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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s%20inner%20core
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Earth's inner core
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Earth's inner core is the innermost geologic layer of the planet Earth. It is primarily a solid ball with a radius of about , which is about 20% of Earth's radius or 70% of the Moon's radius.
There are no samples of the core accessible for direct measurement, as there are for Earth's mantle. The characteristics of the core have been deduced mostly from measurements of seismic waves and Earth's magnetic field. The inner core is believed to be composed of an iron–nickel alloy with some other elements. The temperature at its surface is estimated to be approximately , about the temperature at the surface of the Sun.
The inner core is solid at high temperature because of its high pressure, in accordance with the Simon-Glatzel equation.
Scientific history
Earth was discovered to have a solid inner core distinct from its molten Earth's outer core in 1936, by the Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann's study of seismograms from earthquakes in New Zealand, detected by sensitive seismographs on the Earth's surface. She deduced that the seismic waves reflect off the boundary of the inner core and inferred a radius of for the inner core, not far from the currently accepted value of . In 1938, Beno Gutenberg and Charles Richter analyzed a more extensive set of data and estimated the thickness of the outer core as with a steep but continuous thick transition to the inner core, implying a radius between for the inner core.
A few years later, in 1940, it was hypothesized that this inner core was made of solid iron. In 1952, Francis Birch published a detailed analysis of the available data and concluded that the inner core was probably crystalline iron.
The boundary between the inner and outer cores is sometimes called the "Lehmann discontinuity", although the name usually refers to another discontinuity. The name "Bullen" or "Lehmann-Bullen discontinuity", after Keith Edward Bullen, has been proposed, but its use seems to be rare. The rigidity of the inner core was confirmed in 1971.
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Earth's inner core
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Adam Dziewonski and James Freeman Gilbert established that measurements of normal modes of vibration of Earth caused by large earthquakes were consistent with a liquid outer core. In 2005, shear waves were detected passing through the inner core; these claims were initially controversial, but are now gaining acceptance.
Data sources
Seismic waves
Almost all measurements that scientists have about the physical properties of the inner core are the seismic waves that pass through it. Deep earthquakes generate the most informative waves, 30 km or more below the surface of the Earth (where the mantle is relatively more homogeneous) and are recorded by seismographs as they reach the surface, all over the globe.
Seismic waves include "P" (primary or pressure) compressional waves that can travel through solid or liquid materials, and "S" (secondary or shear) shear waves that can only propagate through rigid elastic solids. The two waves have different velocities and are damped at different rates as they travel through the same material.
Of particular interest are the so-called "PKiKP" waves—pressure waves (P) that start near the surface, cross the mantle-core boundary, travel through the core (K), are reflected at the inner core boundary (i), cross the liquid core (K) again, cross back into the mantle, and are detected as pressure waves (P) at the surface. Also of interest are the "PKIKP" waves, that travel through the inner core (I) instead of being reflected at its surface (i). Those signals are easier to interpret when the path from source to detector is close to a straight line—namely, when the receiver is just above the source for the reflected PKiKP waves, and antipodal to it for the transmitted PKIKP waves.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s%20inner%20core
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Earth's inner core
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Size and shape
On the basis of the seismic data, the inner core is estimated to be about 1221 km in radius (2442 km in diameter), which is about 19% of the radius of the Earth and 70% of the radius of the Moon.
Its volume is about 7.6 billion cubic km (), which is about (0.69%) of the volume of the whole Earth.
Its shape is believed to be close to an oblate ellipsoid of revolution, like the surface of the Earth, only more spherical: the flattening is estimated to be between and , meaning that the radius along the Earth's axis is estimated to be about 3 km shorter than the radius at the equator. In comparison, the flattening of the Earth as a whole is close to , and the polar radius is 21 km shorter than the equatorial one.
Pressure and gravity
The pressure in the Earth's inner core is slightly higher than it is at the boundary between the outer and inner cores: It ranges from about .
The acceleration of gravity at the surface of the inner core can be computed to be 4.3 m/s2; which is less than half the value at the surface of the Earth (9.8 m/s2).
Density and mass
The density of the inner core is believed to vary smoothly from about 13.0 kg/L (= g/cm3 = t/m3) at the center to about 12.8 kg/L at the surface. As it happens with other material properties, the density drops suddenly at that surface: The liquid just above the inner core is believed to be significantly less dense, at about 12.1 kg/L. For comparison, the average density in the upper 100 km of the Earth is about 3.4 kg/L.
That density implies a mass of about 1023 kg for the inner core, which is (1.7%) of the mass of the whole Earth.
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Earth's inner core
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Temperature
The temperature of the inner core can be estimated from the melting temperature of impure iron at the pressure which iron is under at the boundary of the inner core (about 330 GPa). From these considerations, in 2002, D. Alfè and others estimated its temperature as between and . However, in 2013, S. Anzellini and others obtained experimentally a substantially higher temperature for the melting point of iron, .
Iron can be solid at such high temperatures only because its melting temperature increases dramatically at pressures of that magnitude (see the Clausius–Clapeyron relation).
Magnetic field
In 2010, Bruce Buffett determined that the average magnetic field in the liquid outer core is about 2.5 milliteslas (25 gauss), which is about 40 times the maximum strength at the surface. He started from the known fact that the Moon and Sun cause tides in the liquid outer core, just as they do on the oceans on the surface. He observed that motion of the liquid through the local magnetic field creates electric currents, that dissipate energy as heat according to Ohm's law. This dissipation, in turn, damps the tidal motions and explains previously detected anomalies in Earth's nutation. From the magnitude of the latter effect he could calculate the magnetic field. The field inside the inner core presumably has a similar strength. While indirect, this measurement does not depend significantly on any assumptions about the evolution of the Earth or the composition of the core.
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Viscosity
Although seismic waves propagate through the core as if it were solid, the measurements cannot distinguish a solid material from an extremely viscous one. Some scientists have therefore considered whether there may be slow convection in the inner core (as is believed to exist in the mantle). That could be an explanation for the anisotropy detected in seismic studies. In 2009, B. Buffett estimated the viscosity of the inner core at 1018 Pa·s, which is a sextillion times the viscosity of water, and more than a billion times that of pitch.
