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5405001
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeghishe%20Charents
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Yeghishe Charents
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Charents joined the Red Army and fought during the Russian Civil War as a rank and file soldier in Russia (Tsaritsin) and the Caucasus. In 1919, he returned to Armenia and took part in revolutionary activities there. A year later, he began work at the Ministry of Education as the director of the Art Department. Charents would also once again take up arms, this time against his fellow Armenians, as a rebellion took place against Soviet rule in February 1921. One of his most famous poems, I love the sun-sweet taste of the fruits of Armenia, a lyric ode to his homeland, was composed in 1920-1921. Charents returned to Moscow in 1921 to study at the Institute of literature and Arts founded by Valeri Bryusov. In a manifesto issued in June 1922, known as the "Declaration of the Three," signed by Charents, Gevorg Abov, and Azad Veshtuni, the young authors expressed their favour of "proletarian internationalism." In 1921-22 he wrote "Amenapoem" (Everyone's poem), and "Charents-name'", an autobiographical poem. Then, Charents published his satirical novel, Land of Nairi (Yerkir Nairi), which became a great success and repeatedly published in Russian in Moscow during the life of poet. In August 1934 Maxim Gorky presented him to the Soviet writers' first congress delegates with Here is our Land of Nairi.
The first part of Yerkir Nairi is dedicated to the description of public figures and places of Kars, and to the presentation of Armenian public sphere. According to Charents, his Yerkir Nairi is not visible, "it is an incomprehensible miracle: a horrifying secret, an amazing amazement". In the second part of novel, Kars and its leaders are seen during World War I, and the third part tells about the fall of Kars and the destruction of the dream.
In 1924-1925 Charents went on a seven-month trip abroad, visiting Turkey, Italy (where he met Avetik Isahakyan), France, and Germany. When Charents returned, he founded a union of writers, November, and worked for the state publishing house from 1928 to 1935.
| 2.484375
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5405036
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arto%20Noras
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Arto Noras
|
Arto Noras (born 12 May 1942, in Turku) is a Finnish cellist who is one of Finland's most celebrated instrumentalists and amongst the most outstanding internationally acknowledged cellists of his generation.
At the age of 8, Arto Noras started his studies at the prestigious Sibelius Academy in Helsinki, Finland. After completing his studies with Professor Yrjö Selin at the Sibelius Academy, Arto Noras studied with Paul Tortelier at the Paris Conservatoire where he gained the coveted Premier Prix diploma in 1964. Two years later, in 1966, he was awarded second prize in the International Tchaikovsky Competition in Moscow, which immediately opened his way to the most important concert halls in Europe and both North and South America where he has performed regularly ever since. Arto Noras also won the Danish Sonning Prize in 1967 and Finnish State music prize in 1972.
Arto Noras' repertoire covers all the principal works that have been written for his instrument, including those by contemporary composers, and he has recorded them extensively for the Finlandia recording label. In 1970 Arto Noras was appointed Professor of Cello at the Sibelius Academy in Helsinki. Noras has served as a jurist for some of the most important music competitions in the world, including the Tchaikovsky, Casals and Cassado competitions. He can be heard as a most distinguished chamber musician as a member of the Helsinki Trio and as a founder member of the Sibelius Academy Quartet as well as with several other groups of similarly distinguished musicians.
In 1980, Prof. Noras founded the Naantali Music Festival in Naantali, Finland, and as of 2013 he is still the Artistic Manager of the festival. He also founded in 1991 and remains the Artistic Director of the V Paulo International Cello Competition, whose former winners include internationally renowned French concert cellist Jean-Guihen Queyras and Perttu Kivilaakso, member of the popular cello rock band Apocalyptica.
| 2.109375
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5405045
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20education%20for%20young%20children
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Music education for young children
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Music education for young children is an educational program introducing children in a playful manner to singing, speech, music, motion and organology. It is a subarea of music education.
Benefits
There are many benefits that music provides for children as they continue to grow. The benefits that young children acquire through music include social skills, emotional self-regulating abilities, cognitive benefits, and physical benefits. Socially, children have the opportunity to learn how to take turns and play with others while still playing individually, for example a band of little players each playing their instrument but yet looking at the big picture of playing with a group of little friends as well. Music also allows a smooth transitioning throughout daily activities, whether it be at home or in a classroom setting children get the idea of the following activity. Allowing children to play with others, including adults or older siblings also gives them a boost of self-esteem. Also, different songs show children the different words used for emotions and body awareness, as well as extending their vocabulary in general. Additionally, by extending children’s vocabulary they can also learn of different cultural music and languages, for some the benefit to integrate home within their care-giving setting. Cognitive benefits also include learning how to count, recognizing sequencing and patterns, phonemic awareness, memorizing different songs for different experiences, and simply memorizing songs and their pace and tone. Physically, children’s all around gross and fine motor skills grow rapidly by learning how to move their body to music, moving their bodies to actions of a song, and as they grow by learning how to hold and play an instrument.
| 3.40625
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5405045
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20education%20for%20young%20children
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Music education for young children
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Forms and activities
Music education for young children is offered privately through classes and music organizations or integrated into educations private and public schools. Activities and classes can start as early as prenatally or newborn and in private education, music programs are often integrated in as early as preschool. Early childhood music education in public school settings widely varies, but music programs have been established in some schools starting in kindergarten even in remote areas.
Most early childhood music education is accomplished through parent or teacher guided interactive play. Prenatal activities can include singing and playing music so that it can be heard in the womb and continued on with newborns. From birth, children can listen to music and observe other children in music classes and participate in tactile and parent assisted activities. With parental assistance, infants can partake in body movement and rhythm exercises to sung songs and recorded music and through play. As these children develop independent motor skills, they progress to doing these activities on their own. Infants and toddlers are often encouraged to sing and explore rhythm through body movements and percussion instruments such as egg shakers, drums, and xylophones. As young children progress, activities can include concepts that introduce counting, solfege, and notation. Some programs then allow for young children to shift easily into more formalized dance and instrumental instruction starting at a very early age.
Many children like making very loud music respectively noise. In this case, it is common to use noisemakers like very loud maracas, pea whistles, the head joint of a recorder or vuvuzelas for rhythm exercises. This is usually only done private at home because of the noise regulations in school courses.
| 3.109375
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5405045
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20education%20for%20young%20children
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Music education for young children
|
Pedagogies of early childhood music education
Several pedagogical approaches exist which promote specific methods of training young children in music, many of which share commonalities, such as music and rhythm development through body movements, folk songs, aural training, and the belief that music literacy from an early age is beneficial. They include:
Orff Schulwerk: This approach encourages children to learn music through a combination of movement, rhythm, and playing instruments. It focuses on improvisation and creative expression.
Kodály Method: This method uses solfege syllables and hand signs to teach pitch and rhythm. It starts with folk songs and emphasizes singing before introducing instruments.
Suzuki Method: Based on the principles of "Mother Tongue", or the belief that music learning builds on the principles of language learning and therefore needs to start at a very early age, this method introduces music to children as they would their native language. Listening, imitation, and repetition are key components.
Dalcroze Eurhythmics: This approach emphasizes the connection between music and movement. Children explore rhythm and musical concepts through physical activities.
World music
Studies done on children who have had a musical background, have shown that it increases brain function as well as brain stimulation. When children are exposed to music from other countries and cultures, they are able to learn about the instrument while at the same time being educated about a different part of the world.
| 3.265625
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5405066
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil%20Brand
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Neil Brand
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Neil Brand (born 18 March 1958) is an English dramatist, composer and author. In addition to being a regular silent film accompanist at London's National Film Theatre, Brand has composed new scores for two restored films from the 1920s, The Wrecker and Anthony Asquith's Underground.
Neil Brand has been a silent film accompanist for nearly 40 years, regularly in London at the Barbican and BFI National Film Theatres, throughout the UK and Ireland and at film festivals around the world, including Australia, New Zealand, America, Canada, Israel, Scandinavia, Georgia, Ukraine, throughout Europe. Brand has also acted and written plays for the BBC. His book, Dramatic Notes, focuses on the art of composing narrative music for the cinema, theatre, radio and television. For his contribution to music, in 2016, Brand was awarded with a BASCA Gold Badge Award.
Background and education
Brand was born in Burgess Hill, Sussex, England, and attended Junction Road Primary School in Burgess Hill, then Brighton, Hove and Sussex Grammar School (now Brighton Hove & Sussex Sixth Form College).
At the age of 18, he went to the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, to study Drama under John Edmunds. However, he had a talent for music, and it was at Aberystwyth that he began writing and playing music seriously for the first time. In 2013 he was made a Fellow of Aberystwyth University.
Television and radio
On television, Brand has appeared in Switch, a BBC drama for the hearing impaired, as Ted, a bullying businessman. In 2004 he appeared as an expert on cinema accompaniment in Who Do You Think You Are? which investigated the musical background of soprano Lesley Garrett.
| 2.125
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5405066
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil%20Brand
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Neil Brand
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Other work for the BBC has included musical compositions and radio plays. He also composed the score for Channel Four's three-part documentary series on the Crimean War in 1997. One of his plays, Stan, was broadcast on radio in 2004 on BBC Radio 4 and then adapted as a television play, first broadcast on BBC Four. It documents Stan Laurel's last moments with best friend and comedy partner Oliver Hardy, who lies bedridden after a stroke. Another play broadcast on Radio 4, in 2007 Seeing It Through, dealt with Charles Masterman and his efforts to coordinate writers and journalists for the British propaganda effort in World War I.
In September 2013, Neil Brand presented the BBC Four programme Sound of Cinema: The Music that Made the Movies. In the first episode in the series, he looked at the impact of classic orchestral film scores via the work of European-born composers (such as Max Steiner and Erich Wolfgang Korngold) and their influence on contemporary film composers such as Bernard Herrmann, Hans Zimmer and John Williams. He was also a guest presenter in the BBC Radio 3 programme Sound of Cinema: Live from the BFI presented by Sean Rafferty where he demonstrated on piano some of the intricate motifs from Franz Waxman as well as some of his own music.
On 20 December 2014, BBC Radio 4 broadcast Brand's new version of A Christmas Carol, adapted by him for actors, the BBC Singers and the BBC Symphony Orchestra, which was recorded before an audience in the BBC Maida Vale Studios. Other Christmas broadcasts included the ghost stories of M.R. James (BBC Woman's Hour Drama, 2018) and an original radio play, The Haunting of M.R. James.
| 2.015625
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5405088
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20London%20derby
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West London derby
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The 2014–15 Football League Championship season brought Brentford and Fulham together in the same division for the first time since 1998, following Brentford's promotion from League One and Fulham's relegation from the Premier League.
Prior to meeting in the league, the two sides were drawn together in the League Cup second round on 26 August 2014, with Fulham winning 1–0 at Griffin Park. It was the clubs' first meeting in any competitive fixture since a 2–0 league victory to Fulham on 11 April 1998.
On August 4, 2020, Fulham would win promotion to the English Premier League defeating Brentford at an empty-on-account-of-Covid Wembley Stadium. The Championship Match of the English Football League Playoffs would go to extra-time with Fulham narrowly winning by a score of 2-1. Fulham's Joe Bryan scored a remarkable free kick from near 40 yards out; catching Brentford's goalkeeper, David Raya, out of position in the 105th minute. Bryan would go on to score another goal in the 117th minute. Brentford netted a consolation in the 120th through Henrik Dalsgaard.
In March 2023 the rivalry was said by the BBC to be "growing".
Brentford vs QPR derby
As with Fulham, Brentford and QPR played each other frequently in local cup competitions and leagues from the foundation of both clubs. In 1920, the Football League absorbed many clubs from the Southern Football League, including Brentford and QPR, who competed in the old Third Division (South) regularly in the 1920s, until Brentford's rise up the leagues in the 1930s. After the Second World War, they spent practically every season in the same division for the next 20 years. At the time, the fixture was each side's biggest game of the season and always attracted a big crowd. However, in 1966, despite an opening day 6–1 thrashing of their local rivals, Brentford were ultimately relegated whilst QPR were promoted and went on to enjoy many seasons in the upper leagues.
| 2.140625
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5405103
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiphinema
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Xiphinema
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Xiphinema is a genus of ectoparasitic root nematodes commonly known as dagger nematodes. The genus is of economic importance on grape, strawberry, hops and a few other crops. Major species include X.americanum, X.diversicaudatum, X.index, X.italiae and X.pachtaicum. They can be easily recognized by their long bodies and stylets which are long enough to reach the vascular tissue of plants. Different members of the genus have been shown to induce moderate to large amounts of root damage through root penetration, which in some species results in the formation of galls. They are of agricultural concern because they are vectors of nepoviruses, transferring them during feeding. Efforts to study these nematodes in more detail have proved problematic in some species due to difficulties in maintaining populations in a greenhouse environment.
Morphology
Xiphinema are large nematodes, with an adult length between 1.5mm – 5.0mm. They have a long protrusible odontostyle, with 3 basal flanges at the posterior end of the stylet and a relatively posterior guiding ring when compared to the genus Longidorus. The odontostyle is lined with cuticle and alongside the esophagus serves as a good surface for viruses such as arabis mosaic virus to form a monolayer, which can be vectored to healthy plants. Xiphinema have a two-part esophagus, which does not contain a metacorpus. A modification in the posterior end of the esophagus forms a muscular posterior bulb, which can generate a pumping action similar to that of a metacorpus in other plant parasitic nematodes. The number of males varies from abundant to sparse depending on the species. Males have paired spicules but the gubernaculum and bursa are absent. Males of different species can be characterized using the varying number and arrangement of papillae. Females have 1 or 2 ovaries.
Taxonomy
There are 296 nominal taxa, including 234 accepted species, 49 synonyms and 13 species inquirendae.(He 2003)
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5405121
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibui
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Shibui
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Shibui (渋い) (adjective), shibumi (渋み) (subjective noun), or shibusa (渋さ) (objective noun) are Japanese words that refer to a particular aesthetic of simple, subtle, and unobtrusive beauty. Like other Japanese aesthetics terms, such as iki and wabi-sabi, shibui can apply to a wide variety of subjects, not just art or fashion.
Shibusa is an enriched, subdued appearance or experience of intrinsically fine quality with economy of form, line, and effort, producing a timeless tranquility. Shibusa includes the following essential qualities:
Shibui objects appear to be simple overall, but they include subtle details, such as textures, that balance simplicity with complexity.
This balance of simplicity and complexity ensures that one does not tire of a shibui object, but constantly finds new meanings and enriched beauty that cause its aesthetic value to grow over the years.
Shibusa walks a fine line between contrasting aesthetic concepts such as elegant and rough or spontaneous and restrained.
Color is given more to meditation than to spectacle. Understated, not innocent. Subdued colors,
muddied with gray tones create a silvery effect. (Shibuichi is a billon metal alloy with a silver-gray appearance.) In interior decorating and painting, gray is added to primary colors to create a silvery effect that ties different colors together in a coordinated scheme. Depending
on how much gray is added, shibui colors range from pastels to dark. Brown, black, and soft white
are preferred. Quiet monochromes and sparse subdued design provide a somber serenity with a hint of sparkle. Occasionally, a patch of bright color is added as a highlight.
Definition
| 2.3125
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5405121
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibui
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Shibui
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The seven elements of shibusa are simplicity, implicity, modesty, naturalness, everydayness, imperfection, and silence. They are adapted from the concepts authored by Dr. Yanagi Sōetsu (1898–1961), aesthetician and museum curator, published in the Japanese magazine between 1930 and 1940. The aristocratic simplicity of shibusa is the refined expression of the essence of elements in an aesthetic experience producing quietude. Spare elegance is evident in darkling serenity with a hint of sparkle. Implicity allows depth of feeling to be visible through spare surface design thereby manifesting the invisible core that offers new meanings with each encounter. The person of shibui modesty exalts excellence via taking time to learn, watch, read, understand, develop, think, and merges into understatement and silence concerning oneself. Naturalness conveys spontaneity in unforced growth. Shibusa freedom is maintained in healthy roughness of texture and irregular asymmetrical form wherein the center lies beyond all particular things, in infinity. Everydayness raises ordinary things to a place of honor, void of all artificial and unnecessary properties, thus imparting spiritual joy—for today is more auspicious than tomorrow. Everydayness provides a framework, a tradition for an artist's oeuvre to be a unit not a process. Hiroshi Mizuo argues that the best examples of shibusa are found in the crafts, ordinary objects made for everyday use. They tend to be more spontaneous and healthy than many of the fine arts. Imperfection is illustrated in Nathaniel Hawthorne's gothic novel, The Marble Faun. The chapter "An Aesthetic Company" mentions some ragged and ill-conditioned antique drawings and their attributions and virtues.
Yanagi Sōetsu, in The Unknown Craftsman, refers to the imperfection in shibusa as "beauty with inner implications". Creation here means making a piece that will lead the viewer to draw beauty from it for oneself. Shibui beauty in the tea ceremony is in the artistry of the viewer.
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5405121
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibui
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Shibui
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Shibui, a registration or "felt sense" of evolving perfection. What is being registered is the "life" behind the qualities of any experience. A felt sense of qualities, such as, quiet beauty with intelligence, love, light, and joy. These qualities can be more easily registered when quietly viewing simple, natural, everyday phenomenon or objects, such as a sunrise or a simple piece of pottery. Shibui can sometimes be more easily registered by two people in a meditative state (quiet in their emotions and their minds) while viewing the same phenomenon or object. For example, when viewing the same sunset or piece of art, subconsciously, both people register the qualities of the life or implicity underlying the experience or object; this registration of the underlying life precipitates into the conscious as registering something extraordinary in the everyday ordinary. If you both register, then looking into the other person's eyes, you understand that you both shared the same phenomenon, a knowing of the underlying life, or at least the qualities of that underlying life. The qualities registered can seem paradoxical. Complex experiences or objects seem simple; perfection is found in imperfection. All objects and experiences, both everyday and extraordinary, can have a beauty, a quiet purposeful intent, a cool, matter of fact underlying joy.
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5405121
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibui
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Shibui
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Potters, musicians, painters, bonsai, and other artists often work to bring in shibui-like qualities into their art. A few go behind these qualities to bring the underlying "life" into their art. Expert singers, actors, potters, and artists of all other sorts were often said to be shibui; their expertise caused them to do things beautifully without making them excessive or gaudy. Today, sometimes baseball players are even said to be shibui when they contribute to the overall success of the team without doing anything to make themselves stand out individually. The apparent effortlessness displayed by athletes such as tennis player Roger Federer and hockey great Wayne Gretzky are examples of shibumi in personal performance. Shibui, and its underlying life, is found in all art and in everything around us—including ourselves. Taking the path to understand and experience shibui, is a step toward understanding and consciously registering the life underlying all.
History of the term
Originating in the Muromachi period (1336–1573) as shibushi, the term originally referred to a sour or astringent taste, such as that of an unripe persimmon. Shibui still maintains this literal meaning, and remains the antonym of amai (), meaning "sweet".
However, by the beginnings of the Edo period (1615–1868), the term gradually had begun to refer to a pleasing aesthetic. The people of Edo expressed their tastes in using this term to refer to anything from song to fashion to craftsmanship that was beautiful by being understated, or by being precisely what it was meant to be and not elaborated upon. Essentially, the aesthetic ideal of shibumi seeks out events, performances, people, or objects that are beautiful in a direct and simple way, without being flashy.The Unknown Craftsman, a selection of art critic Yanagi Sōetsu's work translated by potter Bernard Leach, discusses shibumi.
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5405156
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Goodrich%20Kirk
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Alan Goodrich Kirk
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Alan Goodrich Kirk (October 30, 1888 – October 15, 1963) was a United States Navy admiral during World War II who most notably served as the senior naval commander during the Normandy landings. After the war he embarked on a diplomatic career serving as US ambassador to Belgium, the Soviet Union and the Republic of China (Taiwan).
Biography
Kirk graduated from the United States Naval Academy in the class of 1909. His classmates included Jesse B. Oldendorf, Olaf M. Hustveldt, and Theodore S. Wilkinson. Kirk served in the United States Navy during World War I and World War II. During his wartime naval service, Kirk became the U.S. naval attaché in London (1939 to 1941). He was Director of the Office of Naval Intelligence from March 1941 but, obstructed and opposed by Rear Admiral Richmond Turner, he was unable to develop the office into an effective centre along the lines of the British Royal Naval Operational Intelligence Centre (which he had seen while in London). Eventually, he requested a transfer to an Atlantic destroyer squadron.
Kirk served as an amphibious commander in the Mediterranean in 1942 and 1943 (the Allied invasion of Sicily and Italy). In addition, he was the senior U.S. naval commander during the Normandy landings of June 6, 1944, embarked on the heavy cruiser , and as Commander U.S. Naval Forces, France during 1944 and 1945. He retired from the Navy as a full admiral in 1946. He was decorated with Legion of Honour by the Provisional Government of the French Republic for his World War II service.
| 2.203125
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5405180
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesia%20zone
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Sesia zone
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The Sesia unit or Sesia nappe, also called the Sesia-Dent Blanche unit is a tectonic unit or terrane in the Swiss and Italian Alps. The zone crops out in the Pennine Alps and in the southeastern part of the Aosta Valley. It is widely seen as part of the Austroalpine nappes and correlated with the Dent Blanche nappe that crops out further to the northwest.
Structural geology and lithology
The outcrop in the southern part of the Aosta Valley is bounded to the south by the Insubric line. On the other side of this steeply dipping fault zone is the Ivrea zone, which is geologically part of the Southern Alps. The Sesia zone is (just as the correlated Dent Blanche nappe) tectonostratigraphically on top of (ophiolitic) Zermatt-Saas zone of the Penninic nappes.
The Sesia zone has a penetrative foliation because it has seen a large amount of shear during exhumation. It is therefore hard to reconstruct any older structures. It can however structurally be divided in three parts: an external, an intermediate and an internal zone. The internal zone is structurally the highest unit and is next to the Insubric line.
Metamorphism
The unit shows traces of high-grade metamorphism in the form of eclogite and blueschist relicts. Most of it, especially the external and intermediate zones, is in the greenschist facies though. This greenschist metamorphic grade is seen as a late (Meso-Alpine) overprint, most researchers think the whole Sesia zone or at least part of it has been in eclogite or blueschist conditions during Paleogene subduction. Because clear evidence for high pressure metamorphism is restricted to the internal zone, it is not clear whether the other two zones have also subducted to great depth.
| 2.328125
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5405253
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Angus%20Knight
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William Angus Knight
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William Angus Knight (22 February 1836 – 4 March 1916) was a Scottish Free Church minister and author and Professor of Moral Philosophy at St Andrews University. He created the Lady Literate in Arts qualification.
Life
He was born in the manse at Mordington in the Scottish Borders on 22 February 1836, the son of Rev George Fulton Knight.
He was educated locally and at the high school in Edinburgh, then studied at the University of Edinburgh for a general degree before training as a Free Church minister at New College, Edinburgh. He was ordained at St Enoch's Free Church in Dundee in 1866. In 1873, in quite a rare move, he and his congregation left the Free Church and joined the Church of Scotland.
In 1876 he was made Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of St. Andrews. In a state of constant change he left the Church of Scotland in 1879 to join the Scottish Episcopal Church. He retired in 1902 and died on 4 March 1916 in Keswick.
In the field of philosophy his work, editorial and other, includes his collection of Philosophical Classics for English Readers (15 volumes, 1880–90), some of which he wrote. Although he wrote numerous publications, he is probably best known for his works on Wordsworth. His edition of Wordsworth's Works and Life (1881–89) is contained in 11 volumes. He presented to the trustees of Dove Cottage, Grasmere, the poet's former home, all the editions of Wordsworth's poems which he possessed. He also corresponded with Robert Browning about Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and on his retirement in 1905 he came to Florence's Swiss-owned so-called English Cemetery to plant the red rose at her tomb, which still flourishes, to honour women's learning, though the enamelled plaque celebrating that act has since been stolen.
Artistic recognition
His portrait by Elizabeth Alexander was presented to St Andrews University by the Ladies Literate in Arts whose admission he encouraged.
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5405254
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixty-Four%20Villages%20East%20of%20the%20River
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Sixty-Four Villages East of the River
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The Sixty-Four Villages East of the River were a group of Manchu, Daur and Han-inhabited villages located on the left (north) bank of the Amur River (Heilong Jiang) opposite of Heihe, and on the east bank of Zeya River opposite of Blagoveshchensk. The area totaled .
Among Russian historians, the district occupied by the villages is sometimes referred as Zazeysky rayon (the "Trans-Zeya District" or "The district beyond the Zeya"), because it was separated by the Zeya from the regional capital, Blagoveshchensk.
History
In the summer of 1857, the Russian Empire offered monetary compensation to China's Qing dynasty government if they would remove the native inhabitants from the area; however, their offer was rebuffed. The following year, in the 1858 Treaty of Aigun, the Qing ceded the north bank of the Amur to Russia. However, Qing subjects residing north of the Amur River were permitted to "retain their domiciles in perpetuity under the authority of the Manchu government".
The earliest known Russian estimate (1859) gives the population of Qing subjects in the "Trans-Zeya District" as 3,000, without breakdown by ethnicity; the next one (1870) gives it as 10,646, including 5,400 Han, 4,500 Manchus and 1,000 Daurs. The estimates published between the late 1870s and early 1890s varied between 12,000 and 16,000, peaking in 1894, at 16,102 (including 9,119 Han Chinese, 5,783 Manchus, and 1,200 Daurs). After that, reported numbers went down (7,000 to 7,500 residents reported each year from 1895 to 1899); by that time, however, the Trans-Zeya villagers constituted only a minority of the Chinese present in the region. For example, besides the Trans-Zeya villagers, in 1898 statistics reported 12,199 Chinese otkhodniki (migrant workers) and 5,400 Chinese miners in the Amur Oblast as it existed at the time, as well as 4,008 Chinese urban residents in Blagoveshchensk and probably elsewhere.
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5405260
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douai%20Abbey
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Douai Abbey
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Douai Abbey is a Benedictine Abbey at Upper Woolhampton, near Thatcham, in the English county of Berkshire, situated within the Roman Catholic Diocese of Portsmouth. Monks from the monastery of St. Edmund's, in Douai, France, came to Woolhampton in 1903 when the community left France as a result of anti-clerical legislation. The abbey church is listed Grade II* on the National Heritage List for England.
History
The community of St. Edmund was formed in Paris in 1615 by Dom Gabriel Gifford, later Archbishop of Rheims and primate of France. With his backing the community flourished. Expelled from Paris during the Revolution, the community took over the vacant buildings of the community of St Gregory's in Douai in 1818.
Amid the political upheavals caused by the Dreyfus affair around the turn of the 19th century, the French prime minister Waldeck-Rousseau introduced an anti-clerical Law of Associations (1901) that "severely curbed the influence of religious orders in France". This led to the community being given the minor seminary of St. Mary in Woolhampton by Bishop Cahill of Portsmouth, moving from Douai to Woolhampton in 1903. The abbey church was opened in 1933 but only completed in 1993 due to financial constraints.
The monastery was greatly expanded in the 1960s with the building of the new monastery designed by Sir Frederick Gibberd. The abbey had in its charge Douai School until the latter's closure in 1999. In 2005, two monks returned to Douai, France to form a community there and restore the historic links to English monasticism.
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5405273
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri%20Huet
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Henri Huet
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Henri Huet (4 April 1927 – 10 February 1971) was a French war photographer, noted for his work covering the Vietnam War for the Associated Press (AP).
Early life
Henri Huet was born in Da Lat, French Indochina, the son of a Breton engineer and Vietnamese mother. At age five he was sent to France, where he was educated at Saint-Malo in Brittany and studied at the art school in Rennes, beginning his adult career as a painter. Huet later joined the French Navy and received training in photography, returning to French Indochina in 1949 as a combat photographer in the First Indochina War. After discharge from the navy when the war ended in 1954, Huet remained in South Vietnam as a civilian photographer working for the French and U.S. governments. While employed by the United States Operation Mission (USOM) photo lab (1955–1960), he enjoyed the mentorship of lab director, Charles E. (Gene) Thomas, who himself had been a combat photographer in World War II. Several of Huet's photos reflect the influence of Thomas's work. He went on to work for United Press International (UPI), later transferring to the Associated Press (AP) in 1965, covering the Vietnam War.
Photographic career
Huet's photographs of the war were influential in moulding American public opinion. One of his most memorable series of photographs featured Pfc Thomas Cole, a young medic of the 1st Cavalry Division, tending fellow soldiers despite his own wounds. The series of twelve photographs was published in the 11 February 1966 edition of Life magazine, with one of the haunting images featuring on the cover. In 1967 the Overseas Press Club awarded Huet the Robert Capa Gold Medal for the "best published photographic reporting from abroad, requiring exceptional courage and enterprise".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri%20Huet
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Henri Huet
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Death
On February 10, 1971, during South Vietnam's invasion of southern Laos, known as Operation Lam Son 719, Huet and three other photojournalists joined the operation commander, Lt Gen Hoàng Xuân Lãm, on a helicopter inspection tour of the battlefront. The pilots of the Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) UH-1 Huey carrying the photojournalists lost their way and flew into the most heavily defended area of the Ho Chi Minh trail, where Huet's chopper and a second one were shot down by hidden North Vietnamese 37mm anti-aircraft guns, killing all eleven on the photographers' aircraft and four on the other. Huet was 43.
Huet's fellow photographers were Larry Burrows of Life magazine, Kent Potter of UPI, and Keizaburo Shimamoto of Newsweek. The crash site was rediscovered in 1996 and, two years later, a second search team from the Joint Task Force Full Accounting (JTFFA), the Pentagon unit responsible for recovering MIA remains in Indochina and elsewhere, excavated the mountainside. They discovered aircraft parts, camera pieces, 35mm film, along with traces of human remains, which proved too scant for laboratory identification.
In late 2002, the search unit, renamed the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command (JPAC), declared the case closed on grounds of circumstantial group identification. After bureaucratic complications blocked efforts to bury the group remains on official ground, the Newseum in Washington, D.C. agreed to accept them and arranged in 2006 for their acquisition from JPAC. The ceremony on April 3, 2008, which preceded the Newseum's own official opening by a week, was attended by more than 100 guests including relatives of Huet, Burrows and Potter, and many former Vietnam War colleagues.
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5405274
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvin%20Peete
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Calvin Peete
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Calvin Peete (July 18, 1943 – April 29, 2015) was an American professional golfer. He was the most successful African-American to have played on the PGA Tour, with 12 wins, prior to the emergence of Tiger Woods. Peete won the 1985 Tournament Players Championship and finished the season top-5 on the PGA Tour money list three times; 1982, 1983 and 1985. He was ranked in the top 10 players on the McCormack's World Golf Rankings in 1984.
Early life
Peete was born in Detroit, Michigan as the youngest of nine children. He lived with his grandmother in Hayti, Missouri when the family split up when he was nine years old before eventually moving to Pahokee, Florida when he was 11. His father, determined to raise a new family, would have ten children with his new wife, effectively making Peete the oldest sibling. Growing up poor, Peete suffered a badly broken arm that was never properly set after he fell out a tree at the age of 12. Dropping out of school in the eighth grade, he picked vegetables and sold clothes to help feed his family, doing so when he got himself a peddler's license at the age of 17 and loading a 1956 Plymouth Station Wagon.
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5405274
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvin%20Peete
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Calvin Peete
|
Professional career
Peete successfully graduated onto the PGA Tour at the Spring 1975 PGA Tour Qualifying School. Peete struggled in his early years, winning just barely over $60,000 in his first three years combined. An admitted "poor putter" when he entered the Tour, Peete eventually improved his skills by the end of the decade, stating that any time he would spend in practice during tournament weeks would have time dedicated to putting for multiple hours. He also credited maintaining his balance through swinging the ball as a factor in his control, which he had managed to improve from his earlier years for tempo and rhythm. In 1979, he won the Greater Milwaukee Open, becoming the fourth black man to win a PGA Tour event after Pete Brown, Charlie Sifford, and Lee Elder. In 1981, he finished as the leader in driving accuracy on the PGA Tour, starting a ten-year streak that did not end until 1990. In 1982, Peete took the High School Equivalency Test and passed to earn himself a diploma, having wanted to set an example for his children along with the fact that all Ryder Cup members require a high school degree. The following year, he played for America on the Ryder Cup team; he scored 2.5 points as America won 14 to 13. He played on the 1985 team, which lost to Europe.
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5405274
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvin%20Peete
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Calvin Peete
|
In 1984, Peete won the Vardon Trophy for lowest scoring average (70.56), albeit not without controversy. In the Heritage Classic, he withdrew after shooting a 41 on the front nine. In the Tournament of Champions, he received a disqualification after forgetting what his score was on a hole, which didn't harm his average and generated a $5,000 fine. The spring after he was awarded the trophy, the PGA and the PGA Tour installed a new rule that was dubbed by some as "the Cal Peete rule" in governing withdrawals and disqualifications that essentially wanted players who teed up on the first hole to finish the round for a score with no exceptions; any withdrawal or disqualification before a round is completed would mean one would be ineligible for the Vardon Trophy or any statistical category for the year.
In 1986, the Official World Golf Ranking began ranking players, with Peete being ranked among the top ten for several weeks. By that year, he had managed to win $1 million in his career earnings since joining the Tour.
After shooting an 87 for a rain-soaked round at the Masters, Peete, annoyed at a question about Masters tradition, stated, "Until Lee Elder, the only Blacks at the Masters were caddies or waiters. To ask a Black man what he feels about the traditions of the Masters is like asking him how he feels about his forefathers who were slaves." When Peete's caddie was asked once about the strategy used to approach the game, he stated, "He goes flag on you."
Peete retired from the Tour in 1993 and joined the Champions Tour, where he competed for eight seasons. Until Tiger Woods, Peete had the most Tour victories among all black golfers. He was inducted into the African American Ethnic Sports Hall of Fame in 2002.
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5405278
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Hill%20Valley
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Red Hill Valley
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Red Hill Valley is a valley in eastern and south-eastern Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. The valley is named after and home to the Red Hill Creek, which flows north-east from Albion Falls on the Niagara Escarpment, before bending north-west near the Queen Elizabeth Way and discharging into Hamilton Harbour at Windermere Basin. The name of the area comes from the reddish soil, rich with iron. The valley is estimated to be in size. The Red Hill Valley was the site of a protracted battle over an expressway through the valley, ultimately constructed in 2007.
Expressway
The Valley is the site of the Red Hill Valley Parkway, which was completed through the valley in 2007. Originally called the Red Hill Creek Expressway during planning, construction was fought by environmentalists for many years. The expressway was proposed as part of a plan to bypass Hamilton along its south side, and facilitate development to the south and east of Hamilton. The valley, located between Hamilton's core and Stoney Creek, was chosen for the route of the expressway in the 1970s. The route was chosen over urban routes to avoid destruction of the neighbourhoods on either side and the resulting land costs.
After government cancellations and environmental assessments, compromise plans proposed in the 1990s to save the valley were ultimately rejected. The final design incorporated some compromises intended to ameliorate the effect of the expressway on the valley, including reducing the expressway width from six lanes down to four, cleanup of toxic lands along the creek, and creek habitat improvement. The City of Hamilton proceeded with construction in the first decade of the 2000s. Construction was halted several times by protesters occupying the valley and blocking access to construction sites. The City had to complete the project with security firms patrolling the valley.
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5405333
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RenderMan%20Shading%20Language
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RenderMan Shading Language
|
Renderman Shading Language (abbreviated RSL) is a component of the RenderMan Interface Specification, and is used to define shaders. The language syntax is C-like.
A shader written in RSL can be used without changes on any RenderMan-compliant renderer, such as Pixar's PhotoRealistic RenderMan, DNA Research's 3Delight, Sitexgraphics' Air or an open source solution such as Pixie or Aqsis.
RenderMan Shading Language defines standalone functions and five types of shaders: surface, light, volume, imager and displacement shaders.
An example of a surface shader that defines a metal surface is:
surface metal (float Ka = 1; float Ks = 1; float roughness = 0.1;)
{
normal Nf = faceforward (normalize(N), I);
vector V = - normalize (I);
Oi = Os;
Ci = Os * Cs * (Ka * ambient() + Ks * specular (Nf, V, roughness));
}
Shaders express their work by reading and writing special variables such as Cs (surface color), N (normal at given point), and Ci (final surface color).
The arguments to the shaders are global parameters that are attached to objects of the model (so one metal shader can be used for different metals and so on). Shaders have no return values, but functions can be defined which take arguments and return a value. For example, the following function computes vector length using the dot product operator ".":
float length (vector v) {
return sqrt (v . v); /* . is a dot product */
}
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5405427
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Eckhardt%20%28lawyer%29
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William Eckhardt (lawyer)
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William G. Eckhardt is a lawyer, a professor of law at the University of Missouri–Kansas City, and formerly a military officer, where his most notable case was the prosecution of Captain Ernest Medina, for the My Lai Massacre.
Professor Eckhardt received his B.A., with honors from the University of Mississippi in 1963 where he was a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity. Professor Eckhardt went on to receive his LL.B., also with honors, from the University of Virginia in 1966. In addition, he earned an LL.M. Equivalent with honors from The Judge Advocate General’s School in 1970. He is a graduate of the United States Army War College, where he later served on the faculty and held the Dwight D. Eisenhower Chair of National Security.
Professor Eckhardt completed 30 years of service and retired as Colonel in the Army Judge Advocate General's Corps. His significant positions included: Chief Prosecutor in the My Lai Cases (receiving the Federal Bar Association - Federal Younger Lawyer Award for his professional efforts), Personnel Affairs Branch Chief in the Army’s Litigation Division, General Counsel to units in California and Germany, the Army’s Chief Appellate Defender and Legal Advisor to Wartime Theater Commander. His varying teaching duties included being an adjunct professor at the University of California at Berkeley.
On June 3, 2006 Eckhardt conducted an interview with the Kansas City Star where he was asked whether he saw parallels between My Lai, and the alleged massacre at Haditha, and the treatment of the detainees in the Guantanamo Bay detainment camps.
| 1.929688
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5405446
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Man%27s%20War
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Old Man's War
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Consu
The Consu are a fierce, technologically advanced, and strongly religious alien race. They believe in helping deserving races reach "Ungkat", a state of perfection for a whole race.
The Consu are the most advanced alien race presented in the Old Man's War. Their home system is surrounded by a Dyson sphere, which harnesses all the energy output of its local sun's companion star, a dwarf star, to make it impenetrable to the weapons and technology of every other known species. The Consu possess technology so advanced that even the CDF is unable to reverse-engineer or even fully understand it, such as tachyon detectors. Despite being the most technologically advanced out of all the alien races presented in the novel, in any conflict the Consu will scale their weapons' technology to that of their opponent in order to keep the battle fair. Unlike other alien species, the Consu do not fight for territory, but for religious motives, believing that any aliens killed by Consu warriors are thereby guaranteed another place in the cycle of creation. The Consu rarely meet with outsiders and any individual that does is inevitably a criminal or other undesirable. Following the meeting, the meeting dome is imploded and shot into a black hole so that it can't defile any other Consu.
Covandu
The Covandu are a liliputian species, the tallest only measuring an inch, but otherwise very similar to humans. Their aggression in colonizing planets is similar to humans' as well, sometimes causing conflict. One human colony was taken over by Covandu when it was abandoned due to a virus (which did not affect the Covandu). After developing a vaccine, humans returned to take it back by force.
They are gifted in the arts, specifically poetry and drama.
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5405459
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20E.%20Swett
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James E. Swett
|
James Elms Swett (June 15, 1920 – January 18, 2009) was a United States Marine Corps fighter pilot and flying ace during World War II. He was awarded the United States' highest military decoration, the Medal of Honor, for actions while a division flight leader in VMF-221 over Guadalcanal on April 7, 1943. He downed a total of 15.5 enemy aircraft during the war, earning two Distinguished Flying Crosses and five Air Medals.
Early life
Born on June 15, 1920, in Seattle, Washington, James E. Swett graduated from San Mateo High School, San Mateo, California, and enrolled at the College of San Mateo in 1939. He earned a private pilot's license, which amounted to 450 more hours of flying than he received during his Navy flight training. He enlisted in the U.S. Naval Reserve as a seaman second class on August 26, 1941, and started flight training in September.
Military career
Service in World War II
Swett completed flight training in early 1942, placing in the top ten percent of his class. He was given the option to choose between a commission in the Marine Corps or the Navy, and he chose the Marine Corps. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant at NAS Corpus Christi, Texas, on April 1, 1942. He continued his advanced flight training, first at Quantico, Virginia, then at Lake Michigan, became carrier qualified aboard the , and finally received his wings at San Diego, California. In December 1942, he shipped out to the Southwest Pacific, and when he arrived at Guadalcanal he was assigned to VMF-221, which was part of Marine Air Group 12.
Medal of Honor action
On April 7, 1943, on his first combat mission, Swett both became an ace and acted with such "conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty" that he was awarded the Medal of Honor.
| 2.203125
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5405459
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20E.%20Swett
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James E. Swett
|
His first mission was as a division leader on a combat air patrol over the Russell Islands early on the morning of April 7 in expectation of a large Japanese air attack. Landing to refuel, the four-plane division of Grumman F4F Wildcats he was leading was scrambled after other aircraft reported 150 planes approaching Ironbottom Sound, and intercepted a large formation of Japanese Aichi D3A dive bombers (Allied code name: "Val") attacking Tulagi harbor.
When the fight became a general melee, Swett pursued three Aichi D3A Vals diving on the harbor. After he had downed two, and while he was evading fire from the rear gunner of the third, the left wing of his F4F Wildcat was holed by U.S. antiaircraft fire. Despite this, he downed the third Val and turned toward a second formation of six Vals leaving the area.
Swett repeatedly attacked the line of dive bombers, downing each in turn with short bursts. He brought down four and was attacking a fifth when his ammunition was depleted and his cockpit was shot up by return fire. Wounded, he decided to ditch his damaged fighter off the coast of Florida Island, after it became clear that his oil cooler had been hit and he would not make it back to base. After a few seconds his engine seized, and despite initially being trapped in his cockpit underwater, Swett extricated himself and was rescued in Tulagi harbor after ditching his plane. This feat made the 22-year-old Marine aviator an ace on his first combat mission.
Further combat service
Swett returned to Guadalcanal after a short stay in a Naval hospital and learned that Admiral Marc Mitscher had nominated him for the Medal of Honor. After a short rest in Australia, Swett checked out in the Vought F4U Corsair to which VMF-221 was converting and moved to a new base in the Russells. Promoted to captain, Swett covered the Rendova landings on June 30, 1943, adding two Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" medium bombers to his score and sharing the downing of a Mitsubishi A6M Zero.
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5405459
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20E.%20Swett
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James E. Swett
|
Swett commanded VMF-141 flying Corsairs at NAS Alameda, California, following the end of World War II. After the onset of the Korean War his squadron was deployed to Korea, but he was left behind because the Navy thought putting a Medal of Honor recipient in combat was too risky. Swett left active duty and continued service in the Marine Corps Reserve, retiring in 1970 at the rank of colonel.
Post-military life
Swett was married to Lois Anderson from January 20, 1944, till her death on December 5, 1999. They had two sons, James Jr. and John, both of whom went on to become Marine Corps officers. Swett later remarried to Verna Gale McPherson Miller in 2007.
Swett worked in his father's company in San Francisco, making marine pumps and turbines. In 1960, after his father's death, Swett took over the company and ran it for 23 years, before passing it on to his son. Swett moved to Trinity Center, California, in his retirement and became a frequent speaker at schools, where he shared his strong feelings about the values of respect and responsibility. He owned 13 Porsche cars during his lifetime.
In 2006, Swett's Medal of Honor action was recreated using computer graphics for The History Channel series Dogfights in episode Guadalcanal and Swett himself provided commentary. The episode first aired on November 24, 2006.
Swett moved to Redding, California, in 2007 where he died on January 18, 2009, in a Redding hospital from heart failure after a lengthy illness. He was buried with full military honors at Northern California Veterans Cemetery in Igo, California.
The airport in Trinity Center, California was named in his honor.
Awards and decorations
His awards and decorations include:
Medal of Honor citation
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5405462
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulia%20%28company%29
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Simulia (company)
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In addition to the development of the pre-existing Abaqus portfolio, DS has also developed Simulia V5 and V6 product suites which seeks to combine the modelling and simulations aspect into one tool.
CST Studio Suite
CST Studio Suite is a computational electromagnetics tool developed by Dassault Systèmes Simulia. It contains several different simulation methods, including the finite integration technique (FIT), finite element method (FEM), transmission line matrix (TLM), multilevel fast multipole method (MLFMM) and particle-in-cell (PIC), as well as multiphysics solvers for other domains of physics with links to electromagnetics.
As an electromagnetic design tool, CST Studio Suite is chiefly used in industries such as telecommunications, defense, automotive, aerospace, electronics and medical equipment. One application of CST Studio Suite is the design and placement of antennas and other radio-frequency components. The antenna systems on the BepiColombo Mercury Planetary Orbiter were developed using CST Studio Suite to investigate their radiation pattern and possible electromagnetic interference.
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – the analysis and mitigation of interference and electromagnetic environmental effects – is another application, because simulation allows potential issues to be identified earlier in the design process than physical testing alone can. Similarly, CST Studio Suite is also used to analyze signal integrity – the quality of electric signal transmission – on printed circuit boards and other electronics.
Other areas of research where CST Studio Suite has been applied include accelerator physics, biological electromagnetics, nanotechnology and metamaterials.
| 1.945313
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5405478
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCndner%20schist
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Bündner schist
|
The Bündner schist or Bündner slate (; ) is a collective name for schistose rocks that form a number of geologic formations in the Penninic nappes of the Alps. Bündner schists were originally marine sediments that underwent metamorphism at large depths.
The Bündner schists were deposited in the two small oceanic basins (the Valais Ocean and the Piemont-Liguria Ocean) that were located south of the European continent in the Mesozoic era. They formed a kilometers thick monotonous layer of dark clays, marbles and sandy limestones. These sediments were subducted to great depths during the Alpine orogeny. The resulting metamorphism and deformation turned them into calcareous phyllites and schists, strongly foliated rocks rich in micas.
The Bündner schists can be found throughout the Penninic zone of the Alps, often forming zones of high strain between or large infolded synclines (so called Mulde or Mulden) in the crystalline nappes that are made of more competent gneiss.
Bündner schists are often found along ophiolites. The contacts between the two types of rock have always seen many phases of folding and are complex.
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5405583
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail%20transport%20in%20Western%20Australia
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Rail transport in Western Australia
|
Railways in Western Australia were developed in the 19th century both by the Government of Western Australia and a number of private companies. Today passenger rail services are controlled by the Public Transport Authority (a department of the Government of Western Australia) through Transperth, which operates public transport in Perth, and Transwa, which operates country passenger services. Journey Beyond operates the Indian Pacific.
The interstate standard gauge line east from Kalgoorlie is owned by the Australian Rail Track Corporation, with most other lines leased by the state to Arc Infrastructure.
Freight rail was privatised in 2000. General intrastate freight is mainly operated by Aurizon, while grain traffic is also operated by Aurizon under contract to the CBH Group. Interstate traffic is operated by Pacific National and SCT Logistics. Aurizon also operate an interstate mineral sands service to Kwinana from Broken Hill for Tronox. A number of private iron ore haulage railways also operate in the Pilbara region of the state.
History
The Western Australian lines developed in narrow gauge from Fremantle (the port of Perth), Geraldton, Bunbury, Albany and Esperance, mainly for carrying grain and minerals, with the private Midland Railway Company and Great Southern Railway adding gauge lines in the Wheatbelt with the support of land grants.
In 1907, the standard-gauge Trans-Australian Railway from Port Augusta, South Australia to Kalgoorlie was authorised. Construction started in 1912, and it was completed in 1917. It was run by the Commonwealth Railways. In the 1960s standard () gauge lines penetrated to Perth and Esperance and long distance heavy-haul railways were built in the Pilbara region by major iron mining companies, particularly BHP and Hamersley Iron. The Perth suburban lines were electrified and extended.
Government railways were controlled by the Department of Works and Railways from 1877.
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5405583
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail%20transport%20in%20Western%20Australia
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Rail transport in Western Australia
|
Five railway Master Plans have since been produced, and in the 2010 report these plans are credited for ensuring the provision of infrastructure and rolling stock to improve and expand the suburban rail system in Perth. Patronage of the Perth to Fremantle train line, which had initially been shut down in 1979 to prepare for the development of a highway on the site, has grown substantially between the 1980s and 2010, with current daily patronage levels for this single rail line (approximately 23,000 journeys per day) coming close to the total patronage of the rail line in 1989 going through the city station (approximately 25,000 ).
The progression of public, planner and policy-maker attitudes in Perth, away from automobile and road infrastructure dependence, according to one researcher, has led to the following familiar scene in the city:
"Cars sit in congestion on the freeway, delayed by the construction of a railway line through the southern suburbs to the coast town of Mandurah" (Wood-Gush, 2006, p. 19)
Far from the segregation of land uses advertised by Hoyt in 1943, the turn toward the expansion of the Perth rail system has also been accompanied by the advancing of New Urbanism leaning "Liveable Neighbourhood" policies, promoting mixed density development, walkable communities and sustainable transportation, potentially demarcating a departure from automotive city planning features for the city.
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5405632
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clicquot%20Club%20Company
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Clicquot Club Company
|
Even though word of his soda spread over southeastern New England in the next few years, the cost of such fine ingredients eventually forced Henry Millis to sell his company in 1901. The new proprietors, Horace A. Kimball and his son, H. Earle Kimball, took advantage of every form of advertising, including the character "Kleek-O the Eskimo Boy" (which became a well-known advertising symbol); an animated sign in Manhattan's Times Square (the largest animated sign in the world from 1924 to 1926); and even a musical variety radio program, The Clicquot Club Eskimos, led by banjo player Harry F. Reser. There were 25 sessions of records under the supervision of Harry Reser and issued under the name "Clicquot Club Eskimos" recorded from December, 1925 through February, 1931.
Such clever marketing expanded the company until the factory in Millis became 1/3 of a mile long and even had its own private train station. The area around this massive factory became known as "Millis-Clicquot, Massachusetts." The company also was responsible for a number of pioneering moves in an effort to meet demand: In 1893, Clicquot Club was the first to put a metal cap on a bottle; in 1934, the first to sell quart bottles; and in 1938 the company became the first to sell its beverages in a can, at this time known as a "cone-top" can, making it easier to manufacture.
With the establishment of a new network of Clicquot Club Bottling Plants in 1938 the company soon had dozens of factories across the country. This number grew rapidly until in 1952 the company had plants in over 100 cities all across the United States, from Maine to California. In the 1950s the company began distributing internationally, in places such as Jamaica, Nassau, the Bahamas, virtually all of South America, and the Philippines.
| 2.15625
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5405643
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Church%20in%20the%20Wildwood
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The Church in the Wildwood
|
Nearing the twentieth century, small Bradford was in great decline. The village had been bypassed by a new railroad through Nashua, Iowa, two miles west, and the flour mill moved to New Hampton, Iowa to be on a bigger river. The town was once the county seat, but population was in steady decline, and the church had grown neglected. In 1888, the church was closed.
Popularity of the song
Shortly into the new century, the Society For The Preservation of The Little Brown Church was founded, and by 1914, services were again held in the building. Shortly afterward, the small congregation experienced a revival that attracted new attention to it and to its song.
Among those who found and loved the song at this time was the Weatherwax Quartet. This group of traveling singers traveled throughout Canada and the United States in the 1920s and '30s and used as their trademark song "The Church in the Wildwood." They would quite easily talk about the little church during their travels.
As the song grew in popularity, coupled with the development of the U.S. Highway system in the mid-1920s, many visitors came to the newly reopened little church. Since then the church has become a popular tourist spot, and remains so today. It attracts thousands of visitors every year to see or be married in "the little brown church in the vale."
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5405750
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian%20Legion
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Bulgarian Legion
|
The Bulgarian Legion (, ) was the name of two military bands formed by Bulgarian volunteers in the Serbian capital of Belgrade in the second part of the 19th century. Their ultimate goal was the liberation of the Bulgarian people from Ottoman rule through coordinated actions with the neighbouring Balkan countries.
First Bulgarian Legion
The First Bulgarian Legion (Първа българска легия) was established in 1862 by Georgi Stoykov Rakovski in agreement with the Serbian government. At the time Montenegro was at war with the Ottoman Empire and Serbia itself was planning to join the conflict. According to the initial plan, in case of war between Serbia and the Ottoman Empire, the Legion would cross the border and enter the Bulgarian lands, where it would instigate an uprising among the population.
In order to sustain direct contact with the Serbian government, the so-called Provisional Bulgarian Command was established on the initiative of Rakovski. His Plan for the Liberation of Bulgaria inspired Bulgarians and some six hundred young people responded to his appeal to create the Legion, many of them emigrants and refugees in Romania. Among them were Vasil Levski, Stefan Karadzha, Vasil Drumev, Dimitar Obshti, Matey Preobrazhenski and other figures that later came into national prominence.
The support of the Legion was taken care of by the Serbian government. The members had to go through some military training so as to be able to participate in the future uprising and in the expected conflict between Serbia and the Ottoman Empire. According to Trotsky, when the Turkish forces entered Belgrade, the Bulgarian legion distinguished itself in the fighting. However the conflict ended swiftly and the subsequent Constantinople Conference decided that not all Ottoman troops should withdraw from Serbia. Due to pressure from the Ottoman Empire the Serbian authorities requested the Legion to be disbanded. As a result, on 21 September 1862 the participants were expelled from Belgrade.
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5405750
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian%20Legion
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Bulgarian Legion
|
Second Bulgarian Legion
The Second Bulgarian Legion (Втора българска легия) was founded in 1867, as relations between Serbia and the Ottoman Empire once again worsened and the Serbian authorities began preparing for war and organizing the First Balkan Alliance. This was used by the Band of Virtues (Добродетелна дружина), who concluded an agreement with Serbia to establish a Bulgarian military school in Belgrade to instruct military leaders for a future uprising in Bulgaria.
This time the expenditures were paid by Russia, the volunteers being trained by Serbian officers. The surviving rebels from the bands of Panayot Hitov and Filip Totyu joined the Legion, as well as young people from Bulgaria and the Bulgarian diaspora in Romania.
However, the expected war between the two countries never broke out due to the Ottoman authorities' engagement with the suppression of the Cretan Revolt (1866–1869) and reluctance to further complicate its relations with Serbia. Meanwhile, the government of Jovan Ristić, which opted for reconciliation with the Ottomans, came into office in Serbia. The Second Bulgarian Legion lost its usefulness to the Serbians as a result of this. It was disbanded in April 1868 despite the opposition of the Russian diplomats, its members being expelled from Serbia.
Historical experience
The experience of the two Legions showed the Bulgarian Legionnaires that the formation of an insurrectionary centre to manage the Bulgarian liberational movement from the outside and particularly the binding of the national uprising's task with the politics of other states would always be exposed to danger. Nevertheless, the Legions were an excellent school that prepared a large number of the future Bulgarian leaders.
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5405765
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konditorei
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Konditorei
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Lebkuchen
The profession of the Konditor developed from that of the baker. Once the bakers of medieval times (15th century) mastered the art of baking bread, some started to enrich the dough with honey, dried fruits and spices. These specialists called themselves Lebküchler, Lebküchner or Lebzelter. They founded a guild in 1643 in the area in and around Nürnberg, Germany. At the same time, the Lebkuchen bakers ran a second trade using wax, a side product of honey: they became chandlers, supplying churches and private households with artistic candles, wax figures and pictures made of wax. They carved wooden molds themselves and used these to pour magnificent pictures made of wax. A few Konditoreien practiced the sophisticated art of the chandlers until recent times. The Lebküchner were turned to confectioners later and finally became Konditoreien.
Sugar and spices
The maritime trade brought spices and sugar from the Eastern world to the famous Italian harbor towns of Genoa and Venice. Although sugar had an immense appeal, only the rich were privileged to consume it. The profession of confectioner was related to that of the pharmacist because the trade with sugar was exclusive to pharmacists. The German word “Konfekt” (English: confection) to describe sweets stems from the language of the drug makers, which were also called confectionari.
Production of marzipan
In the 14th century, the Venetians introduced marzipan, a confection made from almonds, sugar and rose water, to central Europe. Marzipan was an ideal material for moulding magnificent pictures from, which were artistically painted with plant colouring and often decorated with gold leaf.
| 2.84375
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5405774
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cork%20City%20%28Parliament%20of%20Ireland%20constituency%29
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Cork City (Parliament of Ireland constituency)
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Cork City (also known as Cork Borough) was a constituency represented in the Irish House of Commons until its abolition on 1 January 1801.
Boundaries and boundary changes
This constituency was the parliamentary borough of Cork in County Cork. It comprised the whole of the County of the City of Cork. Cork had the status of a county of itself, although it remained connected with County Cork for certain purposes.
A Topographical Directory of Ireland, published in 1837, describes the area covered. This seems to be the same area used, for the Parliament of Ireland constituency, in previous centuries.
The county of the city comprises a populous rural district of great beauty and fertility, watered by several small rivulets and intersected by the river Lee and its noble estuary: it is bounded on the north by the barony of Fermoy, on the east by that of Barrymore, on the south by Kerricurrihy, and on the west by Muskerry: it comprehends the parishes of St. Finbarr, Christ-Church or the Holy Trinity, St. Peter, St. Mary Shandon, St. Anne Shandon, St. Paul and St. Nicholas, all, except part of St. Finbarr's, within the city and suburbs, and those of Curricuppane, Carrigrohanemore, Kilcully, and Rathcoony, together with parts of the parishes of Killanully or Killingly, Carrigaline, Dunbullogue or Carrignavar, Ballinaboy, Inniskenny, Kilnaglory, White-church, and Templemichael, without those limits; and contains, according to the Ordnance survey, an area of 44,463 statute acres, of which, 2396 are occupied by the city and suburbs.
The Directory also has a passage on the representative history, which includes some information that applies to the pre-1801 constituency.
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5405849
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20cruiser%20Akashi
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Japanese cruiser Akashi
|
Unwilling to write off the ship as a loss, the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff ordered Akashi to be completely overhauled at Kure Naval Arsenal in March 1903, and then sent the ship as a training vessel with instructors and cadets from the Imperial Naval Engineering Academy on a cruise around the coasts of China and Korea, marking port calls at Fuzhou, Shanghai, Yantai, Inchon, Busan and Wonsan, returning to Sasebo in September 1903. In October and November 1903, Akashi was able to participate in combat maneuvers with other cruisers in the fleet. Akashi was then assigned to escorting the Japanese cable laying vessels laying the first submarine telegraph cable between Sasebo and Incheon in Korea from 8–17 January 1904.
During speed trials conducted in January 1904, Akashi attained a top speed of .
Russo-Japanese War
Akashi was based at Chinkai Guard District in Korea at the start of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, and was stationed at sea off the southeastern coast of the Korean Peninsula as a telegraphic relay station immediately before the outbreak of hostilities. She participated in the Battle of Chemulpo Bay at the start of the war, taking part in the line of battle behind the cruiser and assisting in the sinking of the Russian cruiser and the gunboat . During the battle, a shell from Varyag passed in between her funnels.
In April and May, Akashi escorted transports conveying the Japanese Second Army to Manchuria, and escorted destroyer squadrons from Japan to the front-lines. On 15 May, she assisted in the rescue of survivors from the crew of the ill-fated battleships and after those ships struck naval mines off the coast of Port Arthur. She then joined the list of Japanese ships blockading the Russian naval base in the Battle of Port Arthur.
On 16 May, Akashi, with the cruiser and , bombarded Russian troops and buildings from the Bohai Gulf. The operation was cancelled due to dense fog on 17 May, in which the gunboats and collided, causing Ōshima to sink.
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5405849
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20cruiser%20Akashi
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Japanese cruiser Akashi
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After the battle, on 14 June, "Akashi" returned to Takeshiki Guard District to start patrols of the Korea Strait. She was overhauled at Kure Naval Arsenal from 4–29 July. On 10 October, Akashi intercepted the German-flagged steamer, M Struve (1582 tons), which was attempting to smuggle a cargo of rice, salt, bread and flour to Vladivostok. The steamer was sent with a prize crew to Sasebo.
Akashi arrived in Yokohama to participate in a naval review celebrating the Japanese victory on 23 October 1905.
World War I
From 1908–1909, future Prime Minister of Japan Suzuki Kantarō served as captain of Akashi. In 1912, Akashi was re-boilered, with her nine horizontal locomotive-style boilers replaced with nine Niclausse boilers.
In World War I, Akashi was part of the IJN 2nd Fleet in combat against the Imperial German Navy at the Battle of Tsingtao. In 1916, she was assigned to patrol the sea lanes from Borneo to the Malacca Straits and eastern Indian Ocean against German commerce raiders, as part of Japan's contribution to the Allied war effort under the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, and was based at Singapore.
Rear-Admiral Kōzō Satō commanded the 2nd Special Squadron with Akashi as flagship with the 10th and 11th Destroyer Units (eight destroyers) based at Malta from 13 April 1917. He was reinforced by the 15th Destroyer Unit with four more destroyers from 1 June 1917 to carry out on direct escort duties for Allied troop transports in the Mediterranean. After being relieved by the cruiser , Akashi returned to Japanese home waters, where she spent the remainder of the war.
After the end of the war, Akashi was re-designated as a 2nd class coastal defense vessel from 1 September 1921. She was removed from the navy list on 1 April 1928. Deemed obsolete, she was expended as a target for dive bombers south of Izu Ōshima on 3 August 1930.
The main mast of Akashi is preserved at the Japan Maritime Self Defense Academy at Etajima, Hiroshima.
| 2.46875
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5405878
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valais%20Ocean
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Valais Ocean
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The Valais Ocean is a subducted oceanic basin which was situated between the continent Europe and the microcontinent Iberia or so called Briançonnais microcontinent. Remnants of the Valais ocean are found in the western Alps and in tectonic windows of the eastern Alps and are mapped as the so-called "north Penninic" nappes.
Tectonic history
After the breakup of Pangaea in the early Mesozoic age, the continents of Africa, South America, Europe and North America began to move away from each other. The breaking up, or rifting, did not take place along one unbroken line; thus, at the southern edge of the European plate the microcontinent Iberia also began to break away from Europe. In the western part of the rift that separated the two landmasses, oceanic crust was formed in what is at present the Gulf of Biscay, while in the eastern part the Valais Ocean was formed.
When in the Cretaceous period Africa again began to move towards Europe, the Valais Ocean became sandwiched between the two continents. To the east, the Valais oceanic crust, together with a piece of Iberian continental crust (called the Briançonnais terrane), subducted beneath the Apulian plate, a part of the African tectonic plate that had begun to move independently. This process eventually led to the formation of the Alps. To the west, no subduction took place, but the Iberian plate moved against the European plate along a large transform fault, which led to the formation of the Pyrenees.
Fragments of Valais oceanic crust have been obducted and can be found as ophiolites in the Penninic nappes of the Alps.
Name
The Valais Ocean was named after the Swiss canton Valais.
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5405886
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluecoat%20school
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Bluecoat school
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A bluecoat school is a type of charity school in England, the first of which was founded in the 16th century. Most of them have closed; some remain open as schools, often on different sites, and some of the original buildings have been adapted for other purposes. They are known as "bluecoat schools" because of the distinctive blue uniform originally worn by their pupils. The colour blue was traditionally the colour of charity and was a common colour for clothing at the time. The uniform included a blue frock coat and yellow stockings with white bands.
History
The first bluecoat school to be established was Christ's Hospital. This was founded by Edward VI in Newgate Street, London, in 1552, as a foundling hospital to care for and educate poor children. Between the 16th and late 18th centuries about 60 similar institutions were established in different parts of England. These were not connected with Christ's Hospital, but if their pupils wore the blue uniform, they were known as bluecoat schools. The original Christ's Hospital, while retaining its name, has moved its site to West Sussex and developed into an independent school, with much of its costs being met by a charitable foundation.
Schools
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5405900
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen%20East%20High%20School
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Allen East High School
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Allen East High School is a four-year high school in Allen County, Ohio, U.S.. It was formed in the autumn of 1965 with the consolidation of the two eastern Allen County School Districts: Lafayette-Jackson and Auglaize-Local. The school was recognized with a Bronze Medal as one of the top schools in the nation by U.S. News & World Report in 2010. It is the only high school in Allen County and the greater Lima/Allen County region to be recognized by the publication.
As with many schools in Northwestern Ohio, Allen East constructed new school facilities to accommodate its growing population. Its outdated facilities, such as the former high school (constructed in 1931 as Lafayette High School), has been torn down. The new school re-opened for the 2007–2008 school year.
Organizations
School organizations at Allen East include: Mustang Marching Brass, Concert Band, Choir, Show Choir, Drama, The Mustanger, FCCLA, Varsity A, National Honor Society, Quiz Bowl, Student Council, and Cameo Staff.
'MUSTANG' Marching Brass
The 'MUSTANG' Marching Brass, Allen East's all brass marching band, is well known throughout the state of Ohio for its unique marching and dancing style. With over 150 band members from a high school of less than 400 students, The "Brass" is regularly the largest student group out of Allen East High School and is one of the largest bands in Northwest Ohio.
The Brass has performed at The Peach Bowl in Atlanta, Georgia 4 times, Cleveland Browns and Cincinnati Bengals games, as the featured band at various parades and festivals, and hosts their own annual marching band invitational every September. Notable accolades include being crowned Peach Bowl Grand Champions in 2006 and winning the Allen County Fair Parade 1st Place Trophy nearly 20 times in 25 years. The Mustang Marching Brass travelled to Memphis and Nashville to perform at Graceland Mansion during the 2017–2018 school year.
| 2.21875
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5405926
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dummy%20corporation
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Dummy corporation
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Hiding identity
Another use is to prevent speculators from intruding on imminent plans of the parent organisation. Dummy corporations may also be used in crime to hide the identity of a criminal, similar to the use of a criminal alias.
Raymond Davis, a former Blairstown, New Jersey committee member, diverted $46,000 in public funds into a dummy corporation. The self-created dummy corporation was a vehicle to conceal his identity while stealing funds from a municipal complex project.
Legal cases
Fraw Realty Co. Inc. v. Natanson, 261 N.Y. 396, was a court case heard before the Court of Appeals in the state of New York concerning the legal usage of dummy corporations to hide the true owner of assets between two companies. The Natanson brothers were the sole stockholders of Normar Real Estate Corporation and Malex Realty Corporation, which faulted when Malex's assets were taken over by Normar, citing that Normar was the "real owner" of the two corporations—although this agreement was only spoken about, not officially stated. The court ruled in favour of Fraw Realty, as the brothers relinquished their constructive trusts as their agreement was not explicitly stated.
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5405950
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super%20Monkey%20Ball%20Deluxe
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Super Monkey Ball Deluxe
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Super Monkey Ball Deluxe is a platform video game developed and published by Sega. It was released for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox in 2005. The game compiles all stages from Super Monkey Ball and Super Monkey Ball 2, as well as adding original levels.
Super Monkey Ball Deluxe was well received, with critics praising the gameplay, but criticizing its audio and graphics. The game is notable for its large number of customizable party mini-games, also returning from the previous titles. It is also notable for the stages it had restored, which were previously cut from the originals.
Super Monkey Ball Deluxe's exclusive stages were remade as a part of Super Monkey Ball Banana Mania.
Gameplay
The gameplay is largely the same as the first two in the series. Much like the classic arcade game Marble Madness, the player must navigate a ball across many puzzling courses within a time limit, usually 60 seconds. The controls are very simple: the player uses the directional analog stick to move the entire floor in order to guide one of four anthropomorphic monkeys (encased in a large clear ball) towards the goal, while avoiding hazards and obstacles (for example, moving platforms, mazes, and ramps). Collecting bananas scattered throughout the stage raises the player's score, and awards extra lives. If the monkey ball falls off the edge of a platform or the time runs out, the player loses a life. If the player reaches the arch-shaped goal, the player finishes the stage and the player advances to the next stage. Higher levels have a greater challenge and complexity: most of the levels in Story Mode are characterised as Beginner, Advanced and Expert.
Main modes
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5405981
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Rosenberg%20%28curator%29
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David Rosenberg (curator)
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David Rosenberg (born 3 November 1965) is a French art curator and author, specialized in modern and contemporary art styles.
Biography
David Rosenberg has curated exhibitions and organized art events in France and internationally in collaboration with museums and foundations.
In his works, he has explored relations between art and different disciplines — such as science, new technologies, dance, and studied connections between art and comic strip or manga. He has also done work around the history of photography and the record of invention (neon light).
In 2003, he founded "Le Dancing", a group of European dancers and choreographers performing offstage, in collaboration with plastic artists and artistic groups.
In 2004, he contributed to "The Quiet in the Land, Art, Spirituality and Everyday life", Luang Prabang, Laos, created and directed by France Morin.
From 2004 to 2012, he was a faculty member in the Art department at the University of Paris VIII.
In 2014 he was named Knight of the Order of the Arts and Letters.
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5406084
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viggo%20Ullmann
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Viggo Ullmann
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Johan Christian Viggo Ullmann (21 December 1848 – 30 August 1910) was a Norwegian educator and politician with Venstre, the Norwegian Liberal party. He was the son of the author Vilhelmine Ullmann, brother of the feminist Ragna Nielsen and the great grandfather of actress Liv Ullmann. Norway's first social doctor was his grandchild, also named Viggo Ullmann (Lillehammer, 1920–).
Career as a teacher
From 1870 he studied philology at the University of Christiania and was cand.philol. 1872. He received his Bachelor of Arts in 1875, after which he worked as a teacher at the Folk High Schools Skulestad, Østre Moland, Landvik, Bratsberg, Drangedal, Gjerpen and Vinje. At the liberal Folk High School in Seljord (Seljord Folkehøgskule), he worked for a more vocational approach to the study. In this period, he was also chairman of the publisher Det Norske Samlaget, as well as editor for the newspaper Varden. His pedagogy was influenced by the ideas of N. F. S. Grundtvig, where theology and learning was seen as a voluntary act, and obligatory exams were replaced by voluntary self-evaluation. He was also a spokesman of the theorems of American economist Henry George.
Political career
He was the leader of the party Venstre (1893–1894 and 1898–1900), Member of Parliament for Bratsberg 1898–1900, Venstre's parliamentary leader 1893–1894 and President of the Storting 1892–94, 1897 and 1898–1900. In 1884 he was a co-founder of the Norwegian Association for Women's Rights. He helped The Association for Women's Suffrage (led by his sister, Ragna Nielsen) to write a suggestion for a change of the constitution, something which brought him into conflict with certain religious societies. Together with Prime Minister Wollert Konow, he was central in and was later (in 1890) behind the establishment of and The Peace Letter to King Oscar II of Sweden. Ullman was First Deputy Member of the Nobel Committee (7 August 1897 – 5 June 1900). From 1902 until he died, he was county governor of Bratsberg amt (now Telemark).
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5406090
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sippenhaft
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Sippenhaft
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Many people who had committed no crimes were arrested and punished under Sippenhaft decrees introduced after the failed 20 July plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler in July 1944.After the failure of the 20 July plot, the SS chief Heinrich Himmler told a meeting of Gauleiters in Posen that he would "introduce absolute responsibility of kin ... a very old custom practiced among our forefathers". According to Himmler, this practice had existed among the ancient Teutons. "When they placed a family under the ban and declared it outlawed or when there was a blood feud in the family, they were utterly consistent. ... This man has committed treason; his blood is bad; there is traitor's blood in him; that must be wiped out. And in the blood feud the entire clan was wiped out down to the last member. And so, too, will Count Stauffenberg's family be wiped out down to the last member." Accordingly, the members of the family of von Stauffenberg (the officer who had planted the bomb that failed to kill Hitler) were all under suspicion. His wife, Nina Schenk Gräfin von Stauffenberg, was sent to Ravensbrück concentration camp (she survived and lived until 2006). His brother Alexander, who knew nothing of the plot and was serving with the Wehrmacht in Greece, was also sent to a concentration camp. Similar punishments were meted out to the relatives of Carl Goerdeler, Henning von Tresckow, Adam von Trott zu Solz and many other conspirators. Erwin Rommel opted to commit suicide, rather than being tried for his suspected role in the plot, in part because he knew that his wife and children would suffer well before his own all-but-certain conviction and execution.
| 2.28125
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5406098
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurices
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Laurices
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Laurices are rabbit fetuses prepared without evisceration and consumed as a table delicacy. The word is the plural of the Latin word laurex (variant laurix, n. masc., pl. laurices; English singular occasionally laurice), assumed to have been borrowed from an Iberian source. The word is normally found in the plural number, since, due to their size, more than one would be served at a time. The rabbit was adopted by the Romans from Hispania, whence it spread over western Europe, as did likewise the custom of consuming laurices.
As the domestication of rabbits became established, the source of laurices was extended to newborns, because it became possible to harvest them without sacrificing the breeding doe, the time of birth being able to be monitored.
Earliest historical mention
The first known mention of this gastronomic speciality is with Pliny the Elder (23—79) in his Naturalis Historia :
Gregory of Tours
The consumption of laurices (called fetus cunicolorum) during the fast of Lent is mentioned by Gregory of Tours (ca. 538—594) in his Historia Francorum ("History of the Franks"), Book 5.4.
Earlier in the passage, Roccolen appears in conflict with Gregory of Tours himself, and Roccolen is described by Gregory as being an impious rascal. Therefore, Gregory's mention of this practice can best be interpreted as condemnation.
Myth
The common theory that Pope Gregory I (540 – 604) authorized the consumption of laurices during Lent and other fasts, declaring them to be a marine species, like fish or shellfish, is false.
The myth derives, in fact, from a misreading of Gregory of Tours' Historia Francorum 5.4 (quoted above) and a confusion between Gregory of Tours and Pope Gregory, two contemporary but different authors with the same name. Furthermore, this myth has also led to the idea that the rabbit was domesticated circa 600 AD, which must similarly be rejected.
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5406110
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%20army%20%28Komnenian%20era%29
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Byzantine army (Komnenian era)
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The Byzantine army of the Komnenian era or Komnenian army was a force established by Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos during the late 11th/early 12th century. It was further developed during the 12th century by his successors John II Komnenos and Manuel I Komnenos. From necessity, following extensive territorial loss and a near disastrous defeat by the Normans of southern Italy at Dyrrachion in 1081, Alexios constructed a new army from the ground up. This new army was significantly different from previous forms of the Byzantine army, especially in the methods used for the recruitment and maintenance of soldiers. The army was characterised by an increased reliance on the military capabilities of the immediate imperial household, the relatives of the ruling dynasty and the provincial Byzantine aristocracy. Another distinctive element of the new army was an expansion of the employment of foreign mercenary troops and their organisation into more permanent units. However, continuity in equipment, unit organisation, tactics and strategy from earlier times is evident. The Komnenian army was instrumental in creating the territorial integrity and stability that allowed the Komnenian restoration of the Byzantine Empire. It was deployed in the Balkans, Italy, Hungary, Russia, Anatolia, Syria, the Holy Land and Egypt.
Introduction
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5406110
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%20army%20%28Komnenian%20era%29
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Byzantine army (Komnenian era)
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At the beginning of the Komnenian period in 1081, the Byzantine Empire had been reduced to the smallest territorial extent in its history. Surrounded by enemies, and financially ruined by a long period of civil war, the empire's prospects had looked grim. The state lay defenceless before internal and external threats, as the Byzantine army had been reduced to a shadow of its former self. During the 11th century, decades of peace and neglect had reduced the old thematic forces, and the military and political anarchy following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 had destroyed the professional Imperial Tagmata, the core of the Byzantine army. At Manzikert, units tracing their lineage for centuries back to the Roman Empire were wiped out, and the subsequent loss of Anatolia deprived the Empire of its main recruiting ground. In the Balkans, at the same time, the Empire was exposed to invasions by the Norman Kingdom of Sicily, the expansionist activities of the principality of Dioclea (Duklja) and by Pecheneg (Patzinak) raids across the Danube.
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5406110
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%20army%20%28Komnenian%20era%29
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Byzantine army (Komnenian era)
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The Komnenian period, despite almost constant warfare, is notable for the lack of military treatise writing, which seems to have petered out during the 11th century. So, unlike in earlier periods, there are no detailed descriptions of Byzantine tactics and military equipment. Information on military matters in the Komnenian era must be gleaned from passing comments in contemporary historical and biographical literature, court panegyrics and from pictorial evidence.
Size
There are no surviving reliable and detailed records to allow the accurate estimation of the overall size of the Byzantine army in this period; it is notable that John Birkenmeier, the author of the definitive study of the Komnenian army, made no attempt to do so. He merely noted that while Alexios I had difficulty raising sufficient troops to repel the Italo-Normans, John II could field armies as large as those of the Kingdom of Hungary and Manuel I assembled an army capable of defeating the large crusading force of Conrad III.
Other historians have, however, made attempts to estimate overall army size. During the reign of Alexios I, the field army may have numbered around 20,000 men. By 1143, the entire Byzantine army has been estimated to have numbered about 50,000 men and continued to remain about this size until the end of Manuel's reign. The total number of mobile professional and mercenary forces that the emperor could assemble was about 25,000 soldiers while the static garrisons and militias spread around the empire made up the remainder. During this period, the European provinces in the Balkans were able to provide more than 6,000 cavalry in total while the Eastern provinces of Anatolia provided about the same number. This amounted to more than 12,000 cavalry for the entire Empire, not including those from allied contingents.
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5406110
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%20army%20%28Komnenian%20era%29
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Byzantine army (Komnenian era)
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Modern historians have estimated the size of Komnenian armies on campaign at about 15,000 to 20,000 men, but field armies with less than 10,000 men were quite common. In 1176 Manuel I managed to gather approximately 30,000–35,000 men, of which 25,000 were Byzantines and the rest were allied contingents from Hungary, Serbia, and Antioch, though this was for an exceptional campaign. His military resources stretched to putting another, smaller, army in the field simultaneously. After the death of Manuel I, the Byzantine army seems to have declined in numbers. In 1186, Isaac II assembled 250 knights and 500 infantry from the Latin population of Constantinople, an equivalent number of Georgian and Turkish mercenaries, and about 1,000 Byzantine soldiers. This force of possibly 2,500 managed to defeat Alexios Branas' rebellion. The rebel army which could not have numbered much more than 3,000–4,000 men had been the field force sent against the Bulgarians. Another force of about 3,000–4,000 was stationed at the city of Serres. Expeditionary forces remained around the same size for the rest of Angeloi period. In 1187 Isaac II campaigned with 2,000 cavalry in Bulgaria. Manuel Kamytzes' army that ambushed Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1189 was about 3,000 strong; it consisted of his own force of 2,000 cavalry and the garrison at Philippopolis.
Supporting the army
The Byzantine army of the Komnenian era was recruited and maintained by disparate means, ranging from regular payment from the state treasury, through tax-farming, reliance on the familial obligations of aristocrats, who fielded their armed retainers, to forcible impressment, especially of defeated enemies.
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5406110
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%20army%20%28Komnenian%20era%29
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Byzantine army (Komnenian era)
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Taxation and pay
The financial state of the Empire improved throughout the Komnenian period; while Alexios I in the early part of his reign was reduced to producing coin from church gold and silver plate, his successors were able to spend very great sums on the army. One of the strengths of the Byzantine emperor was his ability to raise ready cash. After a period of financial instability, Alexios reformed the currency in 1092–1094, by introducing the high purity gold coin. At the same time he created new senior financial officials in the bureaucracy and reformed the taxation system. Though Alexios I was sometimes forced by circumstances into extemporising finances, the ideal of using state resources from regular taxation to support the military was still adhered to. Despite a number of instances of the ad hoc hiring of bands of foreign troops and over-reliance on his kinsmen and other magnates to fill out the ranks of his armies, regular recruitment based on salaries, annual payments and bounties remained the preferred method of supporting soldiers.
Prior to the Komnenian period records of payment rates for troops are extant and show a great variation in the amounts paid to individuals, based on rank, troop type and perceived military worth, and the prestige of the unit that the soldier belonged to. There is almost no evidence of rates of pay for Komnenian soldiery, however, the same principles undoubtedly still operated, and a Frankish knightly heavy cavalryman was most probably paid considerably more than a Turkish horse archer.
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5406110
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%20army%20%28Komnenian%20era%29
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Byzantine army (Komnenian era)
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Native regiments
In the course of the 11th century the units of part-time soldier-farmers belonging to the (military provinces) were largely replaced by smaller, full-time, provincial (regiments). The political and military anarchy of the later 11th century meant that it was solely the provincial of the southern Balkans which survived. These regiments, whose soldiers could be characterized as "native mercenaries," became an integral part of the central army and many field armies of the Komnenian period, the of Macedonia, Thrace and Thessaly being particularly notable. Though raised in particular provinces, these cavalry regiments had long ceased to have any local defence role. As regions were reconquered and brought under greater control provincial forces were re-established, though initially they often only served to provide local garrisons. In the reign of Manuel I the historian Niketas Choniates mentions a division of a field army composed of "the eastern and western ." This wording implies that regular regiments were once again being raised in Anatolia. Military settlers, often derived from defeated foes, also supplied soldiers; one such group of settlers, defeated Pechenegs, was settled in the Moglena district and provided a unit to the army; another was composed of Serbs who were settled around Nicomedia in Anatolia. Towards the end of the period revenue grants, from the income generated by parcels of land, allowed the provinces to be used to raise heavy cavalrymen with less immediate drain on the state treasury. Most references to the organisation of soldiers that occur in the period concern cavalry. The origins and organisation of the native infantry of the Byzantine army of this period are obscure. It is known that there was an official register of soldiers serving as infantry, but their geographical origins and unit names are not recorded. Though rarely mentioned, the infantry were at least as numerous as the cavalry and were vital for prosecuting sieges.
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In order to increase the size of his army, Alexios I even recruited 3,000 Paulicians from Philippopolis and formed them into the " of the Manichaeans", while 7,000 Turks were also hired. Foreign mercenaries and the soldiers provided by imperial vassals (such as the Serbs and Antiochenes), serving under their own leaders, were another feature of the Byzantine army of the time. These troops would usually be placed under a Byzantine general as part of his command, to be brigaded with other troops of a similar fighting capability, or combined to create field forces of mixed type. However, if the foreign contingent were particularly large and its leader a powerful and prominent figure then it might remain separate; Baldwin of Antioch commanded a major division, composed of Westerners (Antiochenes, Hungarians and other 'Latins'), of the Byzantine army at the Battle of Myriokephalon. The Byzantines usually took care to mix ethnic groups within the formations making up a field army in order to minimize the risk of all the soldiers of a particular nationality changing sides or decamping to the rear during battle. During the early part of the 12th century, the Serbs were required to send 300 cavalry whenever the Byzantine emperor was campaigning in Anatolia. This number was increased after Manuel I defeated the Serb rebellion in 1150 to 2,000 Serbs for European campaigns and 500 Serbs for Anatolian campaigns. Towards the end of the Komnenian period Alan soldiers, undoubtedly cavalry, became an important element in Byzantine armies. It is notable that there was no major incident of mutiny or treachery involving foreign troops between 1081 and 1185.
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Armed followers of the aristocracy
Though fief-holding as such did not exist in the Byzantine state, the concept of lordship pervaded society, with not only the provincial magnates but also state functionaries having authority over private citizens. The semi-feudal forces raised by the or provincial magnates were a useful addition to the Byzantine army, and during the middle years of the reign of Alexios I probably made up the greater proportion of many field armies. Some leading provincial families became very powerful; for example, the Gabras family of Trebizond achieved virtual independence of central authority at times during the 12th century. The wealthy and influential members of the regional aristocracy could raise substantial numbers of troops from their retainers, relatives and tenants (called 'household men'). Their quality, however, would tend to be inferior to the professional troops of the . In the Strategikon of Kekaumenos of c. 1078, there is mention of the armed retinue of a magnate, they are described as "the freemen who will have to mount horses together with you and go into battle".
The 'personal guards' of aristocrats who were also generals in the Byzantine army are also notable in this period. These guards would have resembled smaller versions of the imperial . The Isaac, brother of John II, even maintained his own unit of guards. There is a record of Isaac Komnenos transferring ownership of two villages to a monastery. Alongside the land transfer, control of the local soldiery also passed to the monastery. This suggests that these soldiers were effectively members of a class of petty, "personal s". A class that was not dependent on state-owned land for income, but upon the estates of a leading landowner, evidently the landowner could be either secular or ecclesiastical. The guard of the John Axouch was large enough to put down an outbreak of rioting between Byzantine troops and allied Venetians during the siege of Corfu in 1149.
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The repertoire of metal body armour included mail (), scale () and lamellar (). Both mail and scale armours were similar to equivalent armours found in Western Europe, a pull-on "shirt" reaching to the mid-thigh or knee with elbow length sleeves. The lamellar was a rather different type of garment. Byzantine lamellar, from pictorial evidence, possessed some unique features. It was made up of round-topped metal lamellae riveted, edge to edge, to horizontal leather backing bands; these bands were then laced together, overlapping vertically, by laces passing through holes in the lamellae. Modern reconstructions have shown this armour to be remarkably resistant to piercing and cutting weapons. Because of the expense of its manufacture, in particular the lamellae surrounding the arm and neck apertures had to be individually shaped, this form of armour was probably largely confined to heavy cavalry and elite units.
Because lamellar armour was inherently less flexible than other types of protection the was restricted to a cuirass covering the torso only. It did not have integral sleeves and reached only to the hips; it covered much the same body area as a bronze 'muscle cuirass' of antiquity. The was usually worn with other armour elements which extended the area of the body given protection. The could be worn over a mail shirt, as shown on some contemporary icons depicting military saints. More commonly the is depicted being worn with tubular upper arm defences of a splinted construction often with small pauldrons or 'cops' to protect the shoulders. In illustrated manuscripts, such as the Madrid Skylitzes, these defences are shown decorated with gold leaf in an identical manner to the , thus indicating that they are also constructed of metal. Less often depicted are rerebraces made of "inverted lamellar".
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Icons of soldier-saints, often showing very detailed illustrations of body armour, usually depict their subjects bare-headed for devotional reasons and therefore give no information on helmets and other head protection. Illustrations in manuscripts tend to be relatively small and give a limited amount of detail. However, some description of the helmets in use by the Byzantines can be given. The so-called 'Caucasian' type of helmet in use in the Pontic Steppe area and the Slavic areas of Eastern Europe is also indicated in Byzantium. This was a tall, pointed spangenhelm where the segments of the composite skull were riveted directly to one another and not to a frame. Illustrations also indicate conical helmets, and the related type with a forward deflected apex (the Phrygian cap style), of a single-piece skull construction, often with an added brow-band. Helmets with a more rounded shape are also illustrated, being of a composite construction and perhaps derived from the earlier 'ridge helmet' dating back to Late Roman times.
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Few archaeological specimens of helmets attributable to Byzantine manufacture have been discovered to date, though it is probable that some of the helmets found in pagan graves in the Ukrainian steppe are of ultimately Byzantine origin. A rare find of a helmet in Yasenovo in Bulgaria, dating to the 10th century, may represent an example of a distinctively Byzantine style. This rounded helmet is horizontally divided: with a brow-band constructed for the attachment of a face-covering camail, above this is a deep lower skull section surmounted by an upper skull-piece raised from a single plate. The upper part of the helmet has a riveted iron crosspiece reinforcement. A high-quality Byzantine helmet, decorated in gilt brass inlay, was found in Vatra Moldovitei in Rumania. This helmet, dating to the late 12th century, is similar to the Yasenovo helmet in having a deep lower skull section with a separate upper skull. However, this helmet is considerably taller and of a conical 'pear shape', indeed it bears some similarity in outline to the later bascinet helmets of Western Europe. The helmet has a decorative finial, and a riveted brow-reinforce (possibly originally the base-plate of a nasal). A second helmet found in the same place is very like the Russian helmet illustrated here, having an almost identical combined brow-piece and nasal, this helmet has a single-piece conical skull, which is fluted vertically, and has overall gilding. It has been characterised as a Russo-Byzantine helmet, indicative of the close cultural connection between Kievan Russia and Byzantium. A remarkably tall Byzantine helmet, of the elegant 'Phrygian cap' shape and dating to the late 12th century, was found at Pernik in Bulgaria. It has a single-piece skull with a separate brow-band and had a nasal (now missing) which was riveted to the skull.
In the course of the 12th century the brimmed 'chapel de fer' helmet begins to be depicted and is, perhaps, a Byzantine development.
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Most Byzantine helmets are shown being worn with armour for the neck. Somewhat less frequently the defences also cover the throat and there are indications that full facial protection was occasionally afforded. The most often illustrated example of such armour is a sectioned skirt depending from the back and sides of the helmet; this may have been of quilted construction, leather strips or of metal splint reinforced fabric. Other depictions of helmets, especially the 'Caucasian' type, are shown with a mail aventail or camail attached to the brow-band (which is confirmed by actual examples from the Balkans, Romania, Russia and elsewhere).
Face protection is mentioned at least three times in the literature of the Komnenian period, and probably indicates face-covering mail, leaving only the eyes visible. This would accord with accounts of such protection in earlier military writings, which describe double-layered mail covering the face, and later illustrations. Such a complete camail could be raised off the face by hooking up the mail to studs on the brow of the helmet. However, the remains of metal 'face-mask' anthropomorphic visors were discovered at the site of the Great Palace of Constantinople in association with a coin of Manuel I Komnenos. Such masks were found on some ancient Roman helmets and on contemporary helmets found in grave sites associated with Kipchak Turks from the Pontic Steppe. The existence of these masks could indicate that the references to face-protection in Byzantine literature describe the use of this type of solid visor.
Horse armour
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The Komnenian army had a formidable artillery arm which was particularly feared by its eastern enemies. Stone-firing and bolt-firing machines were used both for attacking enemy fortresses and fortified cities and for the defence of their Byzantine equivalents. In contemporary accounts the most conspicuous engines of war were stone-throwing trebuchets, often termed 'city-takers'; both the man-powered and the more powerful and accurate counterweight trebuchets were known to the Byzantines. The development of the trebuchet, the largest of which could batter down contemporary defensive walls, was attributed to the Byzantines by some western writers. Additionally, the Byzantines also used long range, anti-personnel, bolt firing machines such as the 'great crossbow,' which was often mounted on a mobile chassis, and the 'skein-bow' or 'espringal' which was a torsion device using twisted skeins of silk or sinew to power two bow-arms. The artillerists of the Byzantine army were accorded high status, being described as "illustrious men." The emperor John II and the generals Stephanos and Andronikos Kontostephanos, both leading commanders with the rank of , are recorded personally operating siege engines.
Troop types
The Byzantine Empire was a highly developed society with a long military history and could recruit soldiers from various peoples, both within and beyond its borders; as a result of these factors a wide variety of troop types were to be found in its army.
Infantry
With the notable exception of the Varangians, the Byzantine infantry of the Komnenian period are poorly described in the sources. The emperors and aristocracy, who form the primary subjects of contemporary historians, were associated with the high-status heavy cavalry and as a result the infantry received little mention.
Varangians
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The Varangian Guard were the elite of the infantry. In the field they operated as heavy infantry, well armoured and protected by long shields, armed with spears and their distinctive two-handed Danish axes. Unlike other Byzantine heavy infantry their battlefield employment appears to have been essentially offensive in character. In both of the battles in which they are recorded as playing a prominent role they are described as making aggressive attacks. At Dyrrhachion they defeated a Norman cavalry charge but then their counterattack was pushed too far and, finding themselves unsupported, they were broken. At Beroia the Varangians were more successful, with John II commanding them personally, they assaulted the Pecheneg wagon fort and cut their way into it, achieving a very complete victory. It is likely, given their elite status and their constant attendance on the emperor, that the Varangians were mounted on the march though they usually fought on foot. It has been estimated that throughout Alexios I's reign, some 4,000–5,000 Varangians in total joined the Byzantine army. Before he set out to relieve Dyrrhachion in 1081, the emperor left 300 Varangians to guard Constantinople. After the defeat, Alexios left 500 Varangians to garrison Kastoria in an unsuccessful attempt to halt the Norman advance. At Dyrrhachion there were 1,400 Varangians while at Beroia, only 480–540 were present. This suggests that emperors usually only brought around 500 Varangians for personal protection on campaigns, unless they needed a particularly strong force of infantry. A garrison of Varangians was also stationed in the city of Paphos in Cyprus during the Komnenian period, until the island's conquest by King Richard I.
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Native heavy infantry
Heavy infantry are almost invisible in the contemporary sources. In the Macedonian period a heavy infantryman was described as a (shieldbearer) or . These terms are not mentioned in 12th-century sources; Choniates used the terms and (spearbearer/spearman). Choniates' usage was, however, literary and may not accurately represent contemporary technical terminology. Byzantine heavy infantry were armed with a long spear ( or ) but it is possible that a minority may have been armed with the polearm. At the beginning of the Komnenian era, all Byzantine infantry still carried round shields, but these were superseded by much larger kite shields in the mid 12th century. Kite shields remained standard equipment for Byzantine armies long after they had fallen out of favor in Western Europe, and were still being carried by local Greek infantry well into the 13th century. Those in the front rank, at least, might be expected to have metal armour, perhaps even a . The role of such infantrymen, drawn up in serried ranks, was largely defensive. They constituted a bulwark which could resist enemy heavy cavalry charges, and formed a movable battlefield base from which the cavalry and other more mobile troops could mount attacks, and behind which they could rally.
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Peltasts
The type of infantryman called a peltast () is far more heavily referenced in contemporary sources than the "spearman". Although the peltasts of Antiquity were light skirmish infantry armed with javelins, it would be unsafe to assume that the troops given this name in the Komnenian period were identical in function; indeed, Byzantine peltasts were sometimes described as "assault troops". Komnenian peltasts appear to have been relatively lightly equipped soldiers capable of great battlefield mobility, who could skirmish but who were equally capable of close combat. Their arms may have included a shorter version of the spear than that employed by the heavy infantry. At Dyrrachion, for example, a large force of peltasts achieved the feat of driving off Norman cavalry. Peltasts were sometimes employed in a mutually supportive association with heavy cavalry.
Light infantry
The true skirmish infantry, usually entirely unarmoured, of the Byzantine army were the . This term included foot archers, javelineers and slingers, though archers were sometimes differentiated from the others in descriptions. The were clearly regarded as being quite separate from the peltasts. Such troops usually carried a small buckler for protection and would have had an auxiliary weapon, a sword or light axe, for use in a close combat situation. These missile troops could be deployed in open battle behind the protective ranks of the heavy infantry, or thrown forward to skirmish. The light troops were especially effective when deployed in ambush, as at the Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir in 1177.
Cavalry
The earlier Byzantine heavy cavalryman, who combined the use of a bow with a lance for close combat, seems to have disappeared before the Komnenian age. The typical heavy cavalryman of the Komnenian army was a dedicated lancer, though armoured horse-archers continued to be employed.
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A category of cavalryman termed a (pl. ) is documented in Byzantine military literature from the sixth century onwards. The term is a transliteration of the Latin with the meaning 'raider' (from 'course, line of advance, raid, running, speed, zeal' – in Medieval Latin a term for a raider or brigand was , which was the origin of corsair). According to one theory, it is posited as the etymological root of the term hussar, used for a later cavalry type. The had a defined tactical role but may or may not have been an officially defined cavalry type. were mobile close-combat cavalry and may be considered as being drawn from the more lightly equipped . The were primarily intended to engage enemy cavalry and were usually placed on the flanks of the main battle line. Those on the left wing, termed , were placed to defend that flank from enemy cavalry attack, whilst the cavalry placed on the right wing, termed , were intended to attack the enemy's flank. Cavalry on detached duty, such as scouting or screening the main army, were also called . It is thought that this type of cavalry were armed identically to the heavy but were armoured more lightly, and were mounted on lighter, swifter horses. Being relatively lightly equipped they were more suited to the pursuit of fleeing enemies than the heavyweight . In the Komnenian period, the more heavily equipped of the were often segregated to create formations of "picked lancers," presumably the remainder, being more lightly equipped, provided the . A type of cavalry, differentiated from both horse archers and those with the heaviest armour, is referred to by Kinnamos in 1147 as forming a sub-section of a Byzantine army array; they are described as "those who rode swift horses," indicating that they were , though the term itself is not employed.
Light cavalry
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The light cavalry of the Komnenian army consisted of horse-archers. There were two distinct forms of horse-archer: the lightly equipped skirmisher and the heavier, often armoured, bow-armed cavalryman who shot from disciplined ranks. The native Byzantine horse-archer was of the latter type. They shot arrows by command from, often static, ranks and offered a mobile concentration of missile fire on the battlefield. The native horse-archer had declined in numbers and importance by the Komnenian period, being largely replaced by soldiers of foreign origins. However, in 1191 Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus is recorded firing arrows at Richard I of England from horseback during the latter's conquest of Cyprus. This suggests that mounted archery remained a martial skill practised within the upper reaches of Byzantine aristocracy.
Turks from the Seljuk and Danishmend realms of central and eastern Anatolia, and those Byzantinised Turks and Magyars settled within the Empire, such as the Vardariots, supplied the bulk of the heavy horse-archers of the Komnenian army. Towards the end of the period Alans were also supplying this type of cavalry. Such horse archers were often highly disciplined. The Byzantine horse-archers (termed – indicating guard status) at Sozopolis in 1120 performed a feigned flight manoeuvre, always demanding the greatest self-confidence and discipline, which led to the taking of the city from the Turks. Given that they were usually armoured, even if it was comparatively light armour, this type of horse-archer also had the capability to fight with melee weapons in close combat.
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Skirmish horse-archers, usually unarmoured, were supplied by the Turkic Pechenegs, Cumans and Uzes of the steppes. These troops were ideal scouts and were adept at harassment tactics. They usually attacked as a swarm and were very difficult for a more heavily equipped enemy to bring into close combat. Light horse-archers were also effective as a screening force, preventing an enemy discerning the dispositions of other troops (for example at the Battle of Sirmium).
Development
Alexios I inherited an army which had been painstakingly reconstituted through the administrative efforts of the able eunuch Nikephoritzes. This army, though small due to the loss of territory and revenue, was in its nature similar to that of earlier Byzantine armies back as far as Nikephoros Phokas and beyond; indeed some units could trace their history back to the Late Roman army. This rather traditional Byzantine army was destroyed by the Italo-Normans at Dyrrachion in 1081. In the aftermath of this disaster Alexios laid the foundations of a new military structure. He raised troops entirely by ad hoc means: raising the regiment of the from the sons of dead soldiers and even pressing heretic Paulicians from Philippopolis into the ranks. The only Anatolian troops that are mentioned as part of the army of Alexios are the Chomatenes. Most important is the prominent place in this new army of Alexios' extended family and their many connections, each aristocrat bringing to the field his armed retinue and retainers. Before campaigning against the Pechenegs in 1090 he is recorded as summoning "his kinsmen by birth or marriage and all the nobles enrolled in the army." From pure necessity an army based on a model derived ultimately from Classical Antiquity was transformed, like the empire as a whole, into a type of family business. At this point the army could be characterised as being a feudal host with a substantial mercenary element.
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Under John II, a Macedonian division was described, and new native Byzantine troops were recruited from the provinces. As Byzantine Anatolia began to prosper under John and Manuel, more soldiers were raised from the Asiatic provinces of Thrakesion, Mylasa and Melanoudion, Paphlagonia and even Seleucia (in the south-east). Soldiers were also drawn from defeated peoples, who were forcibly recruited into the army; examples include the Pechenegs (horse archers) and Serbs, who were transplanted as military settlers to the regions around Moglena and Nicomedia respectively. Native troops were organised into regular units and stationed in both the Asian and European provinces. Later Komnenian armies were also often reinforced by allied contingents from Antioch, Serbia and Hungary, yet even so they generally consisted of about two-thirds Byzantine troops to one-third foreigners. Units of archers, infantry and cavalry were grouped together so as to provide combined arms support to each other. Field armies were divided into a vanguard, main body and rearguard. The vanguard and rearguard could operate independently of the main body, where the emperor would be. This suggests that subordinate commanders were able to take tactical initiatives, and that the officer class was well trained and trusted by the emperor. John fought fewer pitched battles than either his father or son. His military strategy revolved around sieges and the taking and holding of fortified settlements, in order to construct defensible frontiers. John personally conducted approximately twenty five sieges during his reign.
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Permanent military camps were established in the Balkans and in Anatolia, they are first mentioned during the reign of Alexios I (Kypsella and Lopadion), but as Lopadion is recorded as being newly fortified in the reign of John II it is the latter who seems to have fully realised the advantages of this type of permanent camp. The main Anatolian camp was at Lopadion on the Rhyndakos River near the Sea of Marmara, the European equivalent was at Kypsella in Thrace, others were at Sofia (Serdica) and at Pelagonia, west of Thessalonica. Manuel I rebuilt Dorylaion on the Anatolian plateau to serve the same function for his Myriokephalon campaign of 1175–76. These great military camps seem to have been an innovation of the Komnenian emperors, possibly as a more highly developed form of the earlier (military stations established along major communication routes), and may have played an important role in the improvement in the effectiveness of the Byzantine forces seen in the period. The camps were used for the training of troops and for the preparation of armies for the rigours of campaign; they also functioned as supply depots, transit stations for the movement of troops and concentration points for field armies. It has also been suggested that the regions around these military bases were the most likely areas for grants to be located.
Legacy
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The Komnenian Byzantine army was a resilient and effective force but it was over-reliant on the leadership of an able emperor. After the death of Manuel I in 1180 able leadership was wanting. First there was Alexios II, a child-emperor with a divided regency, then a tyrant, Andronikos I, who attempted to break the power of the aristocracy who provided the leadership of the army, and finally the incompetents of the Angeloi dynasty. Weak leadership allowed the Komnenian system of rule through the extended imperial family to break down. The regionally based interests of the powerful aristocracy were increasingly expressed in armed rebellion and secession; mutual distrust between the aristocracy and the bureaucrats of the capital was endemic and both these factors led to a disrupted and fatally weakened Empire.
When Constantinople fell to the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the Byzantine successor states established at Epirus, Trebizond and especially Nicaea based their military systems on the Komnenian army. The success of the Empire of Nicaea in particular in reconquering former Byzantine territories (including Constantinople) after 1204, may be seen as evidence of the strengths of the Komnenian army model. Though there is some reason to restrict the term Komnenian army solely to the period of the rule of the Komnenian emperors, the real break with this system came after the recovery of Constantinople in 1261, when the Byzantine army became sufficiently distinct from its earlier form to deserve a separate identity as the Palaiologan army. The Byzantine Empire enjoyed an economic and cultural renaissance during the 12th century and the Komnenian army played a crucial part in providing the political and territorial stability which allowed this cultural flowering.
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1155–56 – The generals Michael Palaiologos and John Doukas were sent with 10 ships to invade Apulia. A number of towns, including Bari, and most of coastal Apulia were captured, however, the expedition ultimately failed, despite the reinforcements sent by the emperor because the Byzantine fleet of 14 ships was vastly outnumbered by the Norman fleet. The Byzantine army never numbered more than a few thousand and consisted of Cuman, Alan, and Georgian mercenaries.
1158 – At the head of a large army, Manuel I marched against Thoros II of Armenia. The emperor left the main body of the army at Attaleia while he led 500 cavalry to Seleukeia and from there entered the Cilician plain as part of a surprise attack.
1165 – The Kingdom of Hungary was invaded by a Byzantine army and the city of Zeugminon was placed under siege. The commanding general, and future emperor, Andronikos I Komnenos personally adjusted the four (counterweight trebuchets) that were used to bombard the city.
1166 – Two Byzantine armies were dispatched in a vast pincer movement to ravage the Hungarian province of Transylvania. One army crossed the Walachian Plain and entered Hungary through the Transylvanian Alps (Southern Carpathians), whilst the other army made a wide circuit to the south-western Russian principality of Galicia and, with Galician aid, crossed the Carpathian Mountains.
1167 – With an army of 15,000 men, general Andronikos Kontostephanos scored a decisive victory over the Hungarians at the Battle of Sirmium.
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Wind triangle
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In air navigation, the wind triangle is a graphical representation of the relationship between aircraft motion and wind. It is used extensively in dead reckoning navigation.
The wind triangle is a vector diagram, with three vectors.
The air vector represents the motion of the aircraft through the airmass. It is described by true airspeed and true heading.
The wind vector represents the motion of the airmass over the ground. It is described by wind speed and the inverse of wind direction. Note that by convention wind direction is given as the direction the wind is from. In a vector diagram such as the wind triangle, wind direction must be stated as the direction the wind is blowing to, or 180 degrees different from the convention.
The ground vector represents the motion of the aircraft over the ground. It is described by ground track and ground speed. The ground vector is the resultant of algebraically adding the air vector and the wind vector.
The wind triangle describes the relationships among the quantities used in air navigation. When two of the three vectors, or four of the six components, are known, the remaining quantities can be derived. The three principal types of problems to solve are:
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Solve for the ground vector. This type of problem arises when true heading and true airspeed are known by reading the flight instruments and when wind direction and speed are known from either the meteorological forecast or from determination in flight.
Solve for the wind vector. This type of problem arises when determination of heading and true airspeed can be done by reading the flight instruments and ground track and ground speed can be found either by measuring the direction and distance between two established points of the aircraft or by determining the drift angle and ground speed by reference to the ground.
Solve for true heading and ground speed. This type of problem arises during flight planning or during a flight, when there is a need to determine a true heading to fly and a ground speed with which to compute an estimated time of arrival.
The traditional method of solving wind triangle equations is graphical. The known vectors are drawn to scale and in the proper direction on an aeronautical chart, using protractor and dividers. The unknown quantities are read from the chart using the same tools. Alternatively, the E6B flight computer (a circular slide rule with a translucent "wind face" on which to plot the vectors) can be used to graphically solve the wind triangle equations.
On aircraft equipped with advanced navigation equipment, the wind triangle is often solved within the flight management system, (FMS) using inputs from the air data computer (ADC), inertial navigation system (INS), global positioning system (GPS), and other instruments, (VOR), (DME), (ADF). The pilot simply reads the solution provided to them.
| 2.578125
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5406119
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa%20%C3%81ngela
|
Villa Ángela
|
Villa Ángela is a city in the province of Chaco, Argentina, 186 km west of the provincial capital Resistencia. It is on the Gran Chaco, a lowland region of the Río de la Plata basin. It has 43,511 inhabitants as per the , making it the third largest in the province.
History
In 1908, Carlos Gruneisen y Julio Ulises Martin (Swiss, born 31 July 1862, creator of the Yerbatera Martin, in Rosario), acquired the land that would become the jurisdiction of Villa Angela. He had the tannin factory, La Chaqueña S.A., built and the adjacent areas immediately began to be settled.
Punta de rieles and km 95 were the names it first received when it was no more than a hamlet. In 1910, as a tribute to the centennial of the May Revolution and 24 May, they decided to found a village and give it the name Villa Ángela. It was named after Ángela Joostens, the wife of Julio Ulises Martin, one of its two founders.
The city boasts one of the major Carnavals of the country. This popular festival extends from mid-January to mid-February since 1950.
Weather
The city's weather is subtropical, dry in winter and very wet and hot in the summer.
Record high: 46 °C
Record low: -6 °C
Average annual precipitation: 1,100 mm
| 2.015625
| 0
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5406147
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunis%20Campbell
|
Tunis Campbell
|
A head waiter in New York
Campbell was the principal waiter at the Howard Hotel in New York City for some time (at least from 1842 to 45). He later wrote a well-regarded 1848 guide to hotel management, Hotel Keepers, Head Waiters, and Housekeepers' Guide (1848), one of the earliest hospitality books by an African American. A collection of culinary recipes and counsel on hotel management, its advice to employers and employees alike, offered guidance to African-American workers in one of the available sources of paid employment.
At the same time, Campbell was active in establishing schools for "colored children" in New York, the city of Brooklyn, New York, the village of Williamsburg, New York (both part of the borough of Brooklyn since 1898), and Jersey City, New Jersey. He assisted fugitive slaves whenever possible. He received a contract to raise 4,000 United States Colored Troops.
Military Governor of Georgia Sea Islands
In March 1865, he was sent as Military Governor to the Sea Islands of Georgia: Ossabaw, Colonels, St. Catherine's, and Sapelo Island. During two years he established schools and a government. When Georgia planters, through pardons from President Andrew Johnson, regained the islands in 1866, expelling the Black farmers, Campbell bought at Belle Ville in McIntosh County, Georgia, where he established an association of black landowners to own parcels. Effectively, he established colonies on these islands.
| 2.703125
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5406249
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon-Jefferson%20culture
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Leon-Jefferson culture
|
The Leon-Jefferson Culture is the term used by archaeologists for a protohistoric Native American archaeological culture that flourished in southeastern North America from approximately 1500–1704 CE and is associated with the historic Apalachee people. It was located in and named for the present day Leon and Jefferson counties in northern Florida of the Southeastern United States
Local chronology
The cultural transformation from Late Fort Walton to Early Leon-Jefferson may have been brought about through contact with Lamar phase peoples from central Georgia. During this time period ceramic traditions change and styles of decoration and manufacture from central Georgia become incorporated into the local traditions associated with the Fort Walton culture. This period also represents the transformation of the Apalachee peoples of the Fort Walton tradition and the collapse of the chiefdom as aboriginal populations declined following contact with European explorers and colonizers. Early in the period larger settlements appear, possibly because of the influx of Lamar peoples, although they are still located in typical Fort Walton locations such as near ridge and hilltops and around water sources such as ponds and lakes. Later in the period populations begin to drop, most likely in response to the introduction of diseases introduced by Europeans such as the Hernando de Soto entrada which passed through the area in 1539. By the time of the Spanish Mission Period the villages are smaller and located around mission churches.
Ceramics
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5406249
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon-Jefferson%20culture
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Leon-Jefferson culture
|
Early in the Leon-Jefferson period ceramics are well-made vessels, using grit tempering rather than the more common Mississippian culture trait of using ground mussel shells. About 1450 CE distinctive central Georgian stamped and incised pottery begins to appear in the Apalachee area, probably representing trade or alliances with the powerful centers of central Georgia, centered on the Lamar Mounds and Village Site (now part of the Ocmulgee National Monument). By around 1600 local potters are making Lamar Phase styled vessels but continuing to use their own clay and/or grog as a tempering agent. The most common shapes for ceramic vessels at this time were bowls with outward flaring rims, very similar to Lamar style wares. As this period progresses the quality and craftmanship of ceramics deteriorates.
Archaeological sites
Like other Mississippian peoples, Leon-Jefferson peoples had hierarchical settlement patterns, built ceremonial platform mounds and practiced intensive maize agriculture. Anhaica, near Tallahassee's city center, served as the capital of Apalachee Province and the Lake Jackson site 3 miles to the north was a Fort Walton period site and a major site associated with the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex.
The northwest Florida region also encompasses the Letchworth Mounds of Jefferson County as well as Tallahassee's Lake Jackson mound. It is generally defined as encompassing the Florida Panhandle east from the Ochlockonee River to the Aucilla River. Frequently, there are cultural differences between the inland groups who relied on the inland resources of what are now Leon and Jefferson counties and those who used coastal resources.
| 3.03125
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5406278
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bienvenido%20Santos
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Bienvenido Santos
|
Bienvenido Nuqui Santos (March 22, 1911 – January 7, 1996) was a Filipino-American fiction, poetry and nonfiction writer. He was born and raised in Tondo, Manila. His family roots are originally from Lubao, Pampanga, Philippines. He lived in the United States for many years where he is widely credited as a pioneering Asian-American writer.
Biography
Santos received his Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of the Philippines where he first studied creative writing under Paz Marquez Benitez. In 1941, Santos was a government pensionado (scholar) to the United States at the University of Illinois, Columbia University, and Harvard University. He had arrived in San Francisco on October 12, 1941, aboard the leaving his wife and three daughters in the Philippines. When war in the Pacific came to the Philippines on December 8 (December 7 Hawaii time) he feared he would never see his family again—a reality that "not only interrupted his study of realism; it was overwhelming it" leading to a transformation in his sense of national consciousness and identity. That crisis changed the nature of his writing into a less carefree style to one mixing laughter and pain; described by Florentino Valeros as "a man hiding tears in his laughter."
During World War II, he served with the Philippine government in exile under President Manuel L. Quezon in Washington, D.C., together with the playwright Severino Montano and Philippine National Artist Jose Garcia Villa. Santos left for home on January 17, 1946, aboard the arriving in early February.
In 1967, he returned to the United States to become a teacher and university administrator. He received a Rockefeller fellowship at the Writers Workshop of the University of Iowa where he later taught as a Fulbright exchange professor. Santos has also received a Guggenheim Foundation fellowship, a Republic Cultural Heritage Award in Literature as well as several Palanca Awards for his short stories. Scent of Apples won a 1980 American Book Award from the Before Columbus Foundation.
| 2.515625
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5406303
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landulf%20VI%20of%20Benevento
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Landulf VI of Benevento
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Landulf VI (died 27 November 1077) was the last Lombard prince of Benevento. Unlike his predecessors, he never had a chance to rule alone and independent. The principality lost its independence in 1051, at which point Landulf was only co-ruling with his father, Pandulf III.
Landulf was the eldest son of Pandulf III and he was first made co-prince in August or September 1038. In 1041, it was probably his brother Atenulf who led the rebellion because he was not made co-ruler as well. The revolt failed and Atenulf fled to the Normans, where he was elected their leader as princeps.
In 1047, Emperor Henry III came down to secure his authority in the Mezzogiorno. Empress Agnes visited Monte Gargano as a pilgrim and returned via Benevento, where she was accepted, but her husband denied. Henry III, angry at being denied, immediately laid siege to the city and Pope Clement II excommunicated Landulf and Pandulf and the citizenry. The siege was eventually lifted, however, the disrespect shown the imperial family and the church coupled with the principality's decline caused Landulf's uncle, Daufer, to flee the city and take refuge with Guaimar IV of Salerno, who housed the religious youth in La Cava. Landulf personally travelled to Salerno to meet with Guaimar and negotiate the return of Daufer. Daufer was returned with the promise that his choice of a monastic vocation would be respected.
Beneventan matters came to a head in 1050, when Pope Leo IX went on a pilgrimage to Monte Gargano and reaffirmed the excommunication of the princes. The citizens turned on them and threw them out. The citizens sent an embassy to the pope in Rome offered to put their city under him. In April 1051, Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida and Domenic, Patriarch of Grado, entered Benevento to receive the city on the pope's behalf. On 5 July, the pope entered his new city on behalf of himself and the emperor.
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5406303
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landulf%20VI%20of%20Benevento
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Landulf VI of Benevento
|
In the aftermath of the Battle of Civitate in 1053, in which the pope was imprisoned in Benevento, the city invited Pandulf and Landulf back (sometime between June 1053 and March 1054). They returned by 1055 and ruled as vassals of the pope. In 1056, Landulf associated his son Pandulf IV. Probably in 1059, the elder Pandulf abdicated to the monastery of S. Sofia, leaving Landulf and Pandulf IV sole princes.
Landulf only appears scarcely in sources thereafter. In 1065, he was admonished by Pope Alexander II "that the conversion of Jews is not to be obtained by force." He was present on 1 October 1071 at the consecration of the Abbey of Monte Cassino. In August 1073, he swore fealty to Pope Gregory VII, his overlord, and promised to respect the rights of the citizens of Benevento. Gregory even began residing from time to time in Landulf's palace at Benevento, which Amatus calls lo plus grand palaiz ("the largest palace"). Landulf does not appear again in the chronicles and, after his son died in battle in 1074, died on 27 November 1077. With him leaving no clear successor of his dynasty, the principality of Benevento came to an end.
| 2.203125
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5406319
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Sharp%20%28historian%29
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Martin Sharp (historian)
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Martin Andrew Sharp Hume (8 December 1843 – 1 July 1910), born Martin Andrew Sharp, was an English historian, long a resident in Spain.
Background and early life
Martin Andrew Sharp was born in London on 8 December 1843. He was second son of William Lacy Sharp, of the East India Company's service, who married Louisa Charlotte Hume in 1840. He was educated at a private school at Forest Gate, he had some practical training in business, and began early to learn Spanish. A branch of his mother's family had settled at Madrid towards the end of the eighteenth century.
Career
In 1860, Sharp paid his Spanish kinsfolk a first visit, which had a decisive influence on his career. His relatives received him with affectionate cordiality. Though he declined their invitation to make his home with them, he visited them annually for long periods, perfected his knowledge of Spanish, witnessed the revolution of 1868, and became acquainted with the chief organisers of the movement. The last of the Spanish Humes, a lady advanced in years, died in 1876, bequeathing her property to Martin Sharp, and in August 1877, in compliance with her wish, he assumed the name of Hume. He was now independent. A keen volunteer officer, he was attached to the Turkish forces during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78; he then spent some time in exploration on the west coast of Africa, and travelled extensively in Central and South America.
Until 1882 Hume's sympathies had been vaguely conservative. His views then changed, and during the next eleven years he actively engaged in English political conflict. He stood unsuccessfully as a liberal candidate at Maidstone in 1885, at Central Hackney in 1886, and at Stockport in 1892 and 1893.
| 2.171875
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5406328
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Telephone%20Company
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National Telephone Company
|
The National Telephone Company (NTC) was a British telephone company from 1881 until 1911 which brought together smaller local companies in the early years of the telephone. Under the Telephone Transfer Act 1911 it was taken over by the General Post Office (GPO) in 1912.
History
Three years after the first telephone company, The Telephone Company (Bells Patents) Ltd, appeared in London (in fact it was the first in Europe), the National Telephone Company was formed on 10 March 1881, as a provincial subsidiary of the United Telephone Company Limited (UTC). The NTC was initially formed to develop and operate telephone services in Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Ulster and parts of Scotland, taking over UTC operations in those places.
The UTC developed other similar provincial companies throughout the British Isles between 1881 and 1885. The UTC then wished to create a new company for the amalgamation of all their associated companies. However, the government declined to issue the proposed new company with a licence to operate or to allow the transfer of an existing licence. The UTC then decided to use one of its provincial companies as a vehicle for their policy of amalgamation, starting in 1889 with the merger of the UTC with the Lancashire and Cheshire Telephone Company and the NTC. The 'National Telephone Company Limited' name being retained.
In 1886, it built an ornate red brick and terracotta building 19, Newhall Street, now grade I listed, for its Birmingham Central exchange, opened in 1887.
In 1899 it commissioned Telephone House in London's Temple Lane. The building still bears the company's NT logo and some cherubs holding what appear to be old style telephone handsets.
| 2.109375
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5406328
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Telephone%20Company
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National Telephone Company
|
The amalgamation policy continued; in 1890 the NTC absorbed the Northern District Telephone Company and the South of England Telephone Company, in 1892 the Western Counties and South Wales Company and the Sheffield Telephone Exchange and Electric Light Company and in 1893 the Telephone Company of Ireland Limited. Throughout this period the NTC also took over smaller telephone companies.
With the policy of amalgamation, the NTC, under the direction of William E L Gaine as general manager and Dane Sinclair as engineer in chief, set about creating a uniform organisation over eight districts; Metropolitan, Southern, Western, Midland, North-Western, Northern, Scotland and Ireland.
Following the Telegraph Acts of 1892 and 1896, NTC trunk lines were acquired and transferred to the Post Office between 1896 and 1897. In 1901, the Postmaster General and the NTC signed an agreement to prevent unnecessary duplication of plant and wasteful competition in London.
In 1905, the Postmaster General and the NTC signed a further agreement for the purchase of the NTC's system on the expiry of its licence on 31 December 1911, an option for the Post Office that formed a part of the original licence agreement of 1881. On 31 December 1911 the NTC ceased to formally trade. The Postmaster General took over the NTC and its telephone systems and the NTC passed into liquidation.
The National Telephone Company also issued stamps in various values to enable the public to pre pay for telephone calls made from company premises.
Historical documents
Records of the National Telephone Company (51 boxes, 8 volumes), c.1880s–c.1946 are held by BT Archives.
| 2.1875
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5406331
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni%20Sostero
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Giovanni Sostero
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Giovanni Sostero (18 March 1964 – 6 December 2012) was an Italian amateur astronomer. He was one of the leading members of the Associazione Friulana di Astronomia e Meteorologia (Friuli, Italy). He was an honorary member of the Astronomical Observatory of Visnjan (Croatia), too.
Sostero was very active as a public out-reacher and has published some scientific works in professional astronomical journals. He had over 1880 NASA ADS citations for his work. His main research fields were the minor bodies of the Solar System (asteroids and comets) and variable stars (symbiotic stars and supernovae). In particular, he discovered several supernovae: 2009jp, 2008ae, 2008F, 2007cl, 2006br, 2006bm, 2006H, 2006B, 2005ly, 2005kz, 2005kc. In 2000 he co-discovered a nova in the galaxy M31.
The asteroid 9878 Sostero (1994 FQ) was named after him.
He died on 6 December 2012 due to the complications of a heart attack. He was 48 years old.
The "Giovanni Sostero Award"
was created in 2013 and supported thereafter by Elettra - Sincrotrone Trieste to honor Sostero, formerly in charge of the soft x-ray metrology laboratory at the facility.
| 1.914063
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5406335
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape%20Cod%20Regional%20Transit%20Authority
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Cape Cod Regional Transit Authority
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Cape Cod Regional Transit Authority (CCRTA) operates a bus transit system of fixed and flexible routes, seasonal rail service to Boston, and a paratransit service in the Cape Cod region of Massachusetts. The CCRTA was created under the provisions of Chapter 161B of the Massachusetts General Laws in 1976. Its main hub and base of operations is the Hyannis Transportation Center on Main Street in Hyannis, Massachusetts.
Scheduled route service (called The Breeze until early 2008) consists of seven year-round lines covering every town on mainland Cape Cod. During the summer months (late June through early September) service runs seven days a week from approximately 5:30 am until midnight, and is complemented by local shuttles in downtown Hyannis, Provincetown, and Woods Hole. Service is somewhat reduced in the shoulder season (Memorial Day to late June and Labor Day to Columbus Day) and is limited in the off season when four of the eight routes do not run and the remainder only operate 5:30 am to 8 pm, Monday through Friday with most routes having reduced service on Saturday.
Service information
The Flex
The Flex is unique in that passengers may board or disembark up to 3/4 mile from the actual route itself. Off-route pickups can be scheduled by calling CCRTA customer service. Higher fares apply when boarding or disembarking off-route.
DART
DART or "Dial a Ride Transportation" (formerly known as the "B-Bus") is the authority's federally mandated door to door paratransit service. Unlike many transit agencies (such as MBTA's THE RIDE) riders do not need to qualify on the basis of disability or income, and any person who resides within CCRTA's service area can utilize DART. Fares are $3 each way or $1.50 for seniors and disabled, and unlike fixed route service, DART can be scheduled on Sundays.
| 2.234375
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5406349
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akoris%2C%20Egypt
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Akoris, Egypt
|
Akoris ( or Ἀκορίς); Egyptian: Mer-nefer(et) (Old and Middle Kingdoms), Per-Imen-mat-khent(j) (New Kingdom), or Dehenet (since 26th Dynasty) is the Greek name for the modern Egyptian village of (, from ), located about 12 km north of Al Minya. The ancient site is situated in the southeast of the modern village.
Location
Akoris is located on the east bank of the Nile, at and below the limestone cliffs about 12 km north of Al Minya. The limestone cliffs at the east side of the place are divided here by a valley, the (Arabic الوادي الطهناوي). The southern rock looks like a lying lion. Anciently, it lay in the Cynopolite Nome, north of Antinoopolis.
Names of the site
The site was named with several names. In the Old and Middle Kingdoms Mer-nefer(et) (nice channel) was used. In the New Kingdom the site was named Per-Imen-m3t-khent(j) (The house of Amun the foremost lion). In the Late period (from 26th dynasty) it was named T3-dehenet (the cliff top).
In Greek times the names of Ἄκωρις (Akoris or in Latin Acoris) or Τῆνις (Tēnis) were given. The name of Akoris can be found in the third line of the rock stele of Ptolemy V Epiphanes at this site. Akoris is also mentioned by the geographer Ptolemy, and the town appears in the Tabula Peutingeriana.
The Arabic name Tihna () comes from .
History
The site was settled since the Old Kingdom. It was an important administrative town in the 17th upper-Egyptian nome in all ancient Egyptian times. It is the site of many rock-cut tombs, which belonged to officials of the Old Kingdom and the priests of the Late Period.
Archaeological remains came only from the New Kingdom and earlier times. In the New Kingdom the Temple of Amun was established in a former Old Kingdom tomb by Ramesses II and enlarged by Ramesses III. It is assumed that a fortress was established at this site in Persian times because of the strategic location of the town but no part of the fortress remains.
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5406349
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akoris%2C%20Egypt
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Akoris, Egypt
|
Akoris became an important town during the Greek and Roman periods, and its name was changed to Akoris. The today's settlement traces came from the Roman and Coptic times.
Monuments
Akoris is home to several archaeological sites, including a number of rock-cut tombs from the Old Kingdom period, known as Fraser Tombs (about 2 km south of Akoris). Akoris comprises also two temples from early Egyptian history (New Kingdom until the Roman period), a rock chapel (called rock chapel C), a Greek funeral chapel (formerly called “Roman temple”), two rock stelae of Ramesses III, a rock stele of Ptolemy V Epiphanes, a stele of Diana and the Gemini twins Castor and Pollux and a necropolis from the Greek and Roman periods. These monuments are scattered for about 3 km along the desert and the limestone rocks.
Gods
The gods are related to the site location and shape of the rocks. The earliest goddess of this site is maybe a lion goddess. From the Fraser Tombs the goddess Hathor, mistress of the valley entrance, is known (time of Menkaura, 4th Dynasty). Starting from the 18th Dynasty the god Amun the foremost lion is adored. The god Sobek, Lord of Behet (Lord of the mouth of the desert path), was added at the 26th Dynasty and became later the main god of the site. Other gods like Thoth, Isis and/or Mut, Osiris, Horus and Khonsu were adored from Greek-Roman times.
Mining
Like similar sites in the north and south of Akoris, this site was used as a limestone quarry in ancient times.
Excavations
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5406370
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petru%20Rare%C8%99
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Petru Rareș
|
It took over two years and various political changes in Transylvania and Moldavia before Petru was able to gain the sultan's forgiveness and regain the Moldavian throne in early 1541. Entering the country, he captured voievod Alexandru Cornea and his faithful boyars and killed them. Now, however, he was no longer trusted to wage wars, especially because he no longer retained his special links with Muntenia, his son-in-law Vlad VII Vintilă having been slain. Nor could he take back the Budjak, occupied by Sultan Suleiman, nor even the citadels of Ciceu and Cetatea de Baltă, except as simple fiefdoms (which he did in 1544), for their walls had been razed by George Martinuzzi.
In 1541, Rareș caught Transylvanian voievod István Majláth at Făgăraș, on the sultan's orders, and sent him to Constantinople. In 1542 he tried unsuccessfully to take Bistrița. Another failure was his enthusiastic involvement in plans for a crusade by Christian princes against the Ottomans. He lent the head of the proposed crusade, Joachim II of Brandenburg, 200,000 florins, but the initiative was abandoned when Buda was besieged in 1542 and Rareș died, still a Turkish vassal, on 3 September 1546. He is buried in the monastery that he endowed, Probota Monastery.
On the ecclesiastical and artistic front, he continued the tradition inherited from Stephen the Great. Aided by his wife Jelena, he built and repaired numerous churches, including in Baia, Botoșani, Hârlău, Târgu Frumos and Roman. His most beautiful achievement is considered to be Probota Monastery.
| 2.171875
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5406420
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20Jos%C3%A9%20Castelli%2C%20Chaco
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Juan José Castelli, Chaco
|
Juan José Castelli (usually abbreviated to Castelli) is a town in the province of Chaco, Argentina. It is located 274 km from the provincial capital Resistencia and has about 27,000 inhabitants as per the . It is the head town of the General Güemes Department. Its population is mainly of Volga German descent.
The area was originally populated by aboriginals of the Toba and Wichí tribes. Around 1910 a group of colonists from Salta, who had followed the course of the Bermejo River, established there. After the end of World War I, and especially due to the 1923 campaign encouraging the development of cotton crops in Chaco, European immigrants started to come. In 1928 Castelli was founded as an agricultural colony, 100 km north of Presidencia Roque Sáenz Peña.
In June 1931, 320 Volga German families arrived, even carrying furniture, tools and livestock. They were around 2,300 who had been settled in La Pampa and the west of Buenos Aires, but were forced to move by bad harvests and economic problems. Cotton cultivation was at the time promoted as a source of wealth. Besides the Volga German majority, immigrants from Poland, Romania, Spain, Paraguay, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Yugoslavia and Ukraine also came.
On 17 June 1936 the settlement was linked to Presidencia Roque Sáenz Peña by a railroad. This major achievement sparked the foundation of the town as such, locally acknowledged on 3 October (though the official date was that of the National Decree of 2 February 1938).
The town greatly suffered the consequences of the blockade effected by the Allies during World War II, since Germany was one of the largest importers of cotton produced in the area, and that prevented shipments. After 1941, however, international prices of cotton increased and from then on Castelli progressed. A delegation of the Nación Bank was opened in the city in 1952, and the Güemes Hospital was built in 1956.
| 2.328125
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5406421
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%20%28S-train%29
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C (S-train)
|
C is a service on the S-train network in Copenhagen. It serves the Klampenborg radial and the inner part of the Frederikssund radial, and also reinforces service on the outer part of the Frederikssund radial in high-traffic period.
Service C is one of the base services on the network, running between Ballerup and Klampenborg every 20 minutes from about 5:00 to 1:00 every day. Between about 6:00 to 19:00 on Monday to Saturday it runs every 10 minutes, and in this period half of the trains continue from Ballerup to Frederikssund. On Friday and Saturday nights there is also a 30 minutes service throughout the night.
History
The C service was created in 1950 when the service between Ballerup and Holte (see service B) was split into two in order to make the timetable correspond better in Vanløse. Ever since then C has been primarily a Ballerup service.
Note that from 1979 to 1989 both Cc and C services ran.
Until 1979, in the time C ran to Ballerup but not to Holte it ordinarily terminated in Hellerup. These trains were routinely extended to Klampenborg on Sundays where the weather was good enough to attract more passengers than the ordinary service could transport.
Between 1972 and 1979 the stopping Ballerup service was called H.
The rush-hour service Cx ran from 1966 to 1993:
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5406474
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus%20%28computer%20science%29
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Consensus (computer science)
|
A fundamental problem in distributed computing and multi-agent systems is to achieve overall system reliability in the presence of a number of faulty processes. This often requires coordinating processes to reach consensus, or agree on some data value that is needed during computation. Example applications of consensus include agreeing on what transactions to commit to a database in which order, state machine replication, and atomic broadcasts. Real-world applications often requiring consensus include cloud computing, clock synchronization, PageRank, opinion formation, smart power grids, state estimation, control of UAVs (and multiple robots/agents in general), load balancing, blockchain, and others.
Problem description
The consensus problem requires agreement among a number of processes (or agents) on a single data value. Some of the processes (agents) may fail or be unreliable in other ways, so consensus protocols must be fault-tolerant or resilient. The processes must put forth their candidate values, communicate with one another, and agree on a single consensus value.
The consensus problem is a fundamental problem in controlling multi-agent systems. One approach to generating consensus is for all processes (agents) to agree on a majority value. In this context, a majority requires at least one more than half of the available votes (where each process is given a vote). However, one or more faulty processes may skew the resultant outcome such that consensus may not be reached or may be reached incorrectly.
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5406474
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus%20%28computer%20science%29
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Consensus (computer science)
|
Varying models of computation may define a "consensus problem". Some models may deal with fully connected graphs, while others may deal with rings and trees. In some models message authentication is allowed, whereas in others processes are completely anonymous. Shared memory models in which processes communicate by accessing objects in shared memory are also an important area of research.
Communication channels with direct or transferable authentication
In most models of communication protocol participants communicate through authenticated channels. This means that messages are not anonymous, and receivers know the source of every message they receive.
Some models assume a stronger, transferable form of authentication, where each message is signed by the sender, so that a receiver knows not just the immediate source of every message, but the participant that initially created the message.
This stronger type of authentication is achieved by digital signatures, and when this stronger form of authentication is available, protocols can tolerate a larger number of faults.
The two different authentication models are often called oral communication and written communication models. In an oral communication model, the immediate source of information is known, whereas in stronger, written communication models, every step along the receiver learns not just the immediate source of the message, but the communication history of the message.
Inputs and outputs of consensus
In the most traditional single-value consensus protocols such as Paxos, cooperating nodes agree on a single value such as an integer, which may be of variable size so as to encode useful metadata such as a transaction committed to a database.
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The consensus problem may be considered in the case of asynchronous or synchronous systems. While real world communications are often inherently asynchronous, it is more practical and often easier to model synchronous systems, given that asynchronous systems naturally involve more issues than synchronous ones.
In synchronous systems, it is assumed that all communications proceed in rounds. In one round, a process may send all the messages it requires, while receiving all messages from other processes. In this manner, no message from one round may influence any messages sent within the same round.
The FLP impossibility result for asynchronous deterministic consensus
In a fully asynchronous message-passing distributed system, in which at least one process may have a crash failure, it has been proven in the famous 1985 FLP impossibility result by Fischer, Lynch and Paterson that a deterministic algorithm for achieving consensus is impossible. This impossibility result derives from worst-case scheduling scenarios, which are unlikely to occur in practice except in adversarial situations such as an intelligent denial-of-service attacker in the network. In most normal situations, process scheduling has a degree of natural randomness.
In an asynchronous model, some forms of failures can be handled by a synchronous consensus protocol. For instance, the loss of a communication link may be modeled as a process which has suffered a Byzantine failure.
Randomized consensus algorithms can circumvent the FLP impossibility result by achieving both safety and liveness with overwhelming probability, even under worst-case scheduling scenarios such as an intelligent denial-of-service attacker in the network.
Permissioned versus permissionless consensus
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Consensus algorithms traditionally assume that the set of participating nodes is fixed and given at the outset: that is, that some prior (manual or automatic) configuration process has permissioned a particular known group of participants who can authenticate each other as members of the group. In the absence of such a well-defined, closed group with authenticated members, a Sybil attack against an open consensus group can defeat even a Byzantine consensus algorithm, simply by creating enough virtual participants to overwhelm the fault tolerance threshold.
A permissionless consensus protocol, in contrast, allows anyone in the network to join dynamically and participate without prior permission, but instead imposes a different form of artificial cost or barrier to entry to mitigate the Sybil attack threat. Bitcoin introduced the first permissionless consensus protocol using proof of work and a difficulty adjustment function, in which participants compete to solve cryptographic hash puzzles, and probabilistically earn the right to commit blocks and earn associated rewards in proportion to their invested computational effort. Motivated in part by the high energy cost of this approach, subsequent permissionless consensus protocols have proposed or adopted other alternative participation rules for Sybil attack protection, such as proof of stake, proof of space, and proof of authority.
Equivalency of agreement problems
Three agreement problems of interest are as follows.
Terminating Reliable Broadcast
A collection of processes, numbered from to communicate by sending messages to one another. Process must transmit a value to all processes such that:
if process is correct, then every correct process receives
for any two correct processes, each process receives the same value.
It is also known as The General's Problem.
Consensus
Formal requirements for a consensus protocol may include:
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Other cryptocurrencies (e.g. Ethereum, NEO, STRATIS, ...) use proof of stake, in which nodes compete to append blocks and earn associated rewards in proportion to stake, or existing cryptocurrency allocated and locked or staked for some time period. One advantage of a 'proof of stake' over a 'proof of work' system, is the high energy consumption demanded by the latter. As an example, bitcoin mining (2018) is estimated to consume non-renewable energy sources at an amount similar to the entire nations of Czech Republic or Jordan, while the total energy consumption of Ethereum, the largest proof of stake network, is just under that of 205 average US households.
Some cryptocurrencies, such as Ripple, use a system of validating nodes to validate the ledger.
This system used by Ripple, called Ripple Protocol Consensus Algorithm (RPCA), works in rounds:
Step 1: every server compiles a list of valid candidate transactions;
Step 2: each server amalgamates all candidates coming from its Unique Nodes List (UNL) and votes on their veracity;
Step 3: transactions passing the minimum threshold are passed to the next round;
Step 4: the final round requires 80% agreement.
Other participation rules used in permissionless consensus protocols to impose barriers to entry and resist sybil attacks include proof of authority, proof of space, proof of burn, or proof of elapsed time.
Contrasting with the above permissionless participation rules, all of which reward participants in proportion to amount of investment in some action or resource, proof of personhood protocols aim to give each real human participant exactly one unit of voting power in permissionless consensus, regardless of economic investment. Proposed approaches to achieving one-per-person distribution of consensus power for proof of personhood include physical pseudonym parties, social networks, pseudonymized government-issued identities, and biometrics.
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Consensus number
To solve the consensus problem in a shared-memory system, concurrent objects must be introduced. A concurrent object, or shared object, is a data structure which helps concurrent processes communicate to reach an agreement. Traditional implementations using critical sections face the risk of crashing if some process dies inside the critical section or sleeps for an intolerably long time. Researchers defined wait-freedom as the guarantee that the algorithm completes in a finite number of steps.
The consensus number of a concurrent object is defined to be the maximum number of processes in the system which can reach consensus by the given object in a wait-free implementation. Objects with a consensus number of can implement any object with a consensus number of or lower, but cannot implement any objects with a higher consensus number. The consensus numbers form what is called Herlihy's hierarchy of synchronization objects.
According to the hierarchy, read/write registers cannot solve consensus even in a 2-process system. Data structures like stacks and queues can only solve consensus between two processes. However, some concurrent objects are universal (notated in the table with ), which means they can solve consensus among any number of processes and they can simulate any other objects through an operation sequence.
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Iwan Roberts
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Roberts says that most football fans would know him ("if you know me at all") as "that gap-toothed ginger lunk". He started losing his front tooth when he was just 10: his best friend's heel chipping half of his tooth off, the result of an incident playing football. Some years later, a dentist removed the stump when an abscess developed. He lost his second front tooth as the result of an elbow to the mouth from Darran Rowbotham when he was 18, playing for Watford in a pre-season friendly.
Roberts credits his school PE teacher, Iolo Owen, as a great influence in his career, introducing him into men's football aged 15: "He picked me for the school team and got me into the local men's team, Harlech Town... as he was the manager... it toughened me up and made me a lot stronger." Critical to Roberts' thinking when he joined Watford was that coach Tom Walley was, like himself, Welsh-speaking, as was professional Malcolm Allen, against whom Roberts had played in the local Welsh leagues. He was also influenced by Graham Taylor's record of giving youth players opportunities. Roberts joined Watford as a trainee, signing his first professional contract in July 1986, shortly after his 18th birthday.
Club career
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