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2936492
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th%20Marine%20Regiment
|
5th Marine Regiment
|
In late May 2013, Marines of 5th Marine Regiment participated in a training exhibition with the French 21st Marine Infantry Regiment in Frejus, France. The Marines learned about and fired French weapons systems, including the FAMAS G2 assault rifle. They also used kayaks to venture into the Mediterranean Sea, providing the Marines with an opportunity to learn about the French Marines' reconnaissance tactics.
In June 2013, Marines serving with 5th Marine Regiment gathered for the regiment's Operation Enduring Freedom Memorial Dedication ceremony. More than a hundred Marines, veterans and Gold Star Mothers gathered at the San Mateo Memorial Garden to join the regiment at the ceremony. The names of the Marines and sailors who fought and died serving with a 5th Marines battalion or under Regimental Combat Team 5 in Afghanistan are etched into the 7-ton, granite memorial. The 7-foot tall, 8-foot, 4-inch wide memorial was created in Barre, Vt., and traveled to Camp Pendleton in a 10-day journey where it was escorted every mile of the trip by Patriot Guard Riders, a motorcycle club that strongly supports service members by welcoming them home from deployments. Etched into the bottom of the memorial stone are the words, "FALLEN BUT NEVER FORGOTTEN."
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2936499
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20of%20Creation
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Ray of Creation
|
The names of the notes have historically been attributed to the hymn 'Ut queant laxis' by Paulus Diaconus, where UT is used instead of DO. Mouravieff explains UT as indicating the uterus in the birth of flesh, and SI as representing "the door of the second Birth, according to the Spirit".
Other properties
There are many properties which the Fourth Way relates to the Ray of Creation such as: the evolution of the substances in the Universe, relationship between the cosmoses and the human body, etc. Many of the properties of the law of octaves could be displayed using the Ray of Creation.
"Involution" describes the branching out of the Ray of Creation from the level of God to the most mechanical and law-bound, and processes going in that direction. "Evolution" describes processes going in the opposite direction, as in the goal of Fourth Way development to transcend the level of the physical body, as well as cosmic processes.
The law of octaves relates all processes which occur in time to the diatonic scale, ascribing a particular meaning to the intervals corresponding to the just diatonic semitone (a pitch ratio of 16:15). All vibrations are said to proceed with periodic unevenness corresponding to the diatonic scale.
Ray of Creation in history
According to G. I. Gurdjieff, some of the ancient geocentric models don't represent an Earth-centered universe at all, but in reality display the Ray of Creation. This confusion was due to a lack of knowledge on the part of those examining the diagrams. Thus, the Ray of Creation is a part of ancient knowledge. Gurdjieff also claimed to have learned it in Asia and the Middle-East, during the end of the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century.
| 2.234375
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2936554
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pont%20Alexandre%20III
|
Pont Alexandre III
|
The Pont Alexandre III () is a deck arch bridge that spans the Seine in Paris. It connects the Champs-Élysées quarter with those of the Invalides and Eiffel Tower. The bridge is widely regarded as the most ornate, extravagant bridge in the city. It has been classified as a French monument historique since 1975.
History
The Beaux-Arts style bridge, with its exuberant Art Nouveau lamps, cherubs, nymphs and winged horses at both ends, was built between 1896 and 1900. It is named after Tsar Alexander III of Russia, who had concluded the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1892. His son Nicholas II laid the foundation stone in October 1896. The style of the bridge reflects that of the Grand Palais, to which it leads on the right bank.
The construction of the bridge is a marvel of 19th century engineering, consisting of a high single span steel arch. The design, by the architects and Gaston Cousin, was constrained by the need to keep the bridge from obscuring the view of the Champs-Élysées or the Invalides.
The bridge was built by the engineers Jean Résal and . It was inaugurated in 1900 for the Exposition Universelle (universal exhibition) World's Fair, as were the nearby Grand Palais and Petit Palais.
Sculptures
Numerous sculptors provided the sculptures that feature prominently on the bridge.
Fames
Four gilt-bronze statues of Fames watch over the bridge, supported on massive masonry socles, that provide stabilizing counterweight for the arch, without interfering with monumental views. The socles are crowned by Fames restraining Pegasus.
| 2.734375
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2936558
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replacement%20value
|
Replacement value
|
The term replacement cost or replacement value refers to the amount that an entity would have to pay to replace an asset at the present time, according to its current worth.
In the insurance industry, "replacement cost" or "replacement cost value" is one of several methods of determining the value of an insured item. Replacement cost is the actual cost to replace an item or structure at its pre-loss condition. This may not be the "market value" of the item, and is typically distinguished from the "actual cash value" payment which includes a deduction for depreciation. For insurance policies for property insurance, a contractual stipulation that the lost asset must be actually repaired or replaced before the replacement cost can be paid is common. This prevents overinsurance, which contributes to arson and insurance fraud. Replacement cost policies emerged in the mid-20th century; prior to that concern about overinsurance restricted their availability.
If insurance carriers honestly determine replacement cost, it becomes a "win-win" for both for the carriers and the customers. However, when a replacement cost determination is made by the carrier (and, perhaps, its third party expert) that exceeds the actual cost of replacement, the customer is likely to be paying for more insurance than necessary. To the extent that the carrier has knowingly or carelessly sold excessive (i.e. unnecessary) insurance, such a practice may constitute consumer fraud.
| 2.421875
| 0
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2936558
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replacement%20value
|
Replacement value
|
Underinsurance responsibility
Although insurance is decided at the state-level, most states follow similar practices. In California and Texas, the insured is responsible for determining the proper amount of insurance. However, one survey found that about half of consumers believe it is insurer's responsibility, and consumers may come to this conclusion through the insurer's processes, which one legal scholar argues creates a "reasonable expectation" of coverage, which is a controversial insurance law doctrine adopted in certain states.
In California, the 2007 case on the issue, Everett vs. State Farm General Insurance Company, provoked an unsuccessful request by the California Department of Insurance and insurance nonprofit United Policyholders to depublish the case.
Infrastructure
In urban planning, the replacement cost of public infrastructure (such as transport infrastructure or water infrastructure) is an important issue to avoid insolvency. If the cost of maintenance and eventual replacement of a road (usually due 20 to 25 years after construction) exceeds the funds the (usually local) government has available or could raise to cover it, it could result in bankruptcy.
| 2.671875
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2936567
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Bank%20Building%20%28Toronto%29
|
Royal Bank Building (Toronto)
|
The Royal Bank Building refers to two office buildings constructed for the Royal Bank of Canada in Toronto financial district in Ontario, Canada:The first building is a 20-storey structure situated on the northeast corner of Yonge and King Streets. It was completed in 1915 and designed by the architectural firm Ross and Macdonald. The City of Toronto recognized its historical significance by designating it under the Ontario Heritage Act in 1976. It is also commonly referred to by its municipal address, 2 King Street East. Standing at 90 meters tall, the building was the tallest in Canada until 1928.
The second building also known as the 12-storey Royal Bank Building, located at 20 King Street West between Yonge and Bay Streets, served as the bank's Toronto offices until the Royal Bank Plaza was completed in 1977. This building was designed by architects Marani, Morris, & Allen. It is still one of several buildings in Toronto's downtown core occupied by the Royal Bank. Construction on the building commenced with the laying of the cornerstone by then Royal Bank of Canada Chairman James Allan in 1964.
| 2.0625
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2936624
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Wave%20%28Arizona%29
|
The Wave (Arizona)
|
The Wave is a sandstone rock formation located in Arizona, US, near its northern border with Utah. The formation is situated on the slopes of the Coyote Buttes in the Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness of the Colorado Plateau. The area is administered by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) at the Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monument visitor center in Kanab, Utah.
The formation is well-known among hikers and photographers for its colourful, undulating forms and the difficult hike required to reach it. Due to the fragile nature of the formation and the large number of people wishing to visit it, a daily lottery system is used to dispense permits for up to 16 people and/or 4 groups (whichever comes first) two days before (visitors must apply within a geofence area encompassing the greater Kanab visitor center, Vermilion Cliffs, and Page areas). Additionally, 48 people and/or 12 groups (whichever comes first) online permits for each date are available four months in advance of a planned trip. A map and information about the hike are supplied to those who have obtained permits.
Geology
The Wave consists of intersecting U-shaped troughs that have been eroded into Navajo Sandstone of Jurassic age. The two major troughs which comprise this rock formation are wide by long and wide by long. Initially, infrequent runoff eroded these troughs along joints within the Navajo Sandstone. After their formation, the drainage basin, which fed rainwater to these troughs, shrank to the point that the runoff became insufficient to contribute to the cutting of these troughs. As a result, the troughs are now almost exclusively eroded by wind, as indicated by the orientation of erosional steps and risers cut into the sandstone along their steep walls. These erosional steps and risers are oriented relative to the predominant direction of the wind as it is now naturally funneled into and through these troughs.
| 2.546875
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2936624
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Wave%20%28Arizona%29
|
The Wave (Arizona)
|
The Wave exposes large-scale sets of cross-bedded eolian sandstone composed of rhythmic and cyclic alternating grainflow and windripple laminae. The rhythmic and cyclic alternating laminae represent periodic changes in the prevailing winds during the Jurassic period as large sand dunes migrated across a sandy desert. The thin ridges and ribbing seen within The Wave are the result of the differential erosion of rhythmic and cyclic alternating grainflow and windripple laminae within the Navajo Sandstone. These laminae have differing resistance to erosion as they have been differentially cemented according to variations in the grain size of the sand composing them. The soft sandstone is fragile, especially the ridges and ribbing of The Wave. As a result, visitors must walk carefully to avoid breaking the small ridges.
In some areas The Wave exposes deformed laminae within the Navajo Sandstone. These laminae were deformed prior to the lithification of the sand to form sandstone. Judging from their physical characteristics, this deformation likely represents the trampling and churning of these sands by dinosaurs after their deposition. Dinosaur tracks and the fossil burrows of desert-dwelling arthropods, such as beetles and other insects, have been found in the Navajo Sandstone within the North Coyote Buttes Wilderness Area.
Artistic significance
An ideal time to photograph The Wave is the few hours around midday when there are no shadows in the center, although early morning and late afternoon shadows can also make for dramatic photos. After a rain storm, numerous pools form which can contain hundreds of tadpole shrimps (Lepidurus apus). These pools can be present for several days.
Above and slightly west of The Wave is what many call "the Second Wave", or "the middle Wave", which has fainter colors but is still of interest to most visitors and photographers. Hugo Martin from the Los Angeles Times said, "You can't call yourself a landscape photographer if you haven't snapped a photo or two of the Wave."
| 3.3125
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2936624
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Wave%20%28Arizona%29
|
The Wave (Arizona)
|
Access policy
The Wave is located within the Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness. This wilderness is administered by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), part of the United States Department of the Interior. A day-use permit from BLM is required to visit The Wave.
BLM limits access to the North Coyote Buttes Wilderness Area to just 64 permits per day. 48 of the permits are available in advance by an online lottery conducted four months before the month for which the permit is sought. The remaining 16 permits are made available by geofenced daily lottery two days before one's intended hike. The legacy walk-in lottery has transitioned to the new Daily Lottery. While within the geofence area on a mobile device this lottery is only available by going to Recreation.gov in your browser or by installing the Recreation.gov app. Spring and autumn are the most popular times of year to visit, but the popularity of The Wave is such that the chances of obtaining a permit by either advance lottery or the day-before lottery are much less than 50% from March through November. The Wave is particularly well known among European tourists, partly because it appeared in the German documentary film Fascinating Nature (1996) and a compilation called Faszination Natur – Seven Seasons (2004).
Access trails
There are four trailheads which provide access to Paria Canyon and The Wave. However, in an effort to maintain the natural integrity of the region, there are no formal trails or signage to guide hikers to The Wave from any of the trailheads. The White House trailhead is the main entrance, and the one most commonly used. The Buckskin Gulch and Wire Pass trailheads offer more experienced hikers access to Buckskin Gulch, the main tributary of Paria Canyon. The Lee's Ferry trailhead, located at the lower end of Paria Canyon is the normal exit point for hikers traveling the entire length of the canyon.
| 2.21875
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2936624
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Wave%20%28Arizona%29
|
The Wave (Arizona)
|
The shortest hike to The Wave begins at the Wire Pass Trailhead, about south of U.S. Route 89 along House Rock Valley Road, a dirt road about west of Page, Arizona or east of Kanab, Utah that is accessible to most vehicles in good weather. During and after a storm the road may be impassable, even with a four-wheel-drive vehicle. The Wire Pass Trailhead includes a wide parking lot with restrooms, but no water. It is also accessible from the Arizona side by taking U.S. Route 89A from Jacob Lake on the Kaibab Plateau toward Navajo Bridge, turning north onto the House Rock Valley Road, after descending from the Kaibab. This is a longer access route over dirt road than from the Utah side.
From the Wire Pass Trailhead, The Wave can be reached by hiking approximately across open desert, making the round-trip to and from The Wave nearly , climbing about in altitude. Although this is the shortest route, it is also a slightly more challenging hike than several of the other available routes. Temperatures in this area typically climb above in the summer, so it is best to start the hike early. Anyone attempting the hike in any season is wise to be prepared for harsh desert conditions, including fierce winds, blowing sand, and little shade.
The Wave can be challenging to locate due to the lack of an established, marked trail. Hikers must choose their own route across the open desert, which requires traversing exposed sandstone, sand dunes, and sandy wash bottoms. A formal guide sheet for navigating to The Wave is now provided to every permitted hiker by the BLM. The guide is designed for use with compass, GPS, or visual navigation. There are six checkpoints each for the outbound hike to The Wave and the return to the trailhead. Each checkpoint includes a marked color photo of the terrain ahead, azimuth, latitude, longitude, UTM, northing, and easting. Visitors are well advised to closely study the guide sheet before starting their hike.
| 1.96875
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2936666
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wah%20Ching
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Wah Ching
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During the 1960s and 1970s in Chinatown, Los Angeles, the contest for gang dominance was between the Joe Boys, Yao Lai, and the Wah Ching. However, Wah Ching was able to push these gangs out of Los Angeles Chinatown and took over their illegal establishments. Wah Ching became the dominant gang in Chinatown, Los Angeles throughout most of the 1970s and early 1980s.
In 1991, Danny "Ah Pai" Wong, the leader of Wah Ching, was shot and killed by Wo Hop To (WHT) hitmen from Seattle Chinatown. After the murder, most of the Wah Ching members began to leave town, change sides, or retire.
After law enforcement cracked down on the Wo Hop To around 1992, former Wah Ching members who had defected to the Wo Hop To founded the Jackson Street Boys, a gang based in San Francisco's Chinatown which resumed what a SFPD officer described in 2000 as "the same stuff on a smaller scale and without the same visibility", including extortion of local merchants and operating gambling dens.
By the mid-1990s, Southern California Wah Ching had already divided itself into four main branches because of internal disagreements. The four original Wah Ching branches (referred to as sides) are called Sonny-Side, Paul-Side, Ken-Side, and Taiwanese-Side, all named after their founders names or aliases. Despite Wah Ching breaking up into several branches, there was no internal war between the different Wah Ching sides and all sides were led by a lung tao ('dragon head') or dai lao ('older brother') who oversaw their group's activities.
In the mid-1990s, the Wah Ching was reported as being engaged in murder, extortion, drug trafficking and gambling, and expanded into software bootlegging.
| 2.046875
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2936672
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sihl
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Sihl
|
The Sihl is a Swiss river that rises near the Druesberg mountain in the canton of Schwyz, and eventually flows into the Limmat in the centre of the city of Zürich, after crossing the Zürich–Winterthur railway at . It has a length of , including the Sihlsee reservoir, through which the river flows. Water is abstracted from the river at the Sihlsee, leading to decreased downstream water flows and a consequent reduction in water quality.
The river flows through, or along the border of, the cantons of Schwyz, Zürich and Zug. The main settlements of the Sihl Valley are all in the canton of Zürich, and include the towns of Langnau am Albis and Adliswil, along with a south-western segment of the city of Zürich. Above Langnau am Albis, some from the confluence with the Limmat, there are no major settlements alongside the river, and only a few small villages. Whilst the town of Einsiedeln is situated close to the Sihlsee, it is actually in the valley of a tributary river, the Alp.
Etymology
The first written reference to the name dates to 1018, in the form Sylaha.
The name may be of Old European or Celtic origin: *Sîla ("quiet watercourse", from a root *sîl = "to trickle, wet") > Romance Sila with the addition of the Old High German element aha "flowing water".
Course of the river
The river rises to the north-eastern side of the Druesberg mountain, in the municipality of Unteriberg of the canton of Schwyz, and flows north to the village of Studen. Some downstream of Studen, the river enters the artificial Sihlsee reservoir at its southern end. Nearby, the Minster also flows into the Sihlsee, and was, prior to construction of the reservoir, a direct tributary of the Sihl. The Eubach, Rickentalbach and Grossbach tributary streams also flow into the Sihl via the Sihlsee.
| 2.359375
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2936672
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sihl
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Sihl
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The Sihlsee is some long, and lies close to the town of Einsiedeln. It is Switzerland's largest artificial lake, and is impounded by a high dam. Electricity is generated by diverting water down a tunnel from the Sihlsee, which has a water level elevation of , through the Etzelwerk hydroelectric power station at Altendorf, into Lake Zürich, which has a water level elevation of . This has led to decreased water flows downstream of the dam, with negative impact on water quality and a tendency for the river to dry out in places during low flow conditions in winter.
Below the dam, the Sihl enters a narrow glacial valley and continues in an easterly direction, receiving the water of its tributary the Alp, before briefly entering the canton of Zürich near the village of Hütten. The river then continues as the border between the cantons of Zug and Zürich, passing through the Sihlsprung rapids along the way. At the village of Sihlbrugg, the river enters the canton of Zürich for a second and final time. North of Sihlbrugg, the river flows through a lightly populated and heavily wooded valley, accompanied by a main road and railway line. The Sihlwald forest, a rare example of a large-scale and original forest, lies on the slopes of the Albis that rise up from the river to the west. At this point, Lake Zürich lies only to the east, but is separated from the river by the Zimmerberg mountain.
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2936672
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sihl
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Sihl
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Reaching the town of Langnau am Albis, on the west bank of the river, and the village of Gattikon, on the east bank, the valley becomes more populous and industrial, with industry originally attracted by the available water power. From here the valley bottom is continuously built-up through the town of Adliswil to the boundary of the city of Zürich. Once in the city, the river flows through and between the Leimbach, Wollishofen, Friesenberg, Alt-Wiedikon and Enge quarters before reaching the city centre. In this stretch the river is crossed by many bridges, and for one stretch the A3 motorway runs along and over the river on a viaduct.
Nearer the city centre, the SZU railway line runs in tunnel along and under the river. One access to that line's Selnau station is constructed in the form of an artificial island within the river. Just downstream of here, the Schanzengraben moat, which is fed from Lake Zürich and formerly protected the western perimeter of the Altstadt, flows into the Sihl, just before the latter flows under Zürich Hauptbahnhof railway station. The station has platforms on two levels, and the river actually tunnels under the upper ones, but above the lower ones, in 5 culverts each with a length of and a clear opening of by . Shortly after passing under the station, the Sihl joins the Limmat at the apex of the Platzspitz park.
Flood risk
The river flows through the Sihlsee some upstream of Zürich city centre, and studies have shown that a failure of the dam could lead to an high flood wave reaching the city within 2 hours. This threat is exacerbated by the fact that the river passes through Zürich Hauptbahnhof station in a tunnel that limits the river’s flow capacity, raising concerns about the capacity of the tunnel to deal with extreme flood events. This threat has led the City of Zürich to develop, publish and test evacuation plans for the affected areas of the city.
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2936679
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse%20Astronuclear%20Laboratory
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Westinghouse Astronuclear Laboratory
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Under the NERVA contract, the initial objective was to build a rocket engine that could deliver at least 825 seconds of specific impulse, at least 50,000 pounds of thrust, at least 10 minutes of continuous operation at full thrust, and have the ability to start up on its own with no external energy source. Liquid hydrogen served as the propellant that was supplied to the reactor core by turbopumps and also provided regenerative cooling. The cylindrical graphite core was surrounded by twelve rotating control drums with beryllium on one side to reflect neutrons and boron on the other side to absorb neutrons to control the rate of the nuclear reaction in the core. The core consisted of clusters of hexagonal graphite fuel elements containing pyrographite-coated beads of uranium pellets coated with niobium carbide to prevent corrosion by exposure to the hydrogen propellant. Each fuel rod cluster was supported by an inconel tie rod. The fuel pellets were provided by Westinghouse Astrofuel's Cheswick plant in Allegheny County. Fuel element corrosion tests were first conducted at Cheswick, and later at the Westinghouse Waltz Mill facility in Westmoreland County.
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2936679
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse%20Astronuclear%20Laboratory
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Westinghouse Astronuclear Laboratory
|
The first proof of concept test of an assembled Westinghouse-Aerojet rocket engine (NRX-A2) was conducted at Jackass Flats, Nevada on September 24, 1964 that provided six minutes of continuous operation. By April 23, 1965 the NRX-A3 provided sixteen minutes of operation and a three-minute restart and incorporated pulse cooling for the first time. In 1966 the NRX-A5/EST delivered two separate periods of full power totaling 30 minutes. In December 1967 the NRX-A6 delivered sixty minutes of operation at full power and on June 11, 1969 the XE engine was started twenty times for a total of three hours and forty-eight minutes, eleven of which were at full power. By 1970, the proposed NERVA I concept vehicle that evolved out of this work was projected to be capable of delivering 1500 MW of power and 75,000 pounds of thrust. It also had a projected lifetime runtime of ten hours and could be started and stopped up to 60 times while delivering a specific impulse of 850 seconds. Its total weight was less than 15,000 pounds. Westinghouse and Aerojet were ready to begin construction of the first flight engines to be launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida beginning in 1973 when the program was canceled. The total amount spent on the project up to that time was $1.45 billion and more than 1,100 people were employed by the project. A NASA plan released in 1969 to land the first humans on Mars by 1981 using the NERVA engines was also quietly shelved at that time. Government funding for the NERVA program was ended in 1972 due to "lack of clear requirements for its capabilities." However, work on the project helped achieve major milestones in developing high-temperature/high-strength materials technology, which finds application in aerospace and a myriad of private-sector industries.
While other innovative projects (such as development of a fully implantable, self-contained, nuclear-powered artificial heart) were pursued into the mid-1970s, WANL ceased operations as a formal Westinghouse division shortly thereafter.
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2936679
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse%20Astronuclear%20Laboratory
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Westinghouse Astronuclear Laboratory
|
Among AESD's successes was the winning site and conceptual design proposal for the Solar Total Energy Project (STEP) in Shenandoah [now part of Newnan], Coweta County, Georgia, south of Atlanta along I-85. Financed as a joint project by Georgia Power Company (part of Southern Company) and the U.S. Department of Energy, STEP operated from 1982 until 1989. Covering more than , it was the world's largest solar thermal cogeneration project. It consisted of 114 tracking parabolic-dish collectors (7 m dia), which heated a transfer fluid that produced high-pressure steam for generating electricity that was fed to an adjacent knitwear factory owned and operated by Bleyle of Germany. Downstream of the turbine, medium-pressure steam was piped to the plant for knitwear pressing, and low-pressure steam was used to provide air conditioning. The project was dismantled in 1989 when the turbine failed and there were no funds to replace it or provide other needed maintenance on the facility.
Other work conducted at AESD included testing of nickel metal hydride battery prototypes. A phosphoric acid fuel cell was designed, built, and tested successfully. Dendritic web silicon photocells were built and tested, and that business was later sold and transferred to Solar Power Industries Inc. of West Newton, Pa. AESD engineers also built a prototype for a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) system utilizing hot plasma gases emitted by a coal-fired power plant. The exhaust gasses passed through a copper plate channel, generating additional electricity [up to 30%].
Advanced Power Systems Divisions
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2936682
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovruch
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Ovruch
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During World War II, the German occupiers operated a Jewish forced labour battalion in the town. Mordechai Schlein, a Jewish-Belarussian partisan, blew up a restaurant with about 200 German officers in it.
During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, on March 6, at 2:32 a.m., the occupants launched 3 bomb attacks on the residential sector of Ovruch. A total of 45 private houses were damaged, 5 of which were completely destroyed. There was also significant damage to 43 apartments in a multi-storey building, the premises of a children's and youth art center, a music school and a gym.
Around 20:30, Russian troops conducted 6 more air strikes. Three civilians were killed. As a result, the building of the Ovruch Employment Center was completely destroyed. Also damaged were the premises of the Ovruch City Hospital, the Centers for administrative services, apartments in 8 multi-storey buildings, about 5 private houses, one of which was completely destroyed, and 2 more are in disrepair.
Architecture
The only mark of the town's antiquity is St. Basil's Church, commissioned by Rurik II of Kyiv from his court architect in the late 1190s. The church was built in Rurik's votchina and was dedicated to his patron saint.
St. Basil's Church has four pillars, three apses and one dome. The western facade is flanked by two round towers, probably in imitation of the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. The building is distinguished by elaborate brick facades, interlaced with bands of polished colored stone. The complicated design of pilasters points to a complex system of roofing and to a very high dome. The dome and vaults collapsed during the siege of Ovruch by Gediminas in 1321. The ruins of the church survived until 1842, when they crumbled, with the exception of three apses and a portion of the northern wall with an arch.
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2936723
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenthetical%20referencing
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Parenthetical referencing
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How to cite
The structure of a citation under the author–date method is the author's surname, year of publication, and page number or range, in parentheses, as in "(Smith 2010, p. 1)".
The page number or page range may be omitted if the entire work is cited, as in "(Smith 2010)".
Narrative style citations have the author appearing as part of the regular text sentence, outside parentheses, as in: "Jones (2001) revolutionized the field of trauma surgery."
Two authors are cited using "and" or "&": (Deane and Jones 1991) or (Deane & Jones 1991). More than two authors are cited using "et al.": (Smith et al. 1992).
In some documentation systems (e.g., MLA style), an unknown date is cited as having "no date of publication" by the abbreviation for "no date" (Deane, n.d.).
In such documentation systems, works without pagination are referred to in the References list as "not paginated" with the abbreviation for that phrase (n. pag.).
"No place of publication" and/or "no publisher" are both designated the same way (n.p.) and placed in the appropriate spot in the bibliographical citation (Harvard Referencing. N.p.).
A reference to a republished work is cited with the original publication date either in square brackets (Marx [1867] 1967, p. 90) or separated with a slash (Marx, 1867/1967, p. 90). The inclusion of the original publication year qualifies the suggestion otherwise that the publication originally occurred in 1967.
If an author published several books in 2005, the year of the first publication (in the alphabetic order of the references) is cited and referenced as 2005a, the second as 2005b and so on.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenthetical%20referencing
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Parenthetical referencing
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A citation is placed wherever appropriate in or after the sentence. If it is at the end of a sentence, it is placed before the period, but a citation for an entire block quote immediately follows the period at the end of the block since the citation is not an actual part of the quotation itself. When citing quotes it’s advisable to insert the page number as this points directly to the page of the content that has been used.
Complete citations are provided in alphabetical order in a section following the text, usually designated as "Works cited" or "References." The difference between a "works cited" or "references" list and a bibliography is that a bibliography may include works not directly cited in the text.
All citations are in the same font as the main text.
There is no official guide to Harvard citation style, consequently variations occur across various online Harvard citation and referencing guides. For example, some universities instruct students to type a book's publication date without parentheses in the reference list.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenthetical%20referencing
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Parenthetical referencing
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The principal advantage of the author–date method is that a reader familiar with a field is likely to recognize a citation without having to check in the references section. This is most useful in fields whose works are commonly known by their date of publication (for example, the sciences and social sciences in which one cites, say, "the 2005 Johns Hopkins study of brain function"), or if the author cited is notorious (for example, HIV denialist Peter Duesberg on the cause of AIDS).
The use of author–date systems helps the reader easily identify sources that may be outdated.
If the same source is cited more than once, even a reader unfamiliar with the author may remember the name. It quickly becomes obvious if the publication is relying heavily on a single author or single publication. When many different pages of the same work are cited, the reader does not need to flip back and forth to footnotes or endnotes full of "ibid." citations to discover this fact.
With the author–date method, there is no renumbering hassle when the order of in-text citations is changed, which can be a scourge of the numbered endnotes system if house style or project style insists that citations never appear out of numerical order. (Computerized reference-management software automates this aspect of the numbered system [for example, Microsoft Word's endnote system, Wikipedia's <ref> system, LaTeX/BibTeX, or various applications marketed to professionals].)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenthetical%20referencing
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Parenthetical referencing
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Parenthetical referencing works well in combination with substantive notes. When the note system is used for source citations, two different systems of note marking and placement are needed—in Chicago Style, for instance, "the citation notes should be numbered and appear as endnotes. The substantive notes, indicated by asterisks and other symbols, appear as footnotes" ("Chicago Manual of Style" 2003, 16.63–64). This approach can be cumbersome in any circumstances. When it is not possible to use footnotes altogether probably because of the publisher's policy, it results in two parallel series of endnotes, which can be confusing to readers. Using parenthetical referencing for sources avoids such a problem.
The reader can find the in-text author–date citations of a specific work more easily. Finding in-text numbered citations is more difficult because some will not appear if they are included in ranges.
The author–date method can be more convenient for manuscript/draft preparation, or revisions, that are handled by multiple contributing authors. For example, multiple authors are not necessarily able to use the same reference-management software. As such, it may be a preferred style to be used for submission to journals that allow any reference style before acceptance, such as journals that follow Elsevier's Your Paper Your Way guidelines.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenthetical%20referencing
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Parenthetical referencing
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Taking up space and distracting, especially when many works are cited in a single place (which often occurs when reviewing a large body of previous work). Numbered footnotes or endnotes, by contrast, can be combined into a range, e.g. "[27–35]". However this disadvantage is offset by the fact that parenthetical referencing may be economical for the overall document since, for instance, "(Smith 2008: 34)" takes up a small amount of space in a paragraph, whereas the same information would require a whole line in a footnote or endnote.
In many disciplines in the arts and humanities, date of publication is often not the most important piece of information about a particular work. Thus, in author–date references such as "(Dickens 2003: 10)", the date is essentially redundant or meaningless when read on the page, since works may go through numerous editions or translations long after the original publication. Compare a reference in a science discipline such as "The last survey indicated that four hundred were left in the wild (Jones et al. 2003)", where the date is meaningful. The reader of certain forms of arts and humanities scholarship may thus be better aided by the use of author–title referencing styles such as MLA: for example, "(Dickens Oliver, 10)", where meaningful information is given on the page. Historical scholarship is an exception, since, when citing a primary source, date of publication is meaningful, though in most branches of history footnotes are preferred on other grounds. Generally speaking, however, it is instructive that author–date systems such as Harvard were devised by scientists, whereas author–title systems such as MLA were devised by humanities scholars.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenthetical%20referencing
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Parenthetical referencing
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Origins and use
The origin of the author–date style is attributed to a paper by Edward Laurens Mark, Hersey professor of anatomy and director of the zoological laboratory at Harvard University, who may have copied it from the cataloguing system used then and now by the library of Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology. In 1881 Mark wrote a paper on the embryogenesis of the garden slug, in which he included an author–date citation in parentheses on page 194, the first known instance of such a reference. Until then, according to Eli Chernin writing in the British Medical Journal, references had appeared in inconsistent styles in footnotes, referred to in the text using a variety of printers' symbols, including asterisks and daggers. Chernin writes that a 1903 festschrift dedicated to Mark by 140 students, including Theodore Roosevelt, confirms that the author–date system is attributable to Mark. The festschrift pays tribute to Mark's 1881 paper, writing that it "introduced into zoology a proper fullness and accuracy of citation and a convenient and uniform method of referring from text to bibliography." According to an editorial note in the British Medical Journal in 1945, an unconfirmed anecdote is that the term "Owen system" was introduced by an English visitor to Harvard University library, who was impressed by the citation system and dubbed it "Harvard system" upon his return to England.
Although it originated in biology, it is now more common in humanities, history, and social science. It is favored by a few scientific journals such as The Astrophysical Journal, but the major biology journal Cell announced in 2022 that it was moving away from the Harvard style.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossraguel%20Abbey
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Crossraguel Abbey
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The Abbey of Saint Mary of Crossraguel is a ruin of a former abbey near the town of Maybole, South Ayrshire, Scotland. Although it is a ruin, visitors can still see the original monks’ church, their cloister and their dovecot (pigeon tower).
Foundation
Founded in 1244 by Donnchadh, Earl of Carrick, following an earlier donation of 1225, to the monks of Paisley Abbey for that purpose. They reputedly built nothing more than a small chapel and kept the balance for themselves. The Earl took the matter to the Bishop of Glasgow for arbitration and, winning his case, forced the monks to build a proper abbey.
Name
The origin of the abbey's name refers to the ancient Cross of Riaghail (Latin form St Regulus) that stood on the spot. Crossraguel was a Cluniac abbey and the monks - members of a branch of the Benedictines - were known as the "Black monks" after the colour of their clothes.
History
Crossraguel Abbey was founded in 1244 by Duncan, 1st Earl of Carrick. The earl sought assistance from the abbot and monks of Paisley Abbey and provided them with land and funds. However, the Paisley superiors built only a small chapel for Crossraguel and kept the remainder for themselves. Upset at this, the earl took the case to law, seeking assistance from the Bishop of Glasgow, who ruled on the earl's behalf. He required not only that Paisley build the monastery at Crossraguel, but also that some of the monks from Paisley should be transferred there. These monks were given the authority to choose their own abbot. The abbot of Paisley, it was decreed, was not to interfere with Crossraguel's affairs, though he was allowed a yearly visit. All of Paisley's possessions in Carrick were to be handed over to Crossraguel, a ruling which the abbot of Paisley appealed to the pope in 1265, but to no avail.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossraguel%20Abbey
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Crossraguel Abbey
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In 1570, the Kennedy family, Earls of Cassilis famously obtained the lands of Crossraguel Abbey through the torturing by Gilbert Kennedy, 4th Earl of Cassilis of Allan Stewart, the commendator at his castle of Dunure. A feud followed including a number of families and lasted until at least 1611. The Reformation (c. 1560) led to the destruction of many abbeys but Crossraguel was not badly damaged; nonetheless, monastic life here ceased before the end of the 16th century.
James VI intended to rebuild the abbey or abbot's house in 1603 for the use of his son, Prince Henry. In December 1612 James VI granted the former abbey to Peter Hewat, minister at St Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh who owned it until his death in 1645.
Present day
The Visit Scotland web site describes the property as follows. "Although a ruin, the Crossraguel Abbey is still complete with the original monks’ church, their cloister and even their dovecot (pigeon tower). Fine architectural details from the 15th century can still be seen within the ruins with the chapter house still standing complete with benches for the monks and an arched seat for the abbot." Another site adds that "visitors can wander around the 15th century choir building, with its ornate carvings, the tower house and gatehouse ... There are stairs to the top of the gatehouse".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaxley%2C%20Suffolk
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Yaxley, Suffolk
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Yaxley is a small village just west of Eye in Suffolk, England. The name means 'cuckoo-clearing'.
Church of St. Mary
Pevsner describes the north porch of the 12th-century church as 'one of the most swagger in Suffolk'.
Inside the church are the remnants of a large medieval doom painting and high on the wall above the door hangs a Sexton's Wheel. This comprises two wheels, set on a axle. Its purpose, and mode of use, are uncertain. It has been suggested it was simply a decorative feature. An alternative theory suggests it was an early version of the type of spin indicator used in modern gameshows. The sexton would set the wheels spinning and parishioners would grab at one of the strings attached to them. Each string was assigned to one of the six Lady Days named in honour of the Virgin Mary, and whichever string was seized would determine the day on which the parishioner's penitential fast would begin. The only other known example is at Long Stratton in Norfolk.
Local houses
Ashton Cottage in Church Lane, once the village school, was for many years the home of choreographer Frederick Ashton. He lived in Valley Farm House on Old Ipswich Road, until recently a property of the Henniker-Major family.
16th-century Yaxley Hall is a Grade II* listed building. It has a fanciful Gothic facade and, according to Pevsner, 'a composite picture' including older range with mullioned and transomed windows. Two wings burnt down in 1922. A painting of Henrietta Nelson at the hall is said to be haunted, and has recently been returned to display after an absence of nearly a century.
Yaxley Manor, built for John Fanner in 1520, is of timber frame construction, clad in brickwork. It is a Grade II* listed building.
Bull's Hall is named after William de Bulle, owner in 1328; the present timber-framed and jettied building dates from 1570.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claris%20Resolve
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Claris Resolve
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Claris Resolve was a spreadsheet computer program for the Apple Macintosh. It was released by Claris in 1991 and sold until 1994.
In an effort to flesh out their software suite, in the early 1990s Claris wanted to introduce a spreadsheet application, and decided to buy an existing one. This was not particularly difficult, as Informix had essentially abandoned the Mac version of WingZ, and Claris was able to purchase the non-exclusive rights to the codebase. After changing the interface to conform to their new "Pro" line of product's GUI, they released it at the MacWorld Expo Boston on June 6, 1991, as Resolve.
Resolve supports a worksheet size of more than one billion cells and includes 149 built-in functions that allow users to create financial, statistical and mathematical models. Resolve also contains object-oriented, MacDraw-like drawing tools for combining illustrations, clip art, text, charts and numbers in reports. Resolve also included WingZ scripting language, renamed Resolve Script. Resolve also offered 3D charting that Wingz was the first to bring on Macintosh.
Resolve failed to gain significant market share due to Microsoft Excel, which also stopped Lotus 1-2-3 becoming popular on the Macintosh. This led to disappointing sales, and in 1993 development was stopped. On 31 March 1994 Claris stopped selling Resolve, the program was supported up until 31 March 1995. Claris suggested existing Resolve users to upgrade to the spreadsheet module of ClarisWorks.
Reception
Resolve 1.0v3 got mice (out of 5) in June 1992 issue of MacUser, praising the familiar interface and the scripting.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsthaler
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Reichsthaler
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Prior to the Guldengroschen
Since the Holy Roman Empire was a loose federation of hundreds of feudal and princely rulers, Germany had a collection of currency systems loosely related to the Frankish Carolingian monetary system with one pound (later Gulden) equal to 20 shillings (later Groschen), and a shilling equal to 12 pennies (Pfennig). Many feudal rulers claimed the right to issue their own currency in their own domains, and often debased them in moments of stringency. Developments in the French livre currency system influenced the evolution of the German currencies. The French denier led to the pfennig in the 9th century. France's 1-shilling then became the groschen in the 13th century. Finally, the ounce-sized French livre & Dutch guilder of the 15th century helped define Germany's ounce-sized Guldengroschen and its subdivisions.
The Guldengroschen, 1486–1524
The Guldengroschen was a large silver coin of approximately 30 grams minted from the mine output of nations located southeast of modern-day Germany. The coin's name denotes its approximate equivalence to the Dutch guilder and French livre parisis of the 15th century, then worth around 1 ounce of silver or 2.6 grams gold. Though initially of varying weights and even facing competition from the Joachimsthaler, it was a coin that succeeded in the era of abundant precious metals in the 16th century, and was a natural choice of unit for a unified German currency.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutso
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Mutso
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Mutso () is a small village in Georgia. One of the former strongholds of the historic Georgian province of Khevsureti (now part of Mtskheta-Mtianeti region), it is located on a rocky mountain (1880 m) on the right bank of the Andakistskali river (ანდაქისწყალი).
Geography
The village, almost completely abandoned more than a century ago, is a home to approximately 30 medieval fortified dwelling units arranged on vertical terraces above the Mutso-Ardoti gorge, four combat towers and ruins of several old structures and buildings.
Difficult to access, the village retains original architecture, and is a popular destination for tourists and mountain trekkers. Listed, however, among the most endangered historic monuments of Georgia, a project of the rehabilitation of Mutso has been developed since 2004. In 2019, the reconstructed village won the EU Prize for Cultural Heritage / Europa Nostra Award.
Legends
A legend has it that the villagers worshiped the Broliskalo Icon of Archangel. They were renowned as fighters and hunters, and considered themselves permanent members of the army of the sacred flags and guardians of fabulous treasury donated to the Icon over the centuries. The legends say the treasury that is still kept in the high mountains around Mutso waiting for the chosen one to come.
As the legend puts it “the Shetekauris dug Mutso”, which indirectly indicates that the family founded the village or the family history started together with the founding of Mutso.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum%20of%20Mohammed%20V
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Mausoleum of Mohammed V
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The Mausoleum of Mohammed V () is a mausoleum located across from the Hassan Tower in Rabat, Morocco. It contains the tombs of the Moroccan king Mohammed V and his two sons, late King Hassan II and Prince Abdallah.
History
Mohammed V died in 1961. Construction of his mausoleum was commissioned by Hassan II. The complex was designed by Vietnamese architect Cong Vo Toan using traditional forms with modern materials. The rich materials, as well as the deliberate use of historical crafts and motifs, is meant to not only pay tribute to Mohammed V but also to evoke his own efforts to encourage traditional craftsmanship as a means of promote a sense of Moroccan identity.
Construction began in 1961 and involved renovations to the esplanade of the ruined Almohad-era mosque to which the Hassan Tower belonged. Construction was completed in 1971 and Mohammed V's body was transferred here that same year. His son Abdallah was buried here in 1983. Hassan II was also buried here upon his death in 1999.
Description
The mausoleum stands on an elevated platform at the southeastern corner of the esplanade. It is a rectangular structure made in reinforced concrete covered with white marble on the exterior. The exterior is marked by porticos of Moorish arches and a pyramidal green roof. The arches are also polylobed and the wall surfaces above them are carved with a characteristic Moroccan sebka motif. Inside, the mausoleum chamber is covered by a dome of mahogany wood with coloured glass, while the walls are covered in zellij tiling. Some elements are finished with chased brass. The cenotaph of Mohammed V is carved in white onyx and was made by craftsman Ibn Abdelkrim. A reader of the Quran is often present, having his assigned seat.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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Transcontinental links
The very first "inter-oceanic" railroad that affected California was built in 1855 across the Isthmus of Panama, the Panama Railway. The Panama Railway reduced the time needed to cross the Isthmus from a week of difficult and dangerous travel to a day of relative comfort. The building of the Panama Railroad, in combination with the increasing use of steamships (instead of sailing ships) meant that travel to and from California via Panama was the primary method used by people who could afford to do so, and was used for valuable cargo, such as the gold being shipped from California to the East Coast.
California's symbolic and tangible connection to the rest of the country was fused at Promontory Summit, Utah, as the "last spike" was driven to join the tracks of the Central Pacific and Union Pacific Railroads, thereby completing the first transcontinental railroad on May 10, 1869 (before that time, only a few local rail lines operated in the State, the first being the Sacramento Valley Railroad). The 1,600 mile (2,575-kilometer) trip from Omaha, Nebraska, would now take mere days. The Wild West was quickly transformed from a lawless, agrarian frontier to what would become an urbanized, industrialized economic and political powerhouse. Of perhaps greater significance is the unbridled economic growth that was spurred on by the sheer diversity of opportunities available in the region.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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"Transportation determines the flow of population," declared J. D. Spreckels, one of California's early railroad entrepreneurs, just after the dawn of the twentieth century. "Before you can hope to get people to live anywhere...you must first of all show them that they can get there quickly, comfortably and, above all, cheaply." Among Spreckels' many accomplishments was the formation of the San Diego Electric Railway in 1892, which radiated out from downtown to points north, south, and east and helped urbanize San Diego. Henry Huntington, the nephew of Central Pacific founder Collis P. Huntington, would develop his Pacific Electric Railway in Los Angeles and Orange Counties with much the same result. Spreckels' greatest challenge would be to provide San Diego with its own direct transcontinental rail link in the form of the San Diego and Arizona Railway (completed in November 1919), a feat that nearly cost the sugar heir his life. The Central Pacific Railroad, in effect, initiated the trend by offering settlement incentives in the form of low fares, and by placing sections of its government-granted lands up for sale to pioneers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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When the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad charted its own solo course across the continent in 1885 it chose Los Angeles as its western terminus, and in doing so fractured the Southern Pacific Railroad's near total monopoly on rail transportation within the state. The original purpose of this new line was to augment the route to San Diego, established three years prior as part of a joint venture with the California Southern Railroad, but the Santa Fe would subsequently be forced to all but abandon these inland tracks through the Temecula Canyon (due to constant washouts) and construct its Surf Line along the coast to maintain its exclusive ties to Los Angeles. Santa Fe's entry into Southern California resulted in widespread economic growth and ignited a fervent rate war with the Southern Pacific, or "Espee" as the road was often referred to; it also led to Los Angeles' well-documented real estate "Boom of the Eighties". The Santa Fe Route led the way in passenger rate reductions (often referred to as "colonist fares") by, within a period of five months, lowering the price of a ticket from Kansas City, Missouri to Los Angeles from $125 to $15, and, on March 6, 1887 to a single dollar. The Southern Pacific soon followed suit and the level of real estate speculation reached a new high, with "boom towns" springing up literally overnight. Free, daily railroad-sponsored excursions (complete with lunch and live entertainment) enticed overeager potential buyers to visit the many undeveloped properties firsthand and invest in the land.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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As with the Comstock mining securities boom of the 1870s, Los Angeles' land boom attracted an unscrupulous element that often sold interest in properties whose titles were not properly recorded, or in tracts that did not even exist. Major advertising campaigns by the SP, Santa Fe, Union Pacific, and other major carriers of the day not only helped transform southern California into a major tourist attraction but generated intense interest in exploiting the area's agricultural potential. Word of the abundant work opportunities, high wages, and the temperate and healthful California climate spread throughout the Midwestern United States, and led to an exodus from such states as Iowa, Indiana, and Kansas; although the real estate bubble "burst" in 1889 and most investors lost their all, the Southern California landscape was forever transformed by the many towns, farms, and citrus groves left in the wake of this event.
Historians James Rawls and Walton Bean have speculated that were it not for the discovery of gold in 1848, Oregon might have been granted statehood ahead of California, and therefore the first Pacific Railroad might have been built to that state, or at least been born to a more benevolent group of founding fathers. This speculation lacks support, however, when one considers that a significant hide and tallow trade between California and the eastern seaports was already well-established, that the federal government had long planned for the acquisition of San Francisco Bay as a western port, and that suspicions regarding Great Britain's intentions towards potentially extending their holdings in the region southward into California would almost certainly have forced the government to embark on the same course of action.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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While the completion of the first transcontinental railroad was a major milestone in America's history, it would also foster the birth of a railroad empire that would have a dominant influence over California's evolution for years to come. Despite all of the shortcomings, in the end the State gained unprecedented benefits from its associations with the railroad companies.
Agriculture
Even today, California is well known for the abundance and many varieties of fruit trees that are cultivated throughout the state. The only fruits indigenous to the region, however, consisted of wild berries or grew on small bushes. Spanish missionaries brought fruit seeds over from Europe, many of which had been introduced to the Old World from Asia following earlier expeditions to the continent; orange, grape, apple, peach, pear, and fig seeds were among the most prolific of the imports.
Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, fourth in the Alta California chain, was founded in 1771 near what would one day be the City of Los Angeles. Thirty-three years later the mission would unknowingly witness the origin of the California citrus industry with the planting of the region's first significant orchard, though the commercial potential of citrus would not be realized until 1841. Several small carloads of California crops were shipped eastward via the new transcontinental route almost immediately after its completion, using a special type of ventilated boxcar modified specifically for this purpose. The advent of the iced refrigerator car or "reefer" led to increases in both the amount of product carried and in the distances traveled.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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For years, the overall scarcity of oranges in particular led to the general perception that they were suitable only for holiday table decoration or as indulgences for the affluent. During the 1870s, however, hybridization of California oranges led to the creation of several flavorful strains, chief among these the Navel and Valencia varieties, whose development allowed for year-round cultivation of the fruit. Substantial foreign (out-of-state) markets for California citrus would come into full stature by 1890, initiating a period referred to as the Orange Era.
As the market for agricultural goods outside the state's boundaries increased, the Santa Fe developed a massive fleet of refrigerator dispatch cars, and in 1906 the Southern Pacific joined with the Union Pacific Railroad to create the Pacific Fruit Express. Fully half the farm products produced in California could now be exported throughout the country, with western railroads carrying virtually all of the perishable fruit traffic. The western states of California, Arizona, and Oregon would dominate U.S. agricultural production by the coming of the Great Depression; once such diverse and high-demand crops as wheat, sugar beets, olives, and lettuce were cultivated, California would become known as the nation's "produce basket."
Oil boom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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With the expansion of agriculture interests throughout the state (along with new rail lines to carry the goods to faraway markets), new communities were founded and existing towns expanded. Agrarian successes led to the establishment of post offices, schools, churches, mercantile outlets, and ancillary industries such as packing houses. The discovery of brea, more commonly referred to as tar, in Southern California would lead to an oil boom in the early twentieth century. Railroad companies soon discovered that shipping wooden barrels loaded with oil via boxcars was not cost-effective, and developed steel cylindrical tank cars capable of transporting bulk liquids virtually anywhere. By 1915, the transportation of petroleum products had become a lucrative endeavor for western railroads.
Most oil tank cars would remain in revenue service for decades until the "Black Bonanza" had run its course. The Southern Pacific is credited with being the first western railroad to experiment in 1879 with the use of oil in its locomotives as a fuel source in lieu of coal (with substantial technical assistance from the Union Oil Company, one of the SP's biggest accounts). By 1895, oil-burning locomotives were in operation on a number of Southern Pacific routes, and on the competing California Southern and Great Northern Railway as well. This innovation not only allowed the SP (and other railroads that soon followed their example) to benefit from the use of this abundant and economically viable fuel source, but to create new markets by capitalizing on the burgeoning petroleum industry. The conversion from coal to oil also help solved the Southern Pacific's problem of intense smoke in the tunnels of the Sierra Nevada. Thanks to the railroads, California was once again thrust into the limelight.
Tourism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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The railroads were among the first to promote California tourism as early as the 1870s, both as a means to increase ridership and to create new markets for the freight hauling business in the areas they served. Some sixty years later, the Santa Fe would lead a resurgence in leisure travel to and along the west coast aboard such "name" trains as the Chief and later the Super Chief; the Southern Pacific would soon follow suit with their Golden State and Overland Flyer trains, and the Union Pacific with its City of Los Angeles and City of San Francisco. The immense popularity of Helen Hunt Jackson's 1884 novel Ramona in particular fueled a surge in tourism, which happened to coincide with the opening of SP's Southern California lines.
The Santa Fé embraced the aura of the American Southwest in its advertising campaigns as well as its operations. The AT&SF routes and the high level of service provided thereon became popular with stars of the film industry in the thirties, forties and fifties, both building on and adding to the Hollywood mystique. The "golden age" of railroading would eventually end as travel by automobile and airplane became more cost-effective, and popular.
Corruption and scandal
In 1901, Frank Norris vilified the Southern Pacific for its monopolistic practices in his acclaimed novel The Octopus: A Story of California; John Moody's 1919 work The Railroad Builders: A Chronicle of the Welding of the State referred to "the American railroad problem" wherein the men who rode the iron horse were characterized as "monsters" that too often suppressed government reform and economic growth through political chicanery and corrupt business practices.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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While it is true that much of the traveling public would have been unable to make the trip to California's sunny climate were it not for the fleet, relatively safe, and affordable trains of the western railroads, it is also true that those companies in effect preyed on those same settlers once they arrived at the end of the line. For instance, while the railroads provided much-needed transportation routes to out-of-state markets for locally produced raw materials and avenues of the import for eastern goods, there were numerous instances of rate fixing schemes among the various carriers, the Santa Fe and Southern Pacific included. Opposition to the railroads began early in Southern California's history due to the questionable practices of The Big Four in conducting the business of the Central (later Southern) Pacific. The Central Pacific Railroad (and later the Southern Pacific) maintained and operated whole fleets of ferry boats that connected Oakland with San Francisco by water. Early on, the Central Pacific gained control of the existing ferry lines for the purpose of linking the northern rail lines with those from the south and east; during the late 1860s the company purchased nearly every bayside plot in Oakland, creating what author and historian Oscar Lewis described as a "wall around the waterfront" that put the town's fate squarely in the hands of the corporation. Competitors for ferry passengers or dock space were ruthlessly run out of business, and not even stage coach lines could escape the group's notice, or wrath.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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Perhaps the most notorious examples of impropriety on the part of the railroads surround the process of land acquisition and sales. Since the federal government granted to the companies alternate tracts of land that ran along the tracks they had laid, it was generally assumed that the land would in turn be sold at its fair market value at the time the land was subdivided; circulars distributed by the SP (which was at the time a holding company formed by the Central Pacific Railroad) certainly implied as much. However, at least some of the tracts were put on the market only after considerable time had passed, and the land improved well beyond its raw state.
Families faced with asking prices of ten times or more of the initial value more often than not had no choice but to vacate their homes and farms, in the process losing everything they worked for; often it turned out to be a railroad employee who had purchased the property in question. A group of immigrant San Joaquin Valley farmers formed the Settlers' League in order to challenge the Southern Pacific's actions in court, but after all of the lawsuits were decided in the favor of the railroads, one group decided to take matters into their own hands. What resulted was the infamous Battle at Mussel Slough, in which armed settlers clashed with railroad employees and law enforcement officers engaged in eviction proceedings. Six people were killed in the ensuing gunfight. The Southern Pacific would emerge from the tragedy as the prime target of journalists such as William Randolph Hearst, ambitious politicians, and crusade groups for decades to follow. Leland Stanford's term as Governor of California (while serving as president of Central Pacific Railroad and later Southern Pacific) enhanced the corporation's political clout, but simultaneously further increased its notoriety as well.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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Local services were mostly controlled by a few primary operators. The San Diego Electric Railway, founded by John D. Spreckels in 1892, was the major transit system in the San Diego area during that period. In the Los Angeles area, real estate tycoon Henry Huntington established both the Los Angeles Railway, also known as the Yellow Car system, and the above-mentioned Pacific Electric Red Car System in 1901. The San Francisco Municipal Railway was established in 1912. Business magnate Francis Marion Smith then created the Key System in 1903 to connect San Francisco with the East Bay. The San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge opened to rail traffic in 1939 only to have the last trains run in 1958 after fewer than twenty years of service – the tracks were torn up and replaced with additional lanes for automobiles. All four streetcar systems, and other similar rail networks across the state, declined in the 1940s with the rise of California's car culture and freeway network. They were then all eventually taken over to some degree, and dismantled, in favor of bus service by National City Lines, a controversial national front company owned by General Motors and other companies in what became known as the General Motors streetcar conspiracy. San Francisco's city-owned lines were not privatized, but were still largely converted to bus and trolleybuses.
Modern light rail and subway systems
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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One urban system that survived the streetcar decline was the San Francisco Municipal Railway (Muni) in San Francisco. Its five heavily used streetcar lines traveled for at least part of their routes through tunnels or otherwise reserved right-of-way, and thus could not be converted to bus lines. As a result, these lines, running PCC streetcars, continued in operation for several decades. When plans for stations in the double-decker Market Street subway tunnel through downtown San Francisco, with BART on the lower level and MUNI on the upper level, required high platforms, it meant that the PCCs could not be used in them. Hence, MUNI ordered a fleet of new light rail vehicles, and Muni Metro began service in 1980. The San Francisco cable car system came under full Municipal ownership in 1952, and was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1964 and placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966 after almost being replaced entirely by buses in the previous decades. The system had fallen into disrepair by the 70s and a massive overhaul of the system resulted in the lines current configuration opening in 1984.
Planning for a modern, urban rapid transit system in California did not begin until the 1950s, when California's legislature created a commission to study the Bay Area's long-term transportation needs. Based on the commission's report, the state legislature created the San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) District in 1957 to build a rapid transit system to replace the Key System and provide region-wide rail connectivity. Initially intended to include all nine counties that ring the San Francisco Bay, the final system would feature service between San Francisco and three branches in the East Bay, serving three counties total. Passenger service on BART then began in 1972, but expansion to the system was planned almost immediately.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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When Amtrak assumed operation of passenger rail services in the United States in 1971, most long-haul and commuter trains ceased operation. New lines were either based on previous routings or extended from old services. Service to Denver was provided via the San Francisco Zephyr (on a route largely retained from the City of San Francisco), and extended through to Chicago in 1983 with the California Zephyr. Los Angeles services have remained largely unchanged since the corporation's inception. The Southwest Chief is the successor to the ATSF Super Chief, still running from Chicago. The Sunset Limited to New Orleans is the oldest maintained named train service in the United States, inherited from the Southern Pacific service running since 1894. The Texas Eagle is a direct successor to the Missouri Pacific train of the same name. No one passenger train ran the length of the west coast before 1971. Coast Starlight service was initiated as a thrice weekly service from Seattle to San Diego, later expanded to run daily but cut back to Los Angeles by 1972. Services to Las Vegas, Nevada were provided by the weekend-only Las Vegas Limited in 1976 and long-distance Desert Wind, which operated between 1979 and 1997.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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Caltrans and Amtrak partnered together to form Amtrak California in 1976. The Pacific Surfliner, serving the coastal communities of Southern California between San Diego and San Luis Obispo, is an extension of the historical San Diegan that was previously operated by ATSF and continued service under Amtrak – it is the busiest corridor outside of the Northeast. Amtrak's formation left the San Joaquin Valley without rail service, but this was rectified in 1974 with the initiation of San Joaquins service. At first serving Bakersfield to Oakland, additional services were added north to Sacramento in 1999. Capitol Corridor service began as simply Capitols in 1991 and connects the Bay Area with the Sacramento area, acting closer to true commuter rail than most other Amtrak routes. The Spirit of California was a short-haul sleeper service that ran between Los Angeles and Sacramento via the Coast Starlight routing. The train lasted under two years from 1981 to 1983. The Amtrak California branding is being deprecated as the three California-based lines have transitioned to control under local joint powers authorities.
One exception
The California Western Railroad is a short line railroad that never joined Amtrak. For most of its existence, the line served to haul lumber from the Mendocino Coast Range to the Northwestern Pacific Railroad in Willits. The company also ran one daily round trip passenger service to Fort Bragg — the Skunk Train. By 1996, freight shipments had declined to the point that passenger excursions became the railroad's primary source of income. A series of tunnel collapses starting in 2013 severed the line, and service was thence reduced to purely excursions without through running.
Commuter rail
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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Railway expansion
Rail systems saw initial expansion in the first decades of the century. San Diego Trolley's Green Line began service in 2005, and Silver Line heritage streetcar service began limited service in 2011 with refurbished PCC's. The SacRT light rail extended all of its lines including one linking Folsom to the Sacramento Amtrak station, the Blue Line extension project which provided transit to several colleges in the southwest part of the city, and the line to the River District. VTA light rail also saw expansion to San Jose Diridon station and Winchester, as well as the Vasona extension. All of these systems would experience various reroutings of service as new extensions came on line.
Bay Area Rapid Transit has seen expansions beyond its original vision, such as the Silicon Valley BART extension, Oakland Airport Connector, and the East Contra Costa BART Extension. BART and Caltrain jointly opened Millbrae station in 2003. BART placed an order for a replacement fleet of train cars in 2012, with expected full delivery by 2022. The passage of Measure RR on November 8, 2016 gave BART the funds to undertake a massive rebuild of the system's aging infrastructure, effectively freezing expansion plans not already programmed. A result of the agency's decision to hold expansion plans into Livermore prompted the creation of the Tri-Valley–San Joaquin Valley Regional Rail Authority in 2017 – an agency tasked with establishing a public transit service between BART and ACE trains called the Valley Link.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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San Francisco's Muni Metro has expanded service via the sequential Third Street Light Rail Project and Central Subway (with plans for a third extension underway). The heritage streetcar service was extended to Fisherman's Wharf via constructing light rail infrastructure in place of the demolished Embarcadero Freeway, and the E Embarcadero streetcar service entered regular service in 2015 providing a link between the waterfront and Caltrain. City Supervisor Scott Wiener called for sustained subway construction throughout San Francisco.
LA Metro Rail's aggressive expansion policy was adopted owing to increased funding availability primarily from Measure R in 2008 and Measure M in 2016 as well as dissatisfaction with increasing automotive traffic. The Gold Line opened in 2003 and has been extended several times via the Eastside Extension and the Gold Line Foothill Extension. The Expo Line opened in 2012 along the route of the former Santa Monica Air Line, was completed to Santa Monica in 2016, and hit ridership projections 13 years earlier than forecast. The Regional Connector brought the isolated Gold line into the rest of the LACMTA light rail system to provide more flexible service patterns. A more direct airport connection will be provided upon completion of the K Line (known as the Crenshaw/LAX Line during construction). Several extensions of the D Line are planned to bring subway service along the Wilshire / Westwood corridor and will likely connect to the Crenshaw/LAX Line. Multiple preparations for the 2028 Summer Olympics are being made under the Twenty-eight by '28 initiative, including establishing a rail route over the Sepulveda Pass, the East San Fernando Valley Light Rail Transit Project, extending the C Line to South Bay, the Southeast Gateway Line, the Inglewood Transit Connector, and the Eastside Transit Corridor extension of the L Line (to become part of the E Line.)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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Diesel multiple unit services
Sprinter began diesel multiple unit (DMU) service in 2008, connecting cities in northern San Diego County. This service follows the Escondido Branch, which was acquired by the San Diego Northern Railway in 1992 and was later transferred to the North County Transit District. The passenger trains are not FRA-compliant for operation in association with freight trains and therefore freight operations on the route are not permitted during passenger operations. For this reason the American Public Transportation Association and some publications refer to this line as light rail, but it does not conform to the normal engineering specifications usually associated with that term.
Sonoma–Marin Area Rail Transit was created by state legislation in 2002 to reestablish passenger service along the Northwestern Pacific Railroad right-of-way, providing a route from Cloverdale to Larkspur Ferry Terminal with a planned 16 stations. After prolonged delays, preview service commenced on a truncated portion of the line on June 28, 2017. Construction is ongoing with plans to reach Cloverdale by 2027. Unlike trains operating the Sprinter service, SMART's Nippon Sharyo DMUs are each powered by one Cummins QSK19-R diesel engine with hydraulic transmission and regenerative braking, and meet US EPA Tier 4 emission standards. Structurally each DMU is FRA Tier 1 compliant with crash energy management features, making it capable of operating on the same line with standard North American freight trains without the need of special waivers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transportation%20in%20California
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History of rail transportation in California
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The aforementioned East Contra Costa BART Extension breaks from Bay Area Rapid Transit convention by using standard gauge rail (the main system uses a broad gauge), allowing for standard modern DMU trainsets to operate on the branch line. Plans originally called for trains to share right of way with pre-existing freight tracks in Eastern Contra Costa County. The freight track's owners eventually refused BART to lay tracks along its own lines, and the project was integrated into the median of an adjacent highway widening and given dedicated tracks. Its opening extended the BART system an additional with two new stations.
On October 24, 2022, Arrow opened, connecting the rest of the Metrolink system with Redlands, California. This service, sharing part of its route with the Metrolink San Bernardino Line. runs along lightly used ex-Santa Fe tracks and serves five stations along its route.
High-speed rail
The California High-Speed Rail Authority was created in 1996 by the state to implement an rail system. It would provide a TGV-style high-speed link between the state's four major metropolitan areas, and would allow travel between Los Angeles's Union Station and the San Francisco Salesforce Transit Center in two and a half hours. In November 2008, voters approved Proposition 1A, a bond measure that allocated $9 billion to finance the project. In 2012, the California legislature and Governor Jerry Brown approved financing for an initial stage of construction for the project. The High Speed Rail Authority estimates that the initial stages will not be completed until 2022. The groundbreaking ceremony was held on January 6, 2015, and construction continues despite financial and political difficulties. As part of Governor Gavin Newsom's 2019 State of the State address, he declared, "Right now, there simply isn’t a path to get from Sacramento to San Diego." Cost increases have plagued the buildout, and in May 2019 the FRA cancelled a $928.6 million grant awarded to the project.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit%20%28ship%29
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Transit (ship)
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Transit was the name given to an innovative sailing ship designed for speed by Captain Richard Hall Gower and built in 1800. Gower also designed two similar ships with the same name. He hoped to have his designs adopted by the British Admiralty but failed to achieve his aim.
Description
All three Transits designed by Gower had fine lines at bow and stern, uniform frames mid-ships with concave and convex sweeps and a deep keel. Their length to beam ratio was unusually high, giving them a remarkable turn of speed. The foremast was square rigged while the other three or four masts were fore-and-aft rigged, barquentine fashion but carrying very simplified standing and running rigging. Each sail was equipped with a horizontal sprit that enabled it to be brailed up to its mast and deployed rapidly. Each mast carried three sails. The topmasts could be lowered and replaced from the deck, in the event the sprits were to fail in strong gales and had to be abandoned. The Patent granted to Gower in 1799 details his theory about the relationship between speed and the length to beam ratio, as well as details of many features of his novel form of rigging, which allowed almost all activities normally conducted aloft to be performed from the deck (including the replacement of damaged masts) ; thus only the foremast was fitted with ratlines.
Service history
At the instance of John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent, the First Lord of the Admiralty, Transit was sailed against HMS Osprey in 1801. Osprey was a fast sloop of 383 tons (about twice the tonnage of Transit). Built at Northfleet like a French corvette, with an 80 ft 6 in (24.5 m) keel, she had the reputation of being very fast. Her length to beam ratio (at waterline) was probably less than 3:1. Transit with a length of 130 feet (39.6 m) and a length to beam ratio of 6.5:1 performed so well as to have been acknowledged the winner by the captain of Osprey. Despite this success Gower failed to get the support he needed to build a class of vessels to his patents.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20Converse%20Beach
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Frederick Converse Beach
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Frederick Converse Beach (March 27, 1848 – June 8, 1918), was a New York patent attorney, editor and co-owner of Scientific American, and editor-in-chief of the new Encyclopedia Americana in the early 1900s. He became President of the oldest operating yacht club in Connecticut. He was also the father of Stanley Yale Beach, an aviation pioneer and early financier of Gustav Whitehead.
Biography
Frederick Converse Beach was born on March 27, 1848, in Brooklyn, New York, to Alfred Ely Beach, builder of New York's first subway. His grandfather was Moses Yale Beach, publisher of the New York Sun, and his uncle was Moses Sperry Beach, publisher of the Boston Daily Times. His other uncle William Yale Beach was a banker and real estate developer, and his cousin Charles Yale Beach was a manufacturer and real estate investor. Frederick's son was Stanley Yale Beach, an aviation pioneer, and the Beaches were all members of the Yale family.
Frederick Converse Beach graduated from Yale's Sheffield Scientific School in 1868. In 1869, he was made night superintendent of the Beach Pneumatic Transit tunnel under Broadway, and then in 1870, operated a pneumatic car and explained its working to the public.
From 1871 to 1876, he was engaged in the manufacture of electrical instruments in New York, making telegraphs. He later became Editor for Scientific American, their family magazine, and became one of its co-owners. He was also co-owner of Munn and Company, a family owned patent agency, and American Photography magazine.
After working on improving the telephone technology, he became the first, in 1880, to transmit sermons over the telephone, communicating from Plymouth Church (Brooklyn), to his father's house at 31 Union Place, in front of Union Square, New York. In 1884, he founded the Society of Amateur Photographers of New York, becoming its first President, and joined the Postal Progress League and became also its President.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macas%20%28city%29
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Macas (city)
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Macas () is the capital of Morona Santiago province in southeastern Ecuador. The city is also the seat of the county Morona. Known as the "Emerald of the East" due to its location east of the Andes mountains, Macas lies in the Upano Valley overlooking the Upano river. The city has a population of 22,398 and along with Tena and Puyo served under Spanish rule as one of Ecuador's main staging points for the colonization of the Amazon and the subjugation of its indigenous peoples. Beginning in the 1960s indigenous people have organized political federations and movements, and often locate the seats of their organizations in such cities and use them as central places for regional congresses. Macas has also been promoting tourism.
The city is an important agricultural and livestock raising center as well as a transportation hub for small jungle communities to the east. Types of agricultural products found here include yuca, sugarcane, papaya, coffee, and bananas. In recent years, Macas also developed a small tourism industry based on jungle trekking, trips to indigenous communities, and extreme sports like rafting. Macas is linked by road to Puyo in the north and Riobamba to the west.
History
The name Macas comes from the Macas Indians who were thought to have inhabited a large portion of what is now the Ecuadorian section of the Amazon basin. The name 'Sevilla del Oro' was first used in 1538 when the area was first founded by Spanish captain Juan Villanueva Maldonado. It was later renamed 'Macas' and refounded in 1599. For many years, the city of Macas lay on the boundary of the province of Chimborazo. In 1929, Macas became the capital of the province of Morona Santiago.
Culture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trusted%20Platform%20Module
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Trusted Platform Module
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The TPM 2.0 policy authorization includes the 1.2 HMAC, locality, physical presence, and PCR. It adds authorization based on an asymmetric digital signature, indirection to another authorization secret, counters and time limits, NVRAM values, a particular command or command parameters, and physical presence. It permits the ANDing and ORing of these authorization primitives to construct complex authorization policies.
Overview
The Trusted Platform Module (TPM) provides:
A hardware random number generator
Facilities for the secure generation of cryptographic keys for limited uses.
Remote attestation: Creates a nearly unforgeable hash key summary of the hardware and software configuration. One could use the hash to verify that the hardware and software have not been changed. The software in charge of hashing the setup determines the extent of the summary.
Binding: Data is encrypted using the TPM bind key, a unique RSA key descended from a storage key. Computers that incorporate a TPM can create cryptographic keys and encrypt them so that they can only be decrypted by the TPM. This process, often called wrapping or binding a key, can help protect the key from disclosure. Each TPM has a master wrapping key, called the storage root key, which is stored within the TPM itself. User-level RSA key containers are stored with the Windows user profile for a particular user and can be used to encrypt and decrypt information for applications that run under that specific user identity.
Sealed storage: Specifies the TPM state for the data to be decrypted (unsealed).
Other Trusted Computing functions for the data to be decrypted (unsealed).
Computer programs can use a TPM for the authentication of hardware devices, since each TPM chip has a unique and secret Endorsement Key (EK) burned in as it is produced. Security embedded in hardware provides more protection than a software-only solution. Its use is restricted in some countries.
Uses
Platform integrity
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trusted%20Platform%20Module
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Trusted Platform Module
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The primary scope of TPM is to ensure the integrity of a platform during boot time. In this context, "integrity" means "behaves as intended", and a "platform" is any computer device regardless of its operating system. This is to ensure that the boot process starts from a trusted combination of hardware and software, and continues until the operating system has fully booted and applications are running.
When TPM is used, the firmware and the operating system are responsible for ensuring integrity.
For example, the Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) can use TPM to form a root of trust: The TPM contains several Platform Configuration Registers (PCRs) that allow secure storage and reporting of security-relevant metrics. These metrics can be used to detect changes to previous configurations and decide how to proceed. Examples of such use can be found in Linux Unified Key Setup (LUKS), BitLocker and PrivateCore vCage memory encryption. (See below.)
Another example of platform integrity via TPM is in the use of Microsoft Office 365 licensing and Outlook Exchange.
Another example of TPM use for platform integrity is the Trusted Execution Technology (TXT), which creates a chain of trust. It could remotely attest that a computer is using the specified hardware and software.
Disk encryption
Full disk encryption utilities, such as dm-crypt, can use this technology to protect the keys used to encrypt the computer's storage devices and provide integrity authentication for a trusted boot pathway that includes firmware and the boot sector.
Implementations
Laptops and notebooks
In 2006 new laptops began being sold with a built-in TPM chip. In the future, this concept could be co-located on an existing motherboard chip in computers, or any other device where the TPM facilities could be employed, such as a cellphone. On a PC, either the Low Pin Count (LPC) bus or the Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) bus is used to connect to the TPM chip.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trusted%20Platform%20Module
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Trusted Platform Module
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In October 2017, it was reported that a code library developed by Infineon, which had been in widespread use in its TPMs, contained a vulnerability, known as ROCA, which generated weak RSA key pairs that allowed private keys to be inferred from public keys. As a result, all systems depending upon the privacy of such weak keys are vulnerable to compromise, such as identity theft or spoofing. Cryptosystems that store encryption keys directly in the TPM without blinding could be at particular risk to these types of attacks, as passwords and other factors would be meaningless if the attacks can extract encryption secrets. Infineon has released firmware updates for its TPMs to manufacturers who have used them.
In 2018, a design flaw in the TPM 2.0 specification for the static root of trust for measurement (SRTM) was reported (). It allows an adversary to reset and forge platform configuration registers which are designed to securely hold measurements of software that are used for bootstrapping a computer. Fixing it requires hardware-specific firmware patches. An attacker abuses power interrupts and TPM state restores to trick TPM into thinking that it is running on non-tampered components.
In 2021, the Dolos Group showed an attack on a discrete TPM, where the TPM chip itself had some tamper resistance, but the other endpoints of its communication bus did not. They read a full-disk-encryption key as it was transmitted across the motherboard, and used it to decrypt the laptop's SSD.
Availability
Currently, a TPM is provided by nearly all PC and notebook manufacturers in their products.
Vendors include:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission%20Ribas
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Mission Ribas
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Misión Ribas (launched November 2003) is a Venezuelan Bolivarian Mission that provides remedial high school level classes to the five million Venezuelan high school dropouts; named after independence hero José Félix Ribas.
In July 2006 President Chávez announced that the Mission Ribas should become a socio-political movement conformed by students, family members and professors to guarantee its role as a promoting agent of the Bolivarian revolution.
There have been many concerns about the effectiveness of this and other missions lately. Even Chávez has expressed worry about the high number of people who drop out of school or do not continue to the Mision Sucre, or Higher Education.
The pro-government deputy Pastora Medina admitted that "there are denunciations about the way scholarships are given. There is little commitment from the pupils and the teachers of the Misión Ribas and this has led to a wrong development. In the Caricuao area, in Caracas, there are 300 pupils registered, but only eight go to classes".
Funding
The state-owned Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) is a large contributor to Mission Ribas. In 2009, US$2.1 billion were allocated to the mission, which according to PDVSA were "resources that have resulted in the issuance of 159,749 scholarships" and helped 632,623 Venezuelans earn "the title of Bachelor of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela".
In a 2007 New York Times article, it was reported that "most of the students also receive stipends of $85 a month to attend" and that "the students themselves choose who gets the stipends, based on need and dedication".
Ideology teaching
Mission Ribas officials stated that "Political and ideological training ... is the top qualification for a facilitator". Ribas officials gave students lengthy talks about supporting the Venezuelan government, especially during the 2007 Venezuelan referendum when one official from Las Torres told students "to attend marches and street demonstrations supporting Chávez".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piled%20Higher%20and%20Deeper
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Piled Higher and Deeper
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The Nameless Grad Student (a.k.a., The Nameless Hero) – a graduate student in engineering, this bespectacled protagonist has procrastinated through the entire strip without receiving a name. He looks similar to comic strip author, Jorge Cham and is modelled after him (at one point, the younger sister of the character, Dee, remarks that her brother has dreams of quitting grad school and becoming a cartoonist). Cham chose to make the character nameless as "when you're a graduate student, professors never remember your name."Little is known about the hero's background, although early on Mike Slackenerny states that he knew the hero's older brother (who quit his PhD and went on to work for a "Silicon Valley Company"). As he is seen playing with two children at home during his winter vacation, he probably has younger siblings, nieces and/or nephews, or cousins. He has been increasingly seen with a set group of friends (one is named Mikkel) and seems, at least marginally, to be the most favored graduate student of his advisor, Prof. Smith. At the conclusion of the film, the character states for the first time that his name is Winston, named after Jorge's father; in the films, Winston is a biochemistry grad student.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20MacBeth
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George MacBeth
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George Mann MacBeth (19 January 1932 – 16 February 1992) was a Scottish poet and novelist.
Biography
George MacBeth was born in Shotts, Lanarkshire, Scotland. When he was three, his family moved to Sheffield in England. He was educated in Sheffield at King Edward VII School, where he was Head Prefect in 1951 (photo), before going up to New College, Oxford, with an Open Scholarship in Classics.
He joined BBC Radio on graduating in 1955 from the University of Oxford. He worked there, as a producer of programmes on poetry, notably for the BBC Third Programme, until 1976. He was a member of The Group.
He resigned from the BBC to take up novel-writing; he introduced a series of thrillers involving the spy, Cadbury.
In his later post-BBC years, after divorcing his first wife, he married the novelist Lisa St Aubin de Terán, with whom he had a child, Alexander Morton George MacBeth. After a divorce, he moved with his new wife, Penny, to Ireland to live at Moyne Park, Abbeyknockmoy, near Tuam in County Galway. A few months later, George MacBeth was diagnosed as suffering from motor neurone disease, of which he died in early 1992. In the last poetry he wrote, MacBeth provides an anatomy of a cruel disease and the destruction it caused two people deeply in love. Penny and George had two children, Diana ("Lally") Francesca Ronchetti MacBeth and George Edward Morton Mann MacBeth.
Poems from Oby (1982) was a Choice of the Poetry Book Society. He wrote the compilation while living at The Old Rectory, Oby; Oby is a Norfolk hamlet. He received a Geoffrey Faber Memorial Prize for his work.
MacBeth died in Tuam, County Galway, Ireland.
Works
Poetry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockbridge%2C%20Edinburgh
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Stockbridge, Edinburgh
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Stockbridge is a district of Edinburgh, located north of the city centre, bounded by the New Town and by Comely Bank. The name is Scots stock brig from Anglic stocc brycg, meaning a timber bridge. Originally a small outlying village, it was incorporated into the City of Edinburgh in the 19th century. The current "Stock Bridge", built in 1801, is a stone structure spanning the Water of Leith. The painter Henry Raeburn (1756–1823) owned two adjoining estates, Deanhaugh and St Bernard's, which he developed with the assistance of the architect James Milne. Milne was also responsible for the fine St Bernard's Church (1823) in Saxe Coburg Street. Ann Street, designed by Raeburn and named after his wife, is a rare early example of a New Town street with private front gardens.
Notable streets and buildings
The eastern route into Stockbridge is marked by the local landmark, St Stephen's Church. This stands at the north end of St Vincent Street, its tower visible from the first New Town on the higher slope to the south. Originally intended to stand in the centre of Circus Place, it was redesigned and squeezed into its current restricted site on ground which falls sharply at the southern edge of the Silvermills area. It was designed by the architect William Playfair in 1827. It is unusual for its main church being raised by a storey, accessed by a tall but relatively narrow flight of steps at its frontage. Its clock pendulum is the longest in Europe.
The church stands at the eastern end of St Stephen Street, a curving Georgian street of inhabited basement flats with ground floors accommodating a series of antique shops, bars and offices. A small spur on its north side, St Stephen Place, leads to the old Stockbridge Market, of which the original entrance archway still stands.
Parallel to St Stephen Street, to the south, lies Circus Lane, a mews lane, integrating both old and new buildings. Circus Lane was once used as a service street to keep coaches and horses.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockbridge%2C%20Edinburgh
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Stockbridge, Edinburgh
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The main road through Stockbridge is Raeburn Place, a street of mixed character, with numerous small shops at ground-floor level. The link from this street to the New Town is via Deanhaugh Street and North West Circus Place.
Saunders Street, south of the bridge, was built in 1974 as part of a slum clearance programme. The medical centre to its east is part of the same scheme.
Gloucester Lane marks the line of the medieval road from the village to St Cuthbert's Church at the west end of Princes Street. One building close to the Stockbridge end, predates the New Town. It is a merchant's house built about 1790 from the stones of demolished buildings in the Old Town and was the birthplace of the painter David Roberts, who worked as a scene painter at Edinburgh's Theatre Royal and later London's Covent Garden.
Leslie Place, dating from the late Victorian period, joins the village to the western sections of the New Town: St Bernards Crescent; Carlton Street; Danube Street, Ann Street and Dean Terrace. To the north of this is a less formal area of narrower streets: Dean Street; Cheyne Street; Raeburn Street and Dean Park Street.
The north-eastern route out of the area, towards Leith, runs along Hamilton Place. Dean Bank spurs off this road, running alongside the Water of Leith. Hamilton Place holds both the local library (1898) and primary school (1874). Saxe Coburg Street, a small Georgian cul-de-sac just to the north, leads to the small and bow-ended square of Saxe Coburg Place. This formal space was never completed due to ground level problems and Glenogle Baths (1898)
To the north, St Bernard's Row leads out past another little Georgian cul-de-sac, Malta Terrace, to Inverleith and the Botanic Gardens.
The Colonies
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2936926
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockbridge%2C%20Edinburgh
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Stockbridge, Edinburgh
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In 1884 St. Bernard's Well was purchased and presented to his fellow Edinburgh townsmen by the publisher William Nelson, after it had been restored and redecorated by Thomas Bonnar, with a new statue of Hygieia, carved by David Watson Stevenson. Dean Terrace and Ann Street today overlook the valley and Well. The well closed to the public in the 1940s, but was restored in 2013 and is now maintained by the City of Edinburgh Council and open to the public for three hours on occasional Sundays during April to September.
Culture and sport
Raeburn Place is the main retail thoroughfare, and the playing fields there were the location of the first international rugby match when the Edinburgh Academy sports ground hosted the game between Scotland and England on 27 March 1871.
Stockbridge contains speciality shops including a cheese shop as well as many charity shops (some of which are among the highest grossing in the UK). The Bailie Bar pub is mentioned in various pub and tourist guides. There is a popular farmers' market each Sunday at Jubilee Gardens, close to the Water of Leith.
The Edinburgh Academy's sports grounds are adjacent to The Grange Club, which is home turf of the Scottish cricket team. The venue hosted two fixtures of the 1999 Cricket World Cup. St Bernard's F.C. were a successful side but suffered declining support in the face of Hearts and Hibs.
The neighbourhood is also home to the Stockbridge Pipe Band, founded in 1994. Currently fielding competition bands in Grade 4B and Grade 3A of the Royal Scottish Pipe Band Association, the band teaches the arts of piping, snare, tenor and bass drumming to all ages.
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2936934
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.%20H.%20Muirhead
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J. H. Muirhead
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John Henry Muirhead (28 April 1855 – 24 May 1940) was a Scottish philosopher best known for having initiated the Muirhead Library of Philosophy in 1890. He became the first person named to the Chair of Philosophy at the University of Birmingham in 1900.
Biography
Born in Glasgow, Scotland, Muirhead was educated at Gilbertfield House School, the Glasgow Academy (1866–70), and proceeded to Glasgow University, where he was deeply influenced by the Hegelianism of Edward Caird, the Professor of Moral Philosophy. He graduated MA in 1875. The same year he won a Snell exhibition at Balliol College, Oxford, to which he went up in Trinity Term 1875. His Library was originally published by Allen & Unwin and continued through to the 1970s.
His Library is seen as a crucial landmark in the history of modern philosophy, publishing a number of prominent 20th century philosophers including Brand Blanshard, Francis Herbert Bradley, Axel Hagerstrom, Henri Bergson, Edmund Husserl, Bernard Bosanquet, Irving Thalberg, Jr., Georg Wilhelm Hegel, Bertrand Russell and George Edward Moore. In 2002, the Library was made available in a 95 volume set ().
Muirhead was a philosophical idealist and was involved in the British idealist movement.
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2936950
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-pool%20resource
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Common-pool resource
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In economics, a common-pool resource (CPR) is a type of good consisting of a natural or human-made resource system (e.g. an irrigation system or fishing grounds), whose size or characteristics makes it costly, but not impossible, to exclude potential beneficiaries from obtaining benefits from its use. Unlike pure public goods, common pool resources face problems of congestion or overuse, because they are subtractable. A common-pool resource typically consists of a core resource (e.g. water or fish), which defines the stock variable, while providing a limited quantity of extractable fringe units, which defines the flow variable. While the core resource is to be protected or nurtured in order to allow for its continuous exploitation, the fringe units can be harvested or consumed.
Examples of a Common-Pool Resource
Common-pool goods are typically regulated and nurtured in order to prevent demand from overwhelming supply and allow for their continued exploitation. Examples of common-pool resources include forests, man-made irrigation systems, fishing grounds, and groundwater basins. For instance, fishermen have an incentive to harvest as many fish as possible because if they do not, someone else will—so without management and regulation, fish stocks soon become depleted. And while a river might supply many cities with drinking water, manufacturing plants might be tempted to pollute the river if they were not prohibited from doing so by law because someone else would bear the costs. In California, where there is a huge demand for surface water but supplies are limited, common pool problems are exacerbated because the state does not manage groundwater basins at the state level. During the 2012-2016 drought, farmers with senior water rights dating back to the 19th century could use as much water as they wanted, while cities and towns had to make drastic cutbacks to water use.
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2936950
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-pool%20resource
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Common-pool resource
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In James Bay, Quebec, the beaver was an important species for food and later commerce when the fur trade started in 1670. Amerindian groups in the area have traditionally used resources communally and have a heritage of customary laws to regulate hunting. However, in the 1920s the railroads caused a large influx of non-native trappers who took advantage of the high fur prices and the indigenous people losing control of their territories. Both non-native and native trappers contributed to the decline of the beaver population, prompting conservation laws to be enacted after 1930 and outsiders being banned from trapping in James Bay. Eventually, Amerindian communities and family territories were legally recognized, and customary laws became enforceable. This restoration of local control allowed for the beaver population to recover.
Since 1947, the Maine lobster catch has been remarkably stable despite predictions of resource collapse. The state government has regulations in place but does not limit the number of licenses. The exclusion to this CPR is done through a system of traditional fishing rights which makes it so that one needs to be accepted by the community to be able to go lobster fishing. Those in a community are restricted to fishing in the territory held by that community. This is enforced by surreptitious violence towards interlopers. Fishermen in these exclusive territories catch significantly more and larger lobsters with less effort than those in areas where territories overlap.
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2936950
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-pool%20resource
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Common-pool resource
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In the New York Bight region, a cooperative of trawl fishermen that specializes in harvesting whiting limits entry into the local fishery and establishes catch quotas among members. These quotas are based on regional market sales estimations and attempt to encourage initiative while discouraging “free-riding.” They limit entry to the whiting grounds and markets through a closed membership policy and by controlling the dock space. Due to these methods, they have access to the best whiting grounds, dominate the market during winter, and can maintain relatively high prices through supply management. The fishermen consider this type of self-regulation both flexible and effective in maintaining sustainable use.
Common property systems
A common property rights regime system (not to be confused with a common-pool resource) is a particular social arrangement regulating the preservation, maintenance, and consumption of a common-pool resource. The use of the term "common property resource" to designate a type of good has been criticized, because common-pool resources are not necessarily governed by common property protocols. Examples of common-pool resources include irrigation systems, fishing grounds, pastures, forests, water or the atmosphere. A pasture, for instance, allows for a certain amount of grazing to occur each year without the core resource being harmed. In the case of excessive grazing, however, the pasture may become more prone to erosion and eventually yield less benefit to its users. Because the core resources are vulnerable, common-pool resources are generally subject to problems of congestion, overuse, pollution, and potential destruction unless harvesting or use limits are devised and enforced.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-pool%20resource
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Common-pool resource
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Resource systems like pastoral areas, fishing grounds, forest areas are storage variables. Under favorable conditions, they can maximize the flow without harming the total storage volume and the entire resource system. Different from the resource system, the resource unit is the amount that an individual occupies or uses from the resource system, such as the total amount of fish caught in a fishing ground, the amount of feed consumed by livestock in pastoral areas. A resource system allows multiple people or enterprise to produce at the same time, and the process of using common-pool resources can be performed simultaneously by multiple occupants. However, the resource unit cannot be used by multiple people or enterprises at the same time.
Management
The use of many common-pool resources, if managed carefully, can be extended because the resource system forms a negative feedback loop, where the stock variable continually regenerates the fringe variable as long as the stock variable is not compromised, providing an optimum amount of consumption. However, consumption exceeding the fringe value reduces the stock variable, which in turn decreases the flow variable. If the stock variable is allowed to regenerate then the fringe and flow variables may also recover to initial levels, but in many cases the loss is irreparable.
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2936950
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-pool%20resource
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Common-pool resource
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Adaptive governance
The management of common-pool resources is highly dependent upon the type of resource involved. An effective strategy at one location, or of one particular resource, may not be necessarily appropriate for another. In The Challenge of Common-Pool Resources, Ostrom makes the case for adaptive governance as a method for the management of common-pool resources. Adaptive governance is suited to dealing with problems that are complex, uncertain and fragmented, as is the management of common-pool resources. Ostrom outlines five basic protocol requirements for achieving adaptive governance. These include:
Achieving accurate and relevant information, by focusing on the creation and use of timely scientific knowledge on the part of both the managers and the users of the resource
Dealing with conflict, acknowledging the fact that conflicts will occur, and having systems in place to discover and resolve them as quickly as possible
Enhancing rule compliance, through creating responsibility for the users of a resource to monitor usage
Providing infrastructure, that is flexible over time, both to aid internal operations and create links to other resources
Encouraging adaption and change to address errors and cope with new developments
Influential factors in the management of common-pool resources
A new proposal of the management of CPR is to develop autonomous organizations that are not completely privatized and controlled by government power, which led and supervised by the community to manage common-pool resources in addition to directly through the government and the free market. There are many factors that may affect the formation and development of these kinds of autonomous organizations. Effectively identifying the influencing factors of the autonomous management system of CPRs increasing the feasibility of the system, and it is more conducive to the sustainable use of resources as well.
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2936953
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delapr%C3%A9%20Abbey
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Delapré Abbey
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Delapré Abbey is a neo-classical mansion in Northampton, England.
The mansion and outbuildings incorporate remains of a former monastery, the Abbey of St Mary de la Pré (the suffix meaning "in or of the Meadow"), near the River Nene south south-east of the centre of Northampton. It was founded as a nunnery about the year 1145 devoted to the congregation of the major Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy, France. Locally the name has the pronunciation 'Della-pree'.
The Abbey's expansive sloping grounds are a nationally protected Wars of the Roses battlefield, as a one-time site of the advance of the Yorkists during the Battle of Northampton (1460).
Founding and endowments
The abbey was founded by an Anglo-Norman Earl, Simon de Senlis, during the reign of King Stephen and later benefited from paying for a royal charter granted by King Edward III. At its founding the abbey was endowed with the in its ancient parish "almost entirely" save, for example, two corn mills, a fulling mill and 10 acres of marsh-meadow of St James Abbey, Northampton: Hardingstone and held the rectories (including glebe and tithe) at Earls Barton, Great Doddington, and Fotheringhay, appointing stipended (salaried) vicars on a perpetual basis from 1224. Edward I added to Delapré the churches of Wollaston and Filgrave – a total of five Northamptonshire well-endowed churches – and gave Delapré the advowson (right to nominate the priest) of Fyfield, Hampshire. He is recorded as giving ten beams towards the repair of the church in 1232, and another five oaks for work on the refectory in 1258.
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2936970
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutant%20%28role-playing%20game%29
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Mutant (role-playing game)
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Mutant is a series of Swedish role-playing games developed and published by Target Games using their Äventyrsspel (Adventure games) brand. The current version was created by Fria Ligan under license by Cabinet Entertainment and published in Swedish and English by Fria Ligan and Modiphius respectively. A video game adaptation named Mutant Year Zero: Road to Eden was released December 2018.
Publication history
The first role-playing game published by Äventyrsspel in 1982 was a fantasy game titled Drakar och Demoner (Dragons & Demons), which used a variant of Chaosium's Basic Role-Playing (BRP) rules system. Äventyrsspel then moved to a post-apocalyptic Swedish setting featuring mutants (humans with enhanced powers) and mutated animals (anthropomorphic intelligent humanoids with similar powers). The result, titled Mutant, was written by Gunilla Jonsson & Michael Petersén with illustrations by Nils Gulliksson. The game was expanded with the release of Mutant 2 (1986) and was continued to be published throughout the 1980s.
In 1989, Äventyrsspel published a second edition that switched to a cyberpunk setting heavily inspired by the Blade Runner movie, with new character options. This edition was also titled Mutant, but is commonly referred to by players as Nya Mutant (New Mutant).
A new edition in 1992 titled Mutant RYMD (Mutant SPACE) made more changes to the setting by moving it into the solar system. This iteration, however, was short-lived: after the English release of Äventyrsspel's Kult, Mutant RYMD was replaced in 1993 by Mutant Chronicles; this new edition included elements of both Kult without the religious elements and Mutant RYMD. It was released nearly simultaneously in both Sweden and the United States, as a pen and paper role-playing game, a collectible miniatures game (Warzone) and a board game (Siege of the Citadel). The English translation of Mutant Chronicles was provided by Heartbreaker Hobbies and Games.
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2937015
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinu%20Yohannan
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Tinu Yohannan
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Tinu Yohannan (born 18 February 1979) is a former Indian cricketer. He is a right-handed fast medium bowler. He played first-class cricket for Kerala and was the first Kerala player to play Test and one-day cricket for India. He is the current coach of Kerala cricket team.
A tall athlete, Yohannan was selected in 2000 for the first intake of the National Cricket Academy in Bangalore. This was after he underwent a training session with the MRF Pace Foundation. He made his Test debut in December 2001, in the home series against England. At the first Test, in Mohali, he dismissed both the English openers. He got his first Test wicket off the fourth ball of his very first over. Though his start was brilliant, he could not carry on with the Indian team due to a form slump. He played 3 Test matches and an equal number of ODIs. His Test bowling average is 51 runs for a wicket.
Tinu is the son of T. C. Yohannan, a long jumper who held the national record for nearly 3 decades and represented India in the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
He played for Royal Challengers Bangalore in the 2009 edition of the Indian Premier League.
Early life
Tinu not only excelled in cricket in his youth, but also won gold and silver medals in high jump events at junior state-level track and field tournaments.
Career
Tinu made his entry to the Indian cricket team on 3 December 2001 on Test Match against England. His ODI debut was against West Indies on 29 May 2002 in West Indies. He has taken 5 wickets in both Test Matches and in ODIs. He has represented Kerala between 1999 and 2008.
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2937020
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolaghat
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Kolaghat
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Demographics
As per 2011 Census of India Kolaghat had a total population of 25,191 of which 12,890 (51%) were males and 12,301 (49%) were females. Population below 6 years was 2,349. The total number of literates in Kolaghat was 19,909 (87.16% of the population over 6 years). India census, Kolaghat had a population of 23707. Males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%. Kolaghat has an average literacy rate of 71%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 78%, and female literacy is 64%. In Kolaghat, 11% of the population is under 6 years of age.
Civic administration and utility services
Kolaghat Census Town looks after civic affairs in the town. There is a proposal to upgrade it to a Municipality after including the railway area under its jurisdiction. As of now responsibility of civic amenities in railway area lies with the Divisional Railway Master, South Eastern Rly. Division who is also the head of railway establishment in Kolaghat.
State-owned Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, or BSNL, as well as private enterprises, among them Vodafone-idea(Vi), Airtel, Jio and are the leading telephone, cell phone and internet service providers in the city.
Economy and industry
West Bengal Power Development Corporation Limited (WBPDCL) of West Bengal Government runs the 6 X 210 MW Thermal Power Station at Kolaghat (Kolaghat thermal power station or K.T.P.S. ). It is the largest in the state sector.
Ramco Cements has one grinding unit in Kolaghat, which commenced production in 2010.
The Rupnarayan River is in this region several brick production units are located on the banks of this river.
Kolaghat flower market is one of the biggest flower market in West Bengal. It is located near Railway platform no.1
The riverside has become a popular picnic spot and is often crowded with people, particularly during the Christmas and New Year holidays. The town is notable for its Hilsa fish.
Post Office
India Post(DOP).
The Railway Station
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2937024
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Badi%20Palace
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El Badi Palace
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Background
Prior to the reign of the Saadian sultan Moulay Abdallah al-Ghalib (ruled 1557-1574), the rulers of Marrakesh resided in the old Kasbah (citadel) built by the Almohad dynasty in the late 12th and early 13th century. According to the contemporary chronicler Marmol, Moulay Abdallah, a major builder in his time, was the first to build a new palace in the area where the El Badi Palace stands, along the northern edge of the Almohad kasbah near the Kasbah Mosque and the newly-begun Saadian Tombs. The El Badi Palace proper, however, was constructed by Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur al-Dhahabi (ruled 1578-1603) at the height of the Saadian dynasty's power. The palace's construction, along with al-Mansur's other projects, was probably funded by the substantial ransom paid by the Portuguese after the Battle of the Three Kings in 1578. The wealth of al-Mansur's reign was also due to the Saadians' control of the sugar trade. Morocco was at that time a significant exporter of sugar towards Europe, along with other products such as silk, copper, and leather. In 1590 al-Mansur launched military expeditions to the south which resulted in the conquest of Timbuktu and Gao in Mali and the defeat of the Songhai Empire. This control of the trans-Saharan trade routes allowed al-Mansur to increase Morocco's access not only to gold but also to slaves – on which the sugar processing industry relied and which were necessary to compete with the sugar trade coming from Brazil and the Caribbean (controlled by Europeans and also reliant on slaves).
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2937024
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Badi%20Palace
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El Badi Palace
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Construction
According to al-Ifrani, construction of the palace began in December 1578 (Shawwal 986 AH), only a few months after the Saadian victory at the Battle of the Three Kings and Ahmad's accession to power, and took fifteen years, finishing in 1593 (1002 AH). French historian Gaston Deverdun, however, points out that the "Portuguese plan" of 1585 (an illustrated document providing important information on the layout of Marrakesh's kasbah at the time) shows us a fully-completed palace, while at the same time there also exist records of Ahmad al-Mansur purchasing marble for construction up until 1602, a year before his death. This suggests that the major constructions of the palace may have been completed by the early 1580s but that al-Mansur continued to embellish the palace up until his death.
The construction of the palace was a major enterprise. The sultan had workers and artisans brought from many regions, including Europe, to aid in the construction; so much so that a flourishing market established itself near the construction site to cater to the workers. Al-Mansur was so involved in making sure that work continued efficiently that he even provided child care for his workers in order to ensure they were not distracted by other priorities. Materials were also imported from multiple regions and foreign countries, including marble columns fabricated in Italy and lime and plaster from Timbuktu.
Decline
After the fall of the Saadians and the rise of the Alaouite dynasty the palace entered a period of rapid decline. It does not appear to have been maintained after al-Mansur's death and its premises were even plagued by malaria at one point. While the first Alaouite sultan, Moulay Rashid, was able to live here briefly in 1668-1669, less than ten years later his successor Moulay Isma'il ibn Sharif was unwilling to let ambassadors visit it because of its bad state.
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2937024
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Badi%20Palace
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El Badi Palace
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According to al-Ifrani, in 1707-08 (1119 AH) Moulay Isma'il ordered that the palace be demolished and stripped of its contents, materials and decorations, which were then re-used in the construction of his new palace and capital in Meknes. In reality, the dismantlement of the palace likely occurred progressively over time, beginning well before 1707 and also continuing after Moulay Isma'il. Architectural elements of Saadian origin, most likely including elements from the Badi Palace, are found in a number of buildings across Morocco and even in Algiers; for example, the Mausoleum of Moulay Isma'il in Meknes and the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II in Fes. In the meantime, the ruins of the palace became a grazing site for animals and even an owl sanctuary.
Present day
The palace today is a well-known tourist attraction. The complex contains an exhibition space where the 12th-century Almoravid minbar that once stood in the Kutubiyya Mosque is on display, in addition to other exhibition spaces opened in 2018. For a number of years the Marrakesh Folklore Festival has taken place within the palace.
The palace was significantly damaged in the September 2023 earthquake that struck southern Morocco. An early assessment of the damage found major cracks in the walls of the palace's exhibition rooms and in the area where the modern bathrooms are located. The site was temporarily closed for repairs and was reopened to visitors in October 2023.
The Saadian royal complex
The Saadian palaces formed a complex built inside the vast kasbah (citadel) on the south side of the city, originally laid out during the Almohad period under Caliph Ya'qub al-Mansur. Some of the various elements of the Saadian palaces may have already been built under Abdallah al-Ghalib, while Ahmad al-Mansur added to them and embellished them.
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2937024
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Badi%20Palace
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El Badi Palace
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The El Badi Palace itself was a reception palace where Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur hosted and received guests. The floor plan of the palace is essentially rectangular, centered around a huge courtyard (measuring 135 by 110 metres) with a central pool (measuring 90.4 by 21.7 metres). The courtyard also had four enormous sunken gardens, excavated and rediscovered in modern times, which were arranged symmetrically around the central pool, as well as four other water basins (measuring roughly 30 by 20 metres) along the west and east sides of the courtyard. This arrangement was essentially that of a riad garden (a symmetrical interior garden in Moorish architecture) on a grand scale.
Each side of this rectangular courtyard had a large pavilion with a grand and ornate cupola (qubba), around which were other cupolas and structures. The two largest pavilions faced each other at the eastern and western ends of the courtyard. This arrangement of pavilions appears to be an evolution of the layout seen in the Court of the Lions in the Alhambra, but on a grander scale.
The western pavilion of the courtyard was known in Arabic as al-Qubbat al-Khamsiniya () named either after its surface area of some 50 cubits or the fact that it once featured 50 columns. "Al-Quba al-Khamsiniya" is also the title of a poem by Abd al-Aziz al-Fishtali, poet laureate of Sultan Ahmed al-Mansur's court. It served as a reception hall or throne hall for the sultan. An alcove in the back wall of the chamber marks the spot where the sultan used to sit in attendance. Above this alcove was an Arabic inscription carved in black marble amidst the white marble covering the rest of the walls. At the middle of the hall was a fountain flanked by two water basins covered in delicate zellij decoration and fed with water spurting from silver sculptures of animals such as leopards, lions and pythons.
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2937024
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Badi%20Palace
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El Badi Palace
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The pavilion on the eastern side of the courtyard (no longer standing today) was known as the Qubbat az-Zujaj () or Qubbat ad-Dahab (). It was reserved for the sultan's private use and gave access to the Crystal Garden to the east (mentioned above).
The pavilion on the courtyard's north side was known as the Qubbat al-Khadra () and once had two stories with a number of rooms. An annex on the west side of this pavilion, paved with zellij and accessible to visitors today, contained three residential quarters which may have been used as guest quarters for foreign ambassadors.
The southern pavilion was known as the Qubbat al-Khayzuran (; possibly also named after one of al-Mansur's favourite concubines) and may have led to the women's quarters. Behind this pavilion were bathhouses which have been partially excavated and whose remains can be visited today. Aside from the pavilions, the rest of the courtyard's perimeter was lined with a gallery featuring "lambrequin" or "muqarnas"-profiled arches similar to those seen in the Court of the Lions and in other Moroccan Architecture.
Materials and decoration
The palace was a lavish display of the best craftsmanship of the Saadian period, constructed using some of the most expensive materials of the time, including gold and onyx, with colonnades made of Italian marble exchanged with Italian merchants for their equivalent weight in sugar. Although the core structure of the palace's walls were made in rammed earth reinforced with a mixture of lime, the walls were covered with these expensive materials and elaborate decoration (though today they stand bare due to the palace's later ruin).
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2937077
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image%20scaling
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Image scaling
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In computer graphics and digital imaging, image scaling refers to the resizing of a digital image. In video technology, the magnification of digital material is known as upscaling or resolution enhancement.
When scaling a vector graphic image, the graphic primitives that make up the image can be scaled using geometric transformations with no loss of image quality. When scaling a raster graphics image, a new image with a higher or lower number of pixels must be generated. In the case of decreasing the pixel number (scaling down), this usually results in a visible quality loss. From the standpoint of digital signal processing, the scaling of raster graphics is a two-dimensional example of sample-rate conversion, the conversion of a discrete signal from a sampling rate (in this case, the local sampling rate) to another.
Mathematical
Image scaling can be interpreted as a form of image resampling or image reconstruction from the view of the Nyquist sampling theorem. According to the theorem, downsampling to a smaller image from a higher-resolution original can only be carried out after applying a suitable 2D anti-aliasing filter to prevent aliasing artifacts. The image is reduced to the information that can be carried by the smaller image.
In the case of up sampling, a reconstruction filter takes the place of the anti-aliasing filter.
A more sophisticated approach to upscaling treats the problem as an inverse problem, solving the question of generating a plausible image that, when scaled down, would look like the input image. A variety of techniques have been applied for this, including optimization techniques with regularization terms and the use of machine learning from examples.
Algorithms
An image size can be changed in several ways.
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2937077
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image%20scaling
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Image scaling
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Specialized algorithms were developed to handle pixel-art graphics, as the traditional scaling algorithms do not take perceptual cues into account.
Since a typical application is to improve the appearance of fourth-generation and earlier video games on arcade and console emulators, many are designed to run in real time for small input images at 60 frames per second.
On fast hardware, these algorithms are suitable for gaming and other real-time image processing. These algorithms provide sharp, crisp graphics, while minimizing blur. Scaling art algorithms have been implemented in a wide range of emulators such as HqMAME and DOSBox, as well as 2D game engines and game engine recreations such as ScummVM. They gained recognition with gamers, for whom these technologies encouraged a revival of 1980s and 1990s gaming experiences.
Such filters are currently used in commercial emulators on Xbox Live, Virtual Console, and PSN to allow classic low-resolution games to be more visually appealing on modern HD displays. Recently released games that incorporate these filters include Sonic's Ultimate Genesis Collection, Castlevania: The Dracula X Chronicles, Castlevania: Symphony of the Night, and Akumajō Dracula X Chi no Rondo.
Real-time scaling
A number of companies have developed techniques to upscale video frames in real-time, such as when they are drawn on screen in a video game. Nvidia's deep learning super sampling (DLSS) uses deep learning to upsample lower-resolution images to a higher resolution for display on higher-resolution computer monitors. AMD's FidelityFX Super Resolution 1.0 (FSR) does not employ machine learning, instead using traditional hand-written algorithms to achieve spatial upscaling on traditional shading units. FSR 2.0 utilises temporal upscaling, again with a hand-tuned algorithm. FSR standardized presets are not enforced, and some titles such as Dota 2 offer resolution sliders. Other technologies include Intel XeSS and Nvidia Image Scaler (NIS).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20cruiser%20Gorizia
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Italian cruiser Gorizia
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Gorizia was the third member of the of heavy cruisers to be built for the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy) in the 1930s. Named for the town of Gorizia, the ship was laid down at the OTO Livorno shipyard in March 1930, was launched in December that year and was commissioned into the fleet in December 1931. Armed with a main battery of eight guns, she was nominally within the limit imposed by the Washington Naval Treaty, though in reality she significantly exceeded this figure.
During the ship's peacetime career, she frequently took part in fleet reviews. In 1934, she went on a tour with the royal yacht to eastern Africa, and she made another foreign cruise two years later to Germany during the 1936 Summer Olympics being held there. She was involved in the Spanish Civil War in the late 1930s; she evacuated Italian nationals in August 1936, and while returning to Italy, suffered an explosion in an aviation gas tank that necessitated major repairs. The ship supported the Italian invasion of Albania in 1939.
The ship saw extensive service in World War II, which Italy entered in June 1940. She frequently operated against British convoys to Malta in the Mediterranean, and after the North African Campaign began, she escorted Italian convoys to support the Italo-German forces fighting there. In the course of these operations, she took part in the battles at Calabria, Cape Spartivento, and First and Second Sirte. Gorizia was also attacked numerous times by Allied bombers while in port, culminating in a major raid in April 1943 that inflicted serious damage to the ship. Under repair when Italy surrendered to the Allies in September, the ship was seized by occupying Germany forces, who found the ship to be unusable and so abandoned her. Italian and British frogmen tried unsuccessfully to sink the ship in 1944. After Germany's defeat in 1945, the Italian Navy determined the ship was beyond economical repair, and so she was broken up for scrap in 1947.
Design
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20cruiser%20Gorizia
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Italian cruiser Gorizia
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While in Messina on 25 January 1942, the ship was visited by the German Luftwaffe officer Generaloberst Bruno Loerzer, who had arrived to command German air units stationed on the island. Five days later, Umberto, Prince of Piedmont, the heir to the italian crown, and Hermann Göring, the commander of the Luftwaffe, visited the ship on a tour of major bases in Sicily. Gorizia returned to combat operations in February; she sortied on the 14th to search for Allied shipping, but instead came under heavy attack from both torpedo bombers and submarines. She returned to Messina undamaged. On 21 February, she joined another convoy to Tripoli before returning to Messina on the 24th. A month later, on 22 March, she took part in the Second Battle of Sirte, where she was heavily engaged with British light cruisers and destroyers. The engagement occurred at long range, and smoke from the British ships interfered with the Italians' gunnery, and Gorizia scored no hits. In the course of the battle, she had fired 226 rounds from her main battery.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20cruiser%20Gorizia
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Italian cruiser Gorizia
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By May, her 203 mm guns were worn out from their use in the Battles of Sirte, and so they were relined in Messina early that month. Allied air attacks targeted the ship in Messina on 25 and 26 May, but she suffered only splinter damage. Further attacks over the following two days inflicted no damage at all. On the 28th, she left Messina for Taranto; although Allied aircraft continued to attack Gorizia there from 8 to 11 June, she remained unscathed. On 15 June, the fleet sortied once again to intercept a convoy to Malta, codenamed Operation Vigorous. While on the mission, Gorizias floatplane failed to return and was presumed lost. British torpedo bombers attacked Gorizia three times, but failed to score any hits. The cruiser was hit by a torpedo and was later sunk by a British submarine. On 5 July, Gorizia returned to Messina, and on the 17th, she hosted a visit from Umberto. While she was on an operation to catch a British convoy on 11–13 August, a British submarine attempted to torpedo the ship while she slowed down to launch one of her floatplanes. She successfully evaded the attack, but the cruisers and were not as lucky, both being badly damaged. Gorizia, Trieste, and two destroyers proceeded on to Messina while the other five destroyers stayed to protect the two damaged cruisers. Umberto made another visit to the ship on 27 August in Messina.
Fate
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20cruiser%20Gorizia
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Italian cruiser Gorizia
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By December, the threat from Allied bombers had increased significantly, forcing the Regia Marina to abandon Messina as a major base. On 9 December, the 3rd Division left for La Maddalena further north in Sardinia, arriving the next day. Nevertheless, a major attack from USAAF heavy bombers struck La Maddalena on 10 April 1943 and sank and hit Gorizia with three bombs, inflicting serious damage. One bomb penetrated the rear superfiring turret and exploded inside and the other two struck the deck abreast of the superstructure on the port side. Near misses breached the hull below the waterline, but damage control parties kept flooding to a minimum. Two days after the attack, Gorizia steamed to La Spezia for repairs. On 19 April, an Allied air attack on the port inflicted minor splinter damage. Umberto made another visit to the ship while she was awaiting repair on 20 April. Ten days later, the 3rd Division was disbanded, since the two surviving Italian heavy cruisers were out of action, Bolzano having been torpedoed and badly damaged by a British submarine in August 1942.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20cruiser%20Gorizia
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Italian cruiser Gorizia
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Gorizia entered the dry dock in La Spezia to begin repairs on 4 May; she was still under repair when Italy surrendered to the Allies in September. The ship's commander initially ordered the caretaker crew to flood the drydock and scuttle the ship when German troops occupied the port, but cancelled the order when it became clear the ship would be of no use to the Germans anyway. The Germans later moved the ship out of the dock, anchored her in the harbor, and abandoned her. On the night of 21–22 June 1944, British and Italian frogmen used Chariot manned torpedoes to infiltrate the harbor to sink Gorizia and Bolzano to prevent the Germans from using them as blockships; while the commandos did sink Bolzano, they were unsuccessful with Gorizia. She remained afloat and heavily listing in April 1945, when Allied forces liberated La Spezia. Judged to be too badly damaged to repair, the postwar navy decided to discard the ship. She was accordingly stricken from the naval register on 27 February 1947 and broken up for scrap.
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2937089
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Cheyne%20%28physician%29
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George Cheyne (physician)
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George Cheyne, M.D. R.C. E.d. R.S.S. (1672–1743), was a pioneering physician, early proto-psychiatrist, philosopher and mathematician.
Life
George Cheyne was a Newtonian physician and Behmenist, deeply immersed in mysticism. Born in 1672 in Methlick, near Aberdeen in Scotland, he was baptized in Mains of Kelly, Methlick, Aberdeenshire, on 24 February 1673. He died in Bath on April 12, 1743. The books he published during his life show his wide interest which extended from medicine and natural philosophy to religion, metaphysics, astronomy and mathematics. His books were most of the time very successful and as a result they were translated into other languages, e.g. Latin, Dutch, French, Italian and German. The printer and author Samuel Richardson printed several of his books. Among many others Thomas Gray, Samuel Johnson, John Wesley, John Byrom and Edward Young liked his work. His clients included Alexander Pope, John Gay and Samuel Richardson. Today he is best known for his contribution to vegetarianism.
Cheyne was acquainted with Sir Isaac Newton and provoked Newton to publish his Quadratures and with it, his Light & Colours. Newton later offered him financial support to publish Fluxionum methodus inversa (The Inverse Method of Fluxions), but apparently he turned down the offer. Newton refused to see him any more.
Cheyne did not believe that the present state of things is "from all Eternity". Using the metaphor of "a Piece of Clock-work", he argues that when a thing depends upon another thing as its cause, this implies that “the first thing exists that the second may exist”. He adds: "remove the sun and there will be no fruit, take away the moon and the seas would stagnate, destroy our Atmosphere and we should swell like poison´d Rats". Therefore, it is absolutely impossible, according to Cheyne, that “any of the Species of Animals or Vegetables should have existed from all Eternity”.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Cheyne%20%28physician%29
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George Cheyne (physician)
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Cheyne also wrote on fevers, nervous disorders, and hygiene. In 1740 he wrote The Essay on Regimen and this work is often quoted by vegetarians and animal rights activists, particularly the following passage:
To see the convulsions, agonies and tortures of a poor fellow-creature, whom they cannot restore nor recompense, dying to gratify luxury and tickle callous and rank organs, must require a rocky heart, and a great degree of cruelty and ferocity. I cannot find any great difference between feeding on human flesh and feeding on animal flesh, except custom and practice.
Speaking from personal experience, Cheyne asserted that mental depression afflicted the brilliant rather than the dull, writing that "those of the liveliest and quickest natural Parts ... whose Genius is most keen and penetrating were most prone to such disorders. Fools, weak or stupid Persons, heavy and dull Souls, are seldom troubled with Vapours or Lowness of Spirits."
Education
Cheyne went to the University of Edinburgh and the University of Aberdeen to study medicine. During these years he may have spent a brief time in Leiden. Having finished his studies he went to London in 1701 where he started a practice and became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1702. Cheyne describes his own life up to 1733 in The English Malady.
Cheyne's Family Life
Cheyne married Margaret Middleton around 1712 or earlier. They had three surviving children, Francis, who was baptized on 23 August 1713 at St Michael's parish in Bath, Peggy (Margaret), and John, possibly born in 1717. John became vicar of Brigstock in Northamptonshire.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Cheyne%20%28physician%29
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George Cheyne (physician)
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The Importance of Exercise
Cheyne was always stressing to his patients the importance of exercise. In winter and bad weather he advised within doors the tremoussoir (or chamber-horse), or walking in a gallery or a suite of rooms, and in good weather any of the exercises mentioned in his earlier works such as walking, riding, fencing, dancing, billiards, tennis, football and digging, of which Cheyne thought walking the most natural, and riding, as it shakes the "whole Machine", the most manly, healthy and least laborious.
The valetudinarian might choose the ones suited to the weakness of his organs or limbs. Cheyne also stressed the importance of exercise for women. Even pregnant women should not be confined to their chambers, couches or beds. The only solid and certain way to prevent miscarriages was to pursue all those means and methods likeliest to promote good health, such as air and gentle exercise. All violence or excess was of course to be carefully avoided, but fresh air, gentle exercise and walking was as necessary as food or rest, according to Cheyne. However, exercise ought to be constant and uniform, and never to be performed on a full stomach, nor should they be violent, or long at a time, but orderly at proper hours: "not to Sweating, but to Warmth".
How to Obtain a Green Old Age
To obtain what Cheyne called a "Green Old Age", he advised a wise man who wanted to live on to seventy or eighty to begin at least at the age of fifty to lessen his daily intake of meat and drink, especially in quantity. This was because about this time the "great Crise or Climacteric of Life" generally began in both sexes. For it was then, Cheyne argued, that the blood and the juices of the most healthy and strong began to cool, to thicken and were becoming "vapid" and obstructed in the "Capillaries and Lymphatics". As a result many of these vessels coalesced and became cartilaginous”.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Cheyne%20%28physician%29
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George Cheyne (physician)
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Aversion of Pain
Cheyne had a deep aversion against pain. He concluded The English Malady (1733) by stating that he was one of those "mean-spirited Wretches" who was content to live as long as nature designed him to last and that he would submit with the utmost peace and resignation he could arrive at when his life had to end. But pain, sickness, and especially oppression, anxiety and lowness were his "mortal Aversion" and he added that he would refuse no means to avoid them, except those that would bring him even greater suffering. For he knew there were as many and different degrees of sensibility or of feeling as there were degrees of intelligence and perception in human beings. One perhaps suffered more from the "Prick of a Pin" than others from being "run through their Body", and the first sort seemed to be of the class of the "Quick-Thinkers". None could, however, choose for themselves their own particular frame of mind, nor constitution of body, just as they could not choose their own degree of sensibility, for that was given by the "Author of his Nature", and was already determined. Both were as various as the faces and forms of mankind.
Vegetarianism
In order to succeed in medical practice, Cheyne tried to develop a rapport with his patients by regularly visiting the local taverns where they spent time, a practice common among medical practitioners of the day. He became a popular figure of local social life, and the quantity of rich food and drink he consumed in consequence left him grossly obese and very unhealthy. He began a meatless diet, taking only milk and vegetables, and regained his health. But when he returned to a more typical diet - albeit more moderate than he had previously indulged - he regained weight and his health once again deteriorated. He went back to his vegetarian diet for the remainder of his life, recommending it for everyone suffering from obesity.
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2937099
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axel%20H%C3%A4gerstr%C3%B6m
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Axel Hägerström
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Axel Anders Theodor Hägerström (6 September 1868, Vireda – 7 July 1939, Uppsala) was a Swedish philosopher.
Born in Vireda, Jönköping County, Sweden, he was the son of a Church of Sweden pastor. As student at Uppsala University, he gave up theology for a career in philosophy. Teaching there from 1893 until his retirement in 1933, he attacked the then dominant philosophical idealism of the followers of Christopher Jacob Boström (1797-1866). He is best known as a founder of the (quasi-) positivistic Uppsala school of philosophy—the Swedish counterpart of the Anglo-American Analytical Philosophy as well as of the Logical Positivism of the Vienna Circle—and as the founder of the Scandinavian legal realism movement.
Some of his work was published by the Muirhead Library of Philosophy.
He was Inspektor of the Östgöta nation from 1925 to his retirement in 1933.
Contribution to legal understanding
The jurisprudential camp of legal realism, broadly speaking, consists of those scholars who strictly reject the concept of natural law and who believe that legal concepts, terminology and values should be based on experience, observation and experimentation and are thus, ‘real’.
Hägerström is considered to be the founding father of the Scandinavian school of legal realism. His disciples Karl Olivecrona, Alf Ross and Anders Vilhelm Lundstedt all take a similar basic view to Hägerström in their opinions on the language of Western law. Due to their verdict on natural law, they also reject the concept of human rights.
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2937104
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-sector%20model
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Dual-sector model
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The Dual Sector model, or the Lewis model, is a model in developmental economics that explains the growth of a developing economy in terms of a labour transition between two sectors, the subsistence or traditional agricultural sector and the capitalist or modern industrial sector.
History
Initially enumerated in an article entitled "Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labor" written in 1954 by Sir Arthur Lewis, the model itself was named in Lewis's honor. First published in The Manchester School in May 1954, the article and the subsequent model were instrumental in laying the foundation for the field of Developmental economics. The article itself has been characterized by some as the most influential contribution to the establishment of the discipline.
Theory
The "Dual Sector Model" is a theory of development in which surplus labor from traditional agricultural sector is transferred to the modern industrial sector whose growth over time absorbs the surplus labor, promotes industrialization and stimulates sustained development.
In the model, the traditional agricultural sector is typically characterized by low wages, an abundance of labour, and low productivity through a labour intensive production process. In contrast, the modern manufacturing sector is defined by higher wage rates than the agricultural sector, higher marginal productivity, and a demand for more workers initially. Also, the manufacturing sector is assumed to use a production process that is capital intensive, so investment and capital formation in the manufacturing sector are possible over time as capitalists' profits are reinvested in the capital stock. Improvement in the marginal productivity of labour in the agricultural sector is assumed to be a low priority as the hypothetical developing nation's investment is going towards the physical capital stock in the manufacturing sector.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-sector%20model
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Dual-sector model
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Since the agricultural sector has a limited amount of land to cultivate, the marginal product of an additional farmer is assumed to be zero as the law of diminishing marginal returns has run its course due to the fixed input, land. As a result, the agricultural sector has a quantity of farm workers that are not contributing to agricultural output since their marginal productivities are zero. This group of farmers that is not producing any output is termed surplus labour since this cohort could be moved to another sector with no effect on agricultural output. (The term surplus labour here is not being used in a Marxist context and only refers to the unproductive workers in the agricultural sector.)
Real wages are paid according to:
where is total product in the agricultural industry, is the quantity of labor in the agricultural industry and is real wage in the agricultural industry.
Therefore, due to the wage differential between the agricultural and manufacturing sectors, workers will tend to transition from the agricultural to the manufacturing sector over time to reap the reward of higher wages.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-sector%20model
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Dual-sector model
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If a quantity of workers moves from the agricultural to the manufacturing sector equal to the quantity of surplus labour in the agricultural sector, regardless of who actually transfers, general welfare and productivity will improve. Total agricultural product will remain unchanged while total industrial product increases due to the addition of labour, but the additional labour also drives down marginal productivity and wages in the manufacturing sector. Over time as this transition continues to take place and investment results in increases in the capital stock, the marginal productivity of workers in the manufacturing will be driven up by capital formation and driven down by additional workers entering the manufacturing sector. Eventually, the wage rates of the agricultural and manufacturing sectors will equalise as workers leave the agriculture sector for the manufacturing sector, increasing marginal productivity and wages in agriculture whilst driving down productivity and wages in manufacturing.
The end result of this transition process is that the agricultural wage equals the manufacturing wage, the agricultural marginal product of labour equals the manufacturing marginal product of labour, and no further manufacturing sector enlargement takes place as workers no longer have a monetary incentive to transition.
Turning point
The Lewisian "turning point" is the point where the surplus labour pool is depleted. The economy then begins to resemble a developed economy.
Criticism
The theory is complicated by the fact that surplus labour is both generated by the introduction of new productivity enhancing technologies in the agricultural sector and the intensification of work.
The wage differential between industry and agriculture needs to be sufficient to incentivise movement between the sectors and, whereas the model assumes any differential will result in a transfer.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordance%20%28publishing%29
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Concordance (publishing)
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A concordance is an alphabetical list of the principal words used in a book or body of work, listing every instance of each word with its immediate context. Historically, concordances have been compiled only for works of special importance, such as the Vedas, Bible, Qur'an or the works of Shakespeare, James Joyce or classical Latin and Greek authors, because of the time, difficulty, and expense involved in creating a concordance in the pre-computer era.
A concordance is more than an index, with additional material such as commentary, definitions and topical cross-indexing which makes producing one a labor-intensive process even when assisted by computers.
In the precomputing era, search technology was unavailable, and a concordance offered readers of long works such as the Bible something comparable to search results for every word that they would have been likely to search for. Today, the ability to combine the result of queries concerning multiple terms (such as searching for words near other words) has reduced interest in concordance publishing. In addition, mathematical techniques such as latent semantic indexing have been proposed as a means of automatically identifying linguistic information based on word context.
A bilingual concordance is a concordance based on aligned parallel text.
A topical concordance is a list of subjects that a book covers (usually The Bible), with the immediate context of the coverage of those subjects. Unlike a traditional concordance, the indexed word does not have to appear in the verse. The best-known topical concordance is Nave's Topical Bible.
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2937118
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddy%20Kilowatt
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Reddy Kilowatt
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Reddy Kilowatt is a cartoon character that served as a corporate spokesman for electricity generation in the United States and other countries for nearly one hundred years. Currently, the Reddy Kilowatt trademark is owned by Xcel Energy.
Description
Reddy Kilowatt is drawn as a stick figure whose body, limbs, and hair are made of stylized lightning-bolts and whose bulbous head has a light bulb for a nose and wall outlets for ears.
Conception
Reddy Kilowatt made his first published appearance on March 14, 1926, in an advertisement in The Birmingham News for the Alabama Power Company (APC). The character was the brainchild of the company's 40-year-old commercial manager, Ashton B. Collins, Sr.
Like other electric utilities of the period, APC was seeking to grow consumer demand for electrical power. Commercially viable AC generating stations had begun powering North American streets and homes by the end of the 19th century. By the mid-1920s, electric utilities had succeeded in bringing electricity to virtually all major cities and towns in North America; however, rural areas remained chronically underserved. In 1930, almost 90 percent of farms in the United States were still without access to electric service. Collins was convinced that the best way to win over new customers, including frugal small business owners and skeptical farmers and rural dwellers, was to give his mostly invisible new commodity a more human face.
According to corporate lore, Collins found his inspiration in a dramatic Alabama lightning storm. As he watched the electric discharges strike the ground, he imagined the dancing limbs of a powerful creature, one that could be harnessed in the service of the public. He turned to a colleague, APC engineer Dan Clinton, to create the first drawings of Reddy Kilowatt, an “electrical servant” with lightning bolt arms and legs, wearing safety gloves and shoes. He added a friendly face with a light bulb nose and wall outlets for ears.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddy%20Kilowatt
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Reddy Kilowatt
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APC copyrighted the character on March 6, 1926. Over the next few years, Reddy appeared in print advertising for the company. He made his first three-dimensional appearance at the Alabama Electrical Exposition of 1926.
Adolescence
The onset of the Great Depression in 1929 would further suppress demand for new electric services and slow progress toward rural electrification. Collins remained convinced that the Reddy Kilowatt character could be a powerful promoter of electric power. A lifelong advocate for capitalism, Collins was alarmed by growing government intervention in the sector and also saw Reddy as an ambassador for investor-owned utility companies (IOUs).
In 1933, IOUs banded together to advance their interests, forming the Edison Electric Institute. Collins joined the new organization, travelling the United States to promote the use of electrical energy. APC gave Collins the rights to the character he created. He engaged a young family friend, Dorothea Warren (1914–1999), to refine Reddy Kilowatt's image. On March 28, 1933, Collins was granted trademark number 302,093 by the U.S. Patent Office. Warren would go on to become a prolific commercial artist and author of children's books.
Under the umbrella of the Reddy Kilowatt Service (RKS), Collins used his interactions with other IOUs to promote what he called the “Reddy Kilowatt Program”. He entered into his first licensing agreement with the Philadelphia Electric Company in January 1934. Over the next couple of years, Collins would add several other major utilities including Ohio Edison Company, PPL Corporation, Duke Power, South Carolina Power Company and Tennessee Electric Power Company.
RKS entered into a contract with each licensee. The original 1934 version was amended in 1941, 1953, 1963, 1968, 1971 and 1976. In signing the contract, the licensing IOU promised to always represent Reddy Kilowatt as “genial, likeable, well-mannered [and] even-tempered” and to abide by “generally accepted standards of good taste.”
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddy%20Kilowatt
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Reddy Kilowatt
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With the impending end of hostilities in the final months of World War II, utility companies began to prepare for a return to a consumer-driven economy, and to respond to 15 years of pent-up demand for new household appliances. Demand for electric power jumped 14 per cent between 1946 and 1947 alone. An important driver was that, even as demand for electrical energy increased, the cost of energy continued to decline. When Reddy was created in the mid-1920s, a kilowatt-hour cost 55 cents (in constant 1992 dollars). By 1947, it had fallen to 19 cents, and it would continue to fall over the ensuing two decades.
Ashton Collins saw that Reddy Kilowatt could play an important role in promoting electrical use in a period of post-war prosperity, but recognized a need to refine the character's image. As early as 1943, Collins approached the prominent American animator Walt Disney in a bid to adapt Reddy for film. The studio was heavily involved in producing films for the U.S. military at the time and the project did not proceed.
Two years later, Collins approached another noted animator, Walter Lantz, with the idea of starring Reddy on the big screen. Lantz, whose characters like Woody Woodpecker and Andy Panda were well known to theatre-goers of the period, agreed, releasing the short film Reddy Made Magic in March 1946. Lantz and Collins shared producing credits on the film, which was directed by Dick Lundy, a former Disney animator. The screenplay, by Ben Hardaway and Milt Schaffer, featured the story of the creation of electricity as told by Reddy Kilowatt. In conjunction with the film version of Reddy Made Magic, Educational Comics produced a companion comic book with a cover price of five cents and the subtitle The amazing true story of electricity. Reddy's movie voice was provided by Walter Tetley, the prolific voiceover actor whose talents were in demand by producers needing a high-pitched, adolescent sound. Tetley's credits included the voice of Sherman, sidekick of Jay Ward’s canine genius Mr. Peabody.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddy%20Kilowatt
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Reddy Kilowatt
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"Reddy," insisted Louise Bender in 1978, "is the friend of the consumer," adding that urging users to keep their power consumption down was just fulfilling his mission; however, the character's updated image was not an easy fit. Reddy Kilowatt had acted as a cheerleader for energy consumption for more than half a century and his transformation to environmentalist was viewed skeptically by many. Conservation groups and editorial cartoonists began to appropriate the character in ironic and negative ways to satirize the energy industry, to the irritation of the company. In a 1979 case, RCI sued the Environmental Action Foundation (EAF) for its use of Reddy's image to criticize the industry in its publications. The court sided with the EAF and concluded that their parody of the character was fair use.
Reddy's decline was hastened further by skyrocketing energy prices in the late 20th century. The changing corporate environment led to mergers, consolidations and government takeovers of energy companies, running afoul of the company's decree that only investor-owned utilities could license the use of Reddy's image. In one example, the Province of Nova Scotia moved to acquire Nova Scotia Light and Power, a Reddy Kilowatt licensee since 1948. Immediately after the sale concluded in January 1972, company officials fanned out across the system to excise the character's image from signs, vehicles and structures. The corporate logo, which formerly featured a beaming Reddy Kilowatt gripping a placard with the company name, was reduced to an unadorned triangle, sometimes with Reddy's amputated fingers remaining as evidence of his passing.
A final nail in Reddy's coffin was the general fall from grace of fictional and animated characters as corporate spokespersons. Modern corporations have tended to favour abstract logos and wordmarks and celebrity endorsers to represent their brands.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari%20Corporation
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Atari Corporation
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History
The company was founded by Commodore International's founder Jack Tramiel soon after his resignation from Commodore in January 1984. Initially named Tramel Technology, Ltd., the company's goal was to design and sell a next-generation home computer. On July 1, 1984, TTL bought the Consumer Division assets of Atari, Inc. from Warner, and TTL was renamed Atari Corporation. Warner sold the division in exchange for $240 million in stock in the new company.Under Tramiel's ownership, Atari used the remaining stock of game console inventory to keep the company afloat while they finished the development of their 16-bit computer system, the Atari ST. In 1985, they released their update to the 8-bit computer line—the Atari XE series—as well as the 16-bit Atari ST line. Then in 1986, Atari Corp. launched two consoles designed when Atari was under Warner's control: Atari 2600 Jr and Atari 7800 (which had a limited release in 1984). Atari Corp. rebounded, producing a $25 million profit for 1986. The Atari ST line proved very successful (mostly in Europe, not the U.S.), ultimately selling more than 5 million units. Its built-in MIDI ports made it especially popular among musicians. Still, after initially outselling the Amiga line, its closest competitor in the marketplace, the Amiga outsold it 3 to 2 in the end.Atari eventually released a line of inexpensive IBM PC compatibles, announcing a budget model at "a record-breaking price of under $599" in early 1987, to be followed by a more expandable PC-2 model at a higher price point, this being announced alongside the PC-3 in November 1987. Responding to the introduction of the low-cost Amstrad PC1512 in the UK, price points for the initial PC model were given as around £400 including VAT for a 512 KB floppy-only model supporting CGA, EGA and Hercules graphics, rising to £1000 including VAT for a hard drive model. Later, the company introduced an MS-DOS compatible palm computer called the Atari Portfolio.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari%20Corporation
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Atari Corporation
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In 1988, Stewart Alsop II said that Atari was among several companies that "have already been knocked out" of the GUI market by Apple, IBM/Microsoft, and others, but Atari's sales hit their peak that year, at $452 million.
In 1989, Atari released the Lynx, a handheld console with color graphics, to critical acclaim. However, a shortage of parts kept the system from being released nationwide for the 1989 Christmas season; the Lynx lost market share to Nintendo's Game Boy, which had only a monochrome display, but a much better battery life, and was widely available.
As the fortunes of Atari's computers faded, video games again became the company's main focus. In 1993, Atari released its last console, the Jaguar. One of the first entries in the fifth generation of game consoles, the Jaguar was marketed as the world's first 64-bit console. However, due to a games library which was low in both quantity and quality, as well as being extremely difficult to program games for the system because of its multi-chip architecture, it was unable to compete effectively against the incumbent fourth generation consoles; the Sega Saturn and Sony PlayStation would outsell the Jaguar in very large numbers late in its lifespan.
Atari sustained a net loss of $49.6 million for 1995, with $27.7 million in losses during the last quarter of the year alone.
Decline and aftermath
In December 1995, Sam Tramiel suffered a mild heart attack, forcing him to step down as Atari's president, causing Jack Tramiel to come back and lead the company again. On January 2, 1996, at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show, Atari Corporation formally announced the formation of a PC division, Atari Interactive, to "address the worldwide PC market". Planning to initially launch with four titles, Tempest 2000, Highlander: The Last of the MacLeods, Baldies, and FlipOut!, further releases would include Missile Command 3D, Return to Crystal Castles, Rocky Interactive Horror Show, and Virtual War. These plans did not materialize.
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2937131
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaskaskia%20Baptist%20Association
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Kaskaskia Baptist Association
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Founded in 1840, the Kaskaskia Baptist Association is a Southern Baptist ministry centered in Patoka, Illinois and is active in ministry to people in Southern and South Central Illinois Named after the Kaskaskia River, it consists of thirty-three churches in Southern and South Central Illinois, and in recent years has become involved with the Southern Illinois Hispanic Outreach Project, a cooperative missions agency working with Hispanics throughout Southern Illinois. Bimonthly it publishes the Kaskaskia Baptist Visitor, a newsletter with a circulation of about 1,000 that reports on mission projects and church news from throughout the association.
History
The Kaskaskia Baptist Association has a unique history. It was formed as the Vandalia Baptist Association in 1840 by three converging movements: The Friends of Humanity, which was the group of Anti-slavery Baptists led by the Lemen family, the Sunday School Movement, and the Missions Movement, both of which were led by John Mason Peck, who was sent by the Northern (American) Baptists from the East. The Vandalia Baptist Association was the fifth association formed by the Friends of Humanity. Many of the churches within the present Kaskaskia Baptist Association, which predate the association, seemed to have simultaneously been formed by the Sunday School Movement and the anti-slavery movement. Neither of these movements, however, worked together at the time.
Many of the founding churches still exist today. The association has never disbanded, but rather has had three different names which were changed in order to accommodate the changes of boundaries as new areas joined. The name changed from Vandalia Baptist Association to Centralia Baptist Association to assimilate churches in Mt. Vernon and Centralia in 1880. The name of the association again changed in 1912 to the Kaskaskia Baptist Association when churches left the Northern (American) Baptist denomination to become Southern Baptist.
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2937135
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop%20John%20T.%20Walker%20Distinguished%20Humanitarian%20Service%20Award
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Bishop John T. Walker Distinguished Humanitarian Service Award
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The Bishop John T. Walker Distinguished Humanitarian Service Award (BWD or Bishop Walker Dinner) is an award presented annually by Africare to recognize those whose work has made a significant impact on raising the standard of living in Africa. The award is named after John T. Walker, former Episcopal Bishop of Washington, D.C., and Africare board member. Each year, the Africare Bishop John T. Walker Memorial Dinner brings together more than 2,000 people — African heads of state, ministers of commerce and foreign affairs, leaders from the African Union and the United Nations, U.S. government leaders, diplomats, corporate executives, leaders of national organizations and private individuals — who share one focus: They care about Africa.
This is the largest annual event for Africa in the United States, with proceeds supporting the work of Africare. The Dinner is a top multicultural affair as well, embracing all races and a wide array of cultures and nationalities from around the world. The Dinner also honors outstanding humanitarians through the presentation of Africare's Bishop John T. Walker Distinguished Humanitarian Service Award.
Bishop John T. Walker Background
Bishop Walker came to Washington in 1966 as Canon of the Washington Cathedral, with special responsibility for its ministry to the community. He was elected Suffragan Bishop of Washington on May 1, 1971, and became the sixth Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Washington on July 3, 1977.
"I know some people get disheartened, and I know some people want to throw in the sponge and give up, but I can't do that. My feeling is too strong that it's God's will that we live together in harmony and peace. It's God's will that we grow beyond our racial animosties and that we must commit ourselves to continue that work. That's why I am here. I am not here for any other reason."
Past honorees
BWD history
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