Composition
There is still no direct evidence about the composition of the inner core. However, based on the relative prevalence of various chemical elements in the Solar System, the theory of planetary formation, and constraints imposed or implied by the chemistry of the rest of the Earth's volume, the inner core is believed to consist primarily of an iron–nickel alloy.
At the estimated pressures and temperatures of the core, it is predicted that pure iron could be solid, but its density would exceed the known density of the core by approximately 3%. That result implies the presence of lighter elements in the core, such as silicon, oxygen, or sulfur, in addition to the probable presence of nickel. Recent estimates (2007) allow for up to 10% nickel and 2–3% of unidentified lighter elements.
According to computations by D. Alfè and others, the liquid outer core contains 8–13% of oxygen, but as the iron crystallizes out to form the inner core the oxygen is mostly left in the liquid.
Laboratory experiments and analysis of seismic wave velocities seem to indicate that the inner core consists specifically of ε-iron, a crystalline form of the metal with the hexagonal close-packed () structure. That structure can still admit the inclusion of small amounts of nickel and other elements.
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Structure
Many scientists had initially expected that the inner core would be found to be homogeneous, because that same process should have proceeded uniformly during its entire formation. It was even suggested that Earth's inner core might be a single crystal of iron.
Axis-aligned anisotropy
In 1983, G. Poupinet and others observed that the travel time of PKIKP waves (P waves that travel through the inner core) was about 2 seconds less for straight north–south paths than straight paths on the equatorial plane. Even taking into account the flattening of the Earth at the poles (about 0.33% for the whole Earth, 0.25% for the inner core) and crust and upper mantle heterogeneities, this difference implied that P waves (of a broad range of wavelengths) travel through the inner core about 1% faster in the north–south direction than along directions perpendicular to that.
This P wave speed anisotropy has been confirmed by later studies, including more seismic data and study of the free oscillations of the whole Earth. Some authors have claimed higher values for the difference, up to 4.8%; however, in 2017 Daniel Frost and Barbara Romanowicz confirmed that the value is between 0.5% and 1.5%.
Non-axial anisotropy
Some authors have claimed that P wave speed is faster in directions that are oblique or perpendicular to the N−S axis, at least in some regions of the inner core. However, these claims have been disputed by Frost and Romanowicz, who instead claim that the direction of maximum speed is as close to the Earth's rotation axis as can be determined.
Causes of anisotropy
Laboratory data and theoretical computations indicate that the propagation of pressure waves in the crystals of ε-iron are strongly anisotropic, too, with one "fast" axis and two equally "slow" ones. A preference for the crystals in the core to align in the north–south direction could account for the observed seismic anomaly.
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Earth's inner core
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One phenomenon that could cause such partial alignment is slow flow ("creep") inside the inner core, from the equator towards the poles or vice versa. That flow would cause the crystals to partially reorient themselves according to the direction of the flow. In 1996, S. Yoshida and others proposed that such a flow could be caused by higher rate of freezing at the equator than at polar latitudes. An equator-to-pole flow then would set up in the inner core, tending to restore the isostatic equilibrium of its surface.
Others suggested that the required flow could be caused by slow thermal convection inside the inner core. T. Yukutake claimed in 1998 that such convective motions were unlikely. However, B. Buffet in 2009 estimated the viscosity of the inner core and found that such convection could have happened, especially when the core was smaller.
On the other hand, M. Bergman in 1997 proposed that the anisotropy was due to an observed tendency of iron crystals to grow faster when their crystallographic axes are aligned with the direction of the cooling heat flow. He, therefore, proposed that the heat flow out of the inner core would be biased towards the radial direction.
In 1998, S. Karato proposed that changes in the magnetic field might also deform the inner core slowly over time.
Multiple layers
In 2002, M. Ishii and A. Dziewoński presented evidence that the solid inner core contained an "innermost inner core" (IMIC) with somewhat different properties than the shell around it. The nature of the differences and radius of the IMIC are still unresolved as of 2019, with proposals for the latter ranging from 300 km to 750 km.
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Other structure
Other researchers claim that the properties of the inner core's surface vary from place to place across distances as small as 1 km. This variation is surprising since lateral temperature variations along the inner-core boundary are known to be extremely small (this conclusion is confidently constrained by magnetic field observations).
Growth
The Earth's inner core is thought to be slowly growing as the liquid outer core at the boundary with the inner core cools and solidifies due to the gradual cooling of the Earth's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years).
According to calculations by Alfé and others, as the iron crystallizes onto the inner core, the liquid just above it becomes enriched in oxygen, and therefore less dense than the rest of the outer core. This process creates convection currents in the outer core, which are thought to be the prime driver for the currents that create the Earth's magnetic field.
The existence of the inner core also affects the dynamic motions of liquid in the outer core, and thus may help fix the magnetic field.
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Dynamics
Because the inner core is not rigidly connected to the Earth's solid mantle, the possibility that it rotates slightly more quickly or slowly than the rest of Earth has long been entertained. In the 1990s, seismologists made various claims about detecting this kind of super-rotation by observing changes in the characteristics of seismic waves passing through the inner core over several decades, using the aforementioned property that it transmits waves more quickly in some directions. In 1996, X. Song and P. Richards estimated this "super-rotation" of the inner core relative to the mantle as about one degree per year. In 2005, they and J. Zhang compared recordings of "seismic doublets" (recordings by the same station of earthquakes occurring in the same location on the opposite side of the Earth, years apart), and revised that estimate to 0.3 to 0.5 degree per year. In 2023, it was reported that the core stopped spinning faster than the planet's surface around 2009 and likely is now rotating slower than it. This is not thought to have major effects and one cycle of the oscillation is thought to be about seven decades, coinciding with several other geophysical periodicities, "especially the length of day and magnetic field".
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In 1999, M. Greff-Lefftz and H. Legros noted that the gravitational fields of the Sun and Moon that are responsible for ocean tides also apply torques to the Earth, affecting its axis of rotation and a slowing down of its rotation rate. Those torques are felt mainly by the crust and mantle, so that their rotation axis and speed may differ from overall rotation of the fluid in the outer core and the rotation of the inner core. The dynamics is complicated because of the currents and magnetic fields in the inner core. They find that the axis of the inner core wobbles (nutates) slightly with a period of about 1 day. With some assumptions on the evolution of the Earth, they conclude that the fluid motions in the outer core would have entered resonance with the tidal forces at several times in the past (3.0, 1.8, and 0.3 billion years ago). During those epochs, which lasted 200–300 million years each, the extra heat generated by stronger fluid motions might have stopped the growth of the inner core.
Age
Theories about the age of the core are part of theories of the history of Earth. It is widely believed that the Earth's solid inner core formed out of an initially completely liquid core as the Earth cooled. However, the time when this process started is unknown.
Two main approaches have been used to infer the age of the inner core: thermodynamic modeling of the cooling of the Earth, and analysis of paleomagnetic evidence. The estimates yielded by these methods vary from 0.5 to 2 billion years old.
Thermodynamic evidence
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In 2014, Driscoll and Bercovici published a thermal history of the Earth that avoided the so-called mantle thermal catastrophe and new core paradox by invoking 3 TW of radiogenic heating by the decay of in the core. Such high abundances of K in the core are not supported by experimental partitioning studies, so such a thermal history remains highly debatable.
Paleomagnetic evidence
Another way to estimate the age of the Earth is to analyze changes in the magnetic field of Earth during its history, as trapped in rocks that formed at various times (the "paleomagnetic record"). The presence or absence of the solid inner core could result in different dynamic processes in the core that could lead to noticeable changes in the magnetic field.
In 2011, Smirnov and others published an analysis of the paleomagnetism in a large sample of rocks that formed in the Neoarchean (2.8–2.5 billion years ago) and the Proterozoic (2.5–0.541 billion). They found that the geomagnetic field was closer to that of a magnetic dipole during the Neoarchean than after it. They interpreted that change as evidence that the dynamo effect was more deeply seated in the core during that epoch, whereas in the later time currents closer to the core-mantle boundary grew in importance. They further speculate that the change may have been due to growth of the solid inner core between 3.5–2.0 billion years ago.
In 2015, Biggin and others published the analysis of an extensive and carefully selected set of Precambrian samples and observed a prominent increase in the Earth's magnetic field strength and variance around 1.0–1.5 billion years ago. This change had not been noticed before due to the lack of sufficient robust measurements. They speculated that the change could be due to the birth of Earth's solid inner core. From their age estimate they derived a rather modest value for the thermal conductivity of the outer core, that allowed for simpler models of the Earth's thermal evolution.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumba%20flamenca
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Rumba flamenca
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Rumba flamenca, also known as flamenco rumba or simply rumba (), is a palo (style) of flamenco music developed in Andalusia, Spain. It is known as one of the cantes de ida y vuelta (roundtrip songs), music which diverged in the new world, then returned to Spain in a new form. The genre originated in the 19th century in Andalusia, southern Spain, where Cuban music first reached the country.
History
Rumba flamenca was primarily influenced by guaracha, an uptempo style of vocal music which originated in Havana's musical theatre. Some elements from Cuban rumba were also incorporated, although minor, despite the name. Although unlikely, both guaracha and Cuban rumba might have been influenced by flamenco earlier in the 19th century. Guarachas can be traced back to the Spanish jácaras, thus justifying the classification of rumba flamenca as a cante de ida y vuelta.
The first rumba flamenca recordings were made by La Niña de los Peines in the 1910s. During the late 20th century, Paco de Lucía, together with percussionist Rubem Dantas, incorporated Afro-Peruvian musical elements such as the cajón (wooden box) and certain rhythms.
Terminology
In term rumba as applied to the flamenco style stems from its use in Cuba to refer to Cuban rumba (originally, "rumba" meant "party"). Within flamenco circles, the genre is simply called "rumba", and other terms have been used to distinguish it from Cuban rumba, including gypsy rumba (rumba gitana) and Spanish rumba, which are nonetheless ambiguous since they may also be used to mean Catalan rumba or other contemporary styles such as tecno-rumba.
Instrumentation
The rumba flamenca instrumentation consists of flamenco guitars, hand clapping, occasional body slapping, castanets and the cajón. As a result, it bears little resemblance to Cuban rumba, whose instrumentation is based on the congas and claves. Nonetheless, some artists such as Paco de Lucía and Tomatito have included congas alongside their cajones in their ensembles, although with a minor role.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberbaum%20Bridge
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Oberbaum Bridge
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The Oberbaum Bridge () is a double-deck bridge crossing Berlin, Germany's River Spree, considered one of the city's landmarks. It links Friedrichshain and Kreuzberg, former boroughs that were divided by the Berlin Wall, and has become an important symbol of Berlin's unity.
The lower deck of the bridge carries a roadway, which connects Oberbaum Straße to the south of the river with Warschauer Straße to the north. The upper deck of the bridge carries Berlin U-Bahn lines and , between Schlesisches Tor and Warschauer Straße stations.
The bridge appears prominently in the films Run Lola Run and Unknown as well as the TV series Berlin Station.
History
The bridge is built on the former boundary of the municipal area with its rural environs, where an excise wall was built in 1732. A wooden drawbridge was built as part of the wall; it served as a gate to the city. The name stemmed from the heavy tree trunk, covered in metal spikes, that was used as a boom to block the river at night to prevent smuggling. (Baum means tree in German, but can also mean boom as in this case; thus the name means something like "Upper [Upstream] Boom Bridge"; there was another tree-trunk barrier at the western end of the contemporary city limits, close to today's Unterbaumstraße (lit. in .)
By 1879 the wooden bridge had been modified greatly. At 154 meters it was Berlin's longest, but was no longer adequate to the amount of traffic crossing it. Plans began to be drawn up for a new stone construction. The Siemens & Halske company, which was planning to build the Berlin U-Bahn (subway), insisted on a combined crossing for road vehicles, pedestrians, and the new rail line.
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Oberbaum Bridge
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The new bridge opened in 1896 after two years of construction, in time for the Berlin Trades Exhibition. The architect and government official Otto Stahn (1859–1930) designed it in the North German Brick Gothic style of a city gate with many decorative elements, such as pointed arches, cross vaults, and coats of arms. The two towers were inspired by the Middle Gate Tower (Mitteltorturm) in the northern Brandenburg city of Prenzlau. Although purely cosmetic, they served as a reminder that the site was once Berlin's river gateway.
In 1902 the first segment of the U-Bahn opened. Its inaugural journey, carrying 19 passengers, ran from Stralauer Tor, at the eastern end of the bridge, to Potsdamer Platz. Stralauer Tor was dismantled after being damaged in a 1945 air raid, but its four sandstone-clad support posts can still be seen.
After Berlin absorbed several other municipalities in 1920, the Oberbaum Bridge became the crossing between the new boroughs of Friedrichshain and Kreuzberg. In April 1945 the Wehrmacht blew up the middle section of the bridge in an attempt to stop the Red Army from crossing it. After the war ended, Berlin was divided into four sectors. The Oberbaum Bridge crossed between the American and Soviet sectors. Until the mid-1950s, pedestrians, motor vehicles, and the city tramway could cross the bridge without difficulty.
Border crossing
When the Berlin Wall was built in 1961 the bridge became part of East Berlin's border with West Berlin; as all the waters of the River Spree were within the Friedrichshain limits, the East German fortifications extended up to the shoreline on the Kreuzberg side. As a result, the West Berlin U-Bahn line was forced to terminate at Schlesisches Tor. Beginning on 21 December 1963, the Oberbaum Bridge was used as a pedestrian border crossing for West Berlin residents only.
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Oberbaum Bridge
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Three brief openings of the bridge occurred by the summer of 1966. A permanent opening for pedestrians came with the 1972 Four Power Agreement for Berlin. A building for the East Berlin control authorities was built directly on the eastern bank of the Spree, across the street from the . The part of the subway viaduct crossing the Stralauer Allee at the bridge was completely demolished. The towers were demolished in the 1970s. Since the border on the Kreuzberg shore (Gröbenufer) ran along the Spree, several children from Kreuzberg drowned on the Oberbaum bridge because rescue personnel from west side could not reach them, and this was prohibited from the east side. Responding to this an agreement on rescue operations if accidents in Berlin's border waters was signed on October 29, 1975. In 1976, an emergency call column was installed on the southern bridgehead, after whose activation drowning help was provided.
The coat of arms of the district Friedrichshain–Kreuzberg with the
The Oberbaum Bridge, which formed part of the Friedrichshain coat of arms since 1991, was also included in the coat of arms of the new Berlin district of Friedrichshain–Kreuzberg after the district merger.
Post-Berlin Wall
After the removal of the Berlin Wall in 1989, and German reunification the following year, the bridge was rebuilt and restored to the former appearance, albeit with a new steel middle section designed by the Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava. Reconstruction began in January 1992, with the war-damaged parts of the bridge rebuilt. It opened to pedestrians and traffic on 9 November 1994, the fifth anniversary of the opening of the Berlin Wall. The U-Bahn line to Warschauer Straße station was reopened a year later.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claire%20Fejes
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Claire Fejes
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Claire Specht Fejes (Dec 14,1920 – October 1998) was an American artist.
Early life
She born in New York to parents from Poland and Austria.
Education and career
She trained in anatomy, stone-carving, and sculpture at the Newark Museum, Newark Fine Arts School, and the Students' Art League through the Works Progress Administration.
She married Joe Fejes in 1942 and moved with him to Fairbanks, Alaska in 1946 where her husband took up gold mining.
Fejes sketched and painted Alaska Native people, Inupiat and Athabascans. She also wrote books about her travels and life in Alaska. They had a son, Mark (also an artist), and a daughter, Yolande.
Her work is held in several museums, including the Anchorage Museum, Frye Art Museum, the University of Michigan Museum of Art, the Blanton Museum of Art, the Anchorage Museum, the University of Alaska Museum of the North, and the National Portrait Gallery. Her artwork is also on display at the Fairbanks North Start Borough Public Library.
Later life
In her last decade, Fejes spent her winters in New York City and San Diego, and her summers in Fairbanks.
Bibliography
Cold Starry Night: An Alaskan Memoir. 1996. Epicenter Press.
Enuk My Son. 1969. Pantheon Books.
The Eskimo Storyteller. 1999. Edwin S. Hall, illustrated by Claire Fejes. University of Alaska Press.
People of the Noatak. 1966. Alfred A. Knopf. 1994, re-released by Volcano Press.
The Villagers: Athabaskan Indian Life Along the Yukon River. 1981. Random House.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris%20green
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Paris green
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Paris green (copper(II) acetate triarsenite or copper(II) acetoarsenite) is an arsenic-based organic pigment. As a green pigment it is also known as Mitis green, Schweinfurt green, Sattler green, emerald, Vienna green, Emperor green or Mountain green. It is a highly toxic emerald-green crystalline powder that has been used as a rodenticide and insecticide, and also as a pigment.
It was manufactured in 1814 to be a pigment to make a vibrant green paint, and was used by many notable painters in the 19th century. The color of Paris green is said to range from a pale blue green when very finely ground, to a deeper green when coarsely ground. Due to the presence of arsenic, the pigment is extremely toxic. In paintings, the color can degrade quickly.
Preparation and structure
Paris green may be prepared by combining copper(II) acetate and arsenic trioxide. The structure was confirmed by X-ray crystallography.
History
In 1814, Paris green was invented by paint manufacturers Wilhelm Sattler and Friedrich Russ, in Schweinfurt, Germany for the Wilhelm Dye and White Lead Company. They were attempting to produce a more stable pigment than Scheele's green, seeking to make a green that was less susceptible to darkening around sulfides. In 1822, the recipe for emerald green was published by Justus von Liebig and André Braconnot.
In 1867, the pigment was named Paris green and was officially recognized as the first chemical insecticide in the world. Because of its arsenic content, the pigment was dangerous and toxic to manufacture, often resulting in factory poisonings. At the time, emerald green was praised as a more durable and vibrant substitute for Scheele's green, even though it would later prove to degrade quickly and react with other manufactured paints.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plesiomorphy%20and%20symplesiomorphy
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Plesiomorphy and symplesiomorphy
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In phylogenetics, a plesiomorphy ("near form") and symplesiomorphy are synonyms for an ancestral character shared by all members of a clade, which does not distinguish the clade from other clades.
Plesiomorphy, symplesiomorphy, apomorphy, and synapomorphy all mean a trait shared between species because they share an ancestral species.
Apomorphic and synapomorphic characteristics convey much information about evolutionary clades and can be used to define taxa. However, plesiomorphic and symplesiomorphic characteristics cannot.
The term symplesiomorphy was introduced in 1950 by German entomologist Willi Hennig.
Examples
A backbone is a plesiomorphic trait shared by birds and mammals, and does not help in placing an animal in one or the other of these two clades. Birds and mammals share this trait because both clades are descended from the same far distant ancestor. Other clades, e.g. snakes, lizards, turtles, fish, frogs, all have backbones and none are either birds nor mammals.
Being a hexapod is plesiomorphic trait shared by ants and beetles, and does not help in placing an animal in one or the other of these two clades. Ants and beetles share this trait because both clades are descended from the same far distant ancestor. Other clades, e.g. bugs, flies, bees, aphids, and many more clades, all are hexapods and none are either ants nor beetles.
Elytra are a synapomorphy for placing any living species into the beetle clade, Elytra are plesiomorphic between clades of beetles, e.g. they do not distinguish the dung beetles from the horned beetles. The metapleural gland is a synapomorphy for placing any living species into the ant clade.
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Plesiomorphy and symplesiomorphy
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Feathers are a synapomorphy for placing any living species into the bird clade, hair is a synapomorphy for placing any living species into the mammal clade. Note that some mammal species have lost their hair, so the absence of hair does not exclude a species from being a mammal. Another mammalian synapomorphy is milk. All mammals produce milk and no other clade contains animals which produce milk. Feathers, and milk are also apomorphies.
Discussion
All of these terms are by definition relative, in that a trait can be a plesiomorphy in one context and an apomorphy in another, e.g. having a backbone is plesiomorphic between birds and mammals, but is apomorphic between them and insects. That is birds and mammals are vertebrates for which the backbone is a defining synapomorphic characteristic, while insects are invertebrates for which the absence of a backbone is a defining characteristic.
Species should not be grouped purely by morphologic or genetic similarity. Because a plesiomorphic character inherited from a common ancestor can appear anywhere in a phylogenetic tree, its presence does not reveal anything about the relationships within the tree. Thus grouping species requires distinguishing ancestral from derived character states.
An example is thermo-regulation in Sauropsida, which is the clade containing the lizards, turtles, crocodiles, and birds. Lizards, turtles, and crocodiles are ectothermic (coldblooded), while birds are endothermic (warmblooded). Being coldblooded is symplesiomorphic for lizards, turtles, and crocodiles, but they do not form a clade, as crocodiles are more closely related to birds than to lizards and turtles. Thus using coldbloodedness as an apomorphic trait to group crocodiles with lizards and turtles, would be an error, and thus it is a plesiomorphic trait shared by these three clades due to their distant common ancestry.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Heinrich%20Fr%C3%B6hlich
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Samuel Heinrich Fröhlich
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Samuel Heinrich Fröhlich (July 4, 1803 – January 15, 1857) was a Swiss Anabaptist evangelist, theologian, and the founder of the Evangelical Baptist Church, known as Neutäufer (New Anabaptists) in Switzerland and the Apostolic Christian Church in North America. His work contributed to the development of Anabaptist thought in the 19th century and influenced subsequent religious movements.
Born in Brugg, Canton of Aargau, to a family of French Calvinist Huguenot descent, Fröhlich was raised with a strong religious foundation. Initially aligned with the rationalist theology of his time, he experienced a profound spiritual conversion that led him to reject liberal theology and embrace Anabaptist principles such as believer's baptism and the separation of church and state.
His preaching and establishment of new congregations made him a notable figure in the revivalist movement within Europe. Despite facing opposition from the state church and enduring personal hardships, Fröhlich's influence reached across Europe and into North America, and the principles he advocated continue to be part of the Apostolic Christian Church's identity.
Biography
Early life
Samuel Heinrich Fröhlich was born on July 4, 1803, in Brugg, Canton of Aargau, Switzerland, to a family of devout French Calvinist Huguenot descent. Originally bearing the surname De Joyeux, the family fled to Switzerland following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. They later adopted the surname 'Fröhlich,' which means 'joyful.'
Fröhlich's father, Samuel, was a tanner and church sexton, while his mother, Gottliebin (née Berger), came from a religious background. Fröhlich was also related to Abraham Emanuel and Friedrich Theodor.
Religion was central to Fröhlich's upbringing, and his parents guided him toward a life in ministry, a path he accepted without question, viewing it as a profession to be learned.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Heinrich%20Fr%C3%B6hlich
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Samuel Heinrich Fröhlich
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Fröhlich was confirmed for ministry in the Protestant state church on May 27, 1827. Initially serving as a parish administrator, he later became a vicar in Leutwil, Canton of Aargau. In December 1828, he took over a parish in Leutwil, known for its depravity. His evangelical message led to a notable response from the large congregation of 1,800, drawing widespread attention.
His fervent preaching style, which emphasized spiritual renewal and a return to biblical principles, led to numerous spiritual revivals. However, his growing popularity also caused conflict with the State Church Consistory, who viewed his methods as disruptive to the established order.
In September 1830, Fröhlich was dismissed from his ministry and prohibited from preaching or performing sacraments due to his refusal to accept the newly established rationalist confession of faith that replaced the traditional Heidelberg Catechism.
Break with the reformed church
The turning point in Fröhlich's career came in 1830 when he vehemently opposed the introduction of a new catechism in the Reformed Church. He believed this catechism reflected a naturalistic or rationalistic religion that deviated from true biblical teachings. His opposition led to his removal from his position by the church council on October 22, 1830. Subsequently, he was forbidden from performing any churchly functions and was removed from the list of Aargau clergy on June 4, 1831.
Following his dismissal, Fröhlich underwent a period of intense spiritual searching. This culminated in his embrace of Anabaptist teachings, including believers' baptism, separation of church and state, and nonviolence. In a significant act of spiritual renewal, he was re-baptized as an adult in February 1832 by a missionary of the Continental Society of London.
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Samuel Heinrich Fröhlich
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Founding of the evangelical baptist church
Emboldened by his new convictions, Fröhlich embarked on extensive missionary journeys throughout Switzerland. His teachings found particular resonance among some Mennonites, especially in the Emmental region. Through his preaching and private meetings, he established new congregations that would form the basis of the Evangelical Baptist Church.
Theological views and influences
Separation of Church and State
A fundamental aspect of Fröhlich's theology was his strong advocacy for the separation of church and state. This view was partly shaped by his exclusionary experiences with the state church system in Switzerland. His stance led to significant conflicts with state church authorities, culminating in his expulsion from Zürich in 1843. This separation principle also influenced his approach to church organization and governance, favoring independent congregations over state-sanctioned religious institutions.
Theological Anthropology
His theological anthropology focuses on the nature of human beings, particularly the relationship between body, soul, and spirit. He views humans as composed of these three distinct elements, with the soul acting as the bridge between the body (physical aspect) and the spirit (spiritual aspect). Froehlich emphasizes that the human spirit is what connects individuals to God, while the body ties them to the physical world. Sin, in his view, affects this balance, leading to spiritual death if not addressed through faith and redemption. His perspective aligns with Anabaptist beliefs, highlighting the importance of spiritual regeneration and the pursuit of a pure, Christ-centered life.
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Samuel Heinrich Fröhlich
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Doctrine of Sin
Froehlich distinguishes between "original sin," which is the sinful nature inherited from Adam, and the personal sins that individuals commit. Froehlich believes that while all humans inherit a tendency to sin from Adam, they are not guilty of Adam's specific sin. Instead, guilt is only attributed to the sins individuals commit themselves after they reach an age of understanding and accountability.
Froehlich also categorizes sins into different levels of severity. He identifies "sins unto death," such as murder and adultery, as particularly serious offenses that were punishable by death under Old Testament law. These sins are considered more severe compared to other, lesser sins. This categorization reflects his interpretation of scriptural teachings on sin and its consequences.
Importantly, Froehlich rejects the idea that children are born guilty of sin. While he acknowledges that children inherit a sinful nature from Adam, he asserts that they are not personally guilty until they are old enough to understand and commit sins themselves. This contrasts with some other Christian teachings that suggest children inherit both a sinful nature and guilt.
Froehlich also emphasizes the role of the law in helping individuals recognize their sinfulness. He believes that through the law, people become aware of their sinful nature and their need for redemption, which leads them to seek forgiveness and atonement through Christ. Overall, Froehlich's doctrine of sin highlights personal responsibility, the innocence of children regarding original sin, and the importance of recognizing sin through the guidance of the law.
Soteriology
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Samuel Heinrich Fröhlich
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Baptism
Froehlich's views on baptism focused on whether it should be by immersion or sprinkling. Historically, Mennonite practices varied, with early Anabaptists using sprinkling and immersion. By the Reformation, pouring became more common, but immersion was revived later among Mennonites, including the Neutäufer. The Brethren claimed to have influenced Froehlich to adopt immersion, specifically trine immersion (three dips). Froehlich himself preferred immersion but was initially baptized by sprinkling. His followers, the Neutäufer, supported immersion, causing a split in the Mennonite Church. However, it’s unclear if the Brethren's influence came before or after the Neutäufer’s adoption of immersion.
Frohlich opposed infant baptism, arguing that it contradicts the Anabaptist emphasis on personal conversion and faith. He believed that baptism should follow a personal transformation and that infants, lacking the capacity for faith, cannot meet the requirements for baptism. Frohlich interpreted Matthew 28:19-20 as indicating that baptism should come after an individual has demonstrated faith. He also compared infant baptism unfavorably with John’s baptism, which required repentance and personal preparation. Frohlich critiqued supporters of infant baptism for misunderstanding its role, asserting that it should be a conscious act of faith rather than a ritual performed on those unable to make a personal decision.
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Samuel Heinrich Fröhlich
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Nonresistance
Fröhlich adopted the Mennonite teaching on nonresistance, which became a key aspect of his doctrine. This principle was not originally part of Fröhlich's theology, but was incorporated after his interactions with Mennonite congregations in Switzerland in the early 1830s. Specifically, "He accepted their teaching on nonresistance". Fröhlich's faith statement lacked provisions on military service, prompting the adoption of nonresistance as a formal doctrine. This stance led to severe persecution of Nazarene conscientious objectors, particularly in Hungary and Yugoslavia, where they faced imprisonment and harsh treatment. Despite this, the commitment to nonresistance and pacifism remains a fundamental aspect of Fröhlich's legacy, continuing to shape Nazarene beliefs and practices.
Doctrine of God
He hold a dualistic worldview where two opposing kingdoms exist: God's Kingdom and Satan's Kingdom. Fröhlich's theology was influenced by his reaction against rationalist theology and his subsequent alignment with the Pietist movements, which stressed personal repentance and holiness.
Fröhlich's view of God is heavily centered on holiness and the absolute necessity of a sanctified life. He argued that salvation was not just about individual justification but involved a cosmic struggle between these two kingdoms. His doctrine suggests that being part of God's Kingdom requires complete separation from the world's corrupt systems, often represented metaphorically as "Babylon" or the "State Church."
Fröhlich's theology was radical in its implications for Christian living, insisting on a complete transformation of the believer through the power of the Holy Spirit, which he linked closely with the rite of baptism. This transformation was so thorough that he believed it erased the marks of original sin, leading to a state where the believer could live without sin, a concept resembling the "Christian Perfectionism" found in some Anglo-American holiness traditions.
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Samuel Heinrich Fröhlich
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Fröhlich's doctrine of God also highlighted the importance of enduring persecution and suffering as part of the Christian experience, reflecting a strong martyr identity within his movement. This identity was central to his followers' sense of being a remnant of true believers set apart from the broader, corrupt Christian world.
Neutäufer Movement
The Neutäufer (New Anabaptist) movement was a significant part of his religious life and work. After being influenced by the revival movement in the early 1820s, particularly the Moravian Brethren and the writings of François Fénelon, Fröhlich became increasingly disillusioned with the state church.
In 1832, after his baptism by Ami Bost, Fröhlich began organizing former church members into a new religious community that would later be known as the Neutäufer. This movement focused on the principles of believer's baptism, a rigorous moral code, and the rejection of state church practices, which Fröhlich saw as "antichristian."
Fröhlich's work in establishing and leading the Neutäufer congregations was extensive. He founded numerous communities in Switzerland, particularly in German-speaking regions, and later in Alsace and southern Germany. His influence also reached Hungary, where the Nazarenes joined the Neutäufer movement, and through emigration, the movement spread to the United States, where it became known as the Apostolic Christian Church.
The Neutäufer movement, under Fröhlich's leadership, emphasized spiritual renewal and strict adherence to biblical teachings, often in opposition to the established church. Fröhlich's efforts to create a distinct and devout community led to both his expulsion from various regions and the eventual growth of the movement across Europe and North America.
Personal Life and legacy
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Samuel Heinrich Fröhlich
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Personal life
Samuel Heinrich Fröhlich married Susette Brunschwiler in August 1836. Their marriage faced significant challenges due to their non-compliance with state-church regulations. For example, when they moved to Brugg, Fröhlich's hometown, the local church refused to grant Susette citizenship, making their marriage appear illegitimate.
This led to various hardships, including Fröhlich being separated from his wife during the birth of their first son in 1841, who died shortly after. The couple faced further persecution when Fröhlich was imprisoned following the birth of their second son in 1842. In 1844, they moved to Strasbourg, where their marriage was finally recognized in 1846 after a seven-year separation.
Legacy
His work synthesized evangelical renewalist impulses with traditional Anabaptist convictions, emphasizing personal conversion, believer's baptism, and a strict moral code. Fröhlich's movement grew significantly during the 19th century, spreading across Europe and to the United States, where it influenced the formation of numerous congregations.
Despite facing internal tensions and fragmentation, the principles Fröhlich established—such as non-resistance, separation from the world, and a strong community focus—remain central to the identity of the Apostolic Christian Church.
Works
Das Geheimnis der Gottseligkeit und das Geheimnis der Gottlosigkeit (1830)
Translated as “The Mystery of Godliness and the Mystery of Ungodliness—Their Natures and their Oppositions to Each Other Illuminated by the Word of God.”
Die Erretung des Menschen durch das Bad der Wiedergeburt und die Erneuerung des heiligen Geistes (1838)
Translated as “The Salvation of Man through the Washing of New Birth and the Renewal of the Holy Spirit—A Scriptural Discussion Concerning Baptism in Christ.”
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MomoCon
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MomoCon
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MomoCon is a fan convention held in March or May in Atlanta, Georgia.
From its beginning through 2011, it was held on the campus of the Georgia Institute of Technology in its first year, MomoCon was held in the Georgia Tech Student Center. In 2011, it was held in Technology Square, from 2012 to 2014 was held in the Atlanta Mariott Marquis, and since 2015 it has been held at the Georgia World Congress Center.
The convention encompasses anime, video games, LARP, webcomics, comics, costuming, card games, board games, science fiction and prop armor construction, among other things.
From 2005 to 2011, there was no entry fee to MomoCon; the convention sold T-shirts and highlight DVDs to fund the next year. Due to rising costs, 2012 was the first year that an admission fee was required.
History
The word "momo" in Japanese means "peach", and its host state, Georgia, being the "Peach State" led to the naming of MomoCon.
Every year, MomoCon has a theme that goes into the design of the convention that year. The first year, it was "Southern Hospitality" and T-shirts were black and featured the MomoCon mascot, as created and drawn by H. M. Ogburn. In 2005, MomoCon was run by an estimated 35 volunteers. The convention had over 30 guests and many special demo teams, as well as several special events and feature movies. An article on the anime club and the convention was featured in the February 2005 issue of Newtype USA, and professionally made commercials were seen around Georgia Tech campus before on-campus movies in the Student Center.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havana%20Club
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Havana Club
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In 1994, Bacardi began producing rum under the Havana Club name in Cataño, Puerto Rico using a recipe given to them by Arechabala family members. While originally sold in only a few US states (primarily Florida), production was expanded in 2006, and in 2012, after winning a critical court battle, Bacardi announced plans to sell the rum more broadly.
Pernod Ricard/Bacardi trademark conflict
The Havana Club trademark has been the subject of extensive trademark litigation in the US, Spain, and World Trade Organization (WTO).
After José Arechabala S.A. was nationalized, the Arechabala family fled Cuba and was forced to stop producing rum. The US trademark registration for "Havana Club" lapsed in 1973. The family alleges that this was due to the company's lawyer, Javier Arechabala, remaining imprisoned at the time. Taking advantage of the lapse, the Cuban government registered the mark in the US in 1976. The brand was then assigned by the Cuban government to Pernod Ricard in 1993.
In 1994, Bacardi obtained the Arechabala family's remaining rights in the brand and began producing limited amounts of rum bearing the name. 922 cases were sold in the US in 1995 and 1996. This drew litigation from Pernod Ricard. Pernod Ricard was successful in two of the first three court holdings issued in this litigation.
However, in 1998, after heavy lobbying from Bacardi, the US Congress passed the "Bacardi Act" (Section 211 of the Omnibus Appropriations Act of 1998), which protected trademarks related to expropriated Cuban companies, and effectively ended the first phase of the litigation by eliminating Pernod Ricard's standing. The statute has been applied only to the Havana Club trademark, and was ruled illegal by the WTO in 2001 and 2002, on grounds that it singled out one country (Cuba). The United States has not yet acted to address the WTO ruling, despite a 2005 deadline and requests from the European Union.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillfield%20Strathallan%20College
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Hillfield Strathallan College
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Houses are familial tradition, so if the child of an Old Boy or Old Girl attends Hillfield Strathallan College, that child will be placed in the same house as their parent. However, if both parents attended the College, children will be placed in the house of their father. House loyalty is very strong, and lives on through competitions for Old Boys and Old Girls at annual Homecoming celebrations.
The brother/sister houses and the corresponding house colours are:
Pine/Yre – Yellow
Maple/Tay – Orange
Birch/Earn – Red
Cedar/More – Blue
The Brother Houses are named after trees and their Sister Houses take their names from rivers in Scotland.
Transportation
Hillfield Strathallan College has 28 school buses that bring around 70% of students to school every day. The school buses serve Hamilton, Ancaster, Dundas, Burlington, Stoney Creek, Upper and Lower Grimsby, Brantford, Oakville, Milton, Mississauga, Erin Mills, Waterdown, Carlisle, Kilbride and also smaller neighborhoods and towns.
Theatre
Hillfield Strathallan College has been known for its dramatic productions and musicals. Plays are performed in the fall term, and musicals take place in the spring. All theatrical performances take place in the College's auditorium, "The Virtue-Fitzgerald Centre for the Arts."
Crescendo Concert Series
The Crescendo Concert Series, currently comprising three concerts per academic year, supports the College’s arts scholarship program. Scholarship recipients have included Gema Zamprogna (1995-1997) and Lisa Jakub (1997-1998).
Notable alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformers%20%282004%20video%20game%29
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Transformers (2004 video game)
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Plot
The game doesn't follow the already established storyline of the Armada series, but has a similar premise. Millions of years ago, Mini-Cons - miniature Transformers who can grant Cybertronians special powers if merged with them - fled Cybertron and crash-landed on Earth, where they went into stasis. In the present, the Autobots, led by Optimus Prime, and the Decepticons, led by Megatron, are engaged in a deadly war for control of Cybertron. The game's opening sequence shows Megatron launching a final assault on the Autobot Headquarters on Cybertron, alongside his Decepticlones, a large army of Decepticon drones. The Decepticlones soon overpower the Autobot resistance, as Megatron and Optimus engage in a one-on-one fight. Before the winner can be decided, a Mini-Con distress beacon activates on Earth. Well-aware of what this means, Megatron and his Decepticlone forces abandon the battle and head to Earth to find the Mini-Cons, believing their powers will guarantee the Decepticons' victory. Meanwhile, Optimus, Red Alert, and Hot Shot return to their headquarters, from where they operate a Space Bridge to travel to various locations across the planet and retrieve the Mini-Cons before the Decepticons can.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvularia
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Curvularia
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Curvularia is a genus of hyphomycete (mold) fungi which can be pathogens but also act as beneficial partners of many plant species. They are common in soil. Most Curvularia species are found in tropical regions, though a few are found in temperate zones.
Curvularia is defined by the type species C. lunata (Wakker) Boedijn.
Curvularia lunata appears as shiny velvety-black, fluffy growth (on the fungus colony surface). These fluffy 'hairs', which really are branching, fine filamentous structures called hyphae, are divided inside by cell walls named septae (-> the hyphae are 'septate'). The walls of these hyphae contain dark pigments, which makes for their black appearance and which is called 'dematiaceous'. The hyphae produce brown spore bearing organs, 'conidiophores', which are distinguished by their 'geniculate' shape, meaning they have bends of abrupt kneelike angles. The immobile, asexual fungal spores born on those conidiophores, the proconidia, have a slightly to distinctly curved shape; they are divided inside by horizontally spreading cell walls (= are 'transversely septate'), and have one expanded cell (the third[clarification needed] cell) at one end (the pore[clarification needed] end of the conidium).
Curvularia can be distinguished from the species Bipolaris and Drechslera by the way (angle) walls (septae) divide the inner structure of their spores.
The name of the teleomorphic state of the type species Curvularia lunata is Cochliobolus lunatus (Fam. Pleosporaceae, Ord. Pleosporales, Cla. Loculoascomycetes, Phy. Ascomycota).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20Football%20Association%20of%20North%20America
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Australian Football Association of North America
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The Australian Football Association of North America (AFANA) is a non-profit organization that formed out of a campaign to save television coverage of Australian rules football in the United States and Canada in 1996. AFANA has an emphasis on the fan, and aims to help the game to develop and to improve its exposure in North America, including better TV coverage.
Early history
AFANA was co-founded by three members of the 1995-1996 campaign: Richard Lipp of Kansas City, Wade Hinkle of Dallas, and Rob de Santos (then of Vienna, WV) when it was learned that the sport had no TV coverage for the 1996 season. The campaign was ultimately successful and coverage began on the new ESPN2 ("the deuce") network in June. The network declined to cover the Grand Final in 1996. The AFL tried to find another network, but in the end, turned to AFANA and the Australian-American Chamber of Commerce of Southern California. The two organizations successfully put the game on the air on satellite in the USA and Canada in just 8 days. This firmly established AFANA. The following year, coverage continued on ESPN. Again, problems with the Grand Final occurred when ESPN delayed the broadcast 95 minutes (due to live baseball) on just 36 hours notice after repeated assurances that the game would be live. Despite an intense lobbying effort, ESPN did not budge. The relationship between the Australian Football League, AFANA, and ESPN continued to be strained and after the 1997 season, the network again dropped the sport. With AFANA's help, the sport moved to the new Fox Sports World channel the following year.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dino%20Battaglia
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Dino Battaglia
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Dino Battaglia (1 August 1923 – 4 October 1983) was an Italian comic artist, noted for a distinctive and expressive style, best known for his visual adaptations of classic novels.
In 1946 Dino Battaglia became part of the so-called Group of Venice with Fernando Carcupino, Hugo Pratt and Damiano Damiani.
Biography
Born in Venice, Italy, Battaglia first entered the comic book profession in 1946 co-founding and producing work for the Italian magazine Asso di Picche, