with the tarring of ships. This find represent a rare source of information on the different types and qualities of the materials used during the Viking Age. It has also shed light on the tailoring methods used.
Fashion changed very slowly during this period. So, we can be fairly sure that the dressing styles which have been reconstructed based on findings are a fairly good representative of Viking dressing styles as a whole.
Depictions of men and women on various artefacts indicate that long hair was favoured by both sexes. Some men shaved their hair or had it rolled in a tight bun near the nape of the neck. While some women organized their long, billowing hair into a quite complicated series of knots on the crown of the head.
The sheer amount of combs which have been found in excavated sites suggest that the Viking people were highly concerned about their hair. Combs of course could help control head lice, but it is obvious that hair style was very important to the Vikings.
Men would have finely groomed beards and moustaches. Men's attire consisted of trousers and a long tunic which was topped with a cloak. The outfit was held in place by a single brooch.
The women wore multiple layers of ankle length clothing. They would be made of both wool and linen. The women's clothing would be held in place by a pair of brooches, one on each shoulder. These brooches were usually oval shaped, although the styles varied from region to region. Women would often have a third brooch which would sit near the neck.
Viking Age Leather Shoes
Viking shoes were essentially made of a large piece of leather, which was sewn into the shape of the users foot. The shoes were usually secured with leather straps. There does not appear to have been much difference in shoe styles between the sexes. Shoes appear to have been primarily about function rather than style. Individuals with the financial means would have worn course heavy woolen socks to keep warm, while those who could not afford such a luxury likely stuffed their shoes with dried grass or moss.
Viking clothing was an important symbol of status during the Viking Age, much like it is today. While the styles and fabrics certainly may not represent high fashion in todays society, you can be certain that diplaying ones wealth through fashion was as important then as it is today.
LastUpdate: 2019-06-26 19:08:21 | <urn:uuid:52c54744-7591-49f6-98e8-3eb5d6545dca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.danishnet.com/vikings/viking-clothing-what-did-vikings-wear/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00032.warc.gz | en | 0.987985 | 714 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.11761000007390... | 8 | Viking Clothing - What did the Vikings Wear?
Viking clothing had styles of their own. The social class differences between people inVikings Age society are very evident in the clothing they wore. From the style and cut of the outfit, the materials used and quality of the clothes pins which held it in place, is a clear indication of the owner's wealth and status within their community. This holds true for both men and women.
Typical Viking Female Clothing
Clothing pins which were made of metal have been found in large numbers of Viking Age graves and settlements. The clothing material the used has proved to be much harder to find. The textiles used simply haven’t managed to survive the ravages of time. We have learned a little about the materials used in making Viking Age clothing from small fragments of material which have been found.
The best evidence about the materials the Vikings used comes from some bundles of discarded fabric which were found preserved in the mud in Hedeby port. The materials appear to have been used as packing material or perhaps in connection with the tarring of ships. This find represent a rare source of information on the different types and qualities of the materials used during the Viking Age. It has also shed light on the tailoring methods used.
Fashion changed very slowly during this period. So, we can be fairly sure that the dressing styles which have been reconstructed based on findings are a fairly good representative of Viking dressing styles as a whole.
Depictions of men and women on various artefacts indicate that long hair was favoured by both sexes. Some men shaved their hair or had it rolled in a tight bun near the nape of the neck. While some women organized their long, billowing hair into a quite complicated series of knots on the crown of the head.
The sheer amount of combs which have been found in excavated sites suggest that the Viking people were highly concerned about their hair. Combs of course could help control head lice, but it is obvious that hair style was very important to the Vikings.
Men would have finely groomed beards and moustaches. Men's attire consisted of trousers and a long tunic which was topped with a cloak. The outfit was held in place by a single brooch.
The women wore multiple layers of ankle length clothing. They would be made of both wool and linen. The women's clothing would be held in place by a pair of brooches, one on each shoulder. These brooches were usually oval shaped, although the styles varied from region to region. Women would often have a third brooch which would sit near the neck.
Viking Age Leather Shoes
Viking shoes were essentially made of a large piece of leather, which was sewn into the shape of the users foot. The shoes were usually secured with leather straps. There does not appear to have been much difference in shoe styles between the sexes. Shoes appear to have been primarily about function rather than style. Individuals with the financial means would have worn course heavy woolen socks to keep warm, while those who could not afford such a luxury likely stuffed their shoes with dried grass or moss.
Viking clothing was an important symbol of status during the Viking Age, much like it is today. While the styles and fabrics certainly may not represent high fashion in todays society, you can be certain that diplaying ones wealth through fashion was as important then as it is today.
LastUpdate: 2019-06-26 19:08:21 | 709 | ENGLISH | 1 |
by Tucker Shelley
Tucker Shelley is a rising senior at UR from Burlington, Vermont. He is a member of the Theta Chi fraternity on campus. In his free time, Tucker prefers staying active and listening to good music. This is his first summer working on the Race & Racism Project and will continue similar work next semester for Dr. Maurantonio in the “Digital Memory and the Archive” course.
In early July, I took a trip to the Tuckahoe Plantation in Richmond, Virginia. A quick drive from the University of Richmond, the plantation is just down River Road, strategically placed near the banks of the James River. The house was originally built by the Randolphs, a wealthy, large family that was widely respected throughout Virginia in the 1700s. Coming into the tour, I was under the impression that this was a plantation owned by Thomas Jefferson and his family. I have often heard it referred to as the Jefferson plantation and on the website they advertise it as “the boyhood home of Thomas Jefferson.” It came as quite a surprise to me that his family only moved into the house to raise the kids of Thomas Randolph after his and his spouse’s early deaths, as Thomas Randolph and Peter Jefferson, Thomas’ Father, had agreed upon earlier. The tour focused a decent amount on Thomas Jefferson, as that is what gets people to continue visiting.
The tour is done thematically, starting with a tour of the grounds, followed by a tour of the house. During this tour of the grounds is the only time that slavery is mentioned. As we walked past the slave quarters, it was pretty hard to disregard them. However, this tour certainly was not about the enslaved black people of Tuckahoe Plantation. While I was hoping for some more information on those enslaved and their living conditions, it makes sense for them to focus their attention elsewhere. I certainly don’t blame the proprietors of the plantation, as most people in Virginia that visit the plantation don’t have a similar background to mine. The fact that they even mentioned that the Randolphs were enslavers is a step in the right direction from other similar plantations (for example, see Rena Xiao’s post on her visit to Westover Plantation). I didn’t expect them to even mention those enslaved. However, the guide brought them up only when he explained that the current owners of Tuckahoe had made the old slave quarters into “modern, livable huts” for visitors to stay in. He used this as a transition into how the Randolph’s were the epitome of southern hospitality. They would have visitors in and out of the house almost all the time. The tour guide said the Thomas’ (current owners) like to keep that tradition going by opening the house to the public for tours, marriages, and other big events.
This makes me think of what “southern hospitality” really means. Obviously, on the surface, it means letting anyone into your home and treating them like family. But what does “everyone” mean? To me, it seems like southern hospitality applies to everyone–as long as you’re white. However, on the other hand, I don’t think any black person would be itching to have their weddings at a plantation. Having your wedding at a space that either was or was similar to somewhere their ancestors were forcibly enslaved wouldn’t be a first choice. It’s a constant reminder of history perpetuating itself through exclusion. While these places pride themselves on inclusion and hospitality, the space could not be less inviting to black people. This applies to this plantation, but also white spaces like this (Monument Avenue, for example) in cities all over the country and especially in the south where they pride themselves on openness. I do not foresee anything happening to change this other than time, acceptance, and dialogue. | <urn:uuid:acbdca7f-69a6-4946-b87c-ff6984b4dc8d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blog.richmond.edu/memory/2018/08/29/southern-hospitality/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00416.warc.gz | en | 0.983541 | 807 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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Tucker Shelley is a rising senior at UR from Burlington, Vermont. He is a member of the Theta Chi fraternity on campus. In his free time, Tucker prefers staying active and listening to good music. This is his first summer working on the Race & Racism Project and will continue similar work next semester for Dr. Maurantonio in the “Digital Memory and the Archive” course.
In early July, I took a trip to the Tuckahoe Plantation in Richmond, Virginia. A quick drive from the University of Richmond, the plantation is just down River Road, strategically placed near the banks of the James River. The house was originally built by the Randolphs, a wealthy, large family that was widely respected throughout Virginia in the 1700s. Coming into the tour, I was under the impression that this was a plantation owned by Thomas Jefferson and his family. I have often heard it referred to as the Jefferson plantation and on the website they advertise it as “the boyhood home of Thomas Jefferson.” It came as quite a surprise to me that his family only moved into the house to raise the kids of Thomas Randolph after his and his spouse’s early deaths, as Thomas Randolph and Peter Jefferson, Thomas’ Father, had agreed upon earlier. The tour focused a decent amount on Thomas Jefferson, as that is what gets people to continue visiting.
The tour is done thematically, starting with a tour of the grounds, followed by a tour of the house. During this tour of the grounds is the only time that slavery is mentioned. As we walked past the slave quarters, it was pretty hard to disregard them. However, this tour certainly was not about the enslaved black people of Tuckahoe Plantation. While I was hoping for some more information on those enslaved and their living conditions, it makes sense for them to focus their attention elsewhere. I certainly don’t blame the proprietors of the plantation, as most people in Virginia that visit the plantation don’t have a similar background to mine. The fact that they even mentioned that the Randolphs were enslavers is a step in the right direction from other similar plantations (for example, see Rena Xiao’s post on her visit to Westover Plantation). I didn’t expect them to even mention those enslaved. However, the guide brought them up only when he explained that the current owners of Tuckahoe had made the old slave quarters into “modern, livable huts” for visitors to stay in. He used this as a transition into how the Randolph’s were the epitome of southern hospitality. They would have visitors in and out of the house almost all the time. The tour guide said the Thomas’ (current owners) like to keep that tradition going by opening the house to the public for tours, marriages, and other big events.
This makes me think of what “southern hospitality” really means. Obviously, on the surface, it means letting anyone into your home and treating them like family. But what does “everyone” mean? To me, it seems like southern hospitality applies to everyone–as long as you’re white. However, on the other hand, I don’t think any black person would be itching to have their weddings at a plantation. Having your wedding at a space that either was or was similar to somewhere their ancestors were forcibly enslaved wouldn’t be a first choice. It’s a constant reminder of history perpetuating itself through exclusion. While these places pride themselves on inclusion and hospitality, the space could not be less inviting to black people. This applies to this plantation, but also white spaces like this (Monument Avenue, for example) in cities all over the country and especially in the south where they pride themselves on openness. I do not foresee anything happening to change this other than time, acceptance, and dialogue. | 775 | ENGLISH | 1 |
About this image
This Quakers meeting house was demolished in the late 1960's. The Meeting House was the place where religious dissenters known as the Society of Friends (Quakers) could meet. The society formed at a time of great religious upheaval in Britain. In 1643 George Fox, a shoemaker from Fenny Drayton, Leicestershire, began toured the country giving sermons where he argued that consecrated buildings and ordained ministers were irrelevant to the individual seeking God. Three years later Fox had a divine revelation that inspired him to preach a gospel of brotherly love. Fox formed a group called the Friends of Truth. Later they became known as the Society of Friends. Fox's central dogma was that of the inner light, communicated directly to the individual soul by Christ. After 1656 followers of Fox refused to attend Anglican services or pay tithes. This resulted in George Fox being arrested. According to Fox's journal, Justice Bennet of Derby 'was the first that called us Quakers, because I bade them tremble at the word of the Lord'. Eventually members of the Society of Friends became known as Quakers. During the reign of Charles II, 13,562 were arrested and imprisoned in England and 198 were transported as slaves, and 338 died in prison or of wounds received in violent assaults on their meetings. The Society of Friends continued to grow and by 1660 Fox had made more than 20,000 converts and missionaries were at work in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and the American colonies. After considerable debate, the Society of Friends evolved a form of organization with regular monthly, quarterly, and annual meetings. They selected elders, to watch over the ministry, and overseers to make provision for the poor and secure the education of the children. They wore plain clothes stripped of all ornament. Powdered hair or ruffles on the shirt were considered to be signs of vanity. Women were expected to wear sober clothes without frills or feathers. Worldly pleasures, such as the theatre, dancing, music, singing and cards were strictly forbidden. Quakers regarded all humans equal before God and addressed everyone as 'thou' and refused to refer to peoples' ranks and titles. Quakers also upset people by not showing respect by 'doffing the hat'. This made it difficult for Quakers to make friends with neighbours as they were unwilling to follow the traditional custom of taking off their hats when they entered a house. The persecution of Quakers continued throughout the 17th century and many decided to emigrate in order to obtain religious freedom. In 1681 William Penn founded the American Quaker Colony of Pennsylvania. Two years later, Francis Daniel Pastorius from Germany, established Quaker settlement in America called Germantown. Both Penn and Pastorius campaigned against slavery in America. In the 18th century the Quakers gradually abandoned some of their ideas such as disowning those who married non-Quakers and compulsory codes of speech. They also became involved in politics and social reform. The Society of Friends became the first religious group to denounce slavery and would not permit any of their members to own slaves. In 1783 the Quakers presented the first substantial anti-slavery petition to Parliament and played a prominent role in the Anti-Slavery Society. Others like Elizabeth Fry joined prison reform movement whereas Joseph Lancaster worked for an improvement in education. Quakers also established the Peace Society that campaigned for an end to war and were also active in famine relief organisations. By the beginning of the 19th century there were about 25,000 Quakers in Britain. Quakers had a reputation as successful entrepreneurs. A group of Quakers under the leadership of Edward Pease helped establish the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825. Companies established by Quakers during the 19th century included Cadbury, Fry, Rowntree, Huntley & Palmer, Bryant and May, Barclays and Lloyds. In the religious census of 1851 there were 3,153,490 Protestant Nonconformists. This included 18,172 members of the Society of Friends. | <urn:uuid:f43f4dbe-547d-406c-a476-e220d572628e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://picturethepast.org.uk/image-library/image-details/poster/dccc001584/posterid/dccc001584.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00124.warc.gz | en | 0.982435 | 824 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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This Quakers meeting house was demolished in the late 1960's. The Meeting House was the place where religious dissenters known as the Society of Friends (Quakers) could meet. The society formed at a time of great religious upheaval in Britain. In 1643 George Fox, a shoemaker from Fenny Drayton, Leicestershire, began toured the country giving sermons where he argued that consecrated buildings and ordained ministers were irrelevant to the individual seeking God. Three years later Fox had a divine revelation that inspired him to preach a gospel of brotherly love. Fox formed a group called the Friends of Truth. Later they became known as the Society of Friends. Fox's central dogma was that of the inner light, communicated directly to the individual soul by Christ. After 1656 followers of Fox refused to attend Anglican services or pay tithes. This resulted in George Fox being arrested. According to Fox's journal, Justice Bennet of Derby 'was the first that called us Quakers, because I bade them tremble at the word of the Lord'. Eventually members of the Society of Friends became known as Quakers. During the reign of Charles II, 13,562 were arrested and imprisoned in England and 198 were transported as slaves, and 338 died in prison or of wounds received in violent assaults on their meetings. The Society of Friends continued to grow and by 1660 Fox had made more than 20,000 converts and missionaries were at work in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and the American colonies. After considerable debate, the Society of Friends evolved a form of organization with regular monthly, quarterly, and annual meetings. They selected elders, to watch over the ministry, and overseers to make provision for the poor and secure the education of the children. They wore plain clothes stripped of all ornament. Powdered hair or ruffles on the shirt were considered to be signs of vanity. Women were expected to wear sober clothes without frills or feathers. Worldly pleasures, such as the theatre, dancing, music, singing and cards were strictly forbidden. Quakers regarded all humans equal before God and addressed everyone as 'thou' and refused to refer to peoples' ranks and titles. Quakers also upset people by not showing respect by 'doffing the hat'. This made it difficult for Quakers to make friends with neighbours as they were unwilling to follow the traditional custom of taking off their hats when they entered a house. The persecution of Quakers continued throughout the 17th century and many decided to emigrate in order to obtain religious freedom. In 1681 William Penn founded the American Quaker Colony of Pennsylvania. Two years later, Francis Daniel Pastorius from Germany, established Quaker settlement in America called Germantown. Both Penn and Pastorius campaigned against slavery in America. In the 18th century the Quakers gradually abandoned some of their ideas such as disowning those who married non-Quakers and compulsory codes of speech. They also became involved in politics and social reform. The Society of Friends became the first religious group to denounce slavery and would not permit any of their members to own slaves. In 1783 the Quakers presented the first substantial anti-slavery petition to Parliament and played a prominent role in the Anti-Slavery Society. Others like Elizabeth Fry joined prison reform movement whereas Joseph Lancaster worked for an improvement in education. Quakers also established the Peace Society that campaigned for an end to war and were also active in famine relief organisations. By the beginning of the 19th century there were about 25,000 Quakers in Britain. Quakers had a reputation as successful entrepreneurs. A group of Quakers under the leadership of Edward Pease helped establish the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825. Companies established by Quakers during the 19th century included Cadbury, Fry, Rowntree, Huntley & Palmer, Bryant and May, Barclays and Lloyds. In the religious census of 1851 there were 3,153,490 Protestant Nonconformists. This included 18,172 members of the Society of Friends. | 883 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Reformer’s Progressive Ideas
John George Lambton, the Earl of Durham, was a British political reformer. (His nickname was “Radical Jack.”) He was appointed governor general of British North America by the imperial Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne. Durham was asked to investigate colonial grievances after the rebellions of 1837–38 in Upper and Lower Canada. ( See also: Rebellion in Lower Canada; Rebellion in Upper Canada.) He arrived in Canada in May 1838. However, he had a dispute with the government in London and resigned his appointment four months later. He returned to Britain. In 1839, he completed his Report on the Affairs of British North America.
The report was controversial. Its recommendations were progressive for their time. Durham proposed the creation of municipal governments and a supreme court in the British North American colonies. He also wanted to resolve the land question in Prince Edward Island. His long-held plan for the union of all BNA colonies was dropped because Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were uninterested. (It took three more decades before Durham’s vision of a BNA union was achieved through Confederation.)
Durham’s report made two main recommendations. It called for the unification of Upper and Lower Canada and the introduction of responsible government. The British Parliament implemented the first point but not the second.
Two Warring Nations
Durham believed that the problems in mostly French Lower Canada were ethnic in nature, not political. He found “two nations warring in the bosom of a single state.” Durham was culturally biased against the French Canadians. He called them “a people with no literature and no history.” He recommended assimilating them by uniting the Canadas in a way that would allow the English-speaking majority in Upper Canada to dominate. This would prevent the French Canadians from pursuing ethnic aims. It would also allow the mostly anglophone merchants in Lower Canada to pursue a strong St. Lawrence economy and ensure future prosperity. (See also: Laurentian Thesis.)
Durham believed the triumph of capitalism would bring harmony and peace. But this would also require political reforms. He believed the constitutional system In Upper Canada was defective. Power was monopolized by the Family Compact, a group of ruling elites. (Durham’s close adviser Charles Buller called them “a petty, corrupt, insolent Tory clique.”) The Family Compact had been blocking economic and social development in a potentially wealthy colony. This was a leading cause of the discontent that led to the rebellion in Upper Canada.
Durham’s solution was to introduce a system in which colonial governments, at least in domestic matters, were responsible to the electorate rather than to the governor and the Crown. This would be possible if the executive (or in modern terms, the Cabinet) was drawn from and held the support of the majority in the elected assembly. Such a reform would reduce the power of the Family Compact and stimulate colonial development. It would also strengthen the imperial connection with Britain and minimize American influence in the colony.
Durham’s Report was condemned by Upper Canada’s Tory elite. However, Reformers there and in Nova Scotia hailed the idea of responsible government. In Lower Canada, Montreal’s anglophone Tories supported the union. They saw it as a way to overcome French Canadian opposition to their plans for economic development. French Canadians were opposed to the union and were determined to defend their nationality.
In the end, the British government accepted the recommendation for a union of the Canadas. (See Act of Union.) The unified Province of Canada came into being in 1841. It was governed by a joint legislature in which the newly formed Canada West (formerly Upper Canada) and Canada East (formerly Lower Canada) had an equal number of seats. But since Canada West had a smaller population, the French population in Canada East was under-represented. (See also: Rep by Pop.)
Responsible government, however, was too much for the imperial government in London. They believed that tight control of the colonies was necessary to maintain loyalty to Britain. It wasn’t until 1847 that Britain granted local self-government to the colonies. This was because a newly elected government in London was eager to reduce spending. In 1848, the Reformers in Nova Scotia, including Joseph Howe, established the first responsible government in the British Empire. (See Nova Scotia: The Cradle of Canadian Parliamentary Democracy.) Later that year, the Reformers, led by Robert Baldwin and Louis H. LaFontaine, formed a responsible government in the Province of Canada. It was later granted in New Brunswick, PEI and Newfoundland.
The Durham Report was controversial for recommending the assimilation of the French Canadians through a union of Upper and Lower Canada. Because of this, Durham became a loathed figure among French Canadians. However, his report played an important role in the development of Canadian democracy and the evolution of Canada’s political independence from Britain. | <urn:uuid:2c9b158c-978a-4ac6-9221-217ed00d6a3c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/durham-report | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00335.warc.gz | en | 0.980515 | 1,025 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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John George Lambton, the Earl of Durham, was a British political reformer. (His nickname was “Radical Jack.”) He was appointed governor general of British North America by the imperial Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne. Durham was asked to investigate colonial grievances after the rebellions of 1837–38 in Upper and Lower Canada. ( See also: Rebellion in Lower Canada; Rebellion in Upper Canada.) He arrived in Canada in May 1838. However, he had a dispute with the government in London and resigned his appointment four months later. He returned to Britain. In 1839, he completed his Report on the Affairs of British North America.
The report was controversial. Its recommendations were progressive for their time. Durham proposed the creation of municipal governments and a supreme court in the British North American colonies. He also wanted to resolve the land question in Prince Edward Island. His long-held plan for the union of all BNA colonies was dropped because Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were uninterested. (It took three more decades before Durham’s vision of a BNA union was achieved through Confederation.)
Durham’s report made two main recommendations. It called for the unification of Upper and Lower Canada and the introduction of responsible government. The British Parliament implemented the first point but not the second.
Two Warring Nations
Durham believed that the problems in mostly French Lower Canada were ethnic in nature, not political. He found “two nations warring in the bosom of a single state.” Durham was culturally biased against the French Canadians. He called them “a people with no literature and no history.” He recommended assimilating them by uniting the Canadas in a way that would allow the English-speaking majority in Upper Canada to dominate. This would prevent the French Canadians from pursuing ethnic aims. It would also allow the mostly anglophone merchants in Lower Canada to pursue a strong St. Lawrence economy and ensure future prosperity. (See also: Laurentian Thesis.)
Durham believed the triumph of capitalism would bring harmony and peace. But this would also require political reforms. He believed the constitutional system In Upper Canada was defective. Power was monopolized by the Family Compact, a group of ruling elites. (Durham’s close adviser Charles Buller called them “a petty, corrupt, insolent Tory clique.”) The Family Compact had been blocking economic and social development in a potentially wealthy colony. This was a leading cause of the discontent that led to the rebellion in Upper Canada.
Durham’s solution was to introduce a system in which colonial governments, at least in domestic matters, were responsible to the electorate rather than to the governor and the Crown. This would be possible if the executive (or in modern terms, the Cabinet) was drawn from and held the support of the majority in the elected assembly. Such a reform would reduce the power of the Family Compact and stimulate colonial development. It would also strengthen the imperial connection with Britain and minimize American influence in the colony.
Durham’s Report was condemned by Upper Canada’s Tory elite. However, Reformers there and in Nova Scotia hailed the idea of responsible government. In Lower Canada, Montreal’s anglophone Tories supported the union. They saw it as a way to overcome French Canadian opposition to their plans for economic development. French Canadians were opposed to the union and were determined to defend their nationality.
In the end, the British government accepted the recommendation for a union of the Canadas. (See Act of Union.) The unified Province of Canada came into being in 1841. It was governed by a joint legislature in which the newly formed Canada West (formerly Upper Canada) and Canada East (formerly Lower Canada) had an equal number of seats. But since Canada West had a smaller population, the French population in Canada East was under-represented. (See also: Rep by Pop.)
Responsible government, however, was too much for the imperial government in London. They believed that tight control of the colonies was necessary to maintain loyalty to Britain. It wasn’t until 1847 that Britain granted local self-government to the colonies. This was because a newly elected government in London was eager to reduce spending. In 1848, the Reformers in Nova Scotia, including Joseph Howe, established the first responsible government in the British Empire. (See Nova Scotia: The Cradle of Canadian Parliamentary Democracy.) Later that year, the Reformers, led by Robert Baldwin and Louis H. LaFontaine, formed a responsible government in the Province of Canada. It was later granted in New Brunswick, PEI and Newfoundland.
The Durham Report was controversial for recommending the assimilation of the French Canadians through a union of Upper and Lower Canada. Because of this, Durham became a loathed figure among French Canadians. However, his report played an important role in the development of Canadian democracy and the evolution of Canada’s political independence from Britain. | 1,001 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Albert Einstein was a German physicist during the 20th century who made an important mark in the mathematics and physics disciplines. He made several discoveries and conducted studies in physics through which he built on existing scientific theories. His background in a scientific family may have played a major role in his career trajectory. Einstein was a citizen of various countries including Germany, Switzerland, and the US. He became a Swiss citizen after renouncing his German citizenship to avoid conscription into the army. His citizenship in the US came during the Second World War due to threats to his security in the Nazi regime.
5. Early Life
Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Wurttemberg kingdom of the German Empire to Hermann Einstein and Pauline Koch. He studied at the Swiss Federal Polytechnic, Zurich where he sat his entrance examinations. From a young age, Einstein had a remarkable aptitude for mathematics and physics. He received his secondary education at Argovian cantonal school in Switzerland. He later pursued a diploma in education majoring in maths and physics at the Zurich Polytechnic.
Einstein became a Swiss citizen in 1901 and began working at the patent office in Bern as Level III assistant examiner. He later worked in various academic institutions such as the University of Bern as a lecturer and later as an associate lecturer. He served in various academic institutions such as the Humboldt University of Berlin and the Institute for Advanced Studies in various teaching and leadership capacities. He wrote many scientific and non-scientific papers during his career time. His imagination is considered crucial in the theories and discoveries he made during his lifetime.
3. Major Contributions
Albert Einstein is remembered for his significant contributions to physics and philosophy. He discovered the law of photoelectric effect, the special theory of relativity, the Brownian motion, and came up with the equivalent mass-energy formula E= mc2. His interest and theories in energy, space, and time have been the basis and foundation for modern science, space exploration, light, and atomic energy. He made inventions such as the Einstein’s refrigerator and was part of the Manhattan Project. Despite his role in the creation of atomic bombs, he advocated for non-use of the bombs in the war due to the destruction they caused.
As an imaginative and highly talented scientist, Einstein faced a lot of opposition from anti-Semitic groups, and many claimed his theories and formulas were wrong. For example, his theory that light was capable of bending was received with criticism and scepticism by scientists. His health deteriorated over time affecting him mentally and physically. The situation was worsened by the world wars which threatened his safety due to his Jewish roots. His resilience and stubbornness developed during his childhood as well as the belief that his scientific theories and findings were correct enabled him to remain strong. Einstein turned challenges into opportunities.
1. Death and Legacy
Einstein died in Princeton Hospital on April 17th, 1955 at the age of 76, from internal bleeding caused by a ruptured aneurysm. His remains after cremation were scattered at an unknown location. He is remembered as one of the most influential scientists. Einstein won various awards including the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921, the Copley Medal in 1925, and the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1926 and the Time Person of the Year in 1999. The Historical Museum of Bern has been named the Einstein Museum.
Where Was Albert Einstein Born?
Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Wurttemberg kingdom of the German Empire to Hermann Einstein and Pauline Koch. He studied at the Swiss Federal Polytechnic, Zurich where he sat his entrance examinations.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
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0.281040310... | 2 | Albert Einstein was a German physicist during the 20th century who made an important mark in the mathematics and physics disciplines. He made several discoveries and conducted studies in physics through which he built on existing scientific theories. His background in a scientific family may have played a major role in his career trajectory. Einstein was a citizen of various countries including Germany, Switzerland, and the US. He became a Swiss citizen after renouncing his German citizenship to avoid conscription into the army. His citizenship in the US came during the Second World War due to threats to his security in the Nazi regime.
5. Early Life
Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Wurttemberg kingdom of the German Empire to Hermann Einstein and Pauline Koch. He studied at the Swiss Federal Polytechnic, Zurich where he sat his entrance examinations. From a young age, Einstein had a remarkable aptitude for mathematics and physics. He received his secondary education at Argovian cantonal school in Switzerland. He later pursued a diploma in education majoring in maths and physics at the Zurich Polytechnic.
Einstein became a Swiss citizen in 1901 and began working at the patent office in Bern as Level III assistant examiner. He later worked in various academic institutions such as the University of Bern as a lecturer and later as an associate lecturer. He served in various academic institutions such as the Humboldt University of Berlin and the Institute for Advanced Studies in various teaching and leadership capacities. He wrote many scientific and non-scientific papers during his career time. His imagination is considered crucial in the theories and discoveries he made during his lifetime.
3. Major Contributions
Albert Einstein is remembered for his significant contributions to physics and philosophy. He discovered the law of photoelectric effect, the special theory of relativity, the Brownian motion, and came up with the equivalent mass-energy formula E= mc2. His interest and theories in energy, space, and time have been the basis and foundation for modern science, space exploration, light, and atomic energy. He made inventions such as the Einstein’s refrigerator and was part of the Manhattan Project. Despite his role in the creation of atomic bombs, he advocated for non-use of the bombs in the war due to the destruction they caused.
As an imaginative and highly talented scientist, Einstein faced a lot of opposition from anti-Semitic groups, and many claimed his theories and formulas were wrong. For example, his theory that light was capable of bending was received with criticism and scepticism by scientists. His health deteriorated over time affecting him mentally and physically. The situation was worsened by the world wars which threatened his safety due to his Jewish roots. His resilience and stubbornness developed during his childhood as well as the belief that his scientific theories and findings were correct enabled him to remain strong. Einstein turned challenges into opportunities.
1. Death and Legacy
Einstein died in Princeton Hospital on April 17th, 1955 at the age of 76, from internal bleeding caused by a ruptured aneurysm. His remains after cremation were scattered at an unknown location. He is remembered as one of the most influential scientists. Einstein won various awards including the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921, the Copley Medal in 1925, and the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1926 and the Time Person of the Year in 1999. The Historical Museum of Bern has been named the Einstein Museum.
Where Was Albert Einstein Born?
Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Wurttemberg kingdom of the German Empire to Hermann Einstein and Pauline Koch. He studied at the Swiss Federal Polytechnic, Zurich where he sat his entrance examinations.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 840 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Crosh Vushta or mustering cross was the means by which the country was raised to defend it and stern were the rules that governed its use. The assembling token was in the form of a wooden cross, and is referred to both in the old laws of Norway and in the Icelandic laws in the time of the Norse Kings of Man. It was made from two chosen pieces of the keirn (rowan) about half a cubit in length, mortised together and fastened by a dowel. There was a handle for easy carrying. In the Sagas it is called the War Arrow. It was used, too, for calling freemen to meetings of the ‘Thing‘ or parliament. The Heimskringler tells us that:
“Each householder had to pass it on to his neighbours. If the house was shut up, it was stuck in the door. If the door was un-locked, but no one in the house, it was stuck in the house-father’s great chair in the fireside.”
In 1497 the warden in charge of the night watch at Douglas declared that Patrick McKerron had not kept his Watch according to the custom of the country but had kept the cross in his house for nine days. He would be at the mercy of the King, for his ‘lyfe and lymbe.’
Thomas Moore of the Milnes in Kirk Malew, for neglecting the Watch and keeping the Watch Cross two days, was in 1611 ordered to be fined severely.
From various fines which are recorded in the Exchequer Books at different periods, we learn that Watch and Ward was enforced as late as 1815.
Dr. Clague in his Manx Reminiscences says that the Manx ‘Crosh Losht‘, or what was called the ‘Fiery cross in Scotland, was about two feet in length, and the end was burnt.’ On the Isle of Man, each quarterland owner in every parish had to carry it to the house of his next neighbour, and so on until the parish freemen had all been notified.
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0.11504095... | 6 | The Crosh Vushta or mustering cross was the means by which the country was raised to defend it and stern were the rules that governed its use. The assembling token was in the form of a wooden cross, and is referred to both in the old laws of Norway and in the Icelandic laws in the time of the Norse Kings of Man. It was made from two chosen pieces of the keirn (rowan) about half a cubit in length, mortised together and fastened by a dowel. There was a handle for easy carrying. In the Sagas it is called the War Arrow. It was used, too, for calling freemen to meetings of the ‘Thing‘ or parliament. The Heimskringler tells us that:
“Each householder had to pass it on to his neighbours. If the house was shut up, it was stuck in the door. If the door was un-locked, but no one in the house, it was stuck in the house-father’s great chair in the fireside.”
In 1497 the warden in charge of the night watch at Douglas declared that Patrick McKerron had not kept his Watch according to the custom of the country but had kept the cross in his house for nine days. He would be at the mercy of the King, for his ‘lyfe and lymbe.’
Thomas Moore of the Milnes in Kirk Malew, for neglecting the Watch and keeping the Watch Cross two days, was in 1611 ordered to be fined severely.
From various fines which are recorded in the Exchequer Books at different periods, we learn that Watch and Ward was enforced as late as 1815.
Dr. Clague in his Manx Reminiscences says that the Manx ‘Crosh Losht‘, or what was called the ‘Fiery cross in Scotland, was about two feet in length, and the end was burnt.’ On the Isle of Man, each quarterland owner in every parish had to carry it to the house of his next neighbour, and so on until the parish freemen had all been notified.
(source: Island Heritage by William Cubbon (1952)) | 451 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Empires are built through the creation or acquisition of wealth. The Roman Empire came about through the productivity of its people and its subsequent acquisition of wealth from those that it invaded. The Spanish Empire began with productivity and expanded through the use of its large armada of ships, looting the New World of its gold. The British Empire began through localized productivity and grew through its creation of colonies worldwide—colonies that it exploited, bringing the wealth back to England to make it the wealthiest country in the world.
In the Victorian Age, we Brits were proud to say, “There will always be an England,” and “The sun never sets on the British Empire.” So, where did we go wrong? Why are we no longer the world’s foremost empire? Why have we lost not only the majority of our colonies, but also the majority of our wealth?
Well, first, let’s take a peek back at the other aforementioned empires and see how they fared. Rome was arguably the greatest empire the world has ever seen. Industrious Romans organized large armies that went to other parts of the world, subjugating them and seizing the wealth that they had built up over generations. And as long as there were further conquerable lands just over the next hill, this approach was very effective. However, once Rome faced diminishing returns on new lands to conquer, it became evident that those lands it had conquered had to be maintained and defended, even though there was little further wealth that could be confiscated.
The conquered lands needed costly militaries and bureaucracies in place to keep them subjugated but were no longer paying for themselves. The “colonies” were running at a loss. Meanwhile, Rome itself had become very spoiled. Its politicians kept promising more in the way of “bread and circuses” to the voters, in order to maintain their political office. So, the coffers were being drained by both the colonies and at home. Finally, in a bid to keep from losing their power, Roman leaders entered into highly expensive wars. This was the final economic crippler and the empire self-destructed.
Spain was a highly productive nation that attacked its neighbours successfully and built up its wealth, then became far wealthier when it sailed west, raiding the Americas of the silver and gold that they had spent hundreds of years accumulating. The sudden addition of this wealth allowed the Spanish kings to be lavish to the people and, as in Rome, the Spanish became very spoiled indeed. But once the gold and silver that was coming out of the New World was down to a trickle, the funding for maintaining the empire began to dry up. Worse, old enemies from Europe were knocking at the door, hoping to even old scores. In a bid to retain the empire, the king entered into extensive warfare in Europe, rapidly draining the royal purse and, like Rome, the Spanish Empire self-destructed.
In the Victorian era, the British Empire was unmatched in the world. It entered the industrial revolution and was highly productive. In addition, it was pulling wealth from its colonies in the form of mining, farming and industry. But, like other countries in Europe, it dove into World War I quickly and, since warfare always diminishes productivity at home whilst it demands major expense abroad, the British Empire was knocked down to one knee by the end of the war.
Then, in 1939, the game was afoot again and Britain was drawn into a second world war. By the end of the war, it could still be said that there would always be an England, but its wealth had been drained off and, one by one, its colonies jumped ship. The days of empire were gone.
Into the breach stepped the US. At the beginning of World War I, the US took no part in the fighting, but, as it had experienced its own industrial revolution, it supplied goods, food, and armaments to Britain and her allies. Because the pound and other European currencies could not be trusted not to inflate, payment was made in gold and silver. So the US was expanding its productivity into a guaranteed market, selling at top dollar, using the profits to create larger, more efficient factories, getting paid in gold.
Then, in 1939, it all happened again. Although the US eventually joined both wars, they did so much later than Britain and her allies. At the end of World War II, the US had a lively young workforce, as they had lost fewer men to the war. They also had modern factories, which had been paid for by other nations, that could now be used to produce peacetime goods for themselves and the rest of the world more efficiently than anyone else.
And (and this is a very big “and”) by 1945 they owned or controlled , as they’d drained it away from the warring nations in the early days of the war. This allowed the US to invite the post-war leaders to Bretton Woods to explain that, as the holders of the world’s wealth, they’d dictate what the world’s default currency would be: the dollar.
But this was all threatened by the fact that, when the now-poorer nations of the world sold their goods to the US, they, too, beginning with the French, wished to be paid in gold.
And so, in the subsequent years, the gold in Fort Knox was beginning to travel back to the east, from whence it had come in previous years. In 1971, this flow was shut off, as the US, still the foremost empire, had the power to simply remove all intrinsic value from the dollar and turn it into a fiat currency. Payment in gold ended.
Fast-forward to the post-millennium era and we see that America, like the previous empires, ended its acquisition of gold after World War II, yet its people became spoiled by political leaders who promised ever-increasing bread and circuses. The productivity that led to its initial strength was dying off, and it was spending more than it was bringing in. Finally, it sought to maintain its hegemony through warfare, thereby creating a dramatic drain to its wealth.
Like other empires before it, the US is now on the verge of relinquishing the crown of empire. If there’s any difference this time around, it’s that its collapse will very likely be far more spectacular than that of previous empires. However, just as in previous collapses, those who least understand that the collapse is around the corner are those who are closest to its centre. Clearly, the majority of Americans are worried about their future yet cannot conceive of their country as a second-rate power. And those who hold the reins of that power tend to be the most deluded, delving ever-deeper into debt at an ever-faster rate, whilst expanding welfare and warfare without any concept of how it might all be paid for.
It’s understandable, therefore, that those of us who are on the outside looking in find it easier to observe objectively from afar and see the coming self-destruction of yet another empire.
As stated in the first line of this essay, “empires are built through the creation or acquisition of wealth.”
Does this indicate the “end of the world”? Not at all. The world did not end with the fall of Rome, Spain, England, or any one of the many other empires. The productive people simply moved to a different geographical location—one that encourages free-market opportunity. The wealth moved with them, then grew, as the free market allowed productive people to make it grow.
Freedom and opportunity still exist and indeed flourish. All that’s changing is the locations where they are to be found.
Copyright © International Man | <urn:uuid:addd166b-db06-4227-8f02-43798c1c7735> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://crushlimbraw.blogspot.com/2020/01/an-empire-self-destructs-by-jeff-thomas.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00290.warc.gz | en | 0.982693 | 1,599 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.2789288759231... | 2 | Empires are built through the creation or acquisition of wealth. The Roman Empire came about through the productivity of its people and its subsequent acquisition of wealth from those that it invaded. The Spanish Empire began with productivity and expanded through the use of its large armada of ships, looting the New World of its gold. The British Empire began through localized productivity and grew through its creation of colonies worldwide—colonies that it exploited, bringing the wealth back to England to make it the wealthiest country in the world.
In the Victorian Age, we Brits were proud to say, “There will always be an England,” and “The sun never sets on the British Empire.” So, where did we go wrong? Why are we no longer the world’s foremost empire? Why have we lost not only the majority of our colonies, but also the majority of our wealth?
Well, first, let’s take a peek back at the other aforementioned empires and see how they fared. Rome was arguably the greatest empire the world has ever seen. Industrious Romans organized large armies that went to other parts of the world, subjugating them and seizing the wealth that they had built up over generations. And as long as there were further conquerable lands just over the next hill, this approach was very effective. However, once Rome faced diminishing returns on new lands to conquer, it became evident that those lands it had conquered had to be maintained and defended, even though there was little further wealth that could be confiscated.
The conquered lands needed costly militaries and bureaucracies in place to keep them subjugated but were no longer paying for themselves. The “colonies” were running at a loss. Meanwhile, Rome itself had become very spoiled. Its politicians kept promising more in the way of “bread and circuses” to the voters, in order to maintain their political office. So, the coffers were being drained by both the colonies and at home. Finally, in a bid to keep from losing their power, Roman leaders entered into highly expensive wars. This was the final economic crippler and the empire self-destructed.
Spain was a highly productive nation that attacked its neighbours successfully and built up its wealth, then became far wealthier when it sailed west, raiding the Americas of the silver and gold that they had spent hundreds of years accumulating. The sudden addition of this wealth allowed the Spanish kings to be lavish to the people and, as in Rome, the Spanish became very spoiled indeed. But once the gold and silver that was coming out of the New World was down to a trickle, the funding for maintaining the empire began to dry up. Worse, old enemies from Europe were knocking at the door, hoping to even old scores. In a bid to retain the empire, the king entered into extensive warfare in Europe, rapidly draining the royal purse and, like Rome, the Spanish Empire self-destructed.
In the Victorian era, the British Empire was unmatched in the world. It entered the industrial revolution and was highly productive. In addition, it was pulling wealth from its colonies in the form of mining, farming and industry. But, like other countries in Europe, it dove into World War I quickly and, since warfare always diminishes productivity at home whilst it demands major expense abroad, the British Empire was knocked down to one knee by the end of the war.
Then, in 1939, the game was afoot again and Britain was drawn into a second world war. By the end of the war, it could still be said that there would always be an England, but its wealth had been drained off and, one by one, its colonies jumped ship. The days of empire were gone.
Into the breach stepped the US. At the beginning of World War I, the US took no part in the fighting, but, as it had experienced its own industrial revolution, it supplied goods, food, and armaments to Britain and her allies. Because the pound and other European currencies could not be trusted not to inflate, payment was made in gold and silver. So the US was expanding its productivity into a guaranteed market, selling at top dollar, using the profits to create larger, more efficient factories, getting paid in gold.
Then, in 1939, it all happened again. Although the US eventually joined both wars, they did so much later than Britain and her allies. At the end of World War II, the US had a lively young workforce, as they had lost fewer men to the war. They also had modern factories, which had been paid for by other nations, that could now be used to produce peacetime goods for themselves and the rest of the world more efficiently than anyone else.
And (and this is a very big “and”) by 1945 they owned or controlled , as they’d drained it away from the warring nations in the early days of the war. This allowed the US to invite the post-war leaders to Bretton Woods to explain that, as the holders of the world’s wealth, they’d dictate what the world’s default currency would be: the dollar.
But this was all threatened by the fact that, when the now-poorer nations of the world sold their goods to the US, they, too, beginning with the French, wished to be paid in gold.
And so, in the subsequent years, the gold in Fort Knox was beginning to travel back to the east, from whence it had come in previous years. In 1971, this flow was shut off, as the US, still the foremost empire, had the power to simply remove all intrinsic value from the dollar and turn it into a fiat currency. Payment in gold ended.
Fast-forward to the post-millennium era and we see that America, like the previous empires, ended its acquisition of gold after World War II, yet its people became spoiled by political leaders who promised ever-increasing bread and circuses. The productivity that led to its initial strength was dying off, and it was spending more than it was bringing in. Finally, it sought to maintain its hegemony through warfare, thereby creating a dramatic drain to its wealth.
Like other empires before it, the US is now on the verge of relinquishing the crown of empire. If there’s any difference this time around, it’s that its collapse will very likely be far more spectacular than that of previous empires. However, just as in previous collapses, those who least understand that the collapse is around the corner are those who are closest to its centre. Clearly, the majority of Americans are worried about their future yet cannot conceive of their country as a second-rate power. And those who hold the reins of that power tend to be the most deluded, delving ever-deeper into debt at an ever-faster rate, whilst expanding welfare and warfare without any concept of how it might all be paid for.
It’s understandable, therefore, that those of us who are on the outside looking in find it easier to observe objectively from afar and see the coming self-destruction of yet another empire.
As stated in the first line of this essay, “empires are built through the creation or acquisition of wealth.”
Does this indicate the “end of the world”? Not at all. The world did not end with the fall of Rome, Spain, England, or any one of the many other empires. The productive people simply moved to a different geographical location—one that encourages free-market opportunity. The wealth moved with them, then grew, as the free market allowed productive people to make it grow.
Freedom and opportunity still exist and indeed flourish. All that’s changing is the locations where they are to be found.
Copyright © International Man | 1,561 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Africa is known for the unique and diversified culture of its different people. And among these is the very interesting group of people called Sotho. They are divided into three groups: The Northern Sotho (Pedi), Southern Sotho, and the Tswana (Batswana). These groupings happened due to various events in the course of histories like wars, invasions and the change of leaders. In the end, most of these people are now living in South Africa. Sotho (South Sotho or Basotho) people are concentrated in the Free State, Gauteng, and Eastern Cape Provinces, with small groups in Namibia and Zambia.
Early Sotho origins and history are largely unknown, but Ironworkers, who were probably Sotho-speakers, were at Phalaborwa from the eighth century and at Melville Koppies in the Johannesburg area from the eleventh century. Oral tradition has it that the founding lineage knew the art of smelting which has ancient ritual dances associated with it. It also says that the first human was found in a reed river Ntswanatsatsi. These are a few of the folklores told to the younger generation, which encourage them to appreciate history culture and tradition.
Sotho people were also known as Basotho or Bantu people in the kingdom of Lesotho which was enclave by South Africa. This Basotho nation emerged during the nineteenth century by a local chief named Moshoeshoe. But when the English authorities started to invade the land, Sotho people started to live mostly in Southern Africa.
Like many other ethnic groups in Africa, Sotho people are living according to different clans and villages with their chief. Their livelihood was based on hunting, cultivating crops, and smelting iron. Another interesting thing about Sotho people is their complex way of organizing their villages. Accordingly, each village was organized according to age-set and each had different responsibilities to cover. Thus, their community could function more effectively because different tasks were properly assigned.
Sotho Culture – Traditional Attire
Polygamy was a common practice especially by the elite class of the population. Men are considered as the head of the family and women are the farmers and bearers of children. Respect for elders is encouraged to children. Girls are trained from childhood to respect the males and perform their traditional wifely and motherly duties. And in terms of their religion, many believed Modimo as their Supreme Being. However, people eventually embraced Christianity either Protestant or Catholic especially nowadays.
In terms of traditional attire, Sotho people are very well-known for wearing colourful blankets often used instead of jackets. These are beautiful and so well crafted. Bead-work, sewing, pottery, and weaving are very common activities to make other functional items for their own use.
Sotho is the language used by the Sotho people and now it is one among the eleven languages used in South Africa. It has different suffixes and prefixes in a sentence construction. Thus, the sound often changes which make the language known as an agglutinative language. At the present time, the Sotho language has two spelling system. One is used in Lesotho and the one is used in South Africa like Khosto is also spelt as Kgosto. Moreover, Sotho is really a remarkable language because it is one among the first written languages in Africa. Actually, the first novel published in South Africa called Chakka was written in Sotho made by Thomas Mofolo.
See Also: Venda People, Culture, and Language
There is little difference in Sotho foods and contemporary South African food. Like in many other SA ethnic groups, the Sothos have their staple food as maize which is used to make varieties of food. They also make meals out of natural milk. Sotho people enjoy meats from chicken, lamb, and cow.
All these facts only prove that the Sotho people have a very rich culture from their ancestors up to this present time. They may have become modernize nowadays; however, history will trace different stories that will paint how far they have come from how their lives used to be. After all, the challenges that the ancient Sotho people have faced only paved the way to a better lifestyle and culture that will truly enhance their way of life and make them a more relevant people to South Africa as a nation. | <urn:uuid:29e8d8ec-6274-4a3d-ad94-50ff0eae9e12> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://buzzsouthafrica.com/sotho-people-language-and-culture/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00516.warc.gz | en | 0.980848 | 929 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.24310715496540... | 3 | Africa is known for the unique and diversified culture of its different people. And among these is the very interesting group of people called Sotho. They are divided into three groups: The Northern Sotho (Pedi), Southern Sotho, and the Tswana (Batswana). These groupings happened due to various events in the course of histories like wars, invasions and the change of leaders. In the end, most of these people are now living in South Africa. Sotho (South Sotho or Basotho) people are concentrated in the Free State, Gauteng, and Eastern Cape Provinces, with small groups in Namibia and Zambia.
Early Sotho origins and history are largely unknown, but Ironworkers, who were probably Sotho-speakers, were at Phalaborwa from the eighth century and at Melville Koppies in the Johannesburg area from the eleventh century. Oral tradition has it that the founding lineage knew the art of smelting which has ancient ritual dances associated with it. It also says that the first human was found in a reed river Ntswanatsatsi. These are a few of the folklores told to the younger generation, which encourage them to appreciate history culture and tradition.
Sotho people were also known as Basotho or Bantu people in the kingdom of Lesotho which was enclave by South Africa. This Basotho nation emerged during the nineteenth century by a local chief named Moshoeshoe. But when the English authorities started to invade the land, Sotho people started to live mostly in Southern Africa.
Like many other ethnic groups in Africa, Sotho people are living according to different clans and villages with their chief. Their livelihood was based on hunting, cultivating crops, and smelting iron. Another interesting thing about Sotho people is their complex way of organizing their villages. Accordingly, each village was organized according to age-set and each had different responsibilities to cover. Thus, their community could function more effectively because different tasks were properly assigned.
Sotho Culture – Traditional Attire
Polygamy was a common practice especially by the elite class of the population. Men are considered as the head of the family and women are the farmers and bearers of children. Respect for elders is encouraged to children. Girls are trained from childhood to respect the males and perform their traditional wifely and motherly duties. And in terms of their religion, many believed Modimo as their Supreme Being. However, people eventually embraced Christianity either Protestant or Catholic especially nowadays.
In terms of traditional attire, Sotho people are very well-known for wearing colourful blankets often used instead of jackets. These are beautiful and so well crafted. Bead-work, sewing, pottery, and weaving are very common activities to make other functional items for their own use.
Sotho is the language used by the Sotho people and now it is one among the eleven languages used in South Africa. It has different suffixes and prefixes in a sentence construction. Thus, the sound often changes which make the language known as an agglutinative language. At the present time, the Sotho language has two spelling system. One is used in Lesotho and the one is used in South Africa like Khosto is also spelt as Kgosto. Moreover, Sotho is really a remarkable language because it is one among the first written languages in Africa. Actually, the first novel published in South Africa called Chakka was written in Sotho made by Thomas Mofolo.
See Also: Venda People, Culture, and Language
There is little difference in Sotho foods and contemporary South African food. Like in many other SA ethnic groups, the Sothos have their staple food as maize which is used to make varieties of food. They also make meals out of natural milk. Sotho people enjoy meats from chicken, lamb, and cow.
All these facts only prove that the Sotho people have a very rich culture from their ancestors up to this present time. They may have become modernize nowadays; however, history will trace different stories that will paint how far they have come from how their lives used to be. After all, the challenges that the ancient Sotho people have faced only paved the way to a better lifestyle and culture that will truly enhance their way of life and make them a more relevant people to South Africa as a nation. | 909 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Travelling to space and back to Earth, while glamorous, is not without its risks. Members of the Apollo 1 mission didn’t make it off of the launch pad before a fire took their lives. The Challenger space shuttle exploded on its way to space. Columbia exploded on its return. But for all of the dangers facing these brave explorers, only three men have actually died in space.
Georgy Dobrovsky, Vladislav Volkov, and Viktor Patasyev are the three Russian cosmonauts with that distinction. They were killed 104 miles (168 km) above the Earth. The official boundary between our atmosphere and space is 62 miles (100 km). While virtually unknown to non-Russians, their deaths were cause for a day of mourning in Moscow, and they are one of only two group state burials in Soviet history.
The three were part of the Soyuz 11 mission. They launched on June 6, 1971 and docked with the Soviet Union’s space station, the Salyut 1. They became the first in history to successfully dock with a space station and inhabit it.
The crew performed routine tasks while on the space station. They tested the maneuverability of the station, took some observations of the Earth’s surface, and observed how well humans managed being in space for an extended length of time. At the time, no one had spent as much time in space as these three.
Except for a fire on the 11th day of their mission, everything went pretty much as planned. On the 22nd day, they boarded the Soyuz spaceship and prepared to return to Earth.
Soyuz rockets consist of three parts. Only the re-entry capsule returns to Earth with the crew. Explosive bolts separate the capsule from the rest of the spacecraft. The problems began when the bolts all fired simultaneously instead of one at a time as they were designed to do. The resulting explosions were too much for a nearby seal, and it began to leak.
Once the capsule began to leak air into space, the crew had 13 seconds to find and seal the leak before losing the ability to function. They would fall unconscious in 60 seconds and die in less than two minutes. Investigators determined it would have taken a minimum of 52 seconds for the crew to successfully seal the leak. So, once the leak began, their fate was sealed.
Since the landing sequence was handled through automatic systems, the ground crew had no knowledge of the crew’s situation until they landed. Frantic efforts to revive the men were unsuccessful.
The accident caused NASA some distress. No one had ever been in space as long as these three men. Until the investigation was completed, it was believed that being in orbit that long had caused their deaths. NASA was planning to launch their own space station, Skylab, in 1973 and were concerned that it was not safe to be in orbit for the time needed to perform experiments. When the details of the investigation were released, it cleared the way for the longer missions we have seen in more recent times.
Another result of the investigation was the discovery that pressurized suits would have saved the cosmonauts’ lives. Until that time, no one had been required to wear the suits into space. Since that discovery, all visitors to space have been wearing them.
Although not famous throughout the world, the three men have been memorialized in space. The moon has a plaque dedicated to their memory which was left there by the Apollo 15 mission. There are three craters on the moon named after the three men. Also, a group of hills on Pluto has been named after the men.
The successful habitation of a space station was expected to be the Soviet’s triumphant response to the USA’s moon landing. The three men were considered heroes in the USSR. It is estimated that the mourners who paid their respects as the cosmonauts lay in state numbered in the tens of thousands. Citizens openly wept in the streets. Even Leonid Brezhnev was so moved by the deaths of the three men, he had to cover his face as he paid his respects. The Soviet heroes had been killed, but all space travelers since that tragic Soyuz 11 mission are safer because of their sacrifice. | <urn:uuid:4d1627b7-be4d-443c-b966-460d193e7672> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/remembering-three-men-ever-die-space.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00202.warc.gz | en | 0.988462 | 872 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.2621821761... | 6 | Travelling to space and back to Earth, while glamorous, is not without its risks. Members of the Apollo 1 mission didn’t make it off of the launch pad before a fire took their lives. The Challenger space shuttle exploded on its way to space. Columbia exploded on its return. But for all of the dangers facing these brave explorers, only three men have actually died in space.
Georgy Dobrovsky, Vladislav Volkov, and Viktor Patasyev are the three Russian cosmonauts with that distinction. They were killed 104 miles (168 km) above the Earth. The official boundary between our atmosphere and space is 62 miles (100 km). While virtually unknown to non-Russians, their deaths were cause for a day of mourning in Moscow, and they are one of only two group state burials in Soviet history.
The three were part of the Soyuz 11 mission. They launched on June 6, 1971 and docked with the Soviet Union’s space station, the Salyut 1. They became the first in history to successfully dock with a space station and inhabit it.
The crew performed routine tasks while on the space station. They tested the maneuverability of the station, took some observations of the Earth’s surface, and observed how well humans managed being in space for an extended length of time. At the time, no one had spent as much time in space as these three.
Except for a fire on the 11th day of their mission, everything went pretty much as planned. On the 22nd day, they boarded the Soyuz spaceship and prepared to return to Earth.
Soyuz rockets consist of three parts. Only the re-entry capsule returns to Earth with the crew. Explosive bolts separate the capsule from the rest of the spacecraft. The problems began when the bolts all fired simultaneously instead of one at a time as they were designed to do. The resulting explosions were too much for a nearby seal, and it began to leak.
Once the capsule began to leak air into space, the crew had 13 seconds to find and seal the leak before losing the ability to function. They would fall unconscious in 60 seconds and die in less than two minutes. Investigators determined it would have taken a minimum of 52 seconds for the crew to successfully seal the leak. So, once the leak began, their fate was sealed.
Since the landing sequence was handled through automatic systems, the ground crew had no knowledge of the crew’s situation until they landed. Frantic efforts to revive the men were unsuccessful.
The accident caused NASA some distress. No one had ever been in space as long as these three men. Until the investigation was completed, it was believed that being in orbit that long had caused their deaths. NASA was planning to launch their own space station, Skylab, in 1973 and were concerned that it was not safe to be in orbit for the time needed to perform experiments. When the details of the investigation were released, it cleared the way for the longer missions we have seen in more recent times.
Another result of the investigation was the discovery that pressurized suits would have saved the cosmonauts’ lives. Until that time, no one had been required to wear the suits into space. Since that discovery, all visitors to space have been wearing them.
Although not famous throughout the world, the three men have been memorialized in space. The moon has a plaque dedicated to their memory which was left there by the Apollo 15 mission. There are three craters on the moon named after the three men. Also, a group of hills on Pluto has been named after the men.
The successful habitation of a space station was expected to be the Soviet’s triumphant response to the USA’s moon landing. The three men were considered heroes in the USSR. It is estimated that the mourners who paid their respects as the cosmonauts lay in state numbered in the tens of thousands. Citizens openly wept in the streets. Even Leonid Brezhnev was so moved by the deaths of the three men, he had to cover his face as he paid his respects. The Soviet heroes had been killed, but all space travelers since that tragic Soyuz 11 mission are safer because of their sacrifice. | 888 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sophie Scholl was a member of the White Rose movement that was formed in Nazi Germany during World War Two. Sophie, along with a small group of others, was anti-Nazi and therefore by definition anti-Hitler. It was only a matter of time before the authorities knew the identities of those who were writing what was described as ‘subversive’ leaflets and Sophie was put on trial, found guilty and executed.
Sophie Scholl was born on May 9th 1921 in Forchtenberg in Bäden-Württemberg. Her father, Robert, was the town mayor. The family lived in a degree of comfort in a large apartment in the town hall. Robert had been a conscientious objector during World War One and served in the ambulance corps working at a Red Cross military hospital. It was at this hospital in Ludwigsburg, that he met his future wife, Magdalene, who was working as a nurse. They married in 1916 and had six children: Inge, Hans, Elisabeth, Sophie, Werner and Thilde; Thilde died in 1926.
All the children were brought up to value Lutheran beliefs. Magdalene was a Lutheran lay preacher and she taught her children to have a “strong moral and social conscience”. (Frank McDonough in ‘Sophie Scholl’).
Sophie excelled at school. Her favourite subjects were English, Music and sports. She had a voracious appetite for reading and by her early teens she had developed a great dislike for injustices of any sort. She was also a free willed teenager who did things having been advised not to do them.
In 1930 Robert was beaten in a mayoral election and the family left Forchtenberg for Ludwigsburg. In 1932, the family moved to the city of Ulm. Ulm did not have a reputation for being supportive of the Nazis and when it was announced that Hitler had been appointed Chancellor on January 30th1933, there was no wholesale celebration in the city – unlike many other cities in Germany. The Nazi Party apparatus did, however, arrive in the city and political opponents were put into the city’s castle.
The school in which Sophie was educated in Ulm, the Girls Public School, underwent change as all schools did. Books were removed and replaced with Nazi-approved ones. Teachers had to belong to the Nationalist Socialist Teachers League and the curriculum became a Nazi-approved one. An emphasis was put on physical fitness and sport and outdoor activities became a major part of education.
Robert Scholl openly spoke out against Hitler to his children but they did not inform their teachers as they had been told to do. Father and children had heated discussions about the Hitler Youth movement. The children wanted to join because of the opportunities it presented to them. Robert did not want them to join, as he feared that the movement had ulterior motives. However, he did not stand in their way and all five children voluntarily joined the Hitler Youth movement. Sophie joined the Young Girls League and then when she was fourteen the German Girls League. In 1935, she was promoted to Squad Leader. Inge Scholl later said: “we could not understand why our father did not approve (of us joining)”. It seems that Sophie enjoyed her time in the Hitler Youth because of the sporting and outdoor opportunities it gave to her. Other aspects of it seemingly did not appeal to her. Sophie remained friends with some Jewish girls she knew from school and invited them over to her home even after she had joined the Hitler Youth movement. She also complained to senior leaders in the Ulm Hitler Youth when the movement rejected the application of two of her Jewish girlfriends to join.
However, Sophie’s rebellious streak was also seen when she was a senior member of the German Girls League. She was heard reading out to a younger group of girls passages from ‘Book of Songs’ by the banned Jewish writer Heinrich Heine. When she was reprimanded by a superior, Sophie was said to have replied that no one could know anything about German literature if they had not read Heine.
The scenario in Germany changed a great deal in September 1935 when the Nuremberg Laws were introduced. These forbade Sophie’s Jewish friends from going to swimming pools, the theatre, cinemas etc. These friends soon had to leave the Girls Public School and attend a separate one. This treatment very much went against Sophie’s belief in equal justice for all and there can be little doubt that it angered her.
After leaving school in 1940, Sophie worked in a kindergarten. This served two purposes for her as she loved working with younger children and such work, it was hoped by Sophie, would ensure that she did not have to join the National Labour Service led by Robert Ley. However, her plan did not come to fruition and she had to do six months service as a nursery teacher under the auspices of the Reichsarbeitsdienst. Her successful completion of this work was a passport for Sophie to go to university and in May 1942 she started at the University of Munich. Here she studied Philosophy and Biology. Sophie met the friends of her brother Hans – some of the people who were to makeup the White Rose movement.
Her hatred of the Nazi regime was heightened by the arrest and imprisonment of her father after he was critical of Hitler at his workplace.
The part played by her then boyfriend, Fritz Hartnagel, was critical in pushing Sophie towards passive resistance against the Nazi regime. He fought on the Eastern Front and told Sophie and others about the crimes by German soldiers he witnessed, such as the shooting of unarmed Soviet prisoners. Once again, her views on what was right and what was wrong played on her mind.
Her brother Hans, along with three other medical students, had founded the White Rose movement in Munich. Sophie joined and helped to distribute White Rose leaflets though she did not help write them. The sixth leaflet produced by the movement was titled “To fellow freedom fighters in the resistance”.
Sophie and Hans took a bundle of this printed leaflet to Munich University on February 18th 1943 where both of them distributed what they could before attending a lecture.
However, they did not have time to leave them all before their lecture started. After they left their lecture they made the fatal decision to leave the rest of the leaflets at the university as they were convinced that students would be very important in any uprising against Hitler. They decided not to waste the leaflets as a great deal of time had been put into illegally printing them. Both Hans and Sophie went to the university’s atrium where they left the remaining leaflets. However, they were seen by a caretaker called Jacob Schmid. He called the Gestapo and held Sophie and Hans until the secret police arrived. Their fate was sealed as the Gestapo had all the evidence they needed actually in the university.
Just four days later Sophie was brought before the People’s Court. The Reich Attorney General composed the indictment against her:
“The accused, Sophie Scholl, as early as the summer of 1942 took part in political discussions in which she and her brother Hans Scholl, came to the conclusion that Germany had lost the war. She admits to having taken part in the preparing and distributing of leaflets in 1943. Together with her brother she drafted the text of the seditious ‘Leaflets of the Resistance in Germany’. In addition, she had a part in the purchasing of paper, envelopes and stencils, and together with her brother she actually prepared the duplicated copies of this leaflet. She put the prepared leaflets into various mailboxes, and she took part in the distribution of leaflets in Munich. She accompanied her brother to the university, was observed there in an act of scattering the leaflets, and was arrested when he was taken into custody.”
Sophie was given a written copy of the indictment and wrote on the back of it “freedom”.
Both Hans and Sophie admitted their full responsibility in an attempt to end any form of interrogation that might result in them revealing other members of the movement. However, the Gestapo refused to believe that only two people were involved and after further interrogation, they gained the names of all those involved who were subsequently arrested.
Sophie and Hans along with a fellow member of the White Rose movement, Christoph Probst were the first to be brought before the People’s Court on February 22nd 1943. The People’s Court had been established on April 24th1934 to try cases that were deemed to be political offences against the Nazi state. Invariably these trials were nothing more than show trials designed to humiliate those brought before it, presumably in the hope that such a public humiliation would put off anyone else whom might be thinking in the same way as the condemned. The judge at the trial was the notorious Roland Freisler, who did his best to belittle anyone brought before him. All three were found guilty and sentenced to death.
During the brief trial, where no one doubted what the outcome would be, Sophie shared a cell with a political prisoner called Else Gebel. She claimed that Sophie said to her:
“It is such a splendid sunny day, and I have to go. But how many have to die on the battlefield in these days, how many young, promising lives? What does my death matter if by our acts thousands are warned and alerted? Among the student body there will certainly be a revolt.”
Sophie’s execution took place in Munich’s Stadelheim Prison a few hours after the trial had finished. She was beheaded by guillotine. No student revolt did take place.
In 1999 Sophie Scholl was named ‘Woman of the Century’ by the readers of the magazine ‘Brigette’ and in 2003 she and Hans were voted fourth in a telephone poll of ‘Greatest Germans’. | <urn:uuid:18fdf445-cd12-47fd-baed-56f2399f671a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/nazi-germany/sophie-scholl/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00287.warc.gz | en | 0.992019 | 2,061 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.3201353549... | 11 | Sophie Scholl was a member of the White Rose movement that was formed in Nazi Germany during World War Two. Sophie, along with a small group of others, was anti-Nazi and therefore by definition anti-Hitler. It was only a matter of time before the authorities knew the identities of those who were writing what was described as ‘subversive’ leaflets and Sophie was put on trial, found guilty and executed.
Sophie Scholl was born on May 9th 1921 in Forchtenberg in Bäden-Württemberg. Her father, Robert, was the town mayor. The family lived in a degree of comfort in a large apartment in the town hall. Robert had been a conscientious objector during World War One and served in the ambulance corps working at a Red Cross military hospital. It was at this hospital in Ludwigsburg, that he met his future wife, Magdalene, who was working as a nurse. They married in 1916 and had six children: Inge, Hans, Elisabeth, Sophie, Werner and Thilde; Thilde died in 1926.
All the children were brought up to value Lutheran beliefs. Magdalene was a Lutheran lay preacher and she taught her children to have a “strong moral and social conscience”. (Frank McDonough in ‘Sophie Scholl’).
Sophie excelled at school. Her favourite subjects were English, Music and sports. She had a voracious appetite for reading and by her early teens she had developed a great dislike for injustices of any sort. She was also a free willed teenager who did things having been advised not to do them.
In 1930 Robert was beaten in a mayoral election and the family left Forchtenberg for Ludwigsburg. In 1932, the family moved to the city of Ulm. Ulm did not have a reputation for being supportive of the Nazis and when it was announced that Hitler had been appointed Chancellor on January 30th1933, there was no wholesale celebration in the city – unlike many other cities in Germany. The Nazi Party apparatus did, however, arrive in the city and political opponents were put into the city’s castle.
The school in which Sophie was educated in Ulm, the Girls Public School, underwent change as all schools did. Books were removed and replaced with Nazi-approved ones. Teachers had to belong to the Nationalist Socialist Teachers League and the curriculum became a Nazi-approved one. An emphasis was put on physical fitness and sport and outdoor activities became a major part of education.
Robert Scholl openly spoke out against Hitler to his children but they did not inform their teachers as they had been told to do. Father and children had heated discussions about the Hitler Youth movement. The children wanted to join because of the opportunities it presented to them. Robert did not want them to join, as he feared that the movement had ulterior motives. However, he did not stand in their way and all five children voluntarily joined the Hitler Youth movement. Sophie joined the Young Girls League and then when she was fourteen the German Girls League. In 1935, she was promoted to Squad Leader. Inge Scholl later said: “we could not understand why our father did not approve (of us joining)”. It seems that Sophie enjoyed her time in the Hitler Youth because of the sporting and outdoor opportunities it gave to her. Other aspects of it seemingly did not appeal to her. Sophie remained friends with some Jewish girls she knew from school and invited them over to her home even after she had joined the Hitler Youth movement. She also complained to senior leaders in the Ulm Hitler Youth when the movement rejected the application of two of her Jewish girlfriends to join.
However, Sophie’s rebellious streak was also seen when she was a senior member of the German Girls League. She was heard reading out to a younger group of girls passages from ‘Book of Songs’ by the banned Jewish writer Heinrich Heine. When she was reprimanded by a superior, Sophie was said to have replied that no one could know anything about German literature if they had not read Heine.
The scenario in Germany changed a great deal in September 1935 when the Nuremberg Laws were introduced. These forbade Sophie’s Jewish friends from going to swimming pools, the theatre, cinemas etc. These friends soon had to leave the Girls Public School and attend a separate one. This treatment very much went against Sophie’s belief in equal justice for all and there can be little doubt that it angered her.
After leaving school in 1940, Sophie worked in a kindergarten. This served two purposes for her as she loved working with younger children and such work, it was hoped by Sophie, would ensure that she did not have to join the National Labour Service led by Robert Ley. However, her plan did not come to fruition and she had to do six months service as a nursery teacher under the auspices of the Reichsarbeitsdienst. Her successful completion of this work was a passport for Sophie to go to university and in May 1942 she started at the University of Munich. Here she studied Philosophy and Biology. Sophie met the friends of her brother Hans – some of the people who were to makeup the White Rose movement.
Her hatred of the Nazi regime was heightened by the arrest and imprisonment of her father after he was critical of Hitler at his workplace.
The part played by her then boyfriend, Fritz Hartnagel, was critical in pushing Sophie towards passive resistance against the Nazi regime. He fought on the Eastern Front and told Sophie and others about the crimes by German soldiers he witnessed, such as the shooting of unarmed Soviet prisoners. Once again, her views on what was right and what was wrong played on her mind.
Her brother Hans, along with three other medical students, had founded the White Rose movement in Munich. Sophie joined and helped to distribute White Rose leaflets though she did not help write them. The sixth leaflet produced by the movement was titled “To fellow freedom fighters in the resistance”.
Sophie and Hans took a bundle of this printed leaflet to Munich University on February 18th 1943 where both of them distributed what they could before attending a lecture.
However, they did not have time to leave them all before their lecture started. After they left their lecture they made the fatal decision to leave the rest of the leaflets at the university as they were convinced that students would be very important in any uprising against Hitler. They decided not to waste the leaflets as a great deal of time had been put into illegally printing them. Both Hans and Sophie went to the university’s atrium where they left the remaining leaflets. However, they were seen by a caretaker called Jacob Schmid. He called the Gestapo and held Sophie and Hans until the secret police arrived. Their fate was sealed as the Gestapo had all the evidence they needed actually in the university.
Just four days later Sophie was brought before the People’s Court. The Reich Attorney General composed the indictment against her:
“The accused, Sophie Scholl, as early as the summer of 1942 took part in political discussions in which she and her brother Hans Scholl, came to the conclusion that Germany had lost the war. She admits to having taken part in the preparing and distributing of leaflets in 1943. Together with her brother she drafted the text of the seditious ‘Leaflets of the Resistance in Germany’. In addition, she had a part in the purchasing of paper, envelopes and stencils, and together with her brother she actually prepared the duplicated copies of this leaflet. She put the prepared leaflets into various mailboxes, and she took part in the distribution of leaflets in Munich. She accompanied her brother to the university, was observed there in an act of scattering the leaflets, and was arrested when he was taken into custody.”
Sophie was given a written copy of the indictment and wrote on the back of it “freedom”.
Both Hans and Sophie admitted their full responsibility in an attempt to end any form of interrogation that might result in them revealing other members of the movement. However, the Gestapo refused to believe that only two people were involved and after further interrogation, they gained the names of all those involved who were subsequently arrested.
Sophie and Hans along with a fellow member of the White Rose movement, Christoph Probst were the first to be brought before the People’s Court on February 22nd 1943. The People’s Court had been established on April 24th1934 to try cases that were deemed to be political offences against the Nazi state. Invariably these trials were nothing more than show trials designed to humiliate those brought before it, presumably in the hope that such a public humiliation would put off anyone else whom might be thinking in the same way as the condemned. The judge at the trial was the notorious Roland Freisler, who did his best to belittle anyone brought before him. All three were found guilty and sentenced to death.
During the brief trial, where no one doubted what the outcome would be, Sophie shared a cell with a political prisoner called Else Gebel. She claimed that Sophie said to her:
“It is such a splendid sunny day, and I have to go. But how many have to die on the battlefield in these days, how many young, promising lives? What does my death matter if by our acts thousands are warned and alerted? Among the student body there will certainly be a revolt.”
Sophie’s execution took place in Munich’s Stadelheim Prison a few hours after the trial had finished. She was beheaded by guillotine. No student revolt did take place.
In 1999 Sophie Scholl was named ‘Woman of the Century’ by the readers of the magazine ‘Brigette’ and in 2003 she and Hans were voted fourth in a telephone poll of ‘Greatest Germans’. | 2,048 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ancient Egyptian Craftsmen
Most Ancient Egyptian craftsmen were important to the community and they were trained to be skilled in what they did. Most of them would work in ships with other craftsmen.
Craftsmen were known to make many important objects in Ancient Egypt. They would make things for the pharaoh and for his temple.
Craftsmen did not just make something, what they made was usually very fancy and beautiful. Not only was it nice to look at though, it was always used for something important.
Many times, a craftsman would be hired to make objects for a tomb so that the person that died could take it with them to the afterlife.
Many of these things included amulets, funeral jars, pottery, figurines, grave goods, weapons, paintings and more.
These different goods would be put in the graven and it would let the person that died continue to have good things when they went into their afterlife.
Craftsmen and Artists
Many craftsmen and artists worked hand in hand. They were able to do both artwork and carvings or other crafts.
Craftsmen were considered very important and sometimes even magical because they worked so hard to make sure that the afterlife was continued.
Sometimes, craftsmen would make things such as toys and animal engraved images. When craftsmen would work or paint, they would usually paint people so that they were standing at their side and not forward. It would look like the person in the picture or carving was facing the side and not the front.
Craftsmen made men and women to look different and would use light colors to make women and darker colors to make men.
Signing the Work
Craftsmen were not allowed to sign the work that they did. Even if they didn’t sign it, everyone would know a good craftsman if they made something.
It didn’t matter what a craftsman family did. If someone wanted to become a craftsman, they could become one. They would go and they would train in shops with other craftsmen so that they would know what to make.
There were different levels of craftsmen, some worked in shops while others worked in the palace and with royalty.
It was important for royal people and rulers to know good craftsmen because they needed their tomb to be completely decorated and worked on.
Most craftsman would work as sculptures, metal workers, painters and stone cutters. These were the most important jobs that craftsmen would have, and architecture played a huge role in this as well.
Most craftsmen would work together in workshops that were considered official. This would mean that they were created by the royal family and they would be located usually in a temple or in a Royal workshop.
The craftsmen would work together with other craftsmen and they would often work to make grave goods and other items for the pharaoh or the king.
More Facts About Ancient Egyptian Craftsmen:
- Ptah was considered one of the most important craftsmen.
- Craftsman would work with different materials such as stone, granite, bronze, gold and copper.
- Craftsmen would never be known for their personal skills; they would only be known as a group for their work.
- A craftsman’s lifestyle would depend on what skills he had.
- Craftsmen were forced to follow certain rules and laws when they built things.
What Did You Learn?
- Who were the Ancient Egyptian craftsmen? Ancient Egyptian craftsmen could be people from all different types of backgrounds. They did not have to follow in the footsteps of their family if they wanted to be craftsmen.
- What kind of materials to craftsmen use? Craftsmen used different types of materials such as wood, copper, gold, bronze, stone, quartz and more.
- What was most important about craftsmen? Craftsmen were important because they made grave goods for pharaohs and kings that were needed for the afterlife.
- What were some things that craftsmen made? Craftsmen made paintings, sculptures, amulets, pottery and more.
- Did most craftsmen have their own shops? No, most craftsmen worked in shops together, sometimes in a Royal workshop and sometimes in a temple. | <urn:uuid:b193f4ad-8fa4-409c-986e-ce3abf55eea9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyforkids.net/ancient-egyptian-craftsmen.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00316.warc.gz | en | 0.992478 | 881 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.2380683422088623... | 13 | Ancient Egyptian Craftsmen
Most Ancient Egyptian craftsmen were important to the community and they were trained to be skilled in what they did. Most of them would work in ships with other craftsmen.
Craftsmen were known to make many important objects in Ancient Egypt. They would make things for the pharaoh and for his temple.
Craftsmen did not just make something, what they made was usually very fancy and beautiful. Not only was it nice to look at though, it was always used for something important.
Many times, a craftsman would be hired to make objects for a tomb so that the person that died could take it with them to the afterlife.
Many of these things included amulets, funeral jars, pottery, figurines, grave goods, weapons, paintings and more.
These different goods would be put in the graven and it would let the person that died continue to have good things when they went into their afterlife.
Craftsmen and Artists
Many craftsmen and artists worked hand in hand. They were able to do both artwork and carvings or other crafts.
Craftsmen were considered very important and sometimes even magical because they worked so hard to make sure that the afterlife was continued.
Sometimes, craftsmen would make things such as toys and animal engraved images. When craftsmen would work or paint, they would usually paint people so that they were standing at their side and not forward. It would look like the person in the picture or carving was facing the side and not the front.
Craftsmen made men and women to look different and would use light colors to make women and darker colors to make men.
Signing the Work
Craftsmen were not allowed to sign the work that they did. Even if they didn’t sign it, everyone would know a good craftsman if they made something.
It didn’t matter what a craftsman family did. If someone wanted to become a craftsman, they could become one. They would go and they would train in shops with other craftsmen so that they would know what to make.
There were different levels of craftsmen, some worked in shops while others worked in the palace and with royalty.
It was important for royal people and rulers to know good craftsmen because they needed their tomb to be completely decorated and worked on.
Most craftsman would work as sculptures, metal workers, painters and stone cutters. These were the most important jobs that craftsmen would have, and architecture played a huge role in this as well.
Most craftsmen would work together in workshops that were considered official. This would mean that they were created by the royal family and they would be located usually in a temple or in a Royal workshop.
The craftsmen would work together with other craftsmen and they would often work to make grave goods and other items for the pharaoh or the king.
More Facts About Ancient Egyptian Craftsmen:
- Ptah was considered one of the most important craftsmen.
- Craftsman would work with different materials such as stone, granite, bronze, gold and copper.
- Craftsmen would never be known for their personal skills; they would only be known as a group for their work.
- A craftsman’s lifestyle would depend on what skills he had.
- Craftsmen were forced to follow certain rules and laws when they built things.
What Did You Learn?
- Who were the Ancient Egyptian craftsmen? Ancient Egyptian craftsmen could be people from all different types of backgrounds. They did not have to follow in the footsteps of their family if they wanted to be craftsmen.
- What kind of materials to craftsmen use? Craftsmen used different types of materials such as wood, copper, gold, bronze, stone, quartz and more.
- What was most important about craftsmen? Craftsmen were important because they made grave goods for pharaohs and kings that were needed for the afterlife.
- What were some things that craftsmen made? Craftsmen made paintings, sculptures, amulets, pottery and more.
- Did most craftsmen have their own shops? No, most craftsmen worked in shops together, sometimes in a Royal workshop and sometimes in a temple. | 847 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Current issue: 53(4)
Tar was an important export article in Finland, then a part of Sweden, in the 18th century. For instance, in 1640 half of Finnish trade consisted of tar. In other countries, like Norway, Poland, Archangel in Russia, and North Sweden, burning of tar was minor compared to Finland. In Finland, tar was produced of young pine trees. Tar production concentrated in more remote locations of the country, where it would be too difficult and expensive to transport timber and wood products. The cheapest products, such as wood, boards and planks, were produced on a coastal zone at farthest 30 km from the coast. Tar was produced in the zone beyond the coastal district. The inland parts of Southern Finland were, however, hilly which made even the transport of tar difficult. Tar production ended by the middle of the 19th century when wooden ships were abandoned, and the value of forests and other wood products increased.
The PDF includes a summary in English. | <urn:uuid:41daeebe-42b8-415d-9eba-3056c0eb9d0e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://silvafennica.fi/issue/keyword/taloushistoria | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00172.warc.gz | en | 0.981512 | 203 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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Tar was an important export article in Finland, then a part of Sweden, in the 18th century. For instance, in 1640 half of Finnish trade consisted of tar. In other countries, like Norway, Poland, Archangel in Russia, and North Sweden, burning of tar was minor compared to Finland. In Finland, tar was produced of young pine trees. Tar production concentrated in more remote locations of the country, where it would be too difficult and expensive to transport timber and wood products. The cheapest products, such as wood, boards and planks, were produced on a coastal zone at farthest 30 km from the coast. Tar was produced in the zone beyond the coastal district. The inland parts of Southern Finland were, however, hilly which made even the transport of tar difficult. Tar production ended by the middle of the 19th century when wooden ships were abandoned, and the value of forests and other wood products increased.
The PDF includes a summary in English. | 213 | ENGLISH | 1 |
vietnam war memorial wall washington dc
The need for a place to honor the veterans that fought during the Vietnam War to defend the name of the country made it possible for the Vietnam War memorial to be created in Washington DC.
One other primary reason for the creation of the Vietnam War memorial was the urge to heal the wounds of the war. The effect of the war was weighing heavily on the nation and the memorial served as a place for people to come and pay tribute to the fallen heroes whose names are inscribed on the walls.
At the Memorial there are the Servicemen’s Statue, Flagpole and the Vietnam Women’s
memorial. The purpose is for reconciliation with the war victims and the nation.
The Vietnam War memorial is in a V shape design and a marble with the names of 58000 soldiers who were either killed or missing in action during the war.
On the memorial, the government sets conditions on it that the memorial should not
state any judgment of the war.
The designer of the memorial was a Chinese engineer student and she was a 21 years old Marylyn from York University.
Her design was selected out of the thousands that sent in contributions. When the committee that sat to review the designs noticed that the winner was a Chinese student, they rejected her design.
Marylyn took the committee to court and the court ruled in her favor. That design was, in fact, a school project that she did for the school and got a “B” grade. The professor who gave her the “B” also submitted his own project for the memorial and his was rejected.
Tours You Might Like | <urn:uuid:6322c642-ca22-49e3-a5f2-041d280846e9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dcdailytours.com/Washington-DC-Wiki-Travel/vietnam-memorial-in-dc | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00440.warc.gz | en | 0.980281 | 339 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.53268831968... | 1 | vietnam war memorial wall washington dc
The need for a place to honor the veterans that fought during the Vietnam War to defend the name of the country made it possible for the Vietnam War memorial to be created in Washington DC.
One other primary reason for the creation of the Vietnam War memorial was the urge to heal the wounds of the war. The effect of the war was weighing heavily on the nation and the memorial served as a place for people to come and pay tribute to the fallen heroes whose names are inscribed on the walls.
At the Memorial there are the Servicemen’s Statue, Flagpole and the Vietnam Women’s
memorial. The purpose is for reconciliation with the war victims and the nation.
The Vietnam War memorial is in a V shape design and a marble with the names of 58000 soldiers who were either killed or missing in action during the war.
On the memorial, the government sets conditions on it that the memorial should not
state any judgment of the war.
The designer of the memorial was a Chinese engineer student and she was a 21 years old Marylyn from York University.
Her design was selected out of the thousands that sent in contributions. When the committee that sat to review the designs noticed that the winner was a Chinese student, they rejected her design.
Marylyn took the committee to court and the court ruled in her favor. That design was, in fact, a school project that she did for the school and got a “B” grade. The professor who gave her the “B” also submitted his own project for the memorial and his was rejected.
Tours You Might Like | 329 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Chariot Racing Day in the Roman Times
The Circus Maximus was the oldest and the largest of all the circuses
where chariot races took place holding up to 250, 000 spectators. It
was traditionally founded in the sixth century BC by Tarquinius
Priscus, the fifth king of Rome. In 329 BC, permanent starting gates
were constructed and, in 174 BC, that they were rebuilt and seven
large wooden eggs were set up to indicate the completion of each lap.
The track was originally formed by the low ground of the valley.
Inside, the track was covered with a bed of sand which sparkled with
bright mineral grain. The lower seat tier was made out of marble, the
second was made out of wood and the third seemed to have offered
standing places only.
This is a model of Circus Maximus in completion. All around it is the
seating and there is a tiny building in between where the judges must
have been. The charioteers must have started on the left in the
starting gates; the Romans called it the Spina Metae. They would go
down where they would have to make a very sharp turn with other
charioteers in the way. It must have been hard unless they were very
The races started with a procession of chariots through the
Processional Gate, the horses sleek and well groomed, the charioteers
splendid in their colourful costumes. Statues and Gods were paraded:
Jupiter, King of the Gods, Mars, God of War, and Venus, Goddess of
Love and beauty and Neptune. People in the crowd wore the colours of
the team they supported.
Most drivers were proud of their horses if they won the races. They
were very highly trained, probably more than today, some horses became
famous. Tuscus and Victor were two famous horses who won 386 prizes
and won 429 times. The Emperor had a favourite horse called Incitatus.
'Incitus had a marble stable, an ivory stall, purple blankets, and a
jewelled collar.' Horses like Incitatus must have been very lucky.
Some people in the crowd looked for powerful beauty of the stallions,
the richness of their accoutrements, perfection of their training and
all the agility and bravery of the drivers and riders. Some people
watched it because they gambled money into it. A few minorities hated
chariot racing. A Roman called Pliny is one of them. He couldn't
understand the appeal of the circus. 'Chariot races but I am not the
least bit interested in that kind of entertainment.' He explains his
point of view by saying 'There's never anything new or different.'
He's amazed by the amount of people who watch it and thinks those
people are childish. 'I am amazed that so many thousands of men time
after time have such as childish desire to see horses and men driving
chariots.' He thinks if spectators watch the beauty and running of the
horses, then that would be good but complains that... | <urn:uuid:de2129b1-1b98-4def-b1f5-ae17edec755e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/a-chariot-racing-day-into-the-roman-times | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00431.warc.gz | en | 0.981729 | 650 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
-0.22329725325107574,
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0.647148609161377... | 1 | A Chariot Racing Day in the Roman Times
The Circus Maximus was the oldest and the largest of all the circuses
where chariot races took place holding up to 250, 000 spectators. It
was traditionally founded in the sixth century BC by Tarquinius
Priscus, the fifth king of Rome. In 329 BC, permanent starting gates
were constructed and, in 174 BC, that they were rebuilt and seven
large wooden eggs were set up to indicate the completion of each lap.
The track was originally formed by the low ground of the valley.
Inside, the track was covered with a bed of sand which sparkled with
bright mineral grain. The lower seat tier was made out of marble, the
second was made out of wood and the third seemed to have offered
standing places only.
This is a model of Circus Maximus in completion. All around it is the
seating and there is a tiny building in between where the judges must
have been. The charioteers must have started on the left in the
starting gates; the Romans called it the Spina Metae. They would go
down where they would have to make a very sharp turn with other
charioteers in the way. It must have been hard unless they were very
The races started with a procession of chariots through the
Processional Gate, the horses sleek and well groomed, the charioteers
splendid in their colourful costumes. Statues and Gods were paraded:
Jupiter, King of the Gods, Mars, God of War, and Venus, Goddess of
Love and beauty and Neptune. People in the crowd wore the colours of
the team they supported.
Most drivers were proud of their horses if they won the races. They
were very highly trained, probably more than today, some horses became
famous. Tuscus and Victor were two famous horses who won 386 prizes
and won 429 times. The Emperor had a favourite horse called Incitatus.
'Incitus had a marble stable, an ivory stall, purple blankets, and a
jewelled collar.' Horses like Incitatus must have been very lucky.
Some people in the crowd looked for powerful beauty of the stallions,
the richness of their accoutrements, perfection of their training and
all the agility and bravery of the drivers and riders. Some people
watched it because they gambled money into it. A few minorities hated
chariot racing. A Roman called Pliny is one of them. He couldn't
understand the appeal of the circus. 'Chariot races but I am not the
least bit interested in that kind of entertainment.' He explains his
point of view by saying 'There's never anything new or different.'
He's amazed by the amount of people who watch it and thinks those
people are childish. 'I am amazed that so many thousands of men time
after time have such as childish desire to see horses and men driving
chariots.' He thinks if spectators watch the beauty and running of the
horses, then that would be good but complains that... | 662 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born on 7th of September 1533
Died on 24th of March 1603
Quotes from Elizabeth I
'A clear and innocent conscienc'... More
Elizabeth I was born on the 7th September 1533 at Greenwich Palace, her father was Henry VIII, and her mother was Anne Boleyn, at the age of just three months she was given her own Palace, Hatfield House, and was cared for by her own household. Henry was disappointed when she was born as he desired a male heir, frustration deepened when her mother did not produce an heir, and Anne Boleyn was executed when Elizabeth was nearly three years old. Her sister Mary was 17 when Elizabeth was born and the rivalry and resentment grew when Mary, at the request of Henry was also moved into Hatfield House.
Elizabeth's half brother was born after Henry married Jane Seymour, after the death of Henry VIII, young Edward VI was placed in the hands of his uncle who was made Lord Protector of England.
Elizabeth became captivated with Thomas Seymour who had married Katherine Parr after Henry had died, Katherine died shortly after childbirth. Thomas proposed to Elizabeth several times but to no avail. Elizabeth's brother King Edward grew seriously ill, and eventually died in 1553. Speculation grew as to who would succeed, many were worried that Mary who was a Catholic would be the one. But Lady Jane Grey, who was a descendant of Henry VIII's sister was proclaimed Queen, which only lasted 9 days and both she and her husband were imprisoned in the Tower of London by Elizabeth and Mary.
Mary was then crowned Queen and married a Spanish prince which increased her unpopularity, and increased calls for Elizabeth to be crowned. Mary had no option but to imprison Elizabeth again in the Tower, but just a few months later she was released back to Hatfield. Mary died on 17th November 1558, and Elizabeth ascended to the Throne.
Elizabeth had inherited a country that had been weakened by war, and possessed empty coffers at the Treasury. Her strong understanding of policies and the need to strengthen England's standing led to her encouragement of Sir Walter Raleigh to embark on his voyage of discovery.
The Spanish amassed many ships and set sail to invade England, the English defeated the Spanish, in what was claimed to be the greatest defeat since Agincourt. In 1596 England once again faced the threat of invasion, the Spanish had captured Calais, the Queen decided to send an expedition to Cadiz to destroy the Armada before it set sail, 120 English and Dutch ships attacked Cadiz. The Spanish Fleet was destroyed and once again Spain was humiliated. The war between Spain and England lasted many years until James I came to the throne.
Elizabeth was a popular Queen and was often called Good Queen Bess, and the Virgin Queen due to her reluctance to marry, and Gloriana - England's National Icon. She died on on the 24th March 1603, her coffin was placed on a Barge and made it's way down the River Thames to Whitehall, James ascended to the throne and ordered a magnificent Ceremonial funeral which took place on 28th April 1603. Elizabeth was the last of the Tudor royals to reign
More famous Britons here
Contributors: Do you have a site related to Elizabeth I?
Supply some content for this page and we will gladly add a link to your site. Email here.
11853 views since 31st January 2007 | <urn:uuid:d2319792-9103-429a-9b15-eab30f49d09b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://information-britain.co.uk/famousbrits.php?id=241 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00001.warc.gz | en | 0.993615 | 701 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.22893233597... | 1 | Born on 7th of September 1533
Died on 24th of March 1603
Quotes from Elizabeth I
'A clear and innocent conscienc'... More
Elizabeth I was born on the 7th September 1533 at Greenwich Palace, her father was Henry VIII, and her mother was Anne Boleyn, at the age of just three months she was given her own Palace, Hatfield House, and was cared for by her own household. Henry was disappointed when she was born as he desired a male heir, frustration deepened when her mother did not produce an heir, and Anne Boleyn was executed when Elizabeth was nearly three years old. Her sister Mary was 17 when Elizabeth was born and the rivalry and resentment grew when Mary, at the request of Henry was also moved into Hatfield House.
Elizabeth's half brother was born after Henry married Jane Seymour, after the death of Henry VIII, young Edward VI was placed in the hands of his uncle who was made Lord Protector of England.
Elizabeth became captivated with Thomas Seymour who had married Katherine Parr after Henry had died, Katherine died shortly after childbirth. Thomas proposed to Elizabeth several times but to no avail. Elizabeth's brother King Edward grew seriously ill, and eventually died in 1553. Speculation grew as to who would succeed, many were worried that Mary who was a Catholic would be the one. But Lady Jane Grey, who was a descendant of Henry VIII's sister was proclaimed Queen, which only lasted 9 days and both she and her husband were imprisoned in the Tower of London by Elizabeth and Mary.
Mary was then crowned Queen and married a Spanish prince which increased her unpopularity, and increased calls for Elizabeth to be crowned. Mary had no option but to imprison Elizabeth again in the Tower, but just a few months later she was released back to Hatfield. Mary died on 17th November 1558, and Elizabeth ascended to the Throne.
Elizabeth had inherited a country that had been weakened by war, and possessed empty coffers at the Treasury. Her strong understanding of policies and the need to strengthen England's standing led to her encouragement of Sir Walter Raleigh to embark on his voyage of discovery.
The Spanish amassed many ships and set sail to invade England, the English defeated the Spanish, in what was claimed to be the greatest defeat since Agincourt. In 1596 England once again faced the threat of invasion, the Spanish had captured Calais, the Queen decided to send an expedition to Cadiz to destroy the Armada before it set sail, 120 English and Dutch ships attacked Cadiz. The Spanish Fleet was destroyed and once again Spain was humiliated. The war between Spain and England lasted many years until James I came to the throne.
Elizabeth was a popular Queen and was often called Good Queen Bess, and the Virgin Queen due to her reluctance to marry, and Gloriana - England's National Icon. She died on on the 24th March 1603, her coffin was placed on a Barge and made it's way down the River Thames to Whitehall, James ascended to the throne and ordered a magnificent Ceremonial funeral which took place on 28th April 1603. Elizabeth was the last of the Tudor royals to reign
More famous Britons here
Contributors: Do you have a site related to Elizabeth I?
Supply some content for this page and we will gladly add a link to your site. Email here.
11853 views since 31st January 2007 | 746 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This month, we had lots of fun with our Valentine’s Day party and crafts. We’ve also started learning about the continents of the world, beginning with North America. We have tasted North American foods such as maple syrup (from Canada) and chips with salsa (from Mexico). We’ve talked about the culture and geography of North America, and learned about some of the animals that live here. Some of the children have made maps of North America, showing either the countries or biomes of our continent. We’ve also been singing the song “This Land is Your Land.” This week, we are moving on to South America! As the year goes on, we will “visiting” all the continents. The children are continuing their great work in reading, math, writing, and social skills as well. It’s really great to see their friendships developing as they learn how to navigate bumps and relate to more of their peers. So much has happened since fall, and we are looking forward to touching base with parents at our upcoming conferences!
At the back class we completed the peace curriculum after which we moved onto some fun Valentine projects, the kids made their Valentine bags and a card for their parents. Now we have moved into geography and studying the continents in depth. We studied North America in which we were privileged to have Mrs. Warsinske share her collection of Native American artifacts. The kids enjoyed looking at them. Kids made salsa and enjoyed eating chips and salsa. They tried pancakes with maple syrup as some samples of North American cuisine. Now we are studying South America in which we studied their culture and food and also learned about different animals that live in the rainforest. Children made their empanadas with a potato and carrot filling and got to enjoy eating them. We are currently making panpipes a South American instrument. Soon we will move on to Europe, and then to other continents, kids are enjoying getting their passports stamped as they visit each continent | <urn:uuid:8e88a3b6-6fcd-46bf-9710-1cf1bacb6cfd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.creativemontessorischool.com/blog/page/3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00343.warc.gz | en | 0.981701 | 408 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.0768239647150... | 11 | This month, we had lots of fun with our Valentine’s Day party and crafts. We’ve also started learning about the continents of the world, beginning with North America. We have tasted North American foods such as maple syrup (from Canada) and chips with salsa (from Mexico). We’ve talked about the culture and geography of North America, and learned about some of the animals that live here. Some of the children have made maps of North America, showing either the countries or biomes of our continent. We’ve also been singing the song “This Land is Your Land.” This week, we are moving on to South America! As the year goes on, we will “visiting” all the continents. The children are continuing their great work in reading, math, writing, and social skills as well. It’s really great to see their friendships developing as they learn how to navigate bumps and relate to more of their peers. So much has happened since fall, and we are looking forward to touching base with parents at our upcoming conferences!
At the back class we completed the peace curriculum after which we moved onto some fun Valentine projects, the kids made their Valentine bags and a card for their parents. Now we have moved into geography and studying the continents in depth. We studied North America in which we were privileged to have Mrs. Warsinske share her collection of Native American artifacts. The kids enjoyed looking at them. Kids made salsa and enjoyed eating chips and salsa. They tried pancakes with maple syrup as some samples of North American cuisine. Now we are studying South America in which we studied their culture and food and also learned about different animals that live in the rainforest. Children made their empanadas with a potato and carrot filling and got to enjoy eating them. We are currently making panpipes a South American instrument. Soon we will move on to Europe, and then to other continents, kids are enjoying getting their passports stamped as they visit each continent | 391 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Esek Hopkins was the first commander of the U.S. Navy.
He was born in what is now Scituate, Rhode Island, on 26 April 1718. His brother, Stephen Hopkins, was a member of the Naval Committee of the Continental Congress.
Prior to the American Revolution, Hopkins was a sea captain and merchant adventurer. He commanded a privateer in the French and Indian War (1754-1760). He was appointed a captain at the start of the American Revolution, and brigadier general in the Rhode Island forces.
On 5 November 1775, the Naval Committee appointed him Commander in Chief of the Continental Navy’s fleet, consisting of eight merchant ships that had been altered as men of war in Philadelphia. On 5 January 1776, the Naval Committee issued sailing orders to Hopkins to proceed, if wind and weather permitted, to Chesapeake Bay and engage the British fleet. If successful, he was to sail to Rhode Island and attack the British forces there. The fleet assembled in the Delaware River, but the mission was delayed due to ice until 17 February, at which time he sailed for Nassau in the Bahamas.
Hopkins’ fleet made an attack on a British colony in Nassau on 17 February 1776. The effort was successful and resulted in the capture of a large number of guns and ammunition, as well the capture of the Governor and Lieutenant Governor, whom he took prisoner. This was the first amphibious assault by the U.S. Marines and Sailors landed in “a bold stroke, worthy of an older and better trained service,” The fleet captured two British vessels, but failed to capture a third (Glasgow). John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress, wrote Hopkins: “I beg leave to congratulate you on the success of your Expedition. Your account of the spirit and bravery shown by the men affords them [Congress] the greatest satisfaction . . .”
Nonetheless, Hopkins received harsh criticism for his failure to capture Glasgow, and he was also accused of disobedience to orders. He was defended by John Adams, but was nonetheless censured by Congress on 16 August 1776, suspended on 26 March 1777, and was dismissed from the Navy on 2 January 1778. He continued to serve on the Rhode Island General Assembly through 1786.
Hopkins died on the farm on which he retired in Providence, Rhode Island, on 26 February 1802.
Ships named after Esek Hopkins
Selected Imagery (click image to learn more or to download) | <urn:uuid:79c81450-44d6-495a-9a61-a617ad3be57d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history.navy.mil/browse-by-topic/people/historical-figures/esek-hopkins.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00234.warc.gz | en | 0.982088 | 520 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.4827762246131897... | 14 | Esek Hopkins was the first commander of the U.S. Navy.
He was born in what is now Scituate, Rhode Island, on 26 April 1718. His brother, Stephen Hopkins, was a member of the Naval Committee of the Continental Congress.
Prior to the American Revolution, Hopkins was a sea captain and merchant adventurer. He commanded a privateer in the French and Indian War (1754-1760). He was appointed a captain at the start of the American Revolution, and brigadier general in the Rhode Island forces.
On 5 November 1775, the Naval Committee appointed him Commander in Chief of the Continental Navy’s fleet, consisting of eight merchant ships that had been altered as men of war in Philadelphia. On 5 January 1776, the Naval Committee issued sailing orders to Hopkins to proceed, if wind and weather permitted, to Chesapeake Bay and engage the British fleet. If successful, he was to sail to Rhode Island and attack the British forces there. The fleet assembled in the Delaware River, but the mission was delayed due to ice until 17 February, at which time he sailed for Nassau in the Bahamas.
Hopkins’ fleet made an attack on a British colony in Nassau on 17 February 1776. The effort was successful and resulted in the capture of a large number of guns and ammunition, as well the capture of the Governor and Lieutenant Governor, whom he took prisoner. This was the first amphibious assault by the U.S. Marines and Sailors landed in “a bold stroke, worthy of an older and better trained service,” The fleet captured two British vessels, but failed to capture a third (Glasgow). John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress, wrote Hopkins: “I beg leave to congratulate you on the success of your Expedition. Your account of the spirit and bravery shown by the men affords them [Congress] the greatest satisfaction . . .”
Nonetheless, Hopkins received harsh criticism for his failure to capture Glasgow, and he was also accused of disobedience to orders. He was defended by John Adams, but was nonetheless censured by Congress on 16 August 1776, suspended on 26 March 1777, and was dismissed from the Navy on 2 January 1778. He continued to serve on the Rhode Island General Assembly through 1786.
Hopkins died on the farm on which he retired in Providence, Rhode Island, on 26 February 1802.
Ships named after Esek Hopkins
Selected Imagery (click image to learn more or to download) | 549 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gigantic snapping turtles found in mud hole in the woods
Common Snapping Turtles are the largest turtle found in Canada. Not to be confused with their cousins, the Alligator Snapping Turtles, these turtles are much smaller and much more docile. Although they can still be ferocious on land when they feel threatened, they are usually curious and relaxed when in the water. There are myths surrounding these fascinating creatures, such as their reputation as being vicious. They are also rumored to have the jaw strength of a pit bull, enabling them to snap a broomstick in half or sever a human limb. They are not capable of anything more than a painful bite and their beaks are barely sharp enough to break the skin.
These two nature enthusiasts were informed about what appeared to be a huge turtle stuck in the mud near a tiny creek in Southern Ontario. The location seemed unusual and the turtle gave the impression that it was injured or sick. They were given pictures and a description of what appeared to be very atypical behavior. Knowing that late September is when Common Snapping Turtles should be preparing for hibernation, they were concerned that this turtle was in trouble so they went out in the woods to check on it.
Looking at the surroundings, it appeared that the turtle in the picture had tried to bed down for winter in a shallow hole. This would freeze over and cause the turtle to die during the cold winter months ahead. Concerned that the turtle had not been able to find a suitable hibernaculum, they decided to investigate and make sure all was OK. Disturbing a turtle at this point in the process of hibernation would be only a very mild annoyance. Because Common Snapping Turtles have been declared a "species at risk" in Ontario, ensuring its safety justified the quick investigation.
To their surprise, these two men found at least three turtles in one hole. Carefully reaching in, one of the men could feel the shells and estimate their size. Two turtles were removed quickly and checked for injuries and overall health. The biggest one, weighing 30 pounds (13.6kg), was the one they were most concerned about. The turtles were healthy and their chosen spot proved to be perfectly suitable for hibernation. It was discovered that the hole actually connected with the quick flowing creek, ensuring that it would not ice over completely in the winter. There was a large space under the ground due to erosion from the creek. The depth of the hole was also adequate to insulate the turtles from cold.
A 30 pound Common Snapping Turtle is a very large animal that could be between 60 and 100 years of age. A huge male like this would have very few predators and it is very important to the survival of a local turtle population. The data from this find was provided to biologists and conservationists to assist them with their efforts to protect these turtles.
Although it is not recommended to handle wild snapping turtles unless necessary, it can be done safely following the example here. Hands should always be kept well back of the midline on the shell. Claws should also be avoided and a turtle should never be held by the tail. The weight of a large snapping turtle is enough to cause spinal injuries if they are held in this manner.
These turtles quickly returned to the bottom of their hibernaculum and will be safe here until the spring. | <urn:uuid:590f8c7f-9f0a-4db0-b092-fadae5cd9b37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rumble.com/v89htx-three-gigantic-snapping-turtles-found-in-a-mud-hole-in-the-woods.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00418.warc.gz | en | 0.985022 | 678 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.4135706126689... | 2 | Gigantic snapping turtles found in mud hole in the woods
Common Snapping Turtles are the largest turtle found in Canada. Not to be confused with their cousins, the Alligator Snapping Turtles, these turtles are much smaller and much more docile. Although they can still be ferocious on land when they feel threatened, they are usually curious and relaxed when in the water. There are myths surrounding these fascinating creatures, such as their reputation as being vicious. They are also rumored to have the jaw strength of a pit bull, enabling them to snap a broomstick in half or sever a human limb. They are not capable of anything more than a painful bite and their beaks are barely sharp enough to break the skin.
These two nature enthusiasts were informed about what appeared to be a huge turtle stuck in the mud near a tiny creek in Southern Ontario. The location seemed unusual and the turtle gave the impression that it was injured or sick. They were given pictures and a description of what appeared to be very atypical behavior. Knowing that late September is when Common Snapping Turtles should be preparing for hibernation, they were concerned that this turtle was in trouble so they went out in the woods to check on it.
Looking at the surroundings, it appeared that the turtle in the picture had tried to bed down for winter in a shallow hole. This would freeze over and cause the turtle to die during the cold winter months ahead. Concerned that the turtle had not been able to find a suitable hibernaculum, they decided to investigate and make sure all was OK. Disturbing a turtle at this point in the process of hibernation would be only a very mild annoyance. Because Common Snapping Turtles have been declared a "species at risk" in Ontario, ensuring its safety justified the quick investigation.
To their surprise, these two men found at least three turtles in one hole. Carefully reaching in, one of the men could feel the shells and estimate their size. Two turtles were removed quickly and checked for injuries and overall health. The biggest one, weighing 30 pounds (13.6kg), was the one they were most concerned about. The turtles were healthy and their chosen spot proved to be perfectly suitable for hibernation. It was discovered that the hole actually connected with the quick flowing creek, ensuring that it would not ice over completely in the winter. There was a large space under the ground due to erosion from the creek. The depth of the hole was also adequate to insulate the turtles from cold.
A 30 pound Common Snapping Turtle is a very large animal that could be between 60 and 100 years of age. A huge male like this would have very few predators and it is very important to the survival of a local turtle population. The data from this find was provided to biologists and conservationists to assist them with their efforts to protect these turtles.
Although it is not recommended to handle wild snapping turtles unless necessary, it can be done safely following the example here. Hands should always be kept well back of the midline on the shell. Claws should also be avoided and a turtle should never be held by the tail. The weight of a large snapping turtle is enough to cause spinal injuries if they are held in this manner.
These turtles quickly returned to the bottom of their hibernaculum and will be safe here until the spring. | 691 | ENGLISH | 1 |
salem witch trials
By: megan crawford
Megan Crawford Pd. 9 Honors English May 16, 2000 The Salem Witch Trials From June through September of 1692, nineteen men and women, all having been convicted of witchcraft, were taken to Gallows Hill for hanging. Another man of over eighty years was pressed to death under heavy stones for refusing to submit to a trial on witchcraft charges. Hundreds of others faced accusations of witchcraft. Dozens wasted away in jail for months without trials. Then, almost as soon as it had started, the craze that had swept Puritan Massachusetts ended. In 1688, John Putnam, one of the most influential elders of Salem Village, invited Samuel Parris to preach in the Village church. A year later Parris accepted the job as Village minister. He moved to Salem Village with his wife Elizabeth, his six-year old daughter Betty, niece Abagail Williams, and slave Tituba, a West African native that Parris had acquired in Barbados. Sometime during February of 1692, young Betty Parris became strangely ill. She ran about, dove under furniture, screamed in pain, and complained of fever. The cause was unknown, but talk of witchcraft soon erupted. Talk increased when several of Betty?s friends, including eleven-year-old Ann Putnam, seventeen-year-old Mercy Lewis, and Mary Walcott, began to show signs of similar behavior. William Griggs, a doctor called to examine the girls, suggested that the girls? problems might have a supernatural origin when he failed to find a cure. The widespread belief that witches target children made the doctor?s diagnosis seem more likely. A neighbor, Mary Sibley, proposed a form of countermagic. She told Tituba to bake a rye cake with the urine of the afflicted victim and feed the cake to a dog. Dogs were used by witches as agents to carry out their devilish commands. Suspicion had already begun to focus on Tituba, who had been known to tell the girls? tales of voodoo and witchcraft. Her participation in the urine cake episode made her an even more obvious target. Meanwhile, the number of girls afflicted continued to grow, rising to seven with the additions of Ann Putnam, Elizabeth Hubbard, Susannah Sheldon, and Mary Warren. The girls screamed in pain, fell into frozen postures, and complained of biting and pinching sensations. In a village where everyone believed in that the devil was real and close at hand, the suspected affliction of the girls became an obsession. Sometime after February 25, when Tituba baked the witchcake, arrest warrants were issued against Tituba and two other women. Betty Parris and Abagail Williams had named their afflictors, the witch hunt had begun. Soon Ann Putnam and Mercy Lewis were also reporting seeing ?witches flying through the winter mist.? The prominent Putnam family supported the girls? accusations. The first three to be accused of witchcraft were Tituba, Sarah Good, and Sarah Osborn. Tituba was an obvious choice. Good was a beggar and a social misfit who lived wherever someone would house her, and Osburn was old, quarrelsome, and had not been to church for over a year. The Putnams brought their complaint against the three women to the county magistrates Jonathan Corwin and John Hathrone. They scheduled the examinations for March 1, 1692 in Ingersoll?s tavern. When hundreds showed up, the examinations were moved to the meetinghouse. At the trials, the girls described attacks by the women, and fell into their own perfected pattern of contortions when in the presence of one of the suspects. Other villagers came forward to offer stories of cheese and butter mysteriously gone bad or animals born with deformities after visits with one of the suspects. The matter might have might have ended were it not for Tituba. After first denying any guilt, Tituba claimed that a tall man approached her from Boston, who sometimes appeared as a dog, who asked her to sign in his book and do his work. Tituba declared she was a witch, and moreover she and four others, including Good and Osburn, had flown through the air on their poles. She had tried to run to Reverend Parris for help, she said, but she was blocked by the devil. Her confession served to quiet most skeptics. Soon, according to their own reports, the spectral forms of other women began attacking afflicted girls. Martha Corey, Rebecca Nurse, Sarah Cloyce, and Mary Easty were accused of witchcraft. Dorcas Good, four-year-old daughter of Sarah Good, became the first child accused of witchcraft when three of the girls complained that they were bitten by Dorcas?s specter. The girls? accusations and their ever more polished performances, including the new act of being struck dumb, played to large and believing audiences. Stuck in jail with the testimony of the afflicted girls widely accepted, suspects began to see confessions as a way to avoid the gallows. Deliverance Hobbs became the second witch to confess, admitting to pinching three of the girls at the devils? command. Jails approached capacity and the colony ?teetered on the brink of chaos? when Governor Phips returned from England. Fast action, he decided, was required. Phips created a new court to hear the witchcraft cases. Five judges were appointed to the court. Chief Justice, and most influential member of the court, was a witch hunter named William Stoughton. Mather urged Stoughton and other judges to credit confessions and admit ?spectral evidence?. Ministers were looked to for guidance by judges, who were generally without legal training, on matters pertaining to witchcraft. Evidence that would be excluded from modern courtrooms, such as hearsay, gossip, and stories, were also generally admitted. Accused witches had no legal counsel, could not have witnesses testify under oath on their behalf, and had no way to appeal. Defendants could, however, speak for themselves, produce evidence, and cross-examine their accusers. The first accused witch to be brought to trial was Bridget Bishop. Almost sixty years old, owner of a house of ill repute, critical of her neighbors, and reluctant to pay her bills, Bishop was a likely candidate for an accusation of witchcraft. At Bishop?s trial on June 2, 1692, a field hand testified that he saw Bishop?s image stealing eggs and then saw her transform herself into a cat. A villager named Samuel Grey told the court that Bishop visited his bed at night and tormented him. Several of the afflicted girls testified that Bishop?s specter afflicted them. Numerous other villagers described why they thought Bishop was responsible for various bits of bad luck that had befallen them. There was even testimony that while being transported under guard past the Salem meetinghouse, she looked at the building and caused a part of it to fall to the ground. Bishop?s jury returned a verdict of guilty. Chief Justice Stoughton signed Bishop?s death warrant, and on June 10, 1692, Bishop was taken to Gallows Hill and hanged. As the summer of 1692 warmed, the pace of the trials picked up. Not all defendants were as disreputable as Bridget Bishop was. Rebecca Nurse was a respected woman whose specter, according to Ann Putnam and Abagail Williams, attacked them in mid-March of 1692. Ann Putnam also added to her complaint that Nurse had demanded that she sign the devil?s book, then pinched her. The Nurse returned a verdict of not guilty, much to the displeasure of Stoughton, who told them to go back and consider again a statement of Nurse?s that might be considered an admission of guilt. The jury reconvened, this time coming back with a verdict of guilty. On July 19, 1692, Nurse rode with four other convicted witches to Gallows Hill. Persons who scoffed at accusations of witchcraft risked becoming targets of accusations themselves. One man who was openly critical of the trials paid for his skepticism with his life. John Proctor, was an opinionated tavern owner who openly denounced the witchhunt. Testifying against Proctor were Ann Putnam, Abagail Williams, Indian John, and eighteen-year-old Elizabeth Booth, who testified that ghosts had come to her and accused Proctor of serial murder. Proctor fought back, accusing confessed witches of lying, complaining of torture, and demanding that his trial be moved to Boston. The efforts proved futile, of course, and Proctor was hanged. His wife Elizabeth, who was also convicted of witchcraft, was spared execution because of her pregnancy. One victim of the Salem witchhunt was not hanged, but rather pressed under heavy stones for two days until his death. Such was the fate of Giles Corey who, after spending five months in chains in a Salem jail with his also accused wife, had nothing but contempt for the proceedings. Seeing the futility of a trial and hoping that by avoiding a conviction his farm, which would otherwise go to the state, might go to his two sons, Corey refused to stand for trial. The penalty for such a refusal was ?pressing?. Three days after Corey?s death, eight more convicted witches, including Giles? wife Martha, were hanged. They were the last eight victims of the witchhunt. By early autumn of 1692, Salem?s lust for blood was ending. Doubts were developing as to how so many respectable people could be guilty. The educated elite of the colony began efforts to end the witch-hunting hysteria that had enveloped Salem. Increase Mather, the father of Cotton, published what he called ?America?s first tract on evidence,? a work entitled ?Cases Of Conscience,? which argued that it ?were better that ten suspected witches should escape than one innocent person should be condemned.? Increase Mather urged the court to exclude spectral evidence. Samuel Willard, a highly regarded Boston minister, circulated ?Some Miscellany Observations,? which suggested that the Devil might create the specter of an innocent person. Mather?s and Willard?s works were given to Governor Phips, and most likely influenced his decision to order the court to exclude spectral evidence, and to require proof of guilt by clear and convincing evidence. With the spectral evidence not admitted, twenty-eight of the last thirty-three witchcraft trials ended with acquittals. The three convicted witches were later pardoned. In May of 1693, Phips released from prison all remaining accused or convicted witches. By the time the witchhunt ended, nineteen convicted witches were executed, at least four accused witches had died in prison, and one man, Giles Corey, had been pressed to death. About one to two hundred other persons were arrested and imprisoned on witchcraft charges. 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By: megan crawford
Megan Crawford Pd. 9 Honors English May 16, 2000 The Salem Witch Trials From June through September of 1692, nineteen men and women, all having been convicted of witchcraft, were taken to Gallows Hill for hanging. Another man of over eighty years was pressed to death under heavy stones for refusing to submit to a trial on witchcraft charges. Hundreds of others faced accusations of witchcraft. Dozens wasted away in jail for months without trials. Then, almost as soon as it had started, the craze that had swept Puritan Massachusetts ended. In 1688, John Putnam, one of the most influential elders of Salem Village, invited Samuel Parris to preach in the Village church. A year later Parris accepted the job as Village minister. He moved to Salem Village with his wife Elizabeth, his six-year old daughter Betty, niece Abagail Williams, and slave Tituba, a West African native that Parris had acquired in Barbados. Sometime during February of 1692, young Betty Parris became strangely ill. She ran about, dove under furniture, screamed in pain, and complained of fever. The cause was unknown, but talk of witchcraft soon erupted. Talk increased when several of Betty?s friends, including eleven-year-old Ann Putnam, seventeen-year-old Mercy Lewis, and Mary Walcott, began to show signs of similar behavior. William Griggs, a doctor called to examine the girls, suggested that the girls? problems might have a supernatural origin when he failed to find a cure. The widespread belief that witches target children made the doctor?s diagnosis seem more likely. A neighbor, Mary Sibley, proposed a form of countermagic. She told Tituba to bake a rye cake with the urine of the afflicted victim and feed the cake to a dog. Dogs were used by witches as agents to carry out their devilish commands. Suspicion had already begun to focus on Tituba, who had been known to tell the girls? tales of voodoo and witchcraft. Her participation in the urine cake episode made her an even more obvious target. Meanwhile, the number of girls afflicted continued to grow, rising to seven with the additions of Ann Putnam, Elizabeth Hubbard, Susannah Sheldon, and Mary Warren. The girls screamed in pain, fell into frozen postures, and complained of biting and pinching sensations. In a village where everyone believed in that the devil was real and close at hand, the suspected affliction of the girls became an obsession. Sometime after February 25, when Tituba baked the witchcake, arrest warrants were issued against Tituba and two other women. Betty Parris and Abagail Williams had named their afflictors, the witch hunt had begun. Soon Ann Putnam and Mercy Lewis were also reporting seeing ?witches flying through the winter mist.? The prominent Putnam family supported the girls? accusations. The first three to be accused of witchcraft were Tituba, Sarah Good, and Sarah Osborn. Tituba was an obvious choice. Good was a beggar and a social misfit who lived wherever someone would house her, and Osburn was old, quarrelsome, and had not been to church for over a year. The Putnams brought their complaint against the three women to the county magistrates Jonathan Corwin and John Hathrone. They scheduled the examinations for March 1, 1692 in Ingersoll?s tavern. When hundreds showed up, the examinations were moved to the meetinghouse. At the trials, the girls described attacks by the women, and fell into their own perfected pattern of contortions when in the presence of one of the suspects. Other villagers came forward to offer stories of cheese and butter mysteriously gone bad or animals born with deformities after visits with one of the suspects. The matter might have might have ended were it not for Tituba. After first denying any guilt, Tituba claimed that a tall man approached her from Boston, who sometimes appeared as a dog, who asked her to sign in his book and do his work. Tituba declared she was a witch, and moreover she and four others, including Good and Osburn, had flown through the air on their poles. She had tried to run to Reverend Parris for help, she said, but she was blocked by the devil. Her confession served to quiet most skeptics. Soon, according to their own reports, the spectral forms of other women began attacking afflicted girls. Martha Corey, Rebecca Nurse, Sarah Cloyce, and Mary Easty were accused of witchcraft. Dorcas Good, four-year-old daughter of Sarah Good, became the first child accused of witchcraft when three of the girls complained that they were bitten by Dorcas?s specter. The girls? accusations and their ever more polished performances, including the new act of being struck dumb, played to large and believing audiences. Stuck in jail with the testimony of the afflicted girls widely accepted, suspects began to see confessions as a way to avoid the gallows. Deliverance Hobbs became the second witch to confess, admitting to pinching three of the girls at the devils? command. Jails approached capacity and the colony ?teetered on the brink of chaos? when Governor Phips returned from England. Fast action, he decided, was required. Phips created a new court to hear the witchcraft cases. Five judges were appointed to the court. Chief Justice, and most influential member of the court, was a witch hunter named William Stoughton. Mather urged Stoughton and other judges to credit confessions and admit ?spectral evidence?. Ministers were looked to for guidance by judges, who were generally without legal training, on matters pertaining to witchcraft. Evidence that would be excluded from modern courtrooms, such as hearsay, gossip, and stories, were also generally admitted. Accused witches had no legal counsel, could not have witnesses testify under oath on their behalf, and had no way to appeal. Defendants could, however, speak for themselves, produce evidence, and cross-examine their accusers. The first accused witch to be brought to trial was Bridget Bishop. Almost sixty years old, owner of a house of ill repute, critical of her neighbors, and reluctant to pay her bills, Bishop was a likely candidate for an accusation of witchcraft. At Bishop?s trial on June 2, 1692, a field hand testified that he saw Bishop?s image stealing eggs and then saw her transform herself into a cat. A villager named Samuel Grey told the court that Bishop visited his bed at night and tormented him. Several of the afflicted girls testified that Bishop?s specter afflicted them. Numerous other villagers described why they thought Bishop was responsible for various bits of bad luck that had befallen them. There was even testimony that while being transported under guard past the Salem meetinghouse, she looked at the building and caused a part of it to fall to the ground. Bishop?s jury returned a verdict of guilty. Chief Justice Stoughton signed Bishop?s death warrant, and on June 10, 1692, Bishop was taken to Gallows Hill and hanged. As the summer of 1692 warmed, the pace of the trials picked up. Not all defendants were as disreputable as Bridget Bishop was. Rebecca Nurse was a respected woman whose specter, according to Ann Putnam and Abagail Williams, attacked them in mid-March of 1692. Ann Putnam also added to her complaint that Nurse had demanded that she sign the devil?s book, then pinched her. The Nurse returned a verdict of not guilty, much to the displeasure of Stoughton, who told them to go back and consider again a statement of Nurse?s that might be considered an admission of guilt. The jury reconvened, this time coming back with a verdict of guilty. On July 19, 1692, Nurse rode with four other convicted witches to Gallows Hill. Persons who scoffed at accusations of witchcraft risked becoming targets of accusations themselves. One man who was openly critical of the trials paid for his skepticism with his life. John Proctor, was an opinionated tavern owner who openly denounced the witchhunt. Testifying against Proctor were Ann Putnam, Abagail Williams, Indian John, and eighteen-year-old Elizabeth Booth, who testified that ghosts had come to her and accused Proctor of serial murder. Proctor fought back, accusing confessed witches of lying, complaining of torture, and demanding that his trial be moved to Boston. The efforts proved futile, of course, and Proctor was hanged. His wife Elizabeth, who was also convicted of witchcraft, was spared execution because of her pregnancy. One victim of the Salem witchhunt was not hanged, but rather pressed under heavy stones for two days until his death. Such was the fate of Giles Corey who, after spending five months in chains in a Salem jail with his also accused wife, had nothing but contempt for the proceedings. Seeing the futility of a trial and hoping that by avoiding a conviction his farm, which would otherwise go to the state, might go to his two sons, Corey refused to stand for trial. The penalty for such a refusal was ?pressing?. Three days after Corey?s death, eight more convicted witches, including Giles? wife Martha, were hanged. They were the last eight victims of the witchhunt. By early autumn of 1692, Salem?s lust for blood was ending. Doubts were developing as to how so many respectable people could be guilty. The educated elite of the colony began efforts to end the witch-hunting hysteria that had enveloped Salem. Increase Mather, the father of Cotton, published what he called ?America?s first tract on evidence,? a work entitled ?Cases Of Conscience,? which argued that it ?were better that ten suspected witches should escape than one innocent person should be condemned.? Increase Mather urged the court to exclude spectral evidence. Samuel Willard, a highly regarded Boston minister, circulated ?Some Miscellany Observations,? which suggested that the Devil might create the specter of an innocent person. Mather?s and Willard?s works were given to Governor Phips, and most likely influenced his decision to order the court to exclude spectral evidence, and to require proof of guilt by clear and convincing evidence. With the spectral evidence not admitted, twenty-eight of the last thirty-three witchcraft trials ended with acquittals. The three convicted witches were later pardoned. In May of 1693, Phips released from prison all remaining accused or convicted witches. By the time the witchhunt ended, nineteen convicted witches were executed, at least four accused witches had died in prison, and one man, Giles Corey, had been pressed to death. About one to two hundred other persons were arrested and imprisoned on witchcraft charges. Two dogs were executed as suspected accomplices of witches. | 2,269 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Jessica Stewart
The history of art is littered with the names of great men—Leonardo da Vinci, Vincent Van Gogh, Pablo Picasso, etc. But what about the women who have helped shape the world’s visual history? As with many other fields, women were historically discouraged from pursuing a career in the arts, yet there are many incredible females who persevered. These famous female artists have more in common than their gender and career path, though—they are all trailblazers in their own right, with many breaking barriers in their personal and public life.
Of course, these women would most likely be displeased to be included in a list of female painters, preferring to be valued as artists outside of their gender. Unfortunately, as women continue to fight for equality in all fields, these exceptional artists are often still mentioned in terms of their gender. Luckily, more than ever, these women of distinction are being held up against their male peers and recognized positively for their contributions to art history. Organizations like Advancing Women Artists work to ensure that the female talent of the past doesn’t get left out of the history books.
A look at some of the great female artists of the past is also a timeline of art history, as women have been leading figures in every artistic movement, from the Italian Renaissance to American Modernism and beyond. By weaving our way through art history—from a 16th-century court painter for King Philip II to the 20th-century icon that is Frida Kahlo—let’s take a look at the strength, character, and talent of these exceptional women.
If you’re an art lover, here are 10 famous female artists that you need to know.
SOFONISBA ANGUISSOLA (1532 – 1625)
Painter Sofonisba Anguissola was a trailblazer during the Italian Renaissance. Born into a relatively poor noble family, her father made sure that she and her sisters had a well-rounded education that incorporated fine art. This included apprenticeships with respected local painters. This set a precedent for future female artists, who until that point typically only apprenticed if a family member had a workshop. Anguissola’s talent caught the eye of Michelangelo, with whom she carried on an informal mentorship through the exchange of drawings.
Though, as a female artist, she was not allowed to study anatomy or practice drawing models due to its perceived vulgarity, she still managed to have a successful career. Much of her success was owed to her role as a painter in the court of King Philip II of Spain. Over the course of 14 years, she developed her skills for official court portraiture as well as more intimate portraits of nobility. Her paintings are known for capturing the spirit and vibrance of her sitters and can now be found in collections around the world.
ARTEMISIA GENTILESCHI (1593 – 1653)
As the daughter of an accomplished painter, Artemisia Gentileschi was afforded access to the art world at a young age. Early on she was in her father’s workshop mixing paints and he supported her career when he noted that she was exceptionally gifted. As a noted painter of the Italian Baroque period, Artemisia Gentileschi did not let her gender hold her back from her subject matter. She painted large-scale Biblical and mythological paintings, just like her male counterparts and was the first woman accepted to the prestigious Fine Art Academy in Florence.
Her legacy is sometimes overshadowed by her biography, with her bloody depictions of Judith and Holofernes often being interpreted through the lens of her rape at the hands of a fellow artist. However, her talent is undeniable and she continues to be recognized for her realistic depiction of the female form, the depth of her colors, and her striking use of light and shadow.
JUDITH LEYSTER (1609 – 1660)
Born in Haarlem, Judith Leyster was a leading artist during the Dutch Golden Age. Typical of Dutch artists during this period, Leyster specialized in genre paintings, still life, and portraits. The details behind her artistic training are unclear, but she was one of the first women admitted to the painter’s guild in Haarlem. She later ran a successful workshop with several male apprentices and was known for the relaxed, informal nature of her portraits.
While she was quite successful during her lifetime, her reputation suffered after her death due to unfortunate circumstances. Her entire oeuvre was passed off as work either by her contemporary Frans Hals or by her husband. In many cases, her signature was covered by collectors looking to make a profit due to the high market value of Frans Hals’ work. Only in the late 19th century were these errors discovered and scholars began to gain a renewed appreciation for Leyster’s skill as an artist.
ÉLISABETH VIGÉE LE BRUN (1755 – 1842)
French portrait artist Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun created an impressive body of work totaling nearly 1,000 portraits and landscape paintings. As the daughter of a painter, she received early instruction from her father and was painting portraits professionally by the time she was a teenager. Her big career break came when she was named as Marie Antoinette’s portrait painter and she was later granted entry to numerous art academies.
Her paintings bridge the gap between the theatrical Rococo style and more restrained Neoclassical period. She enjoyed continued success in her career, even while in exile after the French Revolution, as she was a favorite painter of the aristocracy across Europe. Sitters enjoyed her ability to put them at ease, which led to portrait paintings that were lively and lacking stiffness. The natural, relaxed manner of her portraits was considered revolutionary at a time when portraiture often called for formal depictions of the upper classes.
ROSA BONHEUR (1822 – 1899)
Like many female artists, Rosa Bonheur‘s father was a painter. The French Realist painter is considered one of the most famous female artists of the 19th century, known for her large-format paintings that featured animals. She exhibited regularly at the acclaimed Paris salon and found success abroad in both the United States and Britain. Bonheur spent a great amount of time sketching live animals in motion, accounting for her remarkable ability to capture their likeness on canvas.
Bonheur is also celebrated for breaking gender stereotypes. From the mid-1850s onward she wore men’s dress, even obtaining police authorization to do so. Though she was often criticized for wearing trousers and loose blouses, she continued to don them throughout her life, citing their practicality when working with animals. She was also an open lesbian, first living with partner Nathalie Micas for over 40 years and then, after Micas’ death, forging a relationship with American painter Anna Elizabeth Klumpke. By living her life openly in an era when lesbianism was disparaged by the government, Bonheur staked her claim as a groundbreaking individual both in her career and her personal life.
BERTHE MORISOT (1841 – 1895)
Considered one of the great female Impressionists, Berthe Morisot had art running through her veins. Born into an aristocratic French family, she was the great-niece of celebrated Rococo painter Jean-Honoré Fragonard. Initially, she exhibited her work at the respected Paris Salon before joining the first Impressionist exhibit with Monet, Cézanne, Renoir, and Degas. Morisot has a particularly close relationship with Édouard Manet, who painted several portraits of her, and she eventually married his brother.
Her art often focused on domestic scenes and she preferred working with pastels, watercolor, and charcoal. Working mainly in small scale, her light and airy work was often criticized as being too “feminine.” Morisot wrote about her struggles to be taken seriously as a female artist in her journal, stating “I don’t think there has ever been a man who treated a woman as an equal and that’s all I would have asked for, for I know I’m worth as much as they.”
MARY CASSATT (1844 – 1926)
American painter Mary Cassatt spent her adult life in France, where she became an integral part of the Impressionist group. Cassatt was born into an affluent family who first protested against her desire to become an artist. She eventually left art school after being frustrated by the separate treatment that the female students received—they couldn’t use live models and were left drawing from casts.
Upon moving to Paris at age 22, Cassatt sought a private apprenticeship and spent her free time copying Old Master paintings in the Louvre. Cassatt’s career was already taking off when she joined the Impressionists and forged a lifelong friendship with Degas. At the same time, she was outspoken in her dismay at the formal art system, which she felt required female artists to flirt or befriend male patrons in order to move ahead. She created her own career path with the Impressionists, mastering pastels to create soft, light work that often highlighted women acting as caretakers. Throughout her life, Cassatt continued to support equality for women, even participating in an exhibition in support of women’s suffrage.
GEORGIA O’KEEFFE (1887 – 1986)
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⠀ “Color is one of the great things in the world that makes life worth living…” – Georgia O’Keeffe⠀ ⠀ #GeorgiaOKeeffe #Flowers #OKeeffeInspired #Quotes #Art #Interpretation #ISaidWhatISaid ⠀ ⠀ Georgia O’Keeffe. Series I White & Blue Flower Shapes, 1919. Oil on board, 19 7/8 x 15 3/4 inches. Georgia O’Keeffe Museum. Gift of The Georgia O’Keeffe Foundation. © Georgia O’Keeffe Museum. [2006.5.87]
As an artist at the forefront of American Modernism, Georgia O’Keeffe is one of the most celebrated female artists in history. Her early drawings and paintings led to bold experiments in abstraction, with her focus on painting to express her feelings ushering in an era of “Art for Art’s Sake.” During her lifetime, her career was intertwined with her husband, Alfred Stieglitz. While the renowned photographer espoused ideas that American art could equal that of Europe and that female painters could create art just as powerful as men, he also hindered interpretation of her work.
Stieglitz viewed creativity as an expression of sexuality and these thoughts, coupled with his intimate portraits of O’Keeffe, pushed forward an idea that her close up paintings of flowers were metaphors for female genitalia. It’s a concept that the artist has always denied, though her work is undoubtedly sensual. O’Keeffe spent much of her career combatting her art’s interpretation solely as a reflection of her gender. Throughout her life she refused to participate in all-female art exhibitions, wishing to be defined simply as an artist, free from gender.
TAMARA DE LEMPICKA (1898 – 1980)
Polish artist Tamara de Lempicka is known for her highly stylized portraits and nudes that exemplify the Art Deco era. De Lempicka spent much of her career in France and the United States, where her work was favored by aristocrats. One of her most famous paintings, Self-Portrait in a Green Bugatti, exemplifies the cool and detached nature of De Lempicka’s figures. In the work, which was created for the cover of a German fashion magazine, De Lempicka exudes independence and inaccessible beauty.
Her paintings often contained narratives of desire, seduction, and modern sensuality, making them revolutionary for their time. De Lempicka enjoyed success until the outbreak of World War II, but there was a resurgence of interest in her work as Art Deco became popular again in the 1960s. Her immediately recognizable style makes her a particular favorite among fans of Art Deco painters and today her work is more popular than ever, with Madonna being a known collector of her paintings.
FRIDA KAHLO (1907 – 1954)
Currently, there’s no other 20th-century female artist with a name as recognizable at Frida Kahlo. While the drama of her tragic accident as a young woman and her tumultuous relationship with husband Diego Rivera have sometimes overshadowed her artistic abilities, there is no denying the power of her painting. She is particularly known for her self-portraits, which deal with themes of identity, suffering, and the human body.
Though she was sometimes written about solely as “Diego Rivera’s wife” during her lifetime, her artwork has only gained momentum since her death. The most famous Frida Kahlo paintings belong to important art museums around the world, while she has gained status as a champion of feminists, Chicanos, and the LGBT community. | <urn:uuid:0be29073-be66-42bd-bda3-83101cc9653f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://lefkadazin.gr/2019/09/05/10-famous-female-painters-every-art-lover-should-know/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.982952 | 2,777 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.1505682468... | 2 | By Jessica Stewart
The history of art is littered with the names of great men—Leonardo da Vinci, Vincent Van Gogh, Pablo Picasso, etc. But what about the women who have helped shape the world’s visual history? As with many other fields, women were historically discouraged from pursuing a career in the arts, yet there are many incredible females who persevered. These famous female artists have more in common than their gender and career path, though—they are all trailblazers in their own right, with many breaking barriers in their personal and public life.
Of course, these women would most likely be displeased to be included in a list of female painters, preferring to be valued as artists outside of their gender. Unfortunately, as women continue to fight for equality in all fields, these exceptional artists are often still mentioned in terms of their gender. Luckily, more than ever, these women of distinction are being held up against their male peers and recognized positively for their contributions to art history. Organizations like Advancing Women Artists work to ensure that the female talent of the past doesn’t get left out of the history books.
A look at some of the great female artists of the past is also a timeline of art history, as women have been leading figures in every artistic movement, from the Italian Renaissance to American Modernism and beyond. By weaving our way through art history—from a 16th-century court painter for King Philip II to the 20th-century icon that is Frida Kahlo—let’s take a look at the strength, character, and talent of these exceptional women.
If you’re an art lover, here are 10 famous female artists that you need to know.
SOFONISBA ANGUISSOLA (1532 – 1625)
Painter Sofonisba Anguissola was a trailblazer during the Italian Renaissance. Born into a relatively poor noble family, her father made sure that she and her sisters had a well-rounded education that incorporated fine art. This included apprenticeships with respected local painters. This set a precedent for future female artists, who until that point typically only apprenticed if a family member had a workshop. Anguissola’s talent caught the eye of Michelangelo, with whom she carried on an informal mentorship through the exchange of drawings.
Though, as a female artist, she was not allowed to study anatomy or practice drawing models due to its perceived vulgarity, she still managed to have a successful career. Much of her success was owed to her role as a painter in the court of King Philip II of Spain. Over the course of 14 years, she developed her skills for official court portraiture as well as more intimate portraits of nobility. Her paintings are known for capturing the spirit and vibrance of her sitters and can now be found in collections around the world.
ARTEMISIA GENTILESCHI (1593 – 1653)
As the daughter of an accomplished painter, Artemisia Gentileschi was afforded access to the art world at a young age. Early on she was in her father’s workshop mixing paints and he supported her career when he noted that she was exceptionally gifted. As a noted painter of the Italian Baroque period, Artemisia Gentileschi did not let her gender hold her back from her subject matter. She painted large-scale Biblical and mythological paintings, just like her male counterparts and was the first woman accepted to the prestigious Fine Art Academy in Florence.
Her legacy is sometimes overshadowed by her biography, with her bloody depictions of Judith and Holofernes often being interpreted through the lens of her rape at the hands of a fellow artist. However, her talent is undeniable and she continues to be recognized for her realistic depiction of the female form, the depth of her colors, and her striking use of light and shadow.
JUDITH LEYSTER (1609 – 1660)
Born in Haarlem, Judith Leyster was a leading artist during the Dutch Golden Age. Typical of Dutch artists during this period, Leyster specialized in genre paintings, still life, and portraits. The details behind her artistic training are unclear, but she was one of the first women admitted to the painter’s guild in Haarlem. She later ran a successful workshop with several male apprentices and was known for the relaxed, informal nature of her portraits.
While she was quite successful during her lifetime, her reputation suffered after her death due to unfortunate circumstances. Her entire oeuvre was passed off as work either by her contemporary Frans Hals or by her husband. In many cases, her signature was covered by collectors looking to make a profit due to the high market value of Frans Hals’ work. Only in the late 19th century were these errors discovered and scholars began to gain a renewed appreciation for Leyster’s skill as an artist.
ÉLISABETH VIGÉE LE BRUN (1755 – 1842)
French portrait artist Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun created an impressive body of work totaling nearly 1,000 portraits and landscape paintings. As the daughter of a painter, she received early instruction from her father and was painting portraits professionally by the time she was a teenager. Her big career break came when she was named as Marie Antoinette’s portrait painter and she was later granted entry to numerous art academies.
Her paintings bridge the gap between the theatrical Rococo style and more restrained Neoclassical period. She enjoyed continued success in her career, even while in exile after the French Revolution, as she was a favorite painter of the aristocracy across Europe. Sitters enjoyed her ability to put them at ease, which led to portrait paintings that were lively and lacking stiffness. The natural, relaxed manner of her portraits was considered revolutionary at a time when portraiture often called for formal depictions of the upper classes.
ROSA BONHEUR (1822 – 1899)
Like many female artists, Rosa Bonheur‘s father was a painter. The French Realist painter is considered one of the most famous female artists of the 19th century, known for her large-format paintings that featured animals. She exhibited regularly at the acclaimed Paris salon and found success abroad in both the United States and Britain. Bonheur spent a great amount of time sketching live animals in motion, accounting for her remarkable ability to capture their likeness on canvas.
Bonheur is also celebrated for breaking gender stereotypes. From the mid-1850s onward she wore men’s dress, even obtaining police authorization to do so. Though she was often criticized for wearing trousers and loose blouses, she continued to don them throughout her life, citing their practicality when working with animals. She was also an open lesbian, first living with partner Nathalie Micas for over 40 years and then, after Micas’ death, forging a relationship with American painter Anna Elizabeth Klumpke. By living her life openly in an era when lesbianism was disparaged by the government, Bonheur staked her claim as a groundbreaking individual both in her career and her personal life.
BERTHE MORISOT (1841 – 1895)
Considered one of the great female Impressionists, Berthe Morisot had art running through her veins. Born into an aristocratic French family, she was the great-niece of celebrated Rococo painter Jean-Honoré Fragonard. Initially, she exhibited her work at the respected Paris Salon before joining the first Impressionist exhibit with Monet, Cézanne, Renoir, and Degas. Morisot has a particularly close relationship with Édouard Manet, who painted several portraits of her, and she eventually married his brother.
Her art often focused on domestic scenes and she preferred working with pastels, watercolor, and charcoal. Working mainly in small scale, her light and airy work was often criticized as being too “feminine.” Morisot wrote about her struggles to be taken seriously as a female artist in her journal, stating “I don’t think there has ever been a man who treated a woman as an equal and that’s all I would have asked for, for I know I’m worth as much as they.”
MARY CASSATT (1844 – 1926)
American painter Mary Cassatt spent her adult life in France, where she became an integral part of the Impressionist group. Cassatt was born into an affluent family who first protested against her desire to become an artist. She eventually left art school after being frustrated by the separate treatment that the female students received—they couldn’t use live models and were left drawing from casts.
Upon moving to Paris at age 22, Cassatt sought a private apprenticeship and spent her free time copying Old Master paintings in the Louvre. Cassatt’s career was already taking off when she joined the Impressionists and forged a lifelong friendship with Degas. At the same time, she was outspoken in her dismay at the formal art system, which she felt required female artists to flirt or befriend male patrons in order to move ahead. She created her own career path with the Impressionists, mastering pastels to create soft, light work that often highlighted women acting as caretakers. Throughout her life, Cassatt continued to support equality for women, even participating in an exhibition in support of women’s suffrage.
GEORGIA O’KEEFFE (1887 – 1986)
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⠀ “Color is one of the great things in the world that makes life worth living…” – Georgia O’Keeffe⠀ ⠀ #GeorgiaOKeeffe #Flowers #OKeeffeInspired #Quotes #Art #Interpretation #ISaidWhatISaid ⠀ ⠀ Georgia O’Keeffe. Series I White & Blue Flower Shapes, 1919. Oil on board, 19 7/8 x 15 3/4 inches. Georgia O’Keeffe Museum. Gift of The Georgia O’Keeffe Foundation. © Georgia O’Keeffe Museum. [2006.5.87]
As an artist at the forefront of American Modernism, Georgia O’Keeffe is one of the most celebrated female artists in history. Her early drawings and paintings led to bold experiments in abstraction, with her focus on painting to express her feelings ushering in an era of “Art for Art’s Sake.” During her lifetime, her career was intertwined with her husband, Alfred Stieglitz. While the renowned photographer espoused ideas that American art could equal that of Europe and that female painters could create art just as powerful as men, he also hindered interpretation of her work.
Stieglitz viewed creativity as an expression of sexuality and these thoughts, coupled with his intimate portraits of O’Keeffe, pushed forward an idea that her close up paintings of flowers were metaphors for female genitalia. It’s a concept that the artist has always denied, though her work is undoubtedly sensual. O’Keeffe spent much of her career combatting her art’s interpretation solely as a reflection of her gender. Throughout her life she refused to participate in all-female art exhibitions, wishing to be defined simply as an artist, free from gender.
TAMARA DE LEMPICKA (1898 – 1980)
Polish artist Tamara de Lempicka is known for her highly stylized portraits and nudes that exemplify the Art Deco era. De Lempicka spent much of her career in France and the United States, where her work was favored by aristocrats. One of her most famous paintings, Self-Portrait in a Green Bugatti, exemplifies the cool and detached nature of De Lempicka’s figures. In the work, which was created for the cover of a German fashion magazine, De Lempicka exudes independence and inaccessible beauty.
Her paintings often contained narratives of desire, seduction, and modern sensuality, making them revolutionary for their time. De Lempicka enjoyed success until the outbreak of World War II, but there was a resurgence of interest in her work as Art Deco became popular again in the 1960s. Her immediately recognizable style makes her a particular favorite among fans of Art Deco painters and today her work is more popular than ever, with Madonna being a known collector of her paintings.
FRIDA KAHLO (1907 – 1954)
Currently, there’s no other 20th-century female artist with a name as recognizable at Frida Kahlo. While the drama of her tragic accident as a young woman and her tumultuous relationship with husband Diego Rivera have sometimes overshadowed her artistic abilities, there is no denying the power of her painting. She is particularly known for her self-portraits, which deal with themes of identity, suffering, and the human body.
Though she was sometimes written about solely as “Diego Rivera’s wife” during her lifetime, her artwork has only gained momentum since her death. The most famous Frida Kahlo paintings belong to important art museums around the world, while she has gained status as a champion of feminists, Chicanos, and the LGBT community. | 2,743 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Part of a series on |
Abolition of slavery in Seychelles was a gradual process that became increasingly powerful in the early nineteenth century and finalized in 1835.
Slaves in the Seychelles were placed in four broad categories. Firstly there were the Creoles (the largest group), those of mixed African and European blood who were brought from Mauritius and had children born on the island; they were often regarded as superior in intellect. The second group were the Malagaches from Madagascar, peoples noted for their pride in hard work, particularly on the plantations or in the carpentry trade or as blacksmiths.
The third group was a small minority of Indian and Malays known as Malabars, usually trained as domestic servants and the fourth and largest group was the Mozambiques, brought from the country by boat to work on the plantations. They were widely seen as inferior to the others slaves in the islands, and reports of their preference of working completely naked, and inability to learn local customs saw them named as Mazambik in Kreol, which today is used as an insult for barbarity or imbecility.
The Anti-Slavery movement in Seychelles led by William Wilberforce grew in power in the early 19th century. Even though slave trading by this time has been outlawed, settlers in Seychelles were permitted slaves and eventually the number of slaves outnumbered white settlers by ten to one. An 1827 census in Seychelles revealed that the population consisted of 6,638 slaves and only 685 "masters" or those who were free. Slavery was finally abolished in 1835. The civil administrator at the time, Mylius recalled that on Emancipation Day on February 11 the freed slaves responded with "peaceable demonstrations of joy".
The slave owners, particularly the plantation owners expressed a degree of contempt for the new law, asking Mylius to impose a poll tax which would require the slaves to work to raise money to pay it. As a result, the moitie system was implemented, a system where workers were allocated land to farm in return for three days of solid work a week. Labor conditions in Seychelles were particularly uneasy following the abolition of slavery but by the late 1840s, ships filled with hundreds of liberated Africans freed by Arabic slave traders in Zanzibar saw a major migration to Seychelles to fill in the labor market. Many of the migrants began work on coconut plantations.
- Carpin, Sarah, Seychelles, Odyssey Guides, p.31, 1998, The Guidebook Company Limited, Retrieved on June 4, 2008 | <urn:uuid:7fc2530c-5941-4b37-84fd-f4be1d300904> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wikiyy.com/en/Slavery_in_Seychelles | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00079.warc.gz | en | 0.980842 | 542 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.7067255973... | 1 | |Part of a series on |
Abolition of slavery in Seychelles was a gradual process that became increasingly powerful in the early nineteenth century and finalized in 1835.
Slaves in the Seychelles were placed in four broad categories. Firstly there were the Creoles (the largest group), those of mixed African and European blood who were brought from Mauritius and had children born on the island; they were often regarded as superior in intellect. The second group were the Malagaches from Madagascar, peoples noted for their pride in hard work, particularly on the plantations or in the carpentry trade or as blacksmiths.
The third group was a small minority of Indian and Malays known as Malabars, usually trained as domestic servants and the fourth and largest group was the Mozambiques, brought from the country by boat to work on the plantations. They were widely seen as inferior to the others slaves in the islands, and reports of their preference of working completely naked, and inability to learn local customs saw them named as Mazambik in Kreol, which today is used as an insult for barbarity or imbecility.
The Anti-Slavery movement in Seychelles led by William Wilberforce grew in power in the early 19th century. Even though slave trading by this time has been outlawed, settlers in Seychelles were permitted slaves and eventually the number of slaves outnumbered white settlers by ten to one. An 1827 census in Seychelles revealed that the population consisted of 6,638 slaves and only 685 "masters" or those who were free. Slavery was finally abolished in 1835. The civil administrator at the time, Mylius recalled that on Emancipation Day on February 11 the freed slaves responded with "peaceable demonstrations of joy".
The slave owners, particularly the plantation owners expressed a degree of contempt for the new law, asking Mylius to impose a poll tax which would require the slaves to work to raise money to pay it. As a result, the moitie system was implemented, a system where workers were allocated land to farm in return for three days of solid work a week. Labor conditions in Seychelles were particularly uneasy following the abolition of slavery but by the late 1840s, ships filled with hundreds of liberated Africans freed by Arabic slave traders in Zanzibar saw a major migration to Seychelles to fill in the labor market. Many of the migrants began work on coconut plantations.
- Carpin, Sarah, Seychelles, Odyssey Guides, p.31, 1998, The Guidebook Company Limited, Retrieved on June 4, 2008 | 561 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The terms of the Armistice demanded that 74 German battleships be interned in a neutral port. After failing to find a neutral country interested in this job, the allies settled for Scapa Flow. In late November, the British Grand Fleet left the Flow and gradually, the 74 German ships were led in to be interned until their scuttling in June 1919.
After the ships had arrived, many of their crew members were repatriated to Germany yet, by the end of the year, 5000 men still remained. The German ships, unlike their British counterparts, were not designed to be lived on for extended periods. The living quarters were grim, food very poor and mail and German newspapers arrived late and heavily censored. The crews were miserable.
In December 1918, The Daily Mail carried a large feature on the fleet which described 'ragged, dirty crews fishing from the side and through portholes... the main impression from the collection of German soldiers who fished was, first, their variegated, ragged and dirty clothing and, secondly, their extremely youthful appearance.'
The crew had begun to ignore their superiors and were amazed to see their British equivalents still parading on board their ships, One remarked in his diary 'We did not do that in time of peace,'
|SMS Frederick Der Grosse - first ship to be scuttled in June 1919. Raised in 1937 and broken up for scrap on site.|
|SMS Dresden - one of the successfully scuttled ships, she remains unsalvaged.| | <urn:uuid:b99b2286-f356-4fc1-961b-210246ea87a6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://orkneyarchive.blogspot.com/2018/12/peace-on-earth-1918-archive-advent_14.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00188.warc.gz | en | 0.986242 | 316 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.146636947... | 2 | The terms of the Armistice demanded that 74 German battleships be interned in a neutral port. After failing to find a neutral country interested in this job, the allies settled for Scapa Flow. In late November, the British Grand Fleet left the Flow and gradually, the 74 German ships were led in to be interned until their scuttling in June 1919.
After the ships had arrived, many of their crew members were repatriated to Germany yet, by the end of the year, 5000 men still remained. The German ships, unlike their British counterparts, were not designed to be lived on for extended periods. The living quarters were grim, food very poor and mail and German newspapers arrived late and heavily censored. The crews were miserable.
In December 1918, The Daily Mail carried a large feature on the fleet which described 'ragged, dirty crews fishing from the side and through portholes... the main impression from the collection of German soldiers who fished was, first, their variegated, ragged and dirty clothing and, secondly, their extremely youthful appearance.'
The crew had begun to ignore their superiors and were amazed to see their British equivalents still parading on board their ships, One remarked in his diary 'We did not do that in time of peace,'
|SMS Frederick Der Grosse - first ship to be scuttled in June 1919. Raised in 1937 and broken up for scrap on site.|
|SMS Dresden - one of the successfully scuttled ships, she remains unsalvaged.| | 336 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this day in Duluth in 1930, the Aerial Lift Bridge was put into public operation for the first time. The lift span’s road deck was only half done, so traffic was limited to one lane and motorists had to take turns to cross. Meanwhile workers continued to pave the other side of the roadway, a task the city said would be complete in February of that year. The bridge opened for traffic at eight a.m., after which “hundreds of motorists” crossed the lift span. It was the first time anyone who was not actually working on the bridge used it to cross the canal since July 2, 1929, when the aerial bridge’s gondola car crossed for the last time and was then immediately removed to begin the bridge’s conversion from a transfer bridge to a lift bridge. The first trolley car crossed over the remodeled bridge on March 12 of that year. On March 29 the tug USS Essayons made history as the first vessel to pass below the raised lift span of Duluth’s Aerial Lift Bridge. The steamer F. E. Taplin became the first large ore carrier to pass under the bridge on April 24. On June 5 the Kansas City Bridge Company—the firm that converted the bridge—officially turned the bridge over to the city of Duluth. Read much more about Duluth’s famous Aerial Bridge here. | <urn:uuid:c0df14f9-c055-491e-bc75-8fe92a945a75> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://zenithcity.com/thisday/january-12-1930-duluths-aerial-lift-bridge-first-opened-for-automobile-traffic/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00062.warc.gz | en | 0.980006 | 285 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.156420364975929... | 11 | On this day in Duluth in 1930, the Aerial Lift Bridge was put into public operation for the first time. The lift span’s road deck was only half done, so traffic was limited to one lane and motorists had to take turns to cross. Meanwhile workers continued to pave the other side of the roadway, a task the city said would be complete in February of that year. The bridge opened for traffic at eight a.m., after which “hundreds of motorists” crossed the lift span. It was the first time anyone who was not actually working on the bridge used it to cross the canal since July 2, 1929, when the aerial bridge’s gondola car crossed for the last time and was then immediately removed to begin the bridge’s conversion from a transfer bridge to a lift bridge. The first trolley car crossed over the remodeled bridge on March 12 of that year. On March 29 the tug USS Essayons made history as the first vessel to pass below the raised lift span of Duluth’s Aerial Lift Bridge. The steamer F. E. Taplin became the first large ore carrier to pass under the bridge on April 24. On June 5 the Kansas City Bridge Company—the firm that converted the bridge—officially turned the bridge over to the city of Duluth. Read much more about Duluth’s famous Aerial Bridge here. | 289 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By designation, a ghost town is a township or a village that has no human population or life although it still contains visible signs of the existence of people at the site in the past. There are several reasons why a town may become a ghost town. For example, the economic activity that used to be the major source of its sustenance came to a close, a disaster (either natural or man-made) struck, and many other reasons. In some cases, the term may also be used to describe a place that has significantly less population now than before due to reasons such as high levels of unemployment. Over time, ghost towns have evolved to become tourist attractions, especially those that have the original architecture of the former town intact. These towns include the likes of Oatman, Centralia, South Pass City in the United States, Elizabeth Bay in Namibia, Bankhead in Canada, and many more all over the globe.
3. Where Is Bankhead?
Bankhead is an abandoned small town that is located in Alberta, Canada. More precisely, Bankhead is located close (around 4.6 miles) to the town of Banff, Alberta in Banff National Park. The abandoned town lies on the Lake Minnewanka road which is a short time away from the Trans-Canada Highway. Furthermore, the former mining town is situated close to the Cascade Mountains which had high-quality anthracite coal sediments.
2. Town History
Bankhead’s main economic activity during its time was the mining of coal. The mining work began in 1903, making it the first anthracite mining operation in Canada. The coal mine was operated and maintained by the Pacific Coal Company which was a company belonging to the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). The CPR needed the coal to use as fuel for the engines of their trains. After its establishment, the mine at Bankhead had a population of about 1,000 people with 275 of them working in the underground mines while 155 workers were tasked with overseeing things on the surface. On average, the mine used to produce between 500 and 600 tons of coal every day.
Accounts of that time show that operations began at five o’clock in the morning when the workers would line up to receive their headgear or headlamps before going underground. Aside from the most apparent use of the lamps, they were also used as a means of keeping track of the miners. If by the end of the day one lamp was unaccounted for, then this would be taken as a sign that something was wrong and a search party would be formed. Miners would sometimes go for an entire week without seeing the light of day.
Accounts show that the mining operation was so successful that Bankhead’s economic situation was at some point better than that of the nearby town of Banff. In fact, by the turn of 1906, Bankhead had improved massively to become a town dependent on its own resources. At that time, the town had about 123 residential structures, two lodging houses for unmarried men, restaurants, a police post, hotels, barber shops, and several other amenities. In addition to all these, the Chinese workers established a Chinatown of their own although this was a poorer part of town which was composed of shacks and temporary structures.
Things began going south for the town in 1922 when a notice for the closure of the mines appeared. The population had greatly increased at that time. One of the reasons why the notice was issued was because of the constant unhappiness of the workers. In addition to the disgruntled workers, competition presented itself from the mines that were in Drumheller, Lethbridge, and Canmore. Between 1909 and 1922, there were several strikes from the miners which led to increasing costs of operations. Consequently, the mining operation began generating little profits, if at all. In 1922, there was a devastating strike by the miners which lasted for an incredible eight months. That strike was what ultimately led to the permanent closure of the Bankhead mine. For a brief period after the official closure, the town ran as usual while the factories processed the already mined coal before complete abandonment.Other sources say that geological reasons also had a part to play. The coal layers in the mountain were extremely brittle and were becoming harder by the day to exploit safely. Further, it was dangerous to use electrical equipment to mine through stubborn places since there was plenty of flammable gas being produced by the mine. In 1930, Canada established the National Parks Act which prevented all future mining of coal in the mine or any other resource from the mine. Eventually, most of the CPR sold most of the buildings in the town
1. The Town Today
Bankhead is a popular tourist attraction for people from all over the world. The town is under the protection of the Banff National Park authority which oversees visitations. Previously, people would go to Bankhead but would gather little knowledge from such visits. However, the management of the park has put several plaques in place and information sites within the town which inform visitors of the different places they may wish to visit. Most of the buildings have been worn down by time although most of the foundations are still visible. In close proximity to the former town, there are memorial sites for several historical figures who participated in World War I. These figures include those of J.H Murray, W.B Scarr, H. Wilson, and a few others.
The park sought to preserve the ghost town because of its historical and cultural significance. Aside from the obvious recreational use by visitors, the site is also used to educate anyone wishing to learn of its history and the role it played during its time. While most buildings have crumbled, there is one that has survived the test of time. This building is the Holy Trinity Church of Bankhead which is also described as a stairway to heaven itself. Despite all the informative sites within the town, visitors are urged to be alert as animals such as snakes may be lurking around. Other animals living in the ghost town include bears and elks.
About the Author
Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace.
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0.29207408428... | 3 | By designation, a ghost town is a township or a village that has no human population or life although it still contains visible signs of the existence of people at the site in the past. There are several reasons why a town may become a ghost town. For example, the economic activity that used to be the major source of its sustenance came to a close, a disaster (either natural or man-made) struck, and many other reasons. In some cases, the term may also be used to describe a place that has significantly less population now than before due to reasons such as high levels of unemployment. Over time, ghost towns have evolved to become tourist attractions, especially those that have the original architecture of the former town intact. These towns include the likes of Oatman, Centralia, South Pass City in the United States, Elizabeth Bay in Namibia, Bankhead in Canada, and many more all over the globe.
3. Where Is Bankhead?
Bankhead is an abandoned small town that is located in Alberta, Canada. More precisely, Bankhead is located close (around 4.6 miles) to the town of Banff, Alberta in Banff National Park. The abandoned town lies on the Lake Minnewanka road which is a short time away from the Trans-Canada Highway. Furthermore, the former mining town is situated close to the Cascade Mountains which had high-quality anthracite coal sediments.
2. Town History
Bankhead’s main economic activity during its time was the mining of coal. The mining work began in 1903, making it the first anthracite mining operation in Canada. The coal mine was operated and maintained by the Pacific Coal Company which was a company belonging to the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). The CPR needed the coal to use as fuel for the engines of their trains. After its establishment, the mine at Bankhead had a population of about 1,000 people with 275 of them working in the underground mines while 155 workers were tasked with overseeing things on the surface. On average, the mine used to produce between 500 and 600 tons of coal every day.
Accounts of that time show that operations began at five o’clock in the morning when the workers would line up to receive their headgear or headlamps before going underground. Aside from the most apparent use of the lamps, they were also used as a means of keeping track of the miners. If by the end of the day one lamp was unaccounted for, then this would be taken as a sign that something was wrong and a search party would be formed. Miners would sometimes go for an entire week without seeing the light of day.
Accounts show that the mining operation was so successful that Bankhead’s economic situation was at some point better than that of the nearby town of Banff. In fact, by the turn of 1906, Bankhead had improved massively to become a town dependent on its own resources. At that time, the town had about 123 residential structures, two lodging houses for unmarried men, restaurants, a police post, hotels, barber shops, and several other amenities. In addition to all these, the Chinese workers established a Chinatown of their own although this was a poorer part of town which was composed of shacks and temporary structures.
Things began going south for the town in 1922 when a notice for the closure of the mines appeared. The population had greatly increased at that time. One of the reasons why the notice was issued was because of the constant unhappiness of the workers. In addition to the disgruntled workers, competition presented itself from the mines that were in Drumheller, Lethbridge, and Canmore. Between 1909 and 1922, there were several strikes from the miners which led to increasing costs of operations. Consequently, the mining operation began generating little profits, if at all. In 1922, there was a devastating strike by the miners which lasted for an incredible eight months. That strike was what ultimately led to the permanent closure of the Bankhead mine. For a brief period after the official closure, the town ran as usual while the factories processed the already mined coal before complete abandonment.Other sources say that geological reasons also had a part to play. The coal layers in the mountain were extremely brittle and were becoming harder by the day to exploit safely. Further, it was dangerous to use electrical equipment to mine through stubborn places since there was plenty of flammable gas being produced by the mine. In 1930, Canada established the National Parks Act which prevented all future mining of coal in the mine or any other resource from the mine. Eventually, most of the CPR sold most of the buildings in the town
1. The Town Today
Bankhead is a popular tourist attraction for people from all over the world. The town is under the protection of the Banff National Park authority which oversees visitations. Previously, people would go to Bankhead but would gather little knowledge from such visits. However, the management of the park has put several plaques in place and information sites within the town which inform visitors of the different places they may wish to visit. Most of the buildings have been worn down by time although most of the foundations are still visible. In close proximity to the former town, there are memorial sites for several historical figures who participated in World War I. These figures include those of J.H Murray, W.B Scarr, H. Wilson, and a few others.
The park sought to preserve the ghost town because of its historical and cultural significance. Aside from the obvious recreational use by visitors, the site is also used to educate anyone wishing to learn of its history and the role it played during its time. While most buildings have crumbled, there is one that has survived the test of time. This building is the Holy Trinity Church of Bankhead which is also described as a stairway to heaven itself. Despite all the informative sites within the town, visitors are urged to be alert as animals such as snakes may be lurking around. Other animals living in the ghost town include bears and elks.
About the Author
Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace.
Your MLA Citation
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 1,331 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On 12 June 1779, thirteen-year-old Prince William Henry joined the navy as a midshipman. George III's instructions to him set a high standard for his behaviour: ‘It must never be out of Your thoughts that more Obedience is necessary from You to Your Superiours [sic] in the Navy, more Politeness to Your Equals and more good nature to Your Inferiors, than from those who have not been told that these are essential to a Gentleman.’ The king made it clear that he was joining a profession in which not all of his brother officers would be gentlemen. Presumably the prince would be, at least by birth. Whether he behaved like a gentleman was another matter, however, as the king – who knew his son well – may have realised. Indeed, the young prince comprehensively failed to follow his father's instructions. Not only did he exchange punches with his shipmates, but his admiral had to bail him out of jail after he brawled with soldiers in Gibraltar. He feuded with his tutor and had affairs in multiple ports. He also drank too much and had a dangerous fondness for gambling. In short, the future William IV, despite being told how to behave as a gentleman, rarely did.
As we have traced officers from birth to death, their families – their social backgrounds – have been noticeably absent. This chapter asks how many officers, both commissioned and warrant, were gentlemen by birth, Prince William Henry certainly was. But Captain Thomas Fife and Lieutenant Robert Baley were not: Fife was the son of a woolcomber and Baley's father was a farmer. They were the men the king warned his son about – men who had not been brought up with the essential qualities of gentility. Whether Fife and Baley were perceived as gentlemen by their peers – in other words, whether they were gentlemen by behaviour – is the subject of Chapter 8. | <urn:uuid:2054a4ff-30fa-40f2-8613-be8a97d66dc0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://core-cms.prod.aop.cambridge.org/core/books/social-history-of-british-naval-officers-17751815/wardroom-as-a-social-space/3827713B86615C6F279FB510F2032C79 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.994016 | 392 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.086858205497264... | 1 | On 12 June 1779, thirteen-year-old Prince William Henry joined the navy as a midshipman. George III's instructions to him set a high standard for his behaviour: ‘It must never be out of Your thoughts that more Obedience is necessary from You to Your Superiours [sic] in the Navy, more Politeness to Your Equals and more good nature to Your Inferiors, than from those who have not been told that these are essential to a Gentleman.’ The king made it clear that he was joining a profession in which not all of his brother officers would be gentlemen. Presumably the prince would be, at least by birth. Whether he behaved like a gentleman was another matter, however, as the king – who knew his son well – may have realised. Indeed, the young prince comprehensively failed to follow his father's instructions. Not only did he exchange punches with his shipmates, but his admiral had to bail him out of jail after he brawled with soldiers in Gibraltar. He feuded with his tutor and had affairs in multiple ports. He also drank too much and had a dangerous fondness for gambling. In short, the future William IV, despite being told how to behave as a gentleman, rarely did.
As we have traced officers from birth to death, their families – their social backgrounds – have been noticeably absent. This chapter asks how many officers, both commissioned and warrant, were gentlemen by birth, Prince William Henry certainly was. But Captain Thomas Fife and Lieutenant Robert Baley were not: Fife was the son of a woolcomber and Baley's father was a farmer. They were the men the king warned his son about – men who had not been brought up with the essential qualities of gentility. Whether Fife and Baley were perceived as gentlemen by their peers – in other words, whether they were gentlemen by behaviour – is the subject of Chapter 8. | 395 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jackie Robinson's Struggle as the First Black Player in MLB
When Jackie Robinson took his position at first base at Ebbets Field on April 15, 1947, the history of America was changed forever. Becoming the first African-American in Major League Baseball in the 20th century, Robinson faced harsh criticism from fans, other players, and even his own teammates. As the season waned, however, the criticism diminished, and the praise grew.
In between, though, the Dodgers nearly had an internal uprising led by their Southern players, death threats poured into Robinson’s mail, the Philadelphia Phillies manager and players were warned by baseball’s commissioner for their excessive racial taunts during a game, and the St. Louis Cardinals may have attempted to strike rather than play on the same field as a black man. Still, Robinson managed to fight through these issues to be named Rookie of the Year and helped lead the Dodgers to the World Series by the season’s end.
Nonetheless, the timing of Robinson’s debut encouraged the criticism of him as post-World War II American society was a society which needed normalcy. Many people looked to baseball to find that normalcy, since the game had been there for more than 50 years, but an African-American player changed that. At the same time, the greater change in society likely eased the criticism, because Americans were accustomed to change, lowering the shock value of Robinson’s debut except for those living in the Jim Crow south. But, if there was one player to overcome it all, that player certainly was Jackie Robinson.
Jackie Robinson's Roots
Born on January 31, 1919, in Cairo, Georgia, Jack Roosevelt Robinson was transplanted to California because his mother thought her children would have a better life there than in the strictly segregated south. However, the family faced discrimination throughout Jackie’s childhood since his mother bought a house in a white neighborhood.
The family struggled through the depression years when Jackie became a teenager, which was the same time he discovered his athletic prowess because his brother, an Olympian, inspired him to try sports. Robinson became a four-sport athlete at John Muir Technical High School, competing in football, basketball, baseball, and track. He would later take his sports fame to Pasadena Junior College before enrolling at UCLA, where he would become the first athlete in university history to letter in four sports during his first year. He met his future wife, Rachel, at the college in 1941, and they would get married following his brief stint in the military.
During his military career, Robinson nearly ruined his chance to become the first black player in professional baseball. On July 6, 1944, Robinson was on a military bus which was taking him to Camp Hood army base in Texas. While the state still abided by Jim Crow bus segregation, the military had recently adopted desegregated buses, a policy Robinson knew about. After refusing to move to the back of the bus, Robinson and the bus driver, Milton N. Renegar, had a heated exchange, which resulted in a call to the military police, commanded by Captain Gerald M. Bear. Bear was trying to have Robinson court-martialed because of his activity on the bus, which eventually occurred on July 24. His trial on August 23 quietly ended with his acquittal, but the incident would come to light again when the Dodgers began contemplating signing him.
While he had committed no crime, he had reacted poorly when the incident occurred. According to reports from the scene, Robinson had told the bus driver, “I’m not going to move a [expletive] bit” and told a white woman, “You better quit [expletive] with me.” If this temper were to flare up during a baseball game, it would ruin the chances of a smooth integration to baseball. At the same time, it was clear he was passionate about his rights as an American citizen, which was also a value needed to break the color line. Someone who followed the “rules” of society may have just lied down and quit when the going got too hard on the baseball field, but it was clear that would not happen with Robinson.
For Brooklyn Dodgers president and general manager Branch Rickey, the question about Robinson was whether his intelligence would allow him to keep his temper in check while still displaying the strength needed to overcome the taunts he would hear from fans and other players? This question was deliberated carefully when Robinson became a candidate to break the color line.
Breaking Baseball's Color Barrier
Discussion of allowing blacks into Major League Baseball began after commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis, who was a strict segregationist, died in 1944. However, some tryouts had been given to players from the Negro Leagues earlier in the 1940s. A.B. Happy Chandler, a Kentucky politician at the time, was named commissioner in 1945 and quickly became a friend to those in favor of integration. “For 24 years Judge Landis wouldn’t let a black man play. I had his records, and I read them, and for 24 years Landis consistently blocked any attempts to put blacks and whites together on a big league field,” Chandler said soon after taking office.
However, it would prove to be Rickey who would become the face of baseball’s integration project. Credited by many, even in the 1940s, as a baseball genius, Rickey had already solidified his claim to eternal fame by perfecting the minor league system that is still integral to baseball today. With the Dodgers struggling when he took control of the team in 1943, Rickey wanted to quickly replenish the team with talent. At that time, the largest untouched pool of players was in the Negro Leagues, which is where Rickey went.
By April 1945, he was already working on a secret plan to place a black player on his club. A known proponent of integration, Rickey explained during a meeting with reporters how the sporadic contract agreements and scheduling of the Negro Leagues were harmful to black players, personally and as ballplayers. His remedy was a new Negro League called the United States League, which would include his own team, the Brooklyn Brown Dodgers. From there, the black media fired criticism at Rickey, saying he was aspiring to become the “dictator” of black baseball. One columnist, Ludlow W. Werner, even wrote that, “When I left that meeting … I had formed the opinion that it would be a hot day in December before Rickey would ever have a Negro wear the uniform of organized [white] baseball.” Meanwhile, Rickey sent his scouts to find him the best Negro League talent in America, knowing he had effectively disguised his plan to find an African-American to play for the Brooklyn Dodgers.
However, talent was only part of what Rickey wanted to find in a ballplayer. Enter Jackie Robinson. The UCLA graduate and World War II veteran was spotted by a Dodgers scout when he was playing shortstop for the Kansas City Monarchs. While he had a history of standing up for himself, Robinson was still an attractive prospect for Rickey’s experiment. He had already played on integrated teams in college and did not have a scandalous off-the-field life filled with smoking, drinking, or chasing women. More importantly, Rickey believed him to be intelligent enough to understand the role he would eventually take in 1947. With one player having to bear the burden of the experiment’s success or failure on his shoulders, Rickey had to carefully question every aspect of Robinson’s athletic ability, life, and character. Once Robinson was pinned as the man for the experiment, he was signed to a minor league contract with the Montreal Royals, the AAA affiliate of the Dodgers, in November of 1945, a time of a great shift in American society.
Rachel Robinson Describes Jackie Robinson's Meeting with Branch Rickey
A Changing America
World War II changed America. Friends became foes, women were working, the Communist Party was gaining power, and black activists were slowly beginning the Civil Rights Movement. As America’s “national pastime,” baseball was supposed to be a relief and escape for fans living in that changing, confusing America. However, Robinson’s presence made even baseball a confusing part of American society when it needed normalcy the most. The game had been a mirror image of society since the turn of the century, with blacks and whites playing separately.
It was no secret that the Negro Leagues did not afford the same opportunities the Major Leagues did, but there were few complaints about that until the World War II era when players began to earn tryouts. Pitcher Nate Moreland and Robinson had tryouts with the White Sox in 1942, just prior to Robinson’s military enlistment. Manager Jimmy Dykes said of Robinson, who had a sore leg that day, “I’d hate to see him on two good legs. He’s worth $50,000 of anybody’s money.” However, his $50,000 was not good enough for Robinson, as Dykes dismissed both players, even though he was for integration.
That dismissal, as well as several others during the 1940s, showed that baseball was not ready to change during the war years. The post-war attitudes of America allowed Rickey to conduct his experiment, and while some within the game and America opposed it, baseball became one of the first American businesses to become integrated. Prior to the 1947 season, Wendell Smith of The Pittsburgh Courier gave Robinson the chance to write a short column chronicling his journey each week. The Courier was one of America’s leading Negro newspapers of the time, and Robinson took time each week to reflect on his season.
In one of his first columns, he wrote about his views on integration. “It seems to me that playing baseball is one thing and the color of a man’s skin is another … I hope the color of my skin won’t turn out to be my greatest error.” After the season, he again visited the topic, insisting he knew that challenges awaited him from the moment he stepped into the batter’s box. “It was inevitable as night follows day that my presence in the Major Leagues would eventually be challenged, officially or unofficially, by some group within or without the ranks of baseball,” Robinson wrote. As it turned out, he was right on both accounts.
About a month into the 1947 season, Robinson began to receive anonymous, threatening letters. While the Dodgers were in Philadelphia, the New York City Police were investigating death threats that Robinson had received. Rickey handled the media’s interest in the story, announcing that, “At least two letters of a nature that I felt called for investigation were received by Robinson” in hopes of rallying some public support for Robinson, who was clearly suffering personally. In Arnold Rampersad’s biography of Robinson, it was revealed that those letters threatened violence against Robinson’s wife, Rachel, and the kidnapping of his son, Jack Jr. It was never determined who sent the letters, as the signatures and addresses were fake, but they do give an indication of how strictly segregation was enforced in some areas. To tamper with those rules in any form was worth murder to some people. These letters were also good for Robinson in a way because he easily could have become irrational about dealing with the letters, given his past temper issues. However, he stayed calm and let the proper authorities take care of the letters, proving Rickey’s point that Robinson’s intelligence would trump his temper when it was needed most.
In the photo section of Rampersad’s book, two letters are printed. They read: “Note. We have already got (sic) rid of several like you. One was found in river (sic) just recently” and “Robinson. We are going to kill you if you attempt to enter a ballgame at Crosley Field (in Cincinnati). The Travelers.” These types of letters likely continued to flood Robinson’s mailbox throughout his entire career, but for each threatening letter, there were letters of praise. In Jonathan Eig’s book, Opening Day: The Story of Jackie Robinson’s First Season, several letters are reprinted, and some of them said, “… if I can raise my boy to be half the man that you are, I’ll be a happy father” and “You’ve got a lot more friends in this country of ours than enemies.” However, even before any letters were sent to Robinson, there were some within baseball challenging his presence, just as he knew they would. The source of those challenges may have come as a surprise, though.
Dodgers slugger and right fielder Dixie Walker was one of the most popular and productive players on the team each year. During the offseason, the native Alabaman owned a hardware store back home that he cared deeply about. Often in 1947, he worried if playing on the integrated Dodgers would affect his business. “I didn’t know if they would spit on me or not,” Walker said years later. This sentiment was shared by many other Southern players, even if they did not vocalize them as loudly as Walker did or have any business interests in the South like Walker did. For as long as the South had existed, Southerners believed blacks were inferior in every aspect of life. Those feelings stayed with them whether they were at home, in the North, or in another country, and Rickey did not understand this. He had expected Walker to be a leader in welcoming Robinson to the team, but Walker’s connection to the South mattered more to him than his connection to the Dodgers.
No one seems to be certain how it may have started, but in 1947, there was a petition circulated by Brooklyn players who were opposed to having Robinson as a teammate. It was led by five Southerners, including Walker, and their objective was to force Rickey to keep Robinson off the Major League club. Once Rickey got word of the protest, he moved immediately to squash it. In spring training, the Dodgers decided to go to Panama, because Robinson would be treated more fairly there than in the United States. In the middle of the night, when Rickey found out about the petition, he had manager Leo Durocher wake up the players and give a speech about accepting Robinson. In an angry tirade, Durocher said, “I don’t care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a [expletive] zebra. I’m the manager of this team, and I say he plays.” Walker still was not pleased, leaving a letter for Rickey on March 26 demanding to be traded. In that letter, Walker wrote, “For reasons I don’t care to go into, I feel my decision is best for all concerned.”
In later years, Walker attempted to clarify both the protest and his desire to be traded, which was eventually granted the next season. He did admit to having concerns about playing with a black player, which were two-fold. First, he held the belief, which many did at the time, that blacks did not have “ice water in their veins,” which would make them collapse under pressure. Second, Walker said he faced pressure from family and friends in Alabama to not play with Robinson because he was black. “I grew up in the South and in those days you grew up in a different manner than you do today,” Walker said in 1981. He also said he was not the person who started the petition and claims to have never seen such a thing in the clubhouse. Robinson backed up this claim some 30 years earlier, writing, “He was always courteous and considerate to me. Never once … did he indicate that he resented my presence on the Brooklyn club.” When Robinson and the Dodgers went on the road, he could not say the same thing about the other players, at least at the beginning of the season.
Philadelphia Phillies manager Ben Chapman and his squad faced the Dodgers in just the fifth game of the season. During the three-game series from April 22 to April 24, the native Alabaman was reported as having told his players to “ride Robinson unmercifully” from the bench. According to Robinson after the season, the news report was not an exaggeration. “Hey, you black [expletive]” and “Why don’t you go back where you came from?” are two taunts Robinson recalled hearing players yell during his first at-bat. As much as Robinson wanted to “take a sock at one of them,” he gritted his teeth and used the epitaphs as motivation to hit a single. This was one of the defining moments of Robinson’s entire baseball career, which lasted until 1956, because he showed his inner strength by holding back, retaliating with his bat instead of his fists. This hard and aggressive style of play is something he would become noted for. In addition, Robinson also learned he had supporters after the incident.
Dodger second baseman Ed Stanky came to Robinson’s aid at the end of the series, yelling “Listen, you yellow-bellied cowards, why don’t you yell at someone who can answer back?” toward the Phillies dugout. Bench-jockeying, or “riding,” players had always been an accepted part of baseball, and oftentimes, it centered on players’ ethnic or religious backgrounds. It was those acts of “unmerciful” riding that some fans had heard, which prompted several letters to the Major League office. That led to an official decision about the incident the week of May 5. Commissioner A.B. “Happy” Chandler warned the Phillies about the insults they were hurling, insisting they stop using “vicious un-American racial remarks” against Robinson, who Chandler said would receive “no favors” from his office but had a right to not have to face racial epitaphs. On May 9, the Dodgers arrived in Philadelphia for another series with the Phillies. Chapman was warned beforehand to not have another incident with Robinson, to which Chapman obliged. He even went so far as to pose for a picture with Robinson on the dugout steps in front of a home crowd. “Jackie has been accepted in baseball and we of the Philadelphia organization have no objection to his playing and wish him all the luck we can,” Chapman told news reporters after the game.24 The photo stunt and postgame quote may have looked good on the outside, but Chapman supposedly murmured to Robinson, “Jackie, you know, you’re a good ballplayer, but you’re still a [expletive] to me.”
Chapman was one of many Southern players and coaches who were strongly opposed to the integration of baseball. Even though there were no Major League clubs in the deep South, each and every team had Southern players, most of who were raised to believe in segregation. Some were stars, some were no-namers, but most all of them were against integration. Rickey knew Robinson would encounter abuse from these players throughout the season and tried his best to prepare him accordingly. Rickey earned a law degree from the University of Michigan, and he had sought advice from several people regarding how to handle the times when Robinson faced criticism. However, nothing Rickey said before the season could have prepared Robinson for the epitaphs he heard in Philadelphia, but Robinson stood strong and firm, again proving Rickey’s praise of Robinson’s demeanor. Immediately after the Philadelphia incident, Robinson’s will was tested again.
St. Louis was expected to be one of the roughest cities for Robinson to visit during the season. The southernmost city in the Major Leagues at the time, St. Louis was home to two clubs: the defending World Series champion Cardinals of the National League and the Browns of the American League. With the Cardinals and Dodgers as preseason favorites to contend for a pennant in 1947, bitter feelings were expected between the two teams anyway, so Robinson’s presence was only going to heighten them. The city never experienced any major race riots, but there was a large-scale riot in East St. Louis, Illinois in 1917. St. Louis was far from an integrated city, however, as segregation in housing and business were commonplace there. The city’s segregation also affected its ballpark, Sportsman’s Field, until 1942, when both St. Louis clubs became the last two Major League teams to eliminate segregated seating. That was just one part of St. Louis’ society that was integrated though, as Robinson was not permitted to stay with his teammates at the Chase Hotel when the Dodgers came to town later in the season. The first time the teams met was in Brooklyn, and that meeting showed that some Cardinals players felt the Major Leagues should have stayed segregated.
The first series, which ran from May 6-8, was the first of several meetings the teams would endure throughout the season. However, when it started, some Cardinal players did not seem interested in playing at all, supposedly starting a strike petition instead of playing on the same field as a black man. The problem? Perhaps a strike was never even discussed among players, but there was definitely some kind of displeasure among Cardinal players. It is believed that St. Louis players were upset about the idea of playing against a Negro in the same way the Brooklyn players were upset about playing with a Negro at the beginning of the season, but there has never been any clear evidence of a petition. Cardinal owner Sam Breadon did approach National League President Ford Frick before the series began in hopes of quieting the players he had heard making anti-Robinson comments. Frick gave Breadon a statement to read to his players with hopes of getting the situation low key, which it temporarily did. Later on, Breadon and St. Louis manager Eddie Dyer both denied the charges that existed, insisting the confusion occurred because many National League players were not satisfied that a Negro had infiltrated their league. In the end, every Cardinal player took the field when the series started.
The supposed strike did hit the papers though, but it wasn’t until after the series was complete. Frick issued a statement regarding the supposed incident in St. Louis: “If you do this, you will be suspended from the league. You will find that the friends you think you have in the press box will not support you, that you will be outcasts. Those who do it will encounter quick retribution. All will be suspended and I don’t care if it wrecks the National League for five years. This is the United States of America and one citizen has as much right to play as another. The National League will go down the line with Robinson no matter what the consequence. You will find if you go through with your intention that you have been guilty of complete madness.” Whether there was a strike threat, Robinson gained support from another high-ranking baseball official.
Whatever really happened may never be 100 percent certain, but it is hard to believe there was an actual plan to strike. While not every player in the league went on barnstorming tours across the country in the offseason, many did. Those barnstorming clubs often played against teams of Negro League players, which would make many players hypocrites if they refused to play against Brooklyn. That hypocrisy is something Robinson did not believe really existed. “I still refuse to believe that they didn’t want to play against me. I think that ‘issue’ wasn’t really anything at all,” Robinson wrote in his May 31 column for The Courier. Even more so, St. Louis’ Marty Marion was believed to be one of the instigators of the strike. However, in a game later in the season, Robinson slid into the Cardinal shortstop on a stolen base attempt. Marion had to leap for the ball, and he believed he had spiked Robinson on his way down. Instead of leaving Robinson unattended, Marion made sure he was not injured.
On May 21, Robinson and the Dodgers made their first appearance of the season in St. Louis to surprising results. “I must say that I never ran into any difficulties with the Cardinal players. They were nice to me and I didn’t hear them say anything insulting from the bench,” Robinson wrote in The Courier. However, that series did establish the roots of rivalry that would permeate later in the season. Cardinal catcher Joe Garagiola, a temperamental, 200-pound player who was raised in St. Louis, and Robinson exchanged minor taunts before Robinson’s first at-bat. Robinson finished the words by telling Garagiola that, “No matter how fast you run, Joe, you can’t hit as much as you weigh.” Garagiola did hit his weight and then some, .257, by the end of the season, but perhaps Robinson’s comment stuck with him all the way until September.
During a crucial three-game series between the teams, Garagiola and Robinson had another tie-up. In the first game on September 11, Robinson was spiked by Garagiola on a close play at first base during the second inning. The next inning, Robinson said something to Garagiola before his at-bat, which led to a face-to-face confrontation between the two players. The exchange may have inspired Robinson, as he ended up going 6-for-13 at the plate during the series and made an inning-ending catch in the final game. However, it was the social aspect of this argument that was more significant than the play on the field. As Time magazine wrote, there were “no fisticuffs on the field [and] no rioting in the stands.” Robinson had truly been accepted by his opponents and their fans, maybe not as a person, but as a baseball player. A month earlier, Cardinal slugger Enos Slaughter also spiked Robinson, this time on a play at first base and leaving him with a large gash. Many who saw the play believe Slaughter, a native North Carolinian, had malicious intent on the play, but Robinson just “set his teeth and said nothing.” “I hopped up and down the first baseline, writhing like a man who had been burned by a blow torch,” Robinson wrote.
Spiking Incident with Enos Slaughter as Seen in the Movie 42
Interestingly, in between those two instances with Garagiola, there was a positive exchange between them. According to Smith’s June 21 story in the Courier, Robinson and Garagiola “talked shop” during a three-game series in St. Louis. In fact, Robinson said the entire Cardinal team was friendly during that series, with several players giving him advice. Manager and first-base coach Eddie Dyer made small-talk with Robinson every inning, which included advice on playing the game. Hall of Famer Joe Medwick told Robinson to loosen up at the plate. Hall of Famer Stan Musial and Marty Marion also reportedly gave him advice and treated him well. “They can say what they want about the Cardinals,” Robinson said, “but they’re a darn nice bunch of fellows.” However, those sentiments about all players would change at the season’s end when the incidents with Slaughter and Garagiola occurred.
Ironically, mid-way through the season, the city of St. Louis was the third to have Negro players. Henry Thompson and Willard Brown were signed by the St. Louis Browns, with Thompson debuting on July 17 and Brown following him up on the 20th. Both players were released by the end of August, but Browns owner Richard Muckerman said the signings were not a publicity stunt to bolster attendance for the struggling franchise. “We will sign any player we think is better than those we have. We feel Brown and Thompson can help our club,” he said. However, on July 16, the Browns’ record stood at 28-50, placing them well behind the first place New York Yankees (56-26-1). From July 17 through August 23 when Thompson was released, the Browns were 14-26, which was worse than the team had performed in its first 40 games (17-23). Neither player had impressed at the plate and manager Muddy Ruel said both players were given a fair trial, which were both used to justify their releases. For comparison, Tom Alston was the first Negro to play for the Cardinals, joining the club on April 13, 1954.
A Successful First Season
While Robinson was starting to fit into the National League and baseball as a whole by the middle point of the season, he had still not gained all the rights other ballplayers had. He could not react to a player’s insults. He could not slide into a base with his spikes up and get away with it. He could not even be criticized by a newspaperman without an apology, something that bothered Robinson. In his June 7 column for the Courier, he expressed his desire for equal treatment in the papers. During a series with the Boston Braves, a reporter for the Boston Evening American, Dave Eagan, was critical of Robinson’s play at first base but apologized in advance for what he wrote. “Lest I be charged with race prejudice in appraising Robinson’s play, I will testify that I like Jackie as a personality and a character and in some respects as a ball player, though I regret that I cannot endorse him as a first baseman,” he wrote, to which Robinson responded by writing, “I do not think anyone will accuse any writer of being prejudiced if he chooses to criticize me. I wouldn’t want anyone to either … If I don’t play good ball, I want the writers to say so.”
By the end of the season, Robinson had played good enough ball for the writers, and players, to send praise his way. As baseball’s Rookie of the Year, he received good words for his playing ability, not the color of skin. “The sociological experiment that Robinson represented, the trail-blazing that he did, the barriers he broke, did not enter into the decision,” wrote Sporting News editor J.G. Taylor Spink about the award. “He was rated and examined solely as a freshman player in the big leagues.” In 151 games, Robinson had 175 hits in 590 at-bats for a .297 average. He struck out just 36 times and led the league with 29 stolen bases. As praiseworthy as Spink was though, Robinson also picked up a positive comment from a player who came full circle: Dixie Walker. “No other ball player on this club, with possible exception of Bruce Edwards, has done more to put the Dodgers up in the race than Robinson,” Walker told The Sporting News. However, that statement still does not quite add up, as Edwards played in 130 games with 139 hits in 471 at-bats for a .295 average. He only scored 53 runs and had 55 strikeouts. It is not that Edwards was not a significant part of the Dodgers run but to say he contributed more than Robinson seems wildly inaccurate. Yet, it is not a surprising statement considering the source is a Southerner.
By the end of the year, it was hard to call Robinson’s first season with the Dodgers anything but a success. It would also be unfair to call the season anything but a challenge for Robinson, baseball, and American society. From the undeserved racial taunts thrown by the Phillies in May to the World Series in October, Robinson faced many highs and lows during the season. But why did a man just trying to make his living have to face so much criticism? American society of the time was one of Jim Crow rules, one of southern bigotry, and one looking for normalcy after it was realigned because of World War II. However, the fact society was changing was all the more reason for Branch Rickey to introduce Robinson to the white baseball world when he did. Robinson may have faced harsh criticism from many people, but had he been introduced without all the societal shifts of World War II, America probably would not have been ready for such a drastic change. The war allowed Robinson to be just another part of changing America instead of a sudden change in society.
Jackie Robinson's Career Stats
- At bats: 4877
- Runs scored: 947
- Hits: 1518
- Home Runs: 137
- Runs batted in: 734
- Stolen bases: 197
- Batting average: .311
- On-base percentage: .409
- On-base percentage plus slugging average: .883
Jackie Robinson in the Civil Rights Movement
Following his retirement in 1956, Robinson became a prominent voice in the civil rights movement. In 1957, he became the chairman for the NAACP's Freedom Fund Drive. He eventually joined the board of directors for the organization and served there until 1967. In 1958, he became a chairman for the Youth March for Integrated Schools. He also joined Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Robinson had a strong interest in giving back to the black community. In 1964, he founded the Freedom National Bank, a black-owned and operated bank that served the African American community in Harlem. He also established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company in 1970. Its goal was to build housing for low-income families.
While Robinson would inspire other black players in the league, he continuously criticized Major League Baseball's lack of people of color in manager roles or in the central office for teams. His final public appearance was in Game 2 of the 1972 World Series where he threw out the ceremonial first pitch. While accepting an award, he stated, "I'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball."
- Eig, Jonathan. Opening Day: The Story of Jackie Robinson’s First Season. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2007.
- Myrdal, Gunner. An American Dilemma: Volume I, The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. 3rd ed. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1996.
- Ott, Tim. Late-Game Strategy: The Activism of Jackie Robinson. From Biography.
- Rampersad, Arnold. Jackie Robinson: A Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997.
- Robinson, Jackie. “Jackie Robinson says.” The Pittsburgh Courier, April 5, 1947.
- Robinson, Jackie. “Jackie Robinson says.” The Pittsburgh Courier, May 31, 1947.
- Robinson, Jackie. “Jackie Robinson says.” The Pittsburgh Courier, June 7, 1947.
- Robinson, Jackie as told to Alfred Duckett. I Never Had It Made. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1972.
- Robinson, Jackie as told to Wendell Smith. My Own Story. Avon Reprint Edition. New York: Avon, 1949.
- Smith, Wendell. “Frick’s actions avert big strike.” The Pittsburgh Courier, May 17, 1947.
- Smith, Wendell. “Jackie Robinson’s ‘Rookie of the Year.’” The Pittsburgh Courier, Sept. 20, 1947.
- Smith, Wendell. “Phillies warned by baseball czar over Robinson incident.” The Pittsburgh Courier, May 20, 1947.
- Smith, Wendell. “St. Louis pilot, players friendly, helpful to Jackie.” The Pittsburgh Courier, June 21, 1947.
- “Sport: Rookie of the Year.” Time. Sept. 22, 1947.
- Tanotiger. “The Holy Writers name an award after a sworn racists.” Insidethebook.com. Nov. 29, 2009. <www.insidethebook.com/ee/index.php/site/article/the_holy_writer_name_award_after_a_sworn_racist/>
- Tygiel, Jules. Baseball’s Great Experiment. Expanded Ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
- Wheeler, Kermitt K. “Browns sign up Negro stars.” The Pittsburgh Courier, July 26, 1947.
- Wheeler, Kermitt K. “St. Louis releases outfielder, infielder.” The Pittsburgh Courier, August 30, 1947.
Questions & Answers
What was Jackie Robinson's worst failure?
Jackie Robinson's worst failure was probably his troubles during his stint in the military. He did, however, turn that moment into a positive that helped him to become the first black player in Major League Baseball history.Helpful 1
- Helpful 1
How did integration change baseball?
Prior to Jackie Robinson integrating baseball, the sport was dominated by white athletes. That left African-American ballplayers relegated to the significantly less popular Negro Leagues, leaving them underpaid and underappreciated. Numerous legends (take Josh Gibson, Oscar Charleston, and "Cool Papa" Bell as examples) never got a chance to showcase their skills against the best players in baseball, making it impossible to know how they may have stacked up against Major League Baseball's Hall of Famers of those eras. When Robinson came into the league in 1947, it changed the game forever. Some of the greatest names in baseball history debuted in the Major Leagues after Robinson. Players like Willie Mays, Hank Aaron, Roberto Clemente, Bob Gibson, Barry Bonds, Ken Griffey Jr., and Pedro Martinez are just a handful of the greatest players who ever lived, and Robinson paved the way for all of them.
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0.036132946610450745,... | 1 | Jackie Robinson's Struggle as the First Black Player in MLB
When Jackie Robinson took his position at first base at Ebbets Field on April 15, 1947, the history of America was changed forever. Becoming the first African-American in Major League Baseball in the 20th century, Robinson faced harsh criticism from fans, other players, and even his own teammates. As the season waned, however, the criticism diminished, and the praise grew.
In between, though, the Dodgers nearly had an internal uprising led by their Southern players, death threats poured into Robinson’s mail, the Philadelphia Phillies manager and players were warned by baseball’s commissioner for their excessive racial taunts during a game, and the St. Louis Cardinals may have attempted to strike rather than play on the same field as a black man. Still, Robinson managed to fight through these issues to be named Rookie of the Year and helped lead the Dodgers to the World Series by the season’s end.
Nonetheless, the timing of Robinson’s debut encouraged the criticism of him as post-World War II American society was a society which needed normalcy. Many people looked to baseball to find that normalcy, since the game had been there for more than 50 years, but an African-American player changed that. At the same time, the greater change in society likely eased the criticism, because Americans were accustomed to change, lowering the shock value of Robinson’s debut except for those living in the Jim Crow south. But, if there was one player to overcome it all, that player certainly was Jackie Robinson.
Jackie Robinson's Roots
Born on January 31, 1919, in Cairo, Georgia, Jack Roosevelt Robinson was transplanted to California because his mother thought her children would have a better life there than in the strictly segregated south. However, the family faced discrimination throughout Jackie’s childhood since his mother bought a house in a white neighborhood.
The family struggled through the depression years when Jackie became a teenager, which was the same time he discovered his athletic prowess because his brother, an Olympian, inspired him to try sports. Robinson became a four-sport athlete at John Muir Technical High School, competing in football, basketball, baseball, and track. He would later take his sports fame to Pasadena Junior College before enrolling at UCLA, where he would become the first athlete in university history to letter in four sports during his first year. He met his future wife, Rachel, at the college in 1941, and they would get married following his brief stint in the military.
During his military career, Robinson nearly ruined his chance to become the first black player in professional baseball. On July 6, 1944, Robinson was on a military bus which was taking him to Camp Hood army base in Texas. While the state still abided by Jim Crow bus segregation, the military had recently adopted desegregated buses, a policy Robinson knew about. After refusing to move to the back of the bus, Robinson and the bus driver, Milton N. Renegar, had a heated exchange, which resulted in a call to the military police, commanded by Captain Gerald M. Bear. Bear was trying to have Robinson court-martialed because of his activity on the bus, which eventually occurred on July 24. His trial on August 23 quietly ended with his acquittal, but the incident would come to light again when the Dodgers began contemplating signing him.
While he had committed no crime, he had reacted poorly when the incident occurred. According to reports from the scene, Robinson had told the bus driver, “I’m not going to move a [expletive] bit” and told a white woman, “You better quit [expletive] with me.” If this temper were to flare up during a baseball game, it would ruin the chances of a smooth integration to baseball. At the same time, it was clear he was passionate about his rights as an American citizen, which was also a value needed to break the color line. Someone who followed the “rules” of society may have just lied down and quit when the going got too hard on the baseball field, but it was clear that would not happen with Robinson.
For Brooklyn Dodgers president and general manager Branch Rickey, the question about Robinson was whether his intelligence would allow him to keep his temper in check while still displaying the strength needed to overcome the taunts he would hear from fans and other players? This question was deliberated carefully when Robinson became a candidate to break the color line.
Breaking Baseball's Color Barrier
Discussion of allowing blacks into Major League Baseball began after commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis, who was a strict segregationist, died in 1944. However, some tryouts had been given to players from the Negro Leagues earlier in the 1940s. A.B. Happy Chandler, a Kentucky politician at the time, was named commissioner in 1945 and quickly became a friend to those in favor of integration. “For 24 years Judge Landis wouldn’t let a black man play. I had his records, and I read them, and for 24 years Landis consistently blocked any attempts to put blacks and whites together on a big league field,” Chandler said soon after taking office.
However, it would prove to be Rickey who would become the face of baseball’s integration project. Credited by many, even in the 1940s, as a baseball genius, Rickey had already solidified his claim to eternal fame by perfecting the minor league system that is still integral to baseball today. With the Dodgers struggling when he took control of the team in 1943, Rickey wanted to quickly replenish the team with talent. At that time, the largest untouched pool of players was in the Negro Leagues, which is where Rickey went.
By April 1945, he was already working on a secret plan to place a black player on his club. A known proponent of integration, Rickey explained during a meeting with reporters how the sporadic contract agreements and scheduling of the Negro Leagues were harmful to black players, personally and as ballplayers. His remedy was a new Negro League called the United States League, which would include his own team, the Brooklyn Brown Dodgers. From there, the black media fired criticism at Rickey, saying he was aspiring to become the “dictator” of black baseball. One columnist, Ludlow W. Werner, even wrote that, “When I left that meeting … I had formed the opinion that it would be a hot day in December before Rickey would ever have a Negro wear the uniform of organized [white] baseball.” Meanwhile, Rickey sent his scouts to find him the best Negro League talent in America, knowing he had effectively disguised his plan to find an African-American to play for the Brooklyn Dodgers.
However, talent was only part of what Rickey wanted to find in a ballplayer. Enter Jackie Robinson. The UCLA graduate and World War II veteran was spotted by a Dodgers scout when he was playing shortstop for the Kansas City Monarchs. While he had a history of standing up for himself, Robinson was still an attractive prospect for Rickey’s experiment. He had already played on integrated teams in college and did not have a scandalous off-the-field life filled with smoking, drinking, or chasing women. More importantly, Rickey believed him to be intelligent enough to understand the role he would eventually take in 1947. With one player having to bear the burden of the experiment’s success or failure on his shoulders, Rickey had to carefully question every aspect of Robinson’s athletic ability, life, and character. Once Robinson was pinned as the man for the experiment, he was signed to a minor league contract with the Montreal Royals, the AAA affiliate of the Dodgers, in November of 1945, a time of a great shift in American society.
Rachel Robinson Describes Jackie Robinson's Meeting with Branch Rickey
A Changing America
World War II changed America. Friends became foes, women were working, the Communist Party was gaining power, and black activists were slowly beginning the Civil Rights Movement. As America’s “national pastime,” baseball was supposed to be a relief and escape for fans living in that changing, confusing America. However, Robinson’s presence made even baseball a confusing part of American society when it needed normalcy the most. The game had been a mirror image of society since the turn of the century, with blacks and whites playing separately.
It was no secret that the Negro Leagues did not afford the same opportunities the Major Leagues did, but there were few complaints about that until the World War II era when players began to earn tryouts. Pitcher Nate Moreland and Robinson had tryouts with the White Sox in 1942, just prior to Robinson’s military enlistment. Manager Jimmy Dykes said of Robinson, who had a sore leg that day, “I’d hate to see him on two good legs. He’s worth $50,000 of anybody’s money.” However, his $50,000 was not good enough for Robinson, as Dykes dismissed both players, even though he was for integration.
That dismissal, as well as several others during the 1940s, showed that baseball was not ready to change during the war years. The post-war attitudes of America allowed Rickey to conduct his experiment, and while some within the game and America opposed it, baseball became one of the first American businesses to become integrated. Prior to the 1947 season, Wendell Smith of The Pittsburgh Courier gave Robinson the chance to write a short column chronicling his journey each week. The Courier was one of America’s leading Negro newspapers of the time, and Robinson took time each week to reflect on his season.
In one of his first columns, he wrote about his views on integration. “It seems to me that playing baseball is one thing and the color of a man’s skin is another … I hope the color of my skin won’t turn out to be my greatest error.” After the season, he again visited the topic, insisting he knew that challenges awaited him from the moment he stepped into the batter’s box. “It was inevitable as night follows day that my presence in the Major Leagues would eventually be challenged, officially or unofficially, by some group within or without the ranks of baseball,” Robinson wrote. As it turned out, he was right on both accounts.
About a month into the 1947 season, Robinson began to receive anonymous, threatening letters. While the Dodgers were in Philadelphia, the New York City Police were investigating death threats that Robinson had received. Rickey handled the media’s interest in the story, announcing that, “At least two letters of a nature that I felt called for investigation were received by Robinson” in hopes of rallying some public support for Robinson, who was clearly suffering personally. In Arnold Rampersad’s biography of Robinson, it was revealed that those letters threatened violence against Robinson’s wife, Rachel, and the kidnapping of his son, Jack Jr. It was never determined who sent the letters, as the signatures and addresses were fake, but they do give an indication of how strictly segregation was enforced in some areas. To tamper with those rules in any form was worth murder to some people. These letters were also good for Robinson in a way because he easily could have become irrational about dealing with the letters, given his past temper issues. However, he stayed calm and let the proper authorities take care of the letters, proving Rickey’s point that Robinson’s intelligence would trump his temper when it was needed most.
In the photo section of Rampersad’s book, two letters are printed. They read: “Note. We have already got (sic) rid of several like you. One was found in river (sic) just recently” and “Robinson. We are going to kill you if you attempt to enter a ballgame at Crosley Field (in Cincinnati). The Travelers.” These types of letters likely continued to flood Robinson’s mailbox throughout his entire career, but for each threatening letter, there were letters of praise. In Jonathan Eig’s book, Opening Day: The Story of Jackie Robinson’s First Season, several letters are reprinted, and some of them said, “… if I can raise my boy to be half the man that you are, I’ll be a happy father” and “You’ve got a lot more friends in this country of ours than enemies.” However, even before any letters were sent to Robinson, there were some within baseball challenging his presence, just as he knew they would. The source of those challenges may have come as a surprise, though.
Dodgers slugger and right fielder Dixie Walker was one of the most popular and productive players on the team each year. During the offseason, the native Alabaman owned a hardware store back home that he cared deeply about. Often in 1947, he worried if playing on the integrated Dodgers would affect his business. “I didn’t know if they would spit on me or not,” Walker said years later. This sentiment was shared by many other Southern players, even if they did not vocalize them as loudly as Walker did or have any business interests in the South like Walker did. For as long as the South had existed, Southerners believed blacks were inferior in every aspect of life. Those feelings stayed with them whether they were at home, in the North, or in another country, and Rickey did not understand this. He had expected Walker to be a leader in welcoming Robinson to the team, but Walker’s connection to the South mattered more to him than his connection to the Dodgers.
No one seems to be certain how it may have started, but in 1947, there was a petition circulated by Brooklyn players who were opposed to having Robinson as a teammate. It was led by five Southerners, including Walker, and their objective was to force Rickey to keep Robinson off the Major League club. Once Rickey got word of the protest, he moved immediately to squash it. In spring training, the Dodgers decided to go to Panama, because Robinson would be treated more fairly there than in the United States. In the middle of the night, when Rickey found out about the petition, he had manager Leo Durocher wake up the players and give a speech about accepting Robinson. In an angry tirade, Durocher said, “I don’t care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a [expletive] zebra. I’m the manager of this team, and I say he plays.” Walker still was not pleased, leaving a letter for Rickey on March 26 demanding to be traded. In that letter, Walker wrote, “For reasons I don’t care to go into, I feel my decision is best for all concerned.”
In later years, Walker attempted to clarify both the protest and his desire to be traded, which was eventually granted the next season. He did admit to having concerns about playing with a black player, which were two-fold. First, he held the belief, which many did at the time, that blacks did not have “ice water in their veins,” which would make them collapse under pressure. Second, Walker said he faced pressure from family and friends in Alabama to not play with Robinson because he was black. “I grew up in the South and in those days you grew up in a different manner than you do today,” Walker said in 1981. He also said he was not the person who started the petition and claims to have never seen such a thing in the clubhouse. Robinson backed up this claim some 30 years earlier, writing, “He was always courteous and considerate to me. Never once … did he indicate that he resented my presence on the Brooklyn club.” When Robinson and the Dodgers went on the road, he could not say the same thing about the other players, at least at the beginning of the season.
Philadelphia Phillies manager Ben Chapman and his squad faced the Dodgers in just the fifth game of the season. During the three-game series from April 22 to April 24, the native Alabaman was reported as having told his players to “ride Robinson unmercifully” from the bench. According to Robinson after the season, the news report was not an exaggeration. “Hey, you black [expletive]” and “Why don’t you go back where you came from?” are two taunts Robinson recalled hearing players yell during his first at-bat. As much as Robinson wanted to “take a sock at one of them,” he gritted his teeth and used the epitaphs as motivation to hit a single. This was one of the defining moments of Robinson’s entire baseball career, which lasted until 1956, because he showed his inner strength by holding back, retaliating with his bat instead of his fists. This hard and aggressive style of play is something he would become noted for. In addition, Robinson also learned he had supporters after the incident.
Dodger second baseman Ed Stanky came to Robinson’s aid at the end of the series, yelling “Listen, you yellow-bellied cowards, why don’t you yell at someone who can answer back?” toward the Phillies dugout. Bench-jockeying, or “riding,” players had always been an accepted part of baseball, and oftentimes, it centered on players’ ethnic or religious backgrounds. It was those acts of “unmerciful” riding that some fans had heard, which prompted several letters to the Major League office. That led to an official decision about the incident the week of May 5. Commissioner A.B. “Happy” Chandler warned the Phillies about the insults they were hurling, insisting they stop using “vicious un-American racial remarks” against Robinson, who Chandler said would receive “no favors” from his office but had a right to not have to face racial epitaphs. On May 9, the Dodgers arrived in Philadelphia for another series with the Phillies. Chapman was warned beforehand to not have another incident with Robinson, to which Chapman obliged. He even went so far as to pose for a picture with Robinson on the dugout steps in front of a home crowd. “Jackie has been accepted in baseball and we of the Philadelphia organization have no objection to his playing and wish him all the luck we can,” Chapman told news reporters after the game.24 The photo stunt and postgame quote may have looked good on the outside, but Chapman supposedly murmured to Robinson, “Jackie, you know, you’re a good ballplayer, but you’re still a [expletive] to me.”
Chapman was one of many Southern players and coaches who were strongly opposed to the integration of baseball. Even though there were no Major League clubs in the deep South, each and every team had Southern players, most of who were raised to believe in segregation. Some were stars, some were no-namers, but most all of them were against integration. Rickey knew Robinson would encounter abuse from these players throughout the season and tried his best to prepare him accordingly. Rickey earned a law degree from the University of Michigan, and he had sought advice from several people regarding how to handle the times when Robinson faced criticism. However, nothing Rickey said before the season could have prepared Robinson for the epitaphs he heard in Philadelphia, but Robinson stood strong and firm, again proving Rickey’s praise of Robinson’s demeanor. Immediately after the Philadelphia incident, Robinson’s will was tested again.
St. Louis was expected to be one of the roughest cities for Robinson to visit during the season. The southernmost city in the Major Leagues at the time, St. Louis was home to two clubs: the defending World Series champion Cardinals of the National League and the Browns of the American League. With the Cardinals and Dodgers as preseason favorites to contend for a pennant in 1947, bitter feelings were expected between the two teams anyway, so Robinson’s presence was only going to heighten them. The city never experienced any major race riots, but there was a large-scale riot in East St. Louis, Illinois in 1917. St. Louis was far from an integrated city, however, as segregation in housing and business were commonplace there. The city’s segregation also affected its ballpark, Sportsman’s Field, until 1942, when both St. Louis clubs became the last two Major League teams to eliminate segregated seating. That was just one part of St. Louis’ society that was integrated though, as Robinson was not permitted to stay with his teammates at the Chase Hotel when the Dodgers came to town later in the season. The first time the teams met was in Brooklyn, and that meeting showed that some Cardinals players felt the Major Leagues should have stayed segregated.
The first series, which ran from May 6-8, was the first of several meetings the teams would endure throughout the season. However, when it started, some Cardinal players did not seem interested in playing at all, supposedly starting a strike petition instead of playing on the same field as a black man. The problem? Perhaps a strike was never even discussed among players, but there was definitely some kind of displeasure among Cardinal players. It is believed that St. Louis players were upset about the idea of playing against a Negro in the same way the Brooklyn players were upset about playing with a Negro at the beginning of the season, but there has never been any clear evidence of a petition. Cardinal owner Sam Breadon did approach National League President Ford Frick before the series began in hopes of quieting the players he had heard making anti-Robinson comments. Frick gave Breadon a statement to read to his players with hopes of getting the situation low key, which it temporarily did. Later on, Breadon and St. Louis manager Eddie Dyer both denied the charges that existed, insisting the confusion occurred because many National League players were not satisfied that a Negro had infiltrated their league. In the end, every Cardinal player took the field when the series started.
The supposed strike did hit the papers though, but it wasn’t until after the series was complete. Frick issued a statement regarding the supposed incident in St. Louis: “If you do this, you will be suspended from the league. You will find that the friends you think you have in the press box will not support you, that you will be outcasts. Those who do it will encounter quick retribution. All will be suspended and I don’t care if it wrecks the National League for five years. This is the United States of America and one citizen has as much right to play as another. The National League will go down the line with Robinson no matter what the consequence. You will find if you go through with your intention that you have been guilty of complete madness.” Whether there was a strike threat, Robinson gained support from another high-ranking baseball official.
Whatever really happened may never be 100 percent certain, but it is hard to believe there was an actual plan to strike. While not every player in the league went on barnstorming tours across the country in the offseason, many did. Those barnstorming clubs often played against teams of Negro League players, which would make many players hypocrites if they refused to play against Brooklyn. That hypocrisy is something Robinson did not believe really existed. “I still refuse to believe that they didn’t want to play against me. I think that ‘issue’ wasn’t really anything at all,” Robinson wrote in his May 31 column for The Courier. Even more so, St. Louis’ Marty Marion was believed to be one of the instigators of the strike. However, in a game later in the season, Robinson slid into the Cardinal shortstop on a stolen base attempt. Marion had to leap for the ball, and he believed he had spiked Robinson on his way down. Instead of leaving Robinson unattended, Marion made sure he was not injured.
On May 21, Robinson and the Dodgers made their first appearance of the season in St. Louis to surprising results. “I must say that I never ran into any difficulties with the Cardinal players. They were nice to me and I didn’t hear them say anything insulting from the bench,” Robinson wrote in The Courier. However, that series did establish the roots of rivalry that would permeate later in the season. Cardinal catcher Joe Garagiola, a temperamental, 200-pound player who was raised in St. Louis, and Robinson exchanged minor taunts before Robinson’s first at-bat. Robinson finished the words by telling Garagiola that, “No matter how fast you run, Joe, you can’t hit as much as you weigh.” Garagiola did hit his weight and then some, .257, by the end of the season, but perhaps Robinson’s comment stuck with him all the way until September.
During a crucial three-game series between the teams, Garagiola and Robinson had another tie-up. In the first game on September 11, Robinson was spiked by Garagiola on a close play at first base during the second inning. The next inning, Robinson said something to Garagiola before his at-bat, which led to a face-to-face confrontation between the two players. The exchange may have inspired Robinson, as he ended up going 6-for-13 at the plate during the series and made an inning-ending catch in the final game. However, it was the social aspect of this argument that was more significant than the play on the field. As Time magazine wrote, there were “no fisticuffs on the field [and] no rioting in the stands.” Robinson had truly been accepted by his opponents and their fans, maybe not as a person, but as a baseball player. A month earlier, Cardinal slugger Enos Slaughter also spiked Robinson, this time on a play at first base and leaving him with a large gash. Many who saw the play believe Slaughter, a native North Carolinian, had malicious intent on the play, but Robinson just “set his teeth and said nothing.” “I hopped up and down the first baseline, writhing like a man who had been burned by a blow torch,” Robinson wrote.
Spiking Incident with Enos Slaughter as Seen in the Movie 42
Interestingly, in between those two instances with Garagiola, there was a positive exchange between them. According to Smith’s June 21 story in the Courier, Robinson and Garagiola “talked shop” during a three-game series in St. Louis. In fact, Robinson said the entire Cardinal team was friendly during that series, with several players giving him advice. Manager and first-base coach Eddie Dyer made small-talk with Robinson every inning, which included advice on playing the game. Hall of Famer Joe Medwick told Robinson to loosen up at the plate. Hall of Famer Stan Musial and Marty Marion also reportedly gave him advice and treated him well. “They can say what they want about the Cardinals,” Robinson said, “but they’re a darn nice bunch of fellows.” However, those sentiments about all players would change at the season’s end when the incidents with Slaughter and Garagiola occurred.
Ironically, mid-way through the season, the city of St. Louis was the third to have Negro players. Henry Thompson and Willard Brown were signed by the St. Louis Browns, with Thompson debuting on July 17 and Brown following him up on the 20th. Both players were released by the end of August, but Browns owner Richard Muckerman said the signings were not a publicity stunt to bolster attendance for the struggling franchise. “We will sign any player we think is better than those we have. We feel Brown and Thompson can help our club,” he said. However, on July 16, the Browns’ record stood at 28-50, placing them well behind the first place New York Yankees (56-26-1). From July 17 through August 23 when Thompson was released, the Browns were 14-26, which was worse than the team had performed in its first 40 games (17-23). Neither player had impressed at the plate and manager Muddy Ruel said both players were given a fair trial, which were both used to justify their releases. For comparison, Tom Alston was the first Negro to play for the Cardinals, joining the club on April 13, 1954.
A Successful First Season
While Robinson was starting to fit into the National League and baseball as a whole by the middle point of the season, he had still not gained all the rights other ballplayers had. He could not react to a player’s insults. He could not slide into a base with his spikes up and get away with it. He could not even be criticized by a newspaperman without an apology, something that bothered Robinson. In his June 7 column for the Courier, he expressed his desire for equal treatment in the papers. During a series with the Boston Braves, a reporter for the Boston Evening American, Dave Eagan, was critical of Robinson’s play at first base but apologized in advance for what he wrote. “Lest I be charged with race prejudice in appraising Robinson’s play, I will testify that I like Jackie as a personality and a character and in some respects as a ball player, though I regret that I cannot endorse him as a first baseman,” he wrote, to which Robinson responded by writing, “I do not think anyone will accuse any writer of being prejudiced if he chooses to criticize me. I wouldn’t want anyone to either … If I don’t play good ball, I want the writers to say so.”
By the end of the season, Robinson had played good enough ball for the writers, and players, to send praise his way. As baseball’s Rookie of the Year, he received good words for his playing ability, not the color of skin. “The sociological experiment that Robinson represented, the trail-blazing that he did, the barriers he broke, did not enter into the decision,” wrote Sporting News editor J.G. Taylor Spink about the award. “He was rated and examined solely as a freshman player in the big leagues.” In 151 games, Robinson had 175 hits in 590 at-bats for a .297 average. He struck out just 36 times and led the league with 29 stolen bases. As praiseworthy as Spink was though, Robinson also picked up a positive comment from a player who came full circle: Dixie Walker. “No other ball player on this club, with possible exception of Bruce Edwards, has done more to put the Dodgers up in the race than Robinson,” Walker told The Sporting News. However, that statement still does not quite add up, as Edwards played in 130 games with 139 hits in 471 at-bats for a .295 average. He only scored 53 runs and had 55 strikeouts. It is not that Edwards was not a significant part of the Dodgers run but to say he contributed more than Robinson seems wildly inaccurate. Yet, it is not a surprising statement considering the source is a Southerner.
By the end of the year, it was hard to call Robinson’s first season with the Dodgers anything but a success. It would also be unfair to call the season anything but a challenge for Robinson, baseball, and American society. From the undeserved racial taunts thrown by the Phillies in May to the World Series in October, Robinson faced many highs and lows during the season. But why did a man just trying to make his living have to face so much criticism? American society of the time was one of Jim Crow rules, one of southern bigotry, and one looking for normalcy after it was realigned because of World War II. However, the fact society was changing was all the more reason for Branch Rickey to introduce Robinson to the white baseball world when he did. Robinson may have faced harsh criticism from many people, but had he been introduced without all the societal shifts of World War II, America probably would not have been ready for such a drastic change. The war allowed Robinson to be just another part of changing America instead of a sudden change in society.
Jackie Robinson's Career Stats
- At bats: 4877
- Runs scored: 947
- Hits: 1518
- Home Runs: 137
- Runs batted in: 734
- Stolen bases: 197
- Batting average: .311
- On-base percentage: .409
- On-base percentage plus slugging average: .883
Jackie Robinson in the Civil Rights Movement
Following his retirement in 1956, Robinson became a prominent voice in the civil rights movement. In 1957, he became the chairman for the NAACP's Freedom Fund Drive. He eventually joined the board of directors for the organization and served there until 1967. In 1958, he became a chairman for the Youth March for Integrated Schools. He also joined Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Robinson had a strong interest in giving back to the black community. In 1964, he founded the Freedom National Bank, a black-owned and operated bank that served the African American community in Harlem. He also established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company in 1970. Its goal was to build housing for low-income families.
While Robinson would inspire other black players in the league, he continuously criticized Major League Baseball's lack of people of color in manager roles or in the central office for teams. His final public appearance was in Game 2 of the 1972 World Series where he threw out the ceremonial first pitch. While accepting an award, he stated, "I'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball."
- Eig, Jonathan. Opening Day: The Story of Jackie Robinson’s First Season. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2007.
- Myrdal, Gunner. An American Dilemma: Volume I, The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. 3rd ed. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1996.
- Ott, Tim. Late-Game Strategy: The Activism of Jackie Robinson. From Biography.
- Rampersad, Arnold. Jackie Robinson: A Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997.
- Robinson, Jackie. “Jackie Robinson says.” The Pittsburgh Courier, April 5, 1947.
- Robinson, Jackie. “Jackie Robinson says.” The Pittsburgh Courier, May 31, 1947.
- Robinson, Jackie. “Jackie Robinson says.” The Pittsburgh Courier, June 7, 1947.
- Robinson, Jackie as told to Alfred Duckett. I Never Had It Made. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1972.
- Robinson, Jackie as told to Wendell Smith. My Own Story. Avon Reprint Edition. New York: Avon, 1949.
- Smith, Wendell. “Frick’s actions avert big strike.” The Pittsburgh Courier, May 17, 1947.
- Smith, Wendell. “Jackie Robinson’s ‘Rookie of the Year.’” The Pittsburgh Courier, Sept. 20, 1947.
- Smith, Wendell. “Phillies warned by baseball czar over Robinson incident.” The Pittsburgh Courier, May 20, 1947.
- Smith, Wendell. “St. Louis pilot, players friendly, helpful to Jackie.” The Pittsburgh Courier, June 21, 1947.
- “Sport: Rookie of the Year.” Time. Sept. 22, 1947.
- Tanotiger. “The Holy Writers name an award after a sworn racists.” Insidethebook.com. Nov. 29, 2009. <www.insidethebook.com/ee/index.php/site/article/the_holy_writer_name_award_after_a_sworn_racist/>
- Tygiel, Jules. Baseball’s Great Experiment. Expanded Ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
- Wheeler, Kermitt K. “Browns sign up Negro stars.” The Pittsburgh Courier, July 26, 1947.
- Wheeler, Kermitt K. “St. Louis releases outfielder, infielder.” The Pittsburgh Courier, August 30, 1947.
Questions & Answers
What was Jackie Robinson's worst failure?
Jackie Robinson's worst failure was probably his troubles during his stint in the military. He did, however, turn that moment into a positive that helped him to become the first black player in Major League Baseball history.Helpful 1
- Helpful 1
How did integration change baseball?
Prior to Jackie Robinson integrating baseball, the sport was dominated by white athletes. That left African-American ballplayers relegated to the significantly less popular Negro Leagues, leaving them underpaid and underappreciated. Numerous legends (take Josh Gibson, Oscar Charleston, and "Cool Papa" Bell as examples) never got a chance to showcase their skills against the best players in baseball, making it impossible to know how they may have stacked up against Major League Baseball's Hall of Famers of those eras. When Robinson came into the league in 1947, it changed the game forever. Some of the greatest names in baseball history debuted in the Major Leagues after Robinson. Players like Willie Mays, Hank Aaron, Roberto Clemente, Bob Gibson, Barry Bonds, Ken Griffey Jr., and Pedro Martinez are just a handful of the greatest players who ever lived, and Robinson paved the way for all of them.
© 2014 Andrew Harner | 7,887 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The organization of the military medical personnel was very similar between the United States and the Confederacy. Several of the surgeons in the Confederate army were defectors from the North that carried with them an effective organization of medical personnel.6 Each regiment had a surgeon with two assistant surgeons beneath him.4 The assistant surgeon was in charge of helping the surgeon with whatever was necessary, including following immediately behind the center of his regiment in a battle and providing first aid care for the wounded. Soldiers with no medical qualifications could also be assigned to hospital duty to assist surgeons.
At the beginning of the war, surgeons in the Northern army were all commissioned militarily. As the war went on, volunteers and civil practice doctors were put under contract and assisted the Union surgeons. In total, there were about ten thousand medical men who gave assistance to the North throughout the course of the Civil War.6 | <urn:uuid:52d5af85-7298-4868-a654-9bf601604e7c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://cw-butchers.leadr.msu.edu/personnel-organization/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00329.warc.gz | en | 0.990794 | 174 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.159697443246841... | 3 | The organization of the military medical personnel was very similar between the United States and the Confederacy. Several of the surgeons in the Confederate army were defectors from the North that carried with them an effective organization of medical personnel.6 Each regiment had a surgeon with two assistant surgeons beneath him.4 The assistant surgeon was in charge of helping the surgeon with whatever was necessary, including following immediately behind the center of his regiment in a battle and providing first aid care for the wounded. Soldiers with no medical qualifications could also be assigned to hospital duty to assist surgeons.
At the beginning of the war, surgeons in the Northern army were all commissioned militarily. As the war went on, volunteers and civil practice doctors were put under contract and assisted the Union surgeons. In total, there were about ten thousand medical men who gave assistance to the North throughout the course of the Civil War.6 | 174 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Egyptians wore amulets alongside other pieces of jewellery. They were decorative, but also served a practical purpose, being considered to bestow power and protection upon the wearer. Many of the amulets have been found inside the wrappings of mummies, as they were used to prepare the deceased for the afterlife.
Amulets held different meanings, depending on their type or form. Small amulets depicting gods and goddesses seem to have induced the protective powers of the deity. On the other hand, small representations of anatomical features or creatures suggest that the wearer required protection over a specific body part, or that he/she desired the skills of a particular animal. Amulets depicting animals were very common in the Old Kingdom Period, whilst representations of deities gained popularity in the Middle Kingdom.
The eagle was an important symbol in Ancient Egypt, as it was often associated with Horus, one of the most significant Ancient Egyptian deities. Horus was commonly depicted with the head of a falcon and was a sky god, who looked after the sun and moon. They were said to be represented in each of his eyes, and thus the Eye of Horus, also known as ‘Wedjat’, was an ancient symbol of protection, particularly for the afterlife, as well as possessing the ability to deflect evil.
For the Egyptians, gold was the most precious of materials. Its colour signified divinity; it was the metal from which the flesh of the gods was formed; and the Book of the Dead demanded that all amulets be made from it. Egypt is a land rich in gold, and ancient miners used traditional methods to harbour the natural resource. The hieroglyph representing gold was founded in the First Dynasty, but the earliest surviving gold artefacts come from around the 4th Millennium BC.
To find out more about Ancient Egyptian amulets please see our relevant blog post: Egyptian Amulets and their Meanings: Ancient Egyptian Gods. | <urn:uuid:8dfeafc6-c4e9-4174-a2e8-340f4698918b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://antiquities.co.uk/shop/ancient-jewellery/amulets/egyptian-gold-falcon-pendant/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00443.warc.gz | en | 0.982759 | 398 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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Amulets held different meanings, depending on their type or form. Small amulets depicting gods and goddesses seem to have induced the protective powers of the deity. On the other hand, small representations of anatomical features or creatures suggest that the wearer required protection over a specific body part, or that he/she desired the skills of a particular animal. Amulets depicting animals were very common in the Old Kingdom Period, whilst representations of deities gained popularity in the Middle Kingdom.
The eagle was an important symbol in Ancient Egypt, as it was often associated with Horus, one of the most significant Ancient Egyptian deities. Horus was commonly depicted with the head of a falcon and was a sky god, who looked after the sun and moon. They were said to be represented in each of his eyes, and thus the Eye of Horus, also known as ‘Wedjat’, was an ancient symbol of protection, particularly for the afterlife, as well as possessing the ability to deflect evil.
For the Egyptians, gold was the most precious of materials. Its colour signified divinity; it was the metal from which the flesh of the gods was formed; and the Book of the Dead demanded that all amulets be made from it. Egypt is a land rich in gold, and ancient miners used traditional methods to harbour the natural resource. The hieroglyph representing gold was founded in the First Dynasty, but the earliest surviving gold artefacts come from around the 4th Millennium BC.
To find out more about Ancient Egyptian amulets please see our relevant blog post: Egyptian Amulets and their Meanings: Ancient Egyptian Gods. | 398 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The woman is a Cambodian. In Cambodia, women are not treated fairly as men. Women have been made to believe that they are unable to do anything important in the society dominated by men. Men are favored in many things done in the country such as access to education, job opportunities or employment, leadership positions and wealth distribution and inheritance. Women in Cambodia are dominated by men who believe that women should not hold any position in the society(Annuska, 2008). Decision making in the society is the responsibility of men and women are to do as per what men have decided without any question no matter the outcome.
Buy Culture and Women essay paper online
This is the reason as to why the woman migrated to United States together with the parents and children. The main reason for this was to have a better life and to raise children to attain the required education standards. Since the Cambodian culture does not allow women to go to school, the woman migrated to United States so that she can acquire higher education for herself and the children especially the girl child. In US, she pursued her studies at Cal State University where she got her fast degree – Bachelor of Arts in Business Administration. She has also gotten her masters degree in Masters in Business Administration in the same university which she could not have attained in Cambodia because of the culture hindrances. In Cambodia, women are not allowed to hold senior positions, but in US, she has rose from being a preschool teacher to being employed as a supervisor with the department of social services. These are the opportunities she could not have enjoyed as a woman in Cambodia. In Cambodia, her parents only expected her to be helping them in the household chores and to learn to be a responsible woman later when she grew up. Girls are only expected to do household chores such as cooking, washing clothes, cleaning the house and taking care of the young children. Her parents were not deterred by the Cambodian culture that girls are not to receive much education but they expected her work very hard in school so as to obtain the best grades and to graduate with a master’s degree which she later got. While in US, the husband did not expect her to do a lot of household chores so that she gets enough time to concentrate on her studies. In Cambodia, racism and social class classification and stratification was the order of the day. This was brought about by the Indians and Chinese who migrated to Cambodia to transact business. Cambodians were therefore considered people of a lower class and of a race without dignity (Annuska, 2008). There was no much interaction between people of different classes and races. People were discriminated along those lines hence inequality and unfairness in the distribution of resources especially to the women who were undermined in the Cambodian society. According to the social class classification, she considered herself as a middle class family. It was unbelievable for her living in a neighborhood and next to them are the white tycoons and rich Korean families considered to be of a high class and from the superior race. This was a privilege and honor to her because there was no free interaction in Cambodia as in US with people of different classes.
Roles and responsibilities in the Cambodian society are based on gender. Girls and women are mostly assigned household duties and tasks to perform as the male counter parts are assigned white collar jobs and the most important and senior positions in the government offices. The women in Cambodia had been made to believe that their made duty is to bring up children and to attend to all household chores (Annuska, 2008). This is evidenced when the women was about to give up on her educations because she thought she was only suppose to bring up her three children. Women are not allowed to hold senior positions in job places especially in the government offices. But in most recent years, the human rights activists, the United Nations, non governmental organizations and the women rights activists have been championing and fight for gender equity and respect for women and girls in the society. Some of the leisure activities she enjoyed in US but deemed to be for men only in Cambodia. These activities include swimming, volley ball, roller skating, badminton and basket ball. Women in Cambodia cannot dare do such because they will be doing contrary to the culture expectations (Annuska, 2008).
Due to inequality in Cambodia, women have been hit by poverty. This is because women are made to believe that men should only work and provide for the family. The socioeconomic position of women in the society has made them to remain poor and dependent on men because they cannot earn satisfying wages or salaries because of the low positions they hold in the work place. For Mrs. Doe, she had an opportunity to work in the US in senior positions hence proving that women are capable if they are given a chance. The woman was comfortable with what she earns and made sure the children get the basic needs such as food, shelter, clothing, healthy care and the right education standards. It is a believe in the society that women cannot do much but this woman has proven in her academic performance and achievement that women have the capability and ability to do what men does. The woman is willing to assist other women especially her mother by spending some valuable time with her in the library, bookfaire and the science center which in Cambodia are preserved for men. The woman is married to a husband who does not believe in the past culture, beliefs and norms. The family has a joint account where all family finances are controlled. This is encouraging to the women because most of them in Cambodia do not have access to the bank accounts, something believed to be men’s responsibility in the society. In this joint account, the woman can deposit or withdrawal money to be used in the family for the financial budget agreement in the family (Annuska, 2008).
From this observation, the position and dignity of women in the society has improved. The barriers and hindrances which have been working against the women such as poverty, unequal employment opportunities, culture, beliefs and lack of adequate education standards have reduced significantly. Family members can share responsibilities including the father who is the head of the family. This will ensure equality and fairness to all regardless of ones gender, race, class or status in the society. Attaining a GPA of 3.7 as women at Wilson High is commendable and the immigrants in US from Cambodia should make frequent visits to the country so as to educate and enlighten women on their rights in the society dominated by the men.
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Buy Culture and Women essay paper online
This is the reason as to why the woman migrated to United States together with the parents and children. The main reason for this was to have a better life and to raise children to attain the required education standards. Since the Cambodian culture does not allow women to go to school, the woman migrated to United States so that she can acquire higher education for herself and the children especially the girl child. In US, she pursued her studies at Cal State University where she got her fast degree – Bachelor of Arts in Business Administration. She has also gotten her masters degree in Masters in Business Administration in the same university which she could not have attained in Cambodia because of the culture hindrances. In Cambodia, women are not allowed to hold senior positions, but in US, she has rose from being a preschool teacher to being employed as a supervisor with the department of social services. These are the opportunities she could not have enjoyed as a woman in Cambodia. In Cambodia, her parents only expected her to be helping them in the household chores and to learn to be a responsible woman later when she grew up. Girls are only expected to do household chores such as cooking, washing clothes, cleaning the house and taking care of the young children. Her parents were not deterred by the Cambodian culture that girls are not to receive much education but they expected her work very hard in school so as to obtain the best grades and to graduate with a master’s degree which she later got. While in US, the husband did not expect her to do a lot of household chores so that she gets enough time to concentrate on her studies. In Cambodia, racism and social class classification and stratification was the order of the day. This was brought about by the Indians and Chinese who migrated to Cambodia to transact business. Cambodians were therefore considered people of a lower class and of a race without dignity (Annuska, 2008). There was no much interaction between people of different classes and races. People were discriminated along those lines hence inequality and unfairness in the distribution of resources especially to the women who were undermined in the Cambodian society. According to the social class classification, she considered herself as a middle class family. It was unbelievable for her living in a neighborhood and next to them are the white tycoons and rich Korean families considered to be of a high class and from the superior race. This was a privilege and honor to her because there was no free interaction in Cambodia as in US with people of different classes.
Roles and responsibilities in the Cambodian society are based on gender. Girls and women are mostly assigned household duties and tasks to perform as the male counter parts are assigned white collar jobs and the most important and senior positions in the government offices. The women in Cambodia had been made to believe that their made duty is to bring up children and to attend to all household chores (Annuska, 2008). This is evidenced when the women was about to give up on her educations because she thought she was only suppose to bring up her three children. Women are not allowed to hold senior positions in job places especially in the government offices. But in most recent years, the human rights activists, the United Nations, non governmental organizations and the women rights activists have been championing and fight for gender equity and respect for women and girls in the society. Some of the leisure activities she enjoyed in US but deemed to be for men only in Cambodia. These activities include swimming, volley ball, roller skating, badminton and basket ball. Women in Cambodia cannot dare do such because they will be doing contrary to the culture expectations (Annuska, 2008).
Due to inequality in Cambodia, women have been hit by poverty. This is because women are made to believe that men should only work and provide for the family. The socioeconomic position of women in the society has made them to remain poor and dependent on men because they cannot earn satisfying wages or salaries because of the low positions they hold in the work place. For Mrs. Doe, she had an opportunity to work in the US in senior positions hence proving that women are capable if they are given a chance. The woman was comfortable with what she earns and made sure the children get the basic needs such as food, shelter, clothing, healthy care and the right education standards. It is a believe in the society that women cannot do much but this woman has proven in her academic performance and achievement that women have the capability and ability to do what men does. The woman is willing to assist other women especially her mother by spending some valuable time with her in the library, bookfaire and the science center which in Cambodia are preserved for men. The woman is married to a husband who does not believe in the past culture, beliefs and norms. The family has a joint account where all family finances are controlled. This is encouraging to the women because most of them in Cambodia do not have access to the bank accounts, something believed to be men’s responsibility in the society. In this joint account, the woman can deposit or withdrawal money to be used in the family for the financial budget agreement in the family (Annuska, 2008).
From this observation, the position and dignity of women in the society has improved. The barriers and hindrances which have been working against the women such as poverty, unequal employment opportunities, culture, beliefs and lack of adequate education standards have reduced significantly. Family members can share responsibilities including the father who is the head of the family. This will ensure equality and fairness to all regardless of ones gender, race, class or status in the society. Attaining a GPA of 3.7 as women at Wilson High is commendable and the immigrants in US from Cambodia should make frequent visits to the country so as to educate and enlighten women on their rights in the society dominated by the men.
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Due to courage and honorablllty Theseus, Perseus, Hercules, and Jason are categorized as great heroes.
Etymology[ edit ] The origin of the word is uncertain. The location of that land as well as his conclusions are controversial. Herodotus and Strabo placed them on the banks of the Thermodon and Themiscyra. Ancient Greek Attic white-ground alabastronc. Apollonius Rhodiusat Argonauticamentions that at Thermodon the Amazons were not gathered together in one city, but scattered over the land, parted into three tribes.
Herodotus stated that in the Scythian language they were called Oiorpata, oior meaning "man", and pata meaning "to slay". There were two special months in the spring in which they would go up into the neighboring mountain which separates them and the Gargareans.
The Gargareans also, in accordance with an ancient custom, would go there to offer sacrifice with the Amazons and also to have intercourse with them for the sake of begetting children.
They did this in secrecy and darkness, any Gargareans at random with any Amazon, and after making them pregnant they would send them away.
Any females that were born are retained by the Amazons themselves, but the males would be taken to the Gargareans to be brought up; and each Gargarean to whom a child is brought would adopt the child as his own, regarding the child as his son because of his uncertainty.
They later ended the war against the Amazons and made a compact that they should have dealings with one another only in the matter of children, and that each people should live independent of the other. But the Amazons knew nothing about ships so they were driven about by waves and winds and they were disembarked at the land of the Scythians, there they met first with a troop of horses feeding, they seized them and mounted upon these they plundered the property of the Scythians.
The Scythians were not able to understand them because they did not know either their speech or their dress or the race to which they belonged, and they thought that they were men.
Scythians fought a battle against them, and after the battle the Scythians got possession of the bodies of the dead, and thus they discovered that they were women.
After the battle Scythians sent young men and told them to encamp near the Amazons and to do whatsoever they should do. If the women should come after them, they were not to fight but to retire before them, and when the women stopped, they were to approach near and encamp.
This plan was adopted by the Scythians because they desired to have children born from them. When the Amazons perceived that they had not come to do them any harm, they let them alone; and the two camps approached nearer to one another every day: One day a Scythian and an Amazon came close.
They could not speak to each other because they were speaking different languages but the Amazon made signs to him with her hand to come. Later the young Scythians and the Amazons joined their camps and lived together, each man having for his wife her with whom he had had dealings at first.
The men were not able to learn the language of the Amazons, but the women learned Scythian. They were brutal and aggressive, and their main concern in life was war.
On this desert island there were ravening birds, which in countless numbers haunt it. Zeus sent Boreas the North Windand with his help the Argonauts stood out from the shore near Themiscyra where the Themiscyreian Amazons were arming for battle.
The tomb of Myrine is mentioned in the Iliad; later interpretation made of her an Amazon: Amazons defeated the army of the Atlantian city of Cerne, treated the captives savagely, killed all the men, led into slavery the children and women, and razed the city. When the terrible fate of the inhabitants of Cerne became known among the other Atlantians, they were struck with terror, surrendered their cities on terms of capitulation and announced that they would do whatever should be commanded them.
Queen Myrina bearing herself honourably towards the Atlantians, established friendship with them and founded a city to bear her name in place of the city of Cerne which had been razed; and in it she settled both the captives and any native who so desired.
Atlantians presented her with magnificent presents and by public decree voted to her notable honours, and she in return accepted their courtesy and in addition promised that she would show kindness to their nation. Diodorus also mentions that the Amazons of Queen Myrina used the skins of gigantic snakes, from Libya, to protect themselves at battle.
Later Queen Myrine led her Amazons to victory against the Gorgons. After the battle against the Gorgons, Myrina accorded a funeral to her fallen comrades on three pyres and raised up three great heaps of earth as tombs, which are called "Amazon Mounds" Greek: In another version of this myth, Theseus made this voyage on his own account, after the time of Heracles.What Makes A Great Hero?
Due to courage and honorablllty Theseus, Perseus, Hercules, and Jason are categorized as great heroes. A hero in todays standards are seen to have different traits than a mythological hero. Theseus and Immortals Comparison Analysis Research Paper - The movie Immortals borrows some of the myth of Theseus for its plot.
A lot of the film seems to be a modern attempt at creating a Greek myth. The Cyclops Cave was an interesting story. the author wanted the mood to be eery and scary, and it was, somewhat.
the tone was a bit funny in a way to me but it was a little creepy still. The Odyssey contains numerous examples of a hero’s journey which can be compared and contrasted with other Greek myths such as the stories of Theseus, Jason, Hercules, and Perseus.
Hermes Ingenui (Vatican Museums), Roman copy of the 2nd century BC after a Greek original of the 5th century leslutinsduphoenix.com wears kerykeion, kithara, petasus (round hat), traveler's cloak and winged temples.
More Essay Examples on Medusa Rubric. Perseus showed bravery but Theseus showed strength. Theseus did amazing things to get his gear to kill the Minotaur. Theseus qualified as a hero for sure. | <urn:uuid:d2a634c2-6868-4836-b3f0-947009ec38d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fybebajeno.leslutinsduphoenix.com/an-essay-on-the-characters-of-perseus-daedalus-and-theseus-5685hi.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00331.warc.gz | en | 0.98419 | 1,391 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.10058175027370... | 3 | Due to courage and honorablllty Theseus, Perseus, Hercules, and Jason are categorized as great heroes.
Etymology[ edit ] The origin of the word is uncertain. The location of that land as well as his conclusions are controversial. Herodotus and Strabo placed them on the banks of the Thermodon and Themiscyra. Ancient Greek Attic white-ground alabastronc. Apollonius Rhodiusat Argonauticamentions that at Thermodon the Amazons were not gathered together in one city, but scattered over the land, parted into three tribes.
Herodotus stated that in the Scythian language they were called Oiorpata, oior meaning "man", and pata meaning "to slay". There were two special months in the spring in which they would go up into the neighboring mountain which separates them and the Gargareans.
The Gargareans also, in accordance with an ancient custom, would go there to offer sacrifice with the Amazons and also to have intercourse with them for the sake of begetting children.
They did this in secrecy and darkness, any Gargareans at random with any Amazon, and after making them pregnant they would send them away.
Any females that were born are retained by the Amazons themselves, but the males would be taken to the Gargareans to be brought up; and each Gargarean to whom a child is brought would adopt the child as his own, regarding the child as his son because of his uncertainty.
They later ended the war against the Amazons and made a compact that they should have dealings with one another only in the matter of children, and that each people should live independent of the other. But the Amazons knew nothing about ships so they were driven about by waves and winds and they were disembarked at the land of the Scythians, there they met first with a troop of horses feeding, they seized them and mounted upon these they plundered the property of the Scythians.
The Scythians were not able to understand them because they did not know either their speech or their dress or the race to which they belonged, and they thought that they were men.
Scythians fought a battle against them, and after the battle the Scythians got possession of the bodies of the dead, and thus they discovered that they were women.
After the battle Scythians sent young men and told them to encamp near the Amazons and to do whatsoever they should do. If the women should come after them, they were not to fight but to retire before them, and when the women stopped, they were to approach near and encamp.
This plan was adopted by the Scythians because they desired to have children born from them. When the Amazons perceived that they had not come to do them any harm, they let them alone; and the two camps approached nearer to one another every day: One day a Scythian and an Amazon came close.
They could not speak to each other because they were speaking different languages but the Amazon made signs to him with her hand to come. Later the young Scythians and the Amazons joined their camps and lived together, each man having for his wife her with whom he had had dealings at first.
The men were not able to learn the language of the Amazons, but the women learned Scythian. They were brutal and aggressive, and their main concern in life was war.
On this desert island there were ravening birds, which in countless numbers haunt it. Zeus sent Boreas the North Windand with his help the Argonauts stood out from the shore near Themiscyra where the Themiscyreian Amazons were arming for battle.
The tomb of Myrine is mentioned in the Iliad; later interpretation made of her an Amazon: Amazons defeated the army of the Atlantian city of Cerne, treated the captives savagely, killed all the men, led into slavery the children and women, and razed the city. When the terrible fate of the inhabitants of Cerne became known among the other Atlantians, they were struck with terror, surrendered their cities on terms of capitulation and announced that they would do whatever should be commanded them.
Queen Myrina bearing herself honourably towards the Atlantians, established friendship with them and founded a city to bear her name in place of the city of Cerne which had been razed; and in it she settled both the captives and any native who so desired.
Atlantians presented her with magnificent presents and by public decree voted to her notable honours, and she in return accepted their courtesy and in addition promised that she would show kindness to their nation. Diodorus also mentions that the Amazons of Queen Myrina used the skins of gigantic snakes, from Libya, to protect themselves at battle.
Later Queen Myrine led her Amazons to victory against the Gorgons. After the battle against the Gorgons, Myrina accorded a funeral to her fallen comrades on three pyres and raised up three great heaps of earth as tombs, which are called "Amazon Mounds" Greek: In another version of this myth, Theseus made this voyage on his own account, after the time of Heracles.What Makes A Great Hero?
Due to courage and honorablllty Theseus, Perseus, Hercules, and Jason are categorized as great heroes. A hero in todays standards are seen to have different traits than a mythological hero. Theseus and Immortals Comparison Analysis Research Paper - The movie Immortals borrows some of the myth of Theseus for its plot.
A lot of the film seems to be a modern attempt at creating a Greek myth. The Cyclops Cave was an interesting story. the author wanted the mood to be eery and scary, and it was, somewhat.
the tone was a bit funny in a way to me but it was a little creepy still. The Odyssey contains numerous examples of a hero’s journey which can be compared and contrasted with other Greek myths such as the stories of Theseus, Jason, Hercules, and Perseus.
Hermes Ingenui (Vatican Museums), Roman copy of the 2nd century BC after a Greek original of the 5th century leslutinsduphoenix.com wears kerykeion, kithara, petasus (round hat), traveler's cloak and winged temples.
More Essay Examples on Medusa Rubric. Perseus showed bravery but Theseus showed strength. Theseus did amazing things to get his gear to kill the Minotaur. Theseus qualified as a hero for sure. | 1,388 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ancient Greek civilization ranged from 1900- 133 BC, however its impact on the Western world lasts to this day. As the Greeks expanded their empire, they spread their ideas to other countries, while also borrowing from other cultures. During this period of time, the Greeks made many significant and long-lasting contributions to our modern culture, in art, architecture, drama, philosophy, government, math, and science. These givings of important ideas, events, inventions, and structures have had an extraordinary influence on the surrounding environment then and in the future.
One important contributor to the field of philosophy was Socrates (470-399 BC). Philosophy is an organized system of thought; love of wisdom in Greek. Socrates was a Greek philosopher who developed the Socratic method, which is a form of teaching that used a question and answer format to force pupils to see things for themselves by using their own reason. He was a master of reason logic, and his reasoned, questioned methods of teachings are still used to this day. He was accused of corrupting the youth of Athens and shortly after was sentenced to death. He questioned everything and everyone. This can best be shown by his statement that says, "The unexamined life is not worth living. Through this he implies that all real knowledge is already present with in each person and only critical examination is needed to call it forth" (Doc.1, Socrates). Socrates spent his life examining his own ideas and trying to discover the truth about many subjects using reason and logic. His contribution became an important part of Western civilization- a legacy that reminds us to think for ourselves and to stand up for what we believe in. .
Another great contributor to the field of philosophy was Aristotle (384- 322 BC). Aristotle was also a Greek philosopher, although many consider him to be more of a scientist and logician due to his contributions in the fields of logic, physics, biology, and humanities. | <urn:uuid:61d2ea36-6cb0-401f-a930-729ed944a8c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/5192.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.982014 | 389 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.3120421171188... | 8 | The ancient Greek civilization ranged from 1900- 133 BC, however its impact on the Western world lasts to this day. As the Greeks expanded their empire, they spread their ideas to other countries, while also borrowing from other cultures. During this period of time, the Greeks made many significant and long-lasting contributions to our modern culture, in art, architecture, drama, philosophy, government, math, and science. These givings of important ideas, events, inventions, and structures have had an extraordinary influence on the surrounding environment then and in the future.
One important contributor to the field of philosophy was Socrates (470-399 BC). Philosophy is an organized system of thought; love of wisdom in Greek. Socrates was a Greek philosopher who developed the Socratic method, which is a form of teaching that used a question and answer format to force pupils to see things for themselves by using their own reason. He was a master of reason logic, and his reasoned, questioned methods of teachings are still used to this day. He was accused of corrupting the youth of Athens and shortly after was sentenced to death. He questioned everything and everyone. This can best be shown by his statement that says, "The unexamined life is not worth living. Through this he implies that all real knowledge is already present with in each person and only critical examination is needed to call it forth" (Doc.1, Socrates). Socrates spent his life examining his own ideas and trying to discover the truth about many subjects using reason and logic. His contribution became an important part of Western civilization- a legacy that reminds us to think for ourselves and to stand up for what we believe in. .
Another great contributor to the field of philosophy was Aristotle (384- 322 BC). Aristotle was also a Greek philosopher, although many consider him to be more of a scientist and logician due to his contributions in the fields of logic, physics, biology, and humanities. | 406 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Over a half-century ago, Martin Luther King Jr. traveled to Memphis to support and bring attention to a strike by more than 1,300 city sanitation workers, but the journey to Tennessee would cost him his life.
Fifty-one years have passed since one of the nation's most harrowing episodes unfolded, when at 6:05 p.m. an assassin named James Earl Ray took aim with a Remington .30-06 rifle and squeezed off a single shot that changed the trajectory of the civil rights movement.
Why was King in Memphis?
On Feb. 1, 1968, Memphis garbage collectors Robert Walker and Echol Cole were crushed to death when a garbage truck malfunctioned. The incident cast a light on the poor working conditions and low wages of sanitation workers, who were prompted by the deaths of the two men to call for a strike.
Sanitation workers, all of them black, walked off their jobs on Feb. 12 and set up picket lines, toting signs reading, "I Am a Man."
King, a Baptist minister from Atlanta and the country's most famous civil rights activist, had heard about the work stoppage and decided to go to Memphis to bring national attention to the strike. He had already come to national prominence by leading the bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1955, after an African-American woman named Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up a front bus seat to a white man.
In the decade following the boycott, King became a civil rights rock star organizing non-violent protests for racial and economic equality. In 1963, he organized a massive march on Washington to demand change, and gave a blistering speech on the National Mall, calling out the federal government for its "apathy and hypocrisy, its betrayal of the cause of justice."
"I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character," King told the crowd.
By the time he went to Memphis, King had been awarded the 1965 Nobel Peace Prize.
Why did King stay at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis?
King and his entourage checked into the Lorraine Motel on April 3, 1968. The Lorraine was one of the few motels in Memphis that was known as friendly to African Americans.
Within hours after checking into Room 306 at the Lorraine, King, battling a bad cold, spoke to an overflow crowd at the Mason Temple Church. Many in the audience were striking sanitation workers. King gave his famous "Mountain Top" speech, in which he spoke of his own mortality, telling the crowd, "I've seen the Promised Land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the Promised Land."
Where was King going when he was killed?
The next day, April 4, King and his inner circle had been invited to have dinner at the home of the Rev. Samuel Billy Kyles, a Memphis minister. About 6 p.m., King, dressed in his trademark dark suit and tie, emerged from Room 306.
Andrew Young, his close friend and partner in the civil rights movement, yelled up to him to grab his coat because the weather had turned chilly. Before he could answer Young, a shot rang out.
A bullet hit King in the right cheek, shattering his jaw, several vertebrae and severing his spinal cord. He was rushed to St. Joseph's Hospital, where he was pronounced dead at 7:05 p.m.
What happened in the aftermath of King's death?
Word of King's assassination triggered riots in more than 100 cities across the country, including Chicago and Washington, D.C. More than 35 people were killed in the violence.
President Lyndon Johnson, who signed the Civil Rights Act in 1964 after being prompted to act by the movement King spearheaded, designated April 7, 1968, as a national day of mourning. The following day, King's widow, Coretta Scott King, went to Memphis and led the striking sanitation workers in a peaceful march.
On April 8, a funeral for King was held at the Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta. Among those in attendance was former first lady Jacqueline Kennedy and Vice President Hubert Humphrey. Tens of thousands of mourners lined the streets of Atlanta to watch King's casket being carried by two mules to Morehouse College, King's alma mater, for a public memorial service.
A week later, the Memphis sanitation strike ended when the city council agreed to boost the workers' wages and improve working conditions.
When was King's assassin caught?
Ray, a 40-year-old convicted robber and prison escapee, was identified as King's killer after his fingerprint was found on the rifle used in the assassination and discarded near the murder scene. Police believe Ray shot King from a boarding house across from the Lorraine Motel, after stalking the civil rights leader for more than two weeks.
He was arrested in London on June 8, 1968, and extradited back to the United States to face prosecution.
In March 1969, Ray pleaded guilty in a Memphis courtroom to King's murder to avoid the death penalty. He was sentenced to 99 years in prison. He died from kidney disease on April 23, 1998, at the age of 70. | <urn:uuid:0d017d93-d366-48f8-b274-2dc4543685e2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://abcnews.go.com/US/assassination-martin-luther-king-jr/story?id=54095424 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00044.warc.gz | en | 0.981044 | 1,109 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.0556954704225063... | 8 | Over a half-century ago, Martin Luther King Jr. traveled to Memphis to support and bring attention to a strike by more than 1,300 city sanitation workers, but the journey to Tennessee would cost him his life.
Fifty-one years have passed since one of the nation's most harrowing episodes unfolded, when at 6:05 p.m. an assassin named James Earl Ray took aim with a Remington .30-06 rifle and squeezed off a single shot that changed the trajectory of the civil rights movement.
Why was King in Memphis?
On Feb. 1, 1968, Memphis garbage collectors Robert Walker and Echol Cole were crushed to death when a garbage truck malfunctioned. The incident cast a light on the poor working conditions and low wages of sanitation workers, who were prompted by the deaths of the two men to call for a strike.
Sanitation workers, all of them black, walked off their jobs on Feb. 12 and set up picket lines, toting signs reading, "I Am a Man."
King, a Baptist minister from Atlanta and the country's most famous civil rights activist, had heard about the work stoppage and decided to go to Memphis to bring national attention to the strike. He had already come to national prominence by leading the bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1955, after an African-American woman named Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up a front bus seat to a white man.
In the decade following the boycott, King became a civil rights rock star organizing non-violent protests for racial and economic equality. In 1963, he organized a massive march on Washington to demand change, and gave a blistering speech on the National Mall, calling out the federal government for its "apathy and hypocrisy, its betrayal of the cause of justice."
"I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character," King told the crowd.
By the time he went to Memphis, King had been awarded the 1965 Nobel Peace Prize.
Why did King stay at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis?
King and his entourage checked into the Lorraine Motel on April 3, 1968. The Lorraine was one of the few motels in Memphis that was known as friendly to African Americans.
Within hours after checking into Room 306 at the Lorraine, King, battling a bad cold, spoke to an overflow crowd at the Mason Temple Church. Many in the audience were striking sanitation workers. King gave his famous "Mountain Top" speech, in which he spoke of his own mortality, telling the crowd, "I've seen the Promised Land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the Promised Land."
Where was King going when he was killed?
The next day, April 4, King and his inner circle had been invited to have dinner at the home of the Rev. Samuel Billy Kyles, a Memphis minister. About 6 p.m., King, dressed in his trademark dark suit and tie, emerged from Room 306.
Andrew Young, his close friend and partner in the civil rights movement, yelled up to him to grab his coat because the weather had turned chilly. Before he could answer Young, a shot rang out.
A bullet hit King in the right cheek, shattering his jaw, several vertebrae and severing his spinal cord. He was rushed to St. Joseph's Hospital, where he was pronounced dead at 7:05 p.m.
What happened in the aftermath of King's death?
Word of King's assassination triggered riots in more than 100 cities across the country, including Chicago and Washington, D.C. More than 35 people were killed in the violence.
President Lyndon Johnson, who signed the Civil Rights Act in 1964 after being prompted to act by the movement King spearheaded, designated April 7, 1968, as a national day of mourning. The following day, King's widow, Coretta Scott King, went to Memphis and led the striking sanitation workers in a peaceful march.
On April 8, a funeral for King was held at the Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta. Among those in attendance was former first lady Jacqueline Kennedy and Vice President Hubert Humphrey. Tens of thousands of mourners lined the streets of Atlanta to watch King's casket being carried by two mules to Morehouse College, King's alma mater, for a public memorial service.
A week later, the Memphis sanitation strike ended when the city council agreed to boost the workers' wages and improve working conditions.
When was King's assassin caught?
Ray, a 40-year-old convicted robber and prison escapee, was identified as King's killer after his fingerprint was found on the rifle used in the assassination and discarded near the murder scene. Police believe Ray shot King from a boarding house across from the Lorraine Motel, after stalking the civil rights leader for more than two weeks.
He was arrested in London on June 8, 1968, and extradited back to the United States to face prosecution.
In March 1969, Ray pleaded guilty in a Memphis courtroom to King's murder to avoid the death penalty. He was sentenced to 99 years in prison. He died from kidney disease on April 23, 1998, at the age of 70. | 1,155 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For the relations of Russia with the papacy, see T.
Its bishop Cadalus (1046-1071) was elected to the papacy by the Lombard and German bishops in 1061, and marched on Rome, but was driven back by the partisans of Alexander III.
During his short reign Calixtus strengthened the authority of the papacy in southern Italy by military expeditions, and restored several buildings within the city of Rome.
that of the prince as representing within the limits of his dominions the monarchy of God over all things, culminated in the 17th century in the doctrine of the divine right of kings, and was defined in the famous dictum of Louis XIV.: L'etat c'est moil The conception of monarchy was derived through Christianity from the theocracies of the East; it was the underlying principle of the medieval empire and also of the medieval papacy, the rule of the popes during the period of its greatest development being sometimes called "the papal.
The struggle between them has been represented as one of a patriotic archbishop resisting the encroachments of the papacy on the Church of England. | <urn:uuid:50a60794-2e8e-4516-9fba-d86ba4803a3c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thesaurus.yourdictionary.com/papacy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00119.warc.gz | en | 0.98177 | 235 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.093062087893486... | 1 | For the relations of Russia with the papacy, see T.
Its bishop Cadalus (1046-1071) was elected to the papacy by the Lombard and German bishops in 1061, and marched on Rome, but was driven back by the partisans of Alexander III.
During his short reign Calixtus strengthened the authority of the papacy in southern Italy by military expeditions, and restored several buildings within the city of Rome.
that of the prince as representing within the limits of his dominions the monarchy of God over all things, culminated in the 17th century in the doctrine of the divine right of kings, and was defined in the famous dictum of Louis XIV.: L'etat c'est moil The conception of monarchy was derived through Christianity from the theocracies of the East; it was the underlying principle of the medieval empire and also of the medieval papacy, the rule of the popes during the period of its greatest development being sometimes called "the papal.
The struggle between them has been represented as one of a patriotic archbishop resisting the encroachments of the papacy on the Church of England. | 241 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A medieval fortification in Newcastle upon Tyne, built on the site of the Norman castle from which Newcastle takes its name. Visit Newcastle Castle’s website.
- The town (now city) of Newcastle-upon-Tyne got its name from the ‘New Castle’ that was built in Norman times on the site of an old Roman fort next to the river Tyne.
- The ‘New Castle’ built in Norman times was probably a ‘Motte and Bailey’ castle, a wooden tower on top of an artificial hill which overlooked a wooden walled enclosure.
- The wooden castle was rebuilt in stone in the medieval period during the reign of King Henry II. The castle keep (fortified tower) which you can still visit today, dates from this period.
- The gatehouse was built in the reign of King Henry III. It had a portcullis (a heavy, vertically closing gate) which could be raised or lowered quickly. You can still see the grooves in the walls where the portcullis was mounted today. It also had a drawbridge.
- The gatehouse became known as the Black Gate, named after a merchant, Patrick Black, who held the lease to the building ( but is now thought to never have actually lived there) in the 1600s.
- In 1644 during the English Civil War Newcastle was besieged by the Scottish armies (who were on the side of Parliament) and the castle became the last stronghold of the Royalists who were defending the town. The Royalists eventually surrendered to the Parliamentarians on 19th October 1644.
- Two of the Royalists who were defending the castle during the siege scratched their names into the wall of the keep. You can still see this 17th century graffiti today!
- By the early 19th century, the Black Gate had become a slum (a poor, overcrowded area housing poor people).
Then and now
Voices from the past
A young man tells us about his grandfather’s experience as a prisoner in Newcastle Castle.
N.B .This audio clip is a work of fiction written and performed by a secondary school student. Although inspired by a real place in Newcastle and Gateshead, the characters and incidents which feature in it are either products of the student’s imagination or are used fictitiously. Dates and other information referred to in the clip may not be accurate. | <urn:uuid:ea154271-8607-49a7-a8f2-ec1dc236c650> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tynesidetreasures.ncl.ac.uk/newcastle-castle/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00096.warc.gz | en | 0.983327 | 499 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.0930742... | 6 | A medieval fortification in Newcastle upon Tyne, built on the site of the Norman castle from which Newcastle takes its name. Visit Newcastle Castle’s website.
- The town (now city) of Newcastle-upon-Tyne got its name from the ‘New Castle’ that was built in Norman times on the site of an old Roman fort next to the river Tyne.
- The ‘New Castle’ built in Norman times was probably a ‘Motte and Bailey’ castle, a wooden tower on top of an artificial hill which overlooked a wooden walled enclosure.
- The wooden castle was rebuilt in stone in the medieval period during the reign of King Henry II. The castle keep (fortified tower) which you can still visit today, dates from this period.
- The gatehouse was built in the reign of King Henry III. It had a portcullis (a heavy, vertically closing gate) which could be raised or lowered quickly. You can still see the grooves in the walls where the portcullis was mounted today. It also had a drawbridge.
- The gatehouse became known as the Black Gate, named after a merchant, Patrick Black, who held the lease to the building ( but is now thought to never have actually lived there) in the 1600s.
- In 1644 during the English Civil War Newcastle was besieged by the Scottish armies (who were on the side of Parliament) and the castle became the last stronghold of the Royalists who were defending the town. The Royalists eventually surrendered to the Parliamentarians on 19th October 1644.
- Two of the Royalists who were defending the castle during the siege scratched their names into the wall of the keep. You can still see this 17th century graffiti today!
- By the early 19th century, the Black Gate had become a slum (a poor, overcrowded area housing poor people).
Then and now
Voices from the past
A young man tells us about his grandfather’s experience as a prisoner in Newcastle Castle.
N.B .This audio clip is a work of fiction written and performed by a secondary school student. Although inspired by a real place in Newcastle and Gateshead, the characters and incidents which feature in it are either products of the student’s imagination or are used fictitiously. Dates and other information referred to in the clip may not be accurate. | 492 | ENGLISH | 1 |
King Tut or Tutankhamun was an Egyptian pharaoh who lived from around 1341 to 1323 BC. Tutankhaten was his first name, and it means "the living image of Aten" while the name Tutankhamun means "the living image of Amun." Aten and Amun were ancient Egyptian deities. Howard Carter discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922 almost by accident and found it nearly intact. It is believed that he was born in Akhenaten, the capital of ancient Egypt. His father was known as Akhenaten, and his mother was his father's sister. He became the King of Egypt at the age of 9 and married his half-sister, who was known as Ankhesenpaaten. He changed his name to Tutankhamun three after taking the reign as a king. It has been speculated that he was assassinated while others believe that his death could have been as a result of an accident.
He became a king when he was a boy
Tutankhamun's father died when he was only seven years old. Two years later, he became pharaoh and married his half-sister. Since he was too young to judge independently, most of his decisions as a king were made on his behalf by his viziers.
King Tut changed his religion and his name
Before the rule of King Tut's father, Amun was the main deity worshipped by the Egyptians. During his father's reign, the Sun God Aten was given more importance. However, King Tut reverted to the old religion once he came to power. Ay, his chief advisor during his early years as a king, is believed to have influenced his decision in this regard. It is also the primary reason why he changed his name. The act made him more popular among his subjects who had not been too happy with the religious reforms introduced by their previous king.
The suspected assassin of the King
Horemheb was one of the chief advisors of Tut. He is also suspected of having assassinated Tut. He became the Pharaoh of Egypt after the death of the first successor of Tut. After coming to power, Horemheb ruined all the available records of his immediate predecessors and put his name on all monuments. To some extent, he succeeded as the previous kings were almost completely forgotten for several centuries until the chance discovery of King Tut's tomb in the 20th century.
He had a terrible accident
Inspection of the mummy of King Tut revealed that he was involved in some grave accident that shattered his rib cage, damaged his internal organs, and broke his pelvis. The injuries were similar to that seen in victims of car accidents in the modern-day. Since chariots were a popular means of traveling in ancient Egypt, it is possible that King Tut sustained injuries when he met with an accident while racing his chariot through the desert. Whether this was the primary reason for his death is yet to be elucidated.
Other Speculations about his death
Malaria attacks and broken bone disorders have also been suspected to cause the death of King Tut.
He had stillborn twins
According to the evidence collected from the tomb, King Tut and his wife had daughters. The remains of the twin daughters were discovered in his burial place. It is evident that their daughters were stillborn and the DNA tests showed that at least one of them had a skeletal deformity
King's Tut's mummy was charred
When his tomb was discovered, the mummified body of King Tut appeared charred like a body that had been consumed in flames. According to archaeologists, black resins and oils in the coffin could have exploded upon exposure to oxygen and burned the body. It is not known why these items were present in the tomb.
To learn about the process of mummification, read here.
Strange dagger made of meteorite metal found in the tomb
When the tomb was opened, it was found to contain a dagger among several other items. The dagger was still exceptionally sharp after thousands of years. The origin of the dagger is shrouded in mystery and controversy. However, tests reveal that the metal came from a meteorite. The ancient Egyptians did not have the technology of making a dagger out of meteorite debris, and therefore, it is believed that it could have come from another more advanced civilization, or even as others have theorized could have been left behind by some aliens.
His heart was missing
According to ancient Egyptians, the organ for reasoning was the heart and not the brain, and therefore, it was still essential for afterlife. Typically, the heart would be preserved, but in the case of Tut, the heart was missing in his mummy. It has been theorized that possibly Tut died when he was far away from home so that by the time they got his body for embalming the heart had already deteriorated so much that it could not be preserved and they had to get rid of it.
Burial jars of King Tut's tomb were unique
When embalming a body, organs such as the lungs, intestines, stomach, and liver, would typically be removed from the body and stored in special jars known as canopic jars. It was believed in ancient Egypt that it was essential to take organs to the afterlife, and therefore, they were carefully preserved. The jars for such organs had lids carved to symbolize each of the sons of Horus who were gods. The organs were kept in these canopic jars. Interestingly, the canopic jar for Tut's organs was different because it was not carved to depict any of the gods, but rather it was in his likeness.
To learn some more interesting facts about Ancient Egypt and its people, read 10 Interesting Facts About Ancient Egyptians
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
Your MLA Citation
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0.19624948501586914... | 2 | King Tut or Tutankhamun was an Egyptian pharaoh who lived from around 1341 to 1323 BC. Tutankhaten was his first name, and it means "the living image of Aten" while the name Tutankhamun means "the living image of Amun." Aten and Amun were ancient Egyptian deities. Howard Carter discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922 almost by accident and found it nearly intact. It is believed that he was born in Akhenaten, the capital of ancient Egypt. His father was known as Akhenaten, and his mother was his father's sister. He became the King of Egypt at the age of 9 and married his half-sister, who was known as Ankhesenpaaten. He changed his name to Tutankhamun three after taking the reign as a king. It has been speculated that he was assassinated while others believe that his death could have been as a result of an accident.
He became a king when he was a boy
Tutankhamun's father died when he was only seven years old. Two years later, he became pharaoh and married his half-sister. Since he was too young to judge independently, most of his decisions as a king were made on his behalf by his viziers.
King Tut changed his religion and his name
Before the rule of King Tut's father, Amun was the main deity worshipped by the Egyptians. During his father's reign, the Sun God Aten was given more importance. However, King Tut reverted to the old religion once he came to power. Ay, his chief advisor during his early years as a king, is believed to have influenced his decision in this regard. It is also the primary reason why he changed his name. The act made him more popular among his subjects who had not been too happy with the religious reforms introduced by their previous king.
The suspected assassin of the King
Horemheb was one of the chief advisors of Tut. He is also suspected of having assassinated Tut. He became the Pharaoh of Egypt after the death of the first successor of Tut. After coming to power, Horemheb ruined all the available records of his immediate predecessors and put his name on all monuments. To some extent, he succeeded as the previous kings were almost completely forgotten for several centuries until the chance discovery of King Tut's tomb in the 20th century.
He had a terrible accident
Inspection of the mummy of King Tut revealed that he was involved in some grave accident that shattered his rib cage, damaged his internal organs, and broke his pelvis. The injuries were similar to that seen in victims of car accidents in the modern-day. Since chariots were a popular means of traveling in ancient Egypt, it is possible that King Tut sustained injuries when he met with an accident while racing his chariot through the desert. Whether this was the primary reason for his death is yet to be elucidated.
Other Speculations about his death
Malaria attacks and broken bone disorders have also been suspected to cause the death of King Tut.
He had stillborn twins
According to the evidence collected from the tomb, King Tut and his wife had daughters. The remains of the twin daughters were discovered in his burial place. It is evident that their daughters were stillborn and the DNA tests showed that at least one of them had a skeletal deformity
King's Tut's mummy was charred
When his tomb was discovered, the mummified body of King Tut appeared charred like a body that had been consumed in flames. According to archaeologists, black resins and oils in the coffin could have exploded upon exposure to oxygen and burned the body. It is not known why these items were present in the tomb.
To learn about the process of mummification, read here.
Strange dagger made of meteorite metal found in the tomb
When the tomb was opened, it was found to contain a dagger among several other items. The dagger was still exceptionally sharp after thousands of years. The origin of the dagger is shrouded in mystery and controversy. However, tests reveal that the metal came from a meteorite. The ancient Egyptians did not have the technology of making a dagger out of meteorite debris, and therefore, it is believed that it could have come from another more advanced civilization, or even as others have theorized could have been left behind by some aliens.
His heart was missing
According to ancient Egyptians, the organ for reasoning was the heart and not the brain, and therefore, it was still essential for afterlife. Typically, the heart would be preserved, but in the case of Tut, the heart was missing in his mummy. It has been theorized that possibly Tut died when he was far away from home so that by the time they got his body for embalming the heart had already deteriorated so much that it could not be preserved and they had to get rid of it.
Burial jars of King Tut's tomb were unique
When embalming a body, organs such as the lungs, intestines, stomach, and liver, would typically be removed from the body and stored in special jars known as canopic jars. It was believed in ancient Egypt that it was essential to take organs to the afterlife, and therefore, they were carefully preserved. The jars for such organs had lids carved to symbolize each of the sons of Horus who were gods. The organs were kept in these canopic jars. Interestingly, the canopic jar for Tut's organs was different because it was not carved to depict any of the gods, but rather it was in his likeness.
To learn some more interesting facts about Ancient Egypt and its people, read 10 Interesting Facts About Ancient Egyptians
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 1,247 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Neville Chamberlain was Prime Minister of Great Britain in September 1939 as Europe descended into World War Two after the failure of appeasement in the late 1930’s. Chamberlain paid a political price for the failure of Britain in Norway in the spring of 1940 and resigned as Prime Minister to be succeeded by Winston Churchill. He died shortly afterwards.
Neville Chamberlain was born into a famous political family. He was the son of Joseph Chamberlain and his half-brother was Austen. All three were to make their mark in politics, one way or another.
Neville Chamberlain was born in 1869. He was educated at Rugby School and after this, he managed his father’s sisal plantation in the Bahamas for seven years. On his return to Britain in 1897, Chamberlain became involved in local politics and in 1915 he was elected Lord Mayor of Birmingham, arguably England’s second city. In 1916, he was appointed director-general of National Service but was dismissed from this position by David Lloyd-George in 1917 who did not understand or appreciate Chamberlain’s method of working – this involved a detailed understanding of the problem at hand which usually led to a solution occurring later than Lloyd-George was used to.
In 1918, Chamberlain became the Member of Parliament for Ladywood in Birmingham. He held this constituency until 1929 when he was elected MP for Edgbaston – also in Birmingham. Chamberlain was MP for Edgbaston until his death in 1940.
Chamberlain gained a reputation for thoroughness in his duties as a MP and from 1924 to 1929, he served as Minister for Health under Stanley Baldwin and and he was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in the National Government of Ramsey Macdonald. Chamberlain held this position from November 1931 to May 1937. In this position, he enhanced his reputation as an efficient administrator and it surprised very few when he became Prime Minister on May 28th, 1937.
Chamberlain was suddenly thrust into a position which required him to be involved in European politics. He had no experience in foreign affairs and frequently took the advice of one of his advisors, Sir Horace Wilson, as opposed to the advice of the Foreign Office.
In the late 1930’s, Chamberlain is most associated with the policy of appeasement. Polls from the time show that many people in Britain supported what Chamberlain was trying to achieve. It was only after the failure of appeasement that Chamberlain’s decisions and career acquired a more negative image.
Two schools of thought exist as to why Chamberlain pursued appeasement.
One is that he honestly thought that he could address the grievances that he believed Germany rightly held after the Treaty of Versailles. Chamberlain believed that if was seen as being fair to German concerns, then he could achieve success and stop Europe from declining into war.
Another theory is that Chamberlain believed that appeasement was worth trying but that war was inevitable. He also realised that Britain was not well prepared for war and that he needed to buy time to improve Britain’s military position. In particular, it is said that Chamberlain knew that our air defences were weak and that the more time he could gain, the stronger they would become.
It is possible that a combination of the two – a desire for peace matched with a desire to ensure Britain was able to defend itself – determined what Chamberlain attempted to do.
In March 1939, Germany’s army swallowed up the rest of Czechoslovakia and destroyed whatever meaning the Munich Agreement ever had. Chamberlain swiftly offered a guarantee to Poland and when Poland was attacked in September 1939, Chamberlain had little choice but to declare war on Germany.
Perceived wisdom would have people believe that Chamberlain let down the British people when war was declared. In fact, in September 1939, his popularity rating was 55% and by Christmas 1939 in the era of the Phoney War, this had increased to 68%.
It was the abject failure of the British military in Norway that ended Chamberlain’s time as Prime Minister. Many in Parliament saw that he would not be an inspirational war leader and many politicians refused to serve in his proposed National Government.
|“It is not a question of who are the Prime Minister’s friends. It is a far bigger issue. He has appealed for sacrifice. The nation is prepared for every sacrifice as long as it has leadership, so long as the government show clearly what they are aiming at, and so long as the nation is confident that those who are leading it are doing their best. I say solemnly that the Prime Minister should give an example of sacrifice, because there is nothing which can contribute more to victory than that he should sacrifice the seals of office.”David Lloyd George|
He resigned on May 10th 1940 and was replaced as Prime Minister by Winston Churchill. Chamberlain served as Lord President of the Council in Churchill’s government. In October 1940, ill health forced him to resign this position and on November 9th, 1940, Neville Chamberlain died. | <urn:uuid:2c44bcfe-e452-4aba-b2b3-d0ff21aca236> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/political-leaders-of-world-war-two/neville-chamberlain/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00201.warc.gz | en | 0.990398 | 1,016 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.1539190262556... | 8 | Neville Chamberlain was Prime Minister of Great Britain in September 1939 as Europe descended into World War Two after the failure of appeasement in the late 1930’s. Chamberlain paid a political price for the failure of Britain in Norway in the spring of 1940 and resigned as Prime Minister to be succeeded by Winston Churchill. He died shortly afterwards.
Neville Chamberlain was born into a famous political family. He was the son of Joseph Chamberlain and his half-brother was Austen. All three were to make their mark in politics, one way or another.
Neville Chamberlain was born in 1869. He was educated at Rugby School and after this, he managed his father’s sisal plantation in the Bahamas for seven years. On his return to Britain in 1897, Chamberlain became involved in local politics and in 1915 he was elected Lord Mayor of Birmingham, arguably England’s second city. In 1916, he was appointed director-general of National Service but was dismissed from this position by David Lloyd-George in 1917 who did not understand or appreciate Chamberlain’s method of working – this involved a detailed understanding of the problem at hand which usually led to a solution occurring later than Lloyd-George was used to.
In 1918, Chamberlain became the Member of Parliament for Ladywood in Birmingham. He held this constituency until 1929 when he was elected MP for Edgbaston – also in Birmingham. Chamberlain was MP for Edgbaston until his death in 1940.
Chamberlain gained a reputation for thoroughness in his duties as a MP and from 1924 to 1929, he served as Minister for Health under Stanley Baldwin and and he was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in the National Government of Ramsey Macdonald. Chamberlain held this position from November 1931 to May 1937. In this position, he enhanced his reputation as an efficient administrator and it surprised very few when he became Prime Minister on May 28th, 1937.
Chamberlain was suddenly thrust into a position which required him to be involved in European politics. He had no experience in foreign affairs and frequently took the advice of one of his advisors, Sir Horace Wilson, as opposed to the advice of the Foreign Office.
In the late 1930’s, Chamberlain is most associated with the policy of appeasement. Polls from the time show that many people in Britain supported what Chamberlain was trying to achieve. It was only after the failure of appeasement that Chamberlain’s decisions and career acquired a more negative image.
Two schools of thought exist as to why Chamberlain pursued appeasement.
One is that he honestly thought that he could address the grievances that he believed Germany rightly held after the Treaty of Versailles. Chamberlain believed that if was seen as being fair to German concerns, then he could achieve success and stop Europe from declining into war.
Another theory is that Chamberlain believed that appeasement was worth trying but that war was inevitable. He also realised that Britain was not well prepared for war and that he needed to buy time to improve Britain’s military position. In particular, it is said that Chamberlain knew that our air defences were weak and that the more time he could gain, the stronger they would become.
It is possible that a combination of the two – a desire for peace matched with a desire to ensure Britain was able to defend itself – determined what Chamberlain attempted to do.
In March 1939, Germany’s army swallowed up the rest of Czechoslovakia and destroyed whatever meaning the Munich Agreement ever had. Chamberlain swiftly offered a guarantee to Poland and when Poland was attacked in September 1939, Chamberlain had little choice but to declare war on Germany.
Perceived wisdom would have people believe that Chamberlain let down the British people when war was declared. In fact, in September 1939, his popularity rating was 55% and by Christmas 1939 in the era of the Phoney War, this had increased to 68%.
It was the abject failure of the British military in Norway that ended Chamberlain’s time as Prime Minister. Many in Parliament saw that he would not be an inspirational war leader and many politicians refused to serve in his proposed National Government.
|“It is not a question of who are the Prime Minister’s friends. It is a far bigger issue. He has appealed for sacrifice. The nation is prepared for every sacrifice as long as it has leadership, so long as the government show clearly what they are aiming at, and so long as the nation is confident that those who are leading it are doing their best. I say solemnly that the Prime Minister should give an example of sacrifice, because there is nothing which can contribute more to victory than that he should sacrifice the seals of office.”David Lloyd George|
He resigned on May 10th 1940 and was replaced as Prime Minister by Winston Churchill. Chamberlain served as Lord President of the Council in Churchill’s government. In October 1940, ill health forced him to resign this position and on November 9th, 1940, Neville Chamberlain died. | 1,110 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Islam in India
Although the Indian subcontinent was not divided into the separate nations ofIndia, Pakistan, and Bangladesh until the twentieth century, this partition was prefigured already in the eleventh century when Islamic civilization found a permanent home in India. Both Islam and Hinduism were deeply conservative and each represented a highly developed culture-cultures that were worlds apart. The ideological differences between them were exaggerated by the fact that the ruling Muslims regarded Hindus as inferior to themselves and Hindus considered Muslims to be sources of spiritual pollution. Although Hindu and Sufi saints were able to inspire and influence each other, for the orthodox on both sides, the relationship was primarily one of confrontation. Each side felt forced to preserve its own traditions and to resist yielding to “foreign” influence. | <urn:uuid:1c852997-ef62-41d0-8005-d2c94cfa6267> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315507415/chapters/10.4324/9781315507415-19 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00071.warc.gz | en | 0.980115 | 155 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.12476366758346... | 1 | Islam in India
Although the Indian subcontinent was not divided into the separate nations ofIndia, Pakistan, and Bangladesh until the twentieth century, this partition was prefigured already in the eleventh century when Islamic civilization found a permanent home in India. Both Islam and Hinduism were deeply conservative and each represented a highly developed culture-cultures that were worlds apart. The ideological differences between them were exaggerated by the fact that the ruling Muslims regarded Hindus as inferior to themselves and Hindus considered Muslims to be sources of spiritual pollution. Although Hindu and Sufi saints were able to inspire and influence each other, for the orthodox on both sides, the relationship was primarily one of confrontation. Each side felt forced to preserve its own traditions and to resist yielding to “foreign” influence. | 154 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Bayeux Tapestry is an embroidered strip of linen depicting the Norman Conquest of England. Consisting of a series of connected panels, the strip is about 231 feet long and about 20 inches wide. While the early panels of the Tapestry provide information on the relationship between Harold and King Edward and initial battles fought by William of Normandy, the focus of this paper will be on later events involving battle between William and Harold for the throne of England. In scene 12, William and Harold are returning to Normandy.
When they get to the town of Bayeux, for which the tapestry is named after, Harold swears an oath to William on holy relics. It is not absolutely clear what the oath meant, but it can be assumed that Harold was promising to be an ally to William. Whatever the reason, once Harold gives this oath to William, he is allowed to return back to England. In scene 14, the death of King Edward is depicted. However, it is done in reverse. His funeral procession to Westminster Abbey is shown first; his death is shown second.
The last scene of the panel shows Harold being offered the crown and axe, the symbols of royal power and authority. In short, he is being offered the throne, and he accepts. In scene 15, Harold is crowned King of England on the same day that King Edward was buried: January 6, 1066. The scene shows the newly crowned Harold sitting on the throne, surrounded by noblemen and the archbishop. On the far right of the scene is depicted Halley’s comet, which people view as an evil omen, and rightly so. Harold is told about the comet, and underneath him is the image of a fleet of ships, a hint of the invasion that is to come.
In scenes 17 and 18, William is preparing to invade England. Trees are cut down and shaped into planks, which are used to build boats that are taken down to the sea. Military supplies, such as weapons, coats of chain mail, and helmets, are taken and loaded onto the boats. They are also loaded with food and drink for the trip across the English Channel. In scene 22, William and his army have arrived on the coast of England. Once there, they prepare a huge feast. After the food is blessed by Bishop Odo, they all begin to eat and drink.
Following the feast, in scene 23, William has a meeting with his brothers, most likely discussing what strategy they are going to use to defeat King Harold. The scene also shows the building of a motte, a type of castle, to strengthen William’s position at Hastings. While this goes on, William is brought a message concerning Harold and his army. At the far right, there is an image of a house being burnt, and a woman with her child fleeing from it. Towards the end of the Tapestry is the actual Battle of Hastings. It begins with the Normans charging the army of King Harold.
The Norman archers shoot arrows while the horsemen fight with their lances. The English army is on foot, but protects themselves by standing close together and using their shields to form a wall against the arrows. At the bottom of the image are the soldiers who have been injured or killed in the fighting. The fighting goes on, with two brothers of King Harold being killed in the process. Bishop Odo joins the battle, using a club instead of a sword as his weapon. At one point in the battle, William falls from his horse.
However, he takes his helmet off to reveal his face, showing his men that he is alive. This makes them continue fighting, and soon the Normans have the upper hand. There is a scene depicting the death of King Harold. However, the manner of death is not completely clear. It seems to show him being killed twice: first, from an arrow to his eye, and then from being cut down by a Norman knight. However, legend goes with the former. Regardless of this ambiguity about his death, once Harold is dead, the battle is effectively over. However, the last scene of the Tapestry has been lost.
Therefore, it is unknown what it would be depicting. The logical thing would be that it shows William being crowned King of England, thus matching the first scene of the Tapestry, with King Edward sitting securely on his throne a mere two years earlier. As previously stated, the Bayeux Tapestry was made as a record of the events leading up to and including the Battle of Hastings. Painstakingly created in the years following the Battle of Hastings in 1066, the Tapestry can be a historical resource simply because it depicts real people and events.
It is not simply words on a piece of paper, which can be interpreted in a variety of ways, but rather actual images showing all the events that took place. However, it must be remembered that the Bayeux Tapestry was created not just to present a record of these events, but also as a piece of propaganda that was meant to give extra justification to William of Normandy being crowned King of England. William claimed that King Edward named him as his heir while on his deathbed. Yet there is no actual evidence supporting this.
Therefore, it can be assumed that some of the events, particularly in regard to the battle itself, were slightly exaggerated in order to make William look more legitimate to the English people, as well as to other realms watching these events unfold. Along with serving as a historical document of sorts, the Bayeux Tapestry serves as a display of other aspects of medieval society. The first aspect concerns that of the role of the church. Throughout the Tapestry are images of various religious figures serving not only as spiritual guides to the monarch, but also as political advisors.
Thus, the Tapestry is showing how closely intertwined the medieval church was with political events that occurred in the various realms. The second aspect involves part of what was considered an aristocratic lifestyle. In the early scenes of the Tapestry, there are depictions of hunting dogs and hawks. Owning a hawk or having hunting dogs was a symbol of wealth and status. Knowing this fact makes it a little easier to understand why Harold is traveling to his estate in Sussex with a hawk on his wrist. Most likely, he was out hunting/hawking prior to returning to his home.
Thus, he was engaged in a practice that was common for the time period and for his station in society. The final aspect the Tapestry depicts is the hierarchy that existed within medieval society. There was a somewhat rigid order concerning the place each person had with the medieval world. Furthermore, being a member of a particular class determined how well or how poorly one was treated. This is proven in early scenes of the Tapestry showing Harold being taken prisoner by Count Guy of Ponthieu. Regardless of being a prisoner, he is still treated with respect because of his high rank within the medieval hierarchy.
Had he been some common man, he would have been treated as such. Clearly then, the Bayeux Tapestry is not just a record of political and military events concerning a pivotal period in English history. It is also a demonstration of medieval life and society as a whole. Therefore, the Bayeux Tapestry is an important and irreplaceable historical source that must be respected and treasured.
Source: Anonymous. (2000-2004). Britain’s Bayeux Tapestry at the Museum of Reading. Retrieved April 17, 2009 from http://www. bayeuxtapestry. org. uk/BayeuxContents. htm. | <urn:uuid:7174727b-78ff-4780-9170-04e59d4739b3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://custom-essays-writings.com/the-bayeux-tapestry | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00227.warc.gz | en | 0.982386 | 1,569 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.54799199104309... | 10 | The Bayeux Tapestry is an embroidered strip of linen depicting the Norman Conquest of England. Consisting of a series of connected panels, the strip is about 231 feet long and about 20 inches wide. While the early panels of the Tapestry provide information on the relationship between Harold and King Edward and initial battles fought by William of Normandy, the focus of this paper will be on later events involving battle between William and Harold for the throne of England. In scene 12, William and Harold are returning to Normandy.
When they get to the town of Bayeux, for which the tapestry is named after, Harold swears an oath to William on holy relics. It is not absolutely clear what the oath meant, but it can be assumed that Harold was promising to be an ally to William. Whatever the reason, once Harold gives this oath to William, he is allowed to return back to England. In scene 14, the death of King Edward is depicted. However, it is done in reverse. His funeral procession to Westminster Abbey is shown first; his death is shown second.
The last scene of the panel shows Harold being offered the crown and axe, the symbols of royal power and authority. In short, he is being offered the throne, and he accepts. In scene 15, Harold is crowned King of England on the same day that King Edward was buried: January 6, 1066. The scene shows the newly crowned Harold sitting on the throne, surrounded by noblemen and the archbishop. On the far right of the scene is depicted Halley’s comet, which people view as an evil omen, and rightly so. Harold is told about the comet, and underneath him is the image of a fleet of ships, a hint of the invasion that is to come.
In scenes 17 and 18, William is preparing to invade England. Trees are cut down and shaped into planks, which are used to build boats that are taken down to the sea. Military supplies, such as weapons, coats of chain mail, and helmets, are taken and loaded onto the boats. They are also loaded with food and drink for the trip across the English Channel. In scene 22, William and his army have arrived on the coast of England. Once there, they prepare a huge feast. After the food is blessed by Bishop Odo, they all begin to eat and drink.
Following the feast, in scene 23, William has a meeting with his brothers, most likely discussing what strategy they are going to use to defeat King Harold. The scene also shows the building of a motte, a type of castle, to strengthen William’s position at Hastings. While this goes on, William is brought a message concerning Harold and his army. At the far right, there is an image of a house being burnt, and a woman with her child fleeing from it. Towards the end of the Tapestry is the actual Battle of Hastings. It begins with the Normans charging the army of King Harold.
The Norman archers shoot arrows while the horsemen fight with their lances. The English army is on foot, but protects themselves by standing close together and using their shields to form a wall against the arrows. At the bottom of the image are the soldiers who have been injured or killed in the fighting. The fighting goes on, with two brothers of King Harold being killed in the process. Bishop Odo joins the battle, using a club instead of a sword as his weapon. At one point in the battle, William falls from his horse.
However, he takes his helmet off to reveal his face, showing his men that he is alive. This makes them continue fighting, and soon the Normans have the upper hand. There is a scene depicting the death of King Harold. However, the manner of death is not completely clear. It seems to show him being killed twice: first, from an arrow to his eye, and then from being cut down by a Norman knight. However, legend goes with the former. Regardless of this ambiguity about his death, once Harold is dead, the battle is effectively over. However, the last scene of the Tapestry has been lost.
Therefore, it is unknown what it would be depicting. The logical thing would be that it shows William being crowned King of England, thus matching the first scene of the Tapestry, with King Edward sitting securely on his throne a mere two years earlier. As previously stated, the Bayeux Tapestry was made as a record of the events leading up to and including the Battle of Hastings. Painstakingly created in the years following the Battle of Hastings in 1066, the Tapestry can be a historical resource simply because it depicts real people and events.
It is not simply words on a piece of paper, which can be interpreted in a variety of ways, but rather actual images showing all the events that took place. However, it must be remembered that the Bayeux Tapestry was created not just to present a record of these events, but also as a piece of propaganda that was meant to give extra justification to William of Normandy being crowned King of England. William claimed that King Edward named him as his heir while on his deathbed. Yet there is no actual evidence supporting this.
Therefore, it can be assumed that some of the events, particularly in regard to the battle itself, were slightly exaggerated in order to make William look more legitimate to the English people, as well as to other realms watching these events unfold. Along with serving as a historical document of sorts, the Bayeux Tapestry serves as a display of other aspects of medieval society. The first aspect concerns that of the role of the church. Throughout the Tapestry are images of various religious figures serving not only as spiritual guides to the monarch, but also as political advisors.
Thus, the Tapestry is showing how closely intertwined the medieval church was with political events that occurred in the various realms. The second aspect involves part of what was considered an aristocratic lifestyle. In the early scenes of the Tapestry, there are depictions of hunting dogs and hawks. Owning a hawk or having hunting dogs was a symbol of wealth and status. Knowing this fact makes it a little easier to understand why Harold is traveling to his estate in Sussex with a hawk on his wrist. Most likely, he was out hunting/hawking prior to returning to his home.
Thus, he was engaged in a practice that was common for the time period and for his station in society. The final aspect the Tapestry depicts is the hierarchy that existed within medieval society. There was a somewhat rigid order concerning the place each person had with the medieval world. Furthermore, being a member of a particular class determined how well or how poorly one was treated. This is proven in early scenes of the Tapestry showing Harold being taken prisoner by Count Guy of Ponthieu. Regardless of being a prisoner, he is still treated with respect because of his high rank within the medieval hierarchy.
Had he been some common man, he would have been treated as such. Clearly then, the Bayeux Tapestry is not just a record of political and military events concerning a pivotal period in English history. It is also a demonstration of medieval life and society as a whole. Therefore, the Bayeux Tapestry is an important and irreplaceable historical source that must be respected and treasured.
Source: Anonymous. (2000-2004). Britain’s Bayeux Tapestry at the Museum of Reading. Retrieved April 17, 2009 from http://www. bayeuxtapestry. org. uk/BayeuxContents. htm. | 1,572 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Story of William the Red
W ILLIAM RUFUS, or the Red as he was called, from the colour of his hair, took the ring from his father's hand and hurried off to seize the throne of England, without waiting even till the Conqueror should die. In little more than a fortnight the crown was upon the head of William Rufus, and England had another Norman king.
But even the Norman nobles were not pleased with their new king. The Conqueror had ruled them with an iron hand, and they had hoped, when he was dead, to have some one who would be less severe. They wanted Robert, the eldest son of William the Conqueror, because they knew that he was much less harsh than William, and they thought that they would be able to do what they liked if Robert were king. So they rebelled against William the Red and asked Robert to come to England to fight for the crown.
Now the English hated to have a Norman king, but they hated the Norman nobles even more. Although William the Red was Norman he had lived in England ever since he had been about six years old. He could speak English, which the Conqueror could never learn to do, and which the Confessor had never cared to do.
So William the Red appealed to the English people. He said to them, "If you stand by me and fight for me, I will reward you. I will take away some of the heavy taxes, I will give you more liberty, and I will not allow the Norman barons to oppress you."
So the English people fought for their Norman king, and they beat the Norman nobles. Robert was obliged to fly back to France, and William the Red, with the help of the English people, sat safely on the English throne.
But as soon as he was safe, William forgot about his promises. He oppressed the people as much as ever, and they were almost more unhappy than they had been in the time of his father.
The Red King was wicked and greedy. He stole money from every one, even from the churches, and spent it on his own pleasure. Little good can be said of him except that he was fearless. Still when he was ill, and thought he might die, he became frightened because of the wicked things he had done, and promised to do better. But as soon as he was well again he forgot his fears and was as wicked as before. He was not truly a brave man, and he was very cruel.
One day William the Red went to hunt with his friends in the New Forest—that forest which his father had made by destroying so many villages. Before the hunting-party started, a man came to the King and gave him six beautiful new arrows. The King admired them very much and he gave one of them to his friend, Walter Tyrrell, who was a very good shot, saying, "The best arrows should be given to him who knows best how to use them."
It was a gay scene. The King in his rich hunting-dress rode first. His friends and servants, gayly dressed, followed. There was much talking and laughing and barking of dogs.
As they rode into the forest, the frightened deer fled before them, and soon every one was eagerly following the chase. In the many paths of the forest, the King became separated from his friends. The nobles did not notice that the King was not among them, for it often happened in hunting that a few would be separated from the others. When the hunt was over, one by one the hunting-party returned to the palace. Only the King did not return—the King and one noble, Walter Tyrrell.
What had happened?
As the shadows began to lengthen and the sun to set, the people of his household became uneasy. Who was with the King? Who saw him last?
As the question was asked, a peasant's cart came slowly up the street. It was a rough wooden cart drawn by an old white horse, led by a peasant in poor and shabby clothes.
The question was answered. In the cart the King, who so short a time before had ridden gayly away, lay dead, with an arrow through his heart.
"Who has done this?" asked the barons, seizing the peasant. "Villain, answer."
"I know naught of it, my lords," replied the man. "I was passing through the forest on my way home when I found this man lying dead as you see him. I bethought me that it was the King, so I brought him thither."
How William the Red was killed can never be known. Some people say that Walter Tyrrell, while aiming at a deer, hit the king by mistake, that the arrow struck a tree and, glancing off, pierced the king in the breast and killed him. These people think that Walter Tyrrell frightened at what he had done, fled away as fast as he could; that he fled to the seashore, got into a ship and sailed over to France.
Certain it is that Walter Tyrrell did run away that day, and did not return to England for many years. But when he came back, he vowed very solemnly that he had not done the deed and that he had not even been near the King that day when he died.
There was no sorrow for the dead king. He was hated so much that, when he was buried, no bell was rung, no prayers were said, and when some time after the tower of the church fell, people said it was because of the wickedness of William, the Red King, who lay buried there. | <urn:uuid:c29d2afd-eea9-4816-b4ec-35e39a25548e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=red | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00063.warc.gz | en | 0.995775 | 1,167 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.0326850563287... | 8 | The Story of William the Red
W ILLIAM RUFUS, or the Red as he was called, from the colour of his hair, took the ring from his father's hand and hurried off to seize the throne of England, without waiting even till the Conqueror should die. In little more than a fortnight the crown was upon the head of William Rufus, and England had another Norman king.
But even the Norman nobles were not pleased with their new king. The Conqueror had ruled them with an iron hand, and they had hoped, when he was dead, to have some one who would be less severe. They wanted Robert, the eldest son of William the Conqueror, because they knew that he was much less harsh than William, and they thought that they would be able to do what they liked if Robert were king. So they rebelled against William the Red and asked Robert to come to England to fight for the crown.
Now the English hated to have a Norman king, but they hated the Norman nobles even more. Although William the Red was Norman he had lived in England ever since he had been about six years old. He could speak English, which the Conqueror could never learn to do, and which the Confessor had never cared to do.
So William the Red appealed to the English people. He said to them, "If you stand by me and fight for me, I will reward you. I will take away some of the heavy taxes, I will give you more liberty, and I will not allow the Norman barons to oppress you."
So the English people fought for their Norman king, and they beat the Norman nobles. Robert was obliged to fly back to France, and William the Red, with the help of the English people, sat safely on the English throne.
But as soon as he was safe, William forgot about his promises. He oppressed the people as much as ever, and they were almost more unhappy than they had been in the time of his father.
The Red King was wicked and greedy. He stole money from every one, even from the churches, and spent it on his own pleasure. Little good can be said of him except that he was fearless. Still when he was ill, and thought he might die, he became frightened because of the wicked things he had done, and promised to do better. But as soon as he was well again he forgot his fears and was as wicked as before. He was not truly a brave man, and he was very cruel.
One day William the Red went to hunt with his friends in the New Forest—that forest which his father had made by destroying so many villages. Before the hunting-party started, a man came to the King and gave him six beautiful new arrows. The King admired them very much and he gave one of them to his friend, Walter Tyrrell, who was a very good shot, saying, "The best arrows should be given to him who knows best how to use them."
It was a gay scene. The King in his rich hunting-dress rode first. His friends and servants, gayly dressed, followed. There was much talking and laughing and barking of dogs.
As they rode into the forest, the frightened deer fled before them, and soon every one was eagerly following the chase. In the many paths of the forest, the King became separated from his friends. The nobles did not notice that the King was not among them, for it often happened in hunting that a few would be separated from the others. When the hunt was over, one by one the hunting-party returned to the palace. Only the King did not return—the King and one noble, Walter Tyrrell.
What had happened?
As the shadows began to lengthen and the sun to set, the people of his household became uneasy. Who was with the King? Who saw him last?
As the question was asked, a peasant's cart came slowly up the street. It was a rough wooden cart drawn by an old white horse, led by a peasant in poor and shabby clothes.
The question was answered. In the cart the King, who so short a time before had ridden gayly away, lay dead, with an arrow through his heart.
"Who has done this?" asked the barons, seizing the peasant. "Villain, answer."
"I know naught of it, my lords," replied the man. "I was passing through the forest on my way home when I found this man lying dead as you see him. I bethought me that it was the King, so I brought him thither."
How William the Red was killed can never be known. Some people say that Walter Tyrrell, while aiming at a deer, hit the king by mistake, that the arrow struck a tree and, glancing off, pierced the king in the breast and killed him. These people think that Walter Tyrrell frightened at what he had done, fled away as fast as he could; that he fled to the seashore, got into a ship and sailed over to France.
Certain it is that Walter Tyrrell did run away that day, and did not return to England for many years. But when he came back, he vowed very solemnly that he had not done the deed and that he had not even been near the King that day when he died.
There was no sorrow for the dead king. He was hated so much that, when he was buried, no bell was rung, no prayers were said, and when some time after the tower of the church fell, people said it was because of the wickedness of William, the Red King, who lay buried there. | 1,154 | ENGLISH | 1 |
You were really excited when your little one said their first word, but now what? When will they start to learn more words and say their first sentence? We take a look at typical first sentences and encouraging language development.
Many things can cause young kids to become mad and start to scream and shout. However its important as parents and caregivers to teach toddlers and preschoolers how to manage their anger so that it doesnt become self-destructive.
In our busy lives it often seems quicker and easier to give children instructions and replies of Because I said so or Do it now! However rewording your requests with phrases that show interest and promote involvement will encourage children to cooperate more. It helps children feel listened to, and in time they will start listening too. | <urn:uuid:644e0291-1f49-49ae-85e2-08bda2f83a38> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.under5s.co.nz/shop/Hot+Topics+Articles/Child+Development/Toddlers+first+sentences.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00549.warc.gz | en | 0.980638 | 153 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.4142423868179... | 1 | You were really excited when your little one said their first word, but now what? When will they start to learn more words and say their first sentence? We take a look at typical first sentences and encouraging language development.
Many things can cause young kids to become mad and start to scream and shout. However its important as parents and caregivers to teach toddlers and preschoolers how to manage their anger so that it doesnt become self-destructive.
In our busy lives it often seems quicker and easier to give children instructions and replies of Because I said so or Do it now! However rewording your requests with phrases that show interest and promote involvement will encourage children to cooperate more. It helps children feel listened to, and in time they will start listening too. | 150 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sir Edward William Elgar, (1857- 1934)
Elgar was an English composer inspired by the 19th century romanticism, which characterized his bold melodies. His own musical idiom was cosmopolitan, but his interest in oratorio is grounded in the English musical tradition. Especially in England, Elgar is respected both for his own music and for his role in heralding the English musical renaissance of the 20th century.
Salut d'Amour is among the most famous works of Sir Edward Elgar. The work was composed in 1888 and was an engagement gift to Caroline Alice Roberts, whom he later married. The first movement was named "Liebesgruss", which translates to “love greeting”. The music was released in Germany, but didn’t gain much popularity. Scott & Co later released the music with the title titled "Salut d'Amour" which became a great success. The original version is written for violin and piano, but there are also versions for solo piano, cello and piano, as well as chamber orchestras. The first orchestra version was recorded in "Crystal Palace" on November 11, 1889, and The Gramophone Company made the first recording in 1915, with Elgar as conductor. | <urn:uuid:39d1aece-efba-4b08-85e7-77874a804f9c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.norsklydinstitutt.no/en/5-december-sir-edward-w-elgar/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00556.warc.gz | en | 0.987006 | 256 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.1756794303... | 2 | Sir Edward William Elgar, (1857- 1934)
Elgar was an English composer inspired by the 19th century romanticism, which characterized his bold melodies. His own musical idiom was cosmopolitan, but his interest in oratorio is grounded in the English musical tradition. Especially in England, Elgar is respected both for his own music and for his role in heralding the English musical renaissance of the 20th century.
Salut d'Amour is among the most famous works of Sir Edward Elgar. The work was composed in 1888 and was an engagement gift to Caroline Alice Roberts, whom he later married. The first movement was named "Liebesgruss", which translates to “love greeting”. The music was released in Germany, but didn’t gain much popularity. Scott & Co later released the music with the title titled "Salut d'Amour" which became a great success. The original version is written for violin and piano, but there are also versions for solo piano, cello and piano, as well as chamber orchestras. The first orchestra version was recorded in "Crystal Palace" on November 11, 1889, and The Gramophone Company made the first recording in 1915, with Elgar as conductor. | 273 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1634, John Endecott and Roger Williams agreed on one thing. The first Massachusetts flag had to be changed.
Endecott, of Salem, was one of the more radical of the early Puritan settlers of Massachusetts. He was reduced in power when John Winthrop arrived from London with a colonial charter.
Winthrop became governor and Endecott became a councilor. Part of the flag carried a red St. George’s cross on a white background. But the design offended the Puritan sensibilities of Massachusetts colonists. They felt the red cross had roots in Catholicism. And at the time, King Charles I’s Catholic leanings were under scrutiny.
Under goading from the religious radical Roger Williams, who would soon be banished to Rhode Island, John Endecott had the red cross removed from the flag that flew at Salem. There was no lack of public support for Endecott’s actions. But he was well ahead of his time, a fact that worried the more politically astute members of the colony.
It would be nearly ten years before Civil War broke out in England and citizens there would be gleefully stripping the red cross from public symbols. And so Endecott was called to answer for his actions by the Massachusetts Court of Assistants.
John Winthrop noted the matter in his journal: “At the court of assistante complaint was made by some of the country that the ensign at Salem was defaced viz: one part of the red cross was taken out… Much matter was made of this fearing it would be taken as a an act of rebellion.”
Massachusetts’ leaders were worried that the defacing of the flag would cause trouble in England if the government took offense. They wrote a letter to the colony’s lawyer in London, John Winthrop’s brother-in-law Emanuel Downing. In it they relayed the details of what had happened and noted that the perpetrators would be punished.
Winthrop hoped the letter would quell any anger if the flag defacing became public.
But the letter wasn’t exactly true. When the Court of Assistants met in January of 1635, feeling against the red cross symbol was running high and the court couldn’t agree about what to do.
In May of 1685, a court was appointed to review Endecott’s actions and it censured him. The court didn’t declare that Endecott was wrong in his reasoning – that indeed the cross was a sign of Catholic beliefs and should be removed from the flag. But Endecott had overstepped his authority.
Winthrop noted: “They found his offense to be great, rash and without discretion, taking on more authority than he had.”
But the court magistrates also noted that part of the problem was that Endecott had not consulted the general court in his actions, so that the colony could have considered altering all the flags. The result gave the appearance, they concluded, that others in Massachusetts supported idolotry in contrast to Salem.
Endecott was banned from leadership positions for a year as a censure, a fairly mild slap on the wrist. But as political opinion in England caught up with Endecott, he was elevated through the ranks of government and shortly after the English Civil War broke out, Endecott was made governor of Massachusetts.
Thanks to: How John Endecott Cut the Red Cross from the Flag by Nathan Hawkes | <urn:uuid:bf70ffba-dc9a-4f53-8fe8-5cb28b892ee7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/john-endecott-politics-first-massachusetts-flag/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00383.warc.gz | en | 0.985625 | 721 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
-0.4262731075286865,
0.32263436913490295,
0.29069554805755615,
-0.26674067974090576,
-0.3441154956817627,
0.3160116374492645,
-0.033207379281520844,
0.08102485537528992,
-0.12575392425060272,
0.18114635348320007,
-0.08248650282621384,
-0.022124158218503,
-0.25502192974090576,
0.05611244961... | 9 | In 1634, John Endecott and Roger Williams agreed on one thing. The first Massachusetts flag had to be changed.
Endecott, of Salem, was one of the more radical of the early Puritan settlers of Massachusetts. He was reduced in power when John Winthrop arrived from London with a colonial charter.
Winthrop became governor and Endecott became a councilor. Part of the flag carried a red St. George’s cross on a white background. But the design offended the Puritan sensibilities of Massachusetts colonists. They felt the red cross had roots in Catholicism. And at the time, King Charles I’s Catholic leanings were under scrutiny.
Under goading from the religious radical Roger Williams, who would soon be banished to Rhode Island, John Endecott had the red cross removed from the flag that flew at Salem. There was no lack of public support for Endecott’s actions. But he was well ahead of his time, a fact that worried the more politically astute members of the colony.
It would be nearly ten years before Civil War broke out in England and citizens there would be gleefully stripping the red cross from public symbols. And so Endecott was called to answer for his actions by the Massachusetts Court of Assistants.
John Winthrop noted the matter in his journal: “At the court of assistante complaint was made by some of the country that the ensign at Salem was defaced viz: one part of the red cross was taken out… Much matter was made of this fearing it would be taken as a an act of rebellion.”
Massachusetts’ leaders were worried that the defacing of the flag would cause trouble in England if the government took offense. They wrote a letter to the colony’s lawyer in London, John Winthrop’s brother-in-law Emanuel Downing. In it they relayed the details of what had happened and noted that the perpetrators would be punished.
Winthrop hoped the letter would quell any anger if the flag defacing became public.
But the letter wasn’t exactly true. When the Court of Assistants met in January of 1635, feeling against the red cross symbol was running high and the court couldn’t agree about what to do.
In May of 1685, a court was appointed to review Endecott’s actions and it censured him. The court didn’t declare that Endecott was wrong in his reasoning – that indeed the cross was a sign of Catholic beliefs and should be removed from the flag. But Endecott had overstepped his authority.
Winthrop noted: “They found his offense to be great, rash and without discretion, taking on more authority than he had.”
But the court magistrates also noted that part of the problem was that Endecott had not consulted the general court in his actions, so that the colony could have considered altering all the flags. The result gave the appearance, they concluded, that others in Massachusetts supported idolotry in contrast to Salem.
Endecott was banned from leadership positions for a year as a censure, a fairly mild slap on the wrist. But as political opinion in England caught up with Endecott, he was elevated through the ranks of government and shortly after the English Civil War broke out, Endecott was made governor of Massachusetts.
Thanks to: How John Endecott Cut the Red Cross from the Flag by Nathan Hawkes | 693 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Last year, Bruce McLachlan, the principal of Swanson Primary School in New Zealand granted students at his school more freedom by not enforcing rules for the playground. With enforcement suspended, students are free to skateboard, mudslide, climb trees, and rummage among tires and old wood at the school during recess.
The move was part of an experiment on four schools run by researchers from Auckland University of Technology and Otago University. The unexpected result of the reduced rules: Bullying decreased so much that the timeout area at Swanson Primary School was no longer needed. The results of the experiment were so successful that the school continued to not enforce playground rules after it was over.
Surveying the outcome, McLachlan suggests that bullying occurs when students are not engaged or motivated. Rather than turn on each other in the absence of rules, the children took advantage of their newfound freedom to engage in creative and cooperative play. | <urn:uuid:d9a054e3-fe29-4dbd-ac67-34a7d52e4698> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://reason.com/2014/04/30/fewer-rules-fewer-bullies/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00382.warc.gz | en | 0.9815 | 186 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
-0.009086932986974716,
0.27018675208091736,
0.12418486922979355,
-0.3000715374946594,
-0.19453337788581848,
0.19490867853164673,
-0.12241624295711517,
-0.13098309934139252,
0.23689016699790955,
0.10107215493917465,
0.1641114056110382,
0.015293505042791367,
0.356568306684494,
0.150463953614... | 5 | Last year, Bruce McLachlan, the principal of Swanson Primary School in New Zealand granted students at his school more freedom by not enforcing rules for the playground. With enforcement suspended, students are free to skateboard, mudslide, climb trees, and rummage among tires and old wood at the school during recess.
The move was part of an experiment on four schools run by researchers from Auckland University of Technology and Otago University. The unexpected result of the reduced rules: Bullying decreased so much that the timeout area at Swanson Primary School was no longer needed. The results of the experiment were so successful that the school continued to not enforce playground rules after it was over.
Surveying the outcome, McLachlan suggests that bullying occurs when students are not engaged or motivated. Rather than turn on each other in the absence of rules, the children took advantage of their newfound freedom to engage in creative and cooperative play. | 184 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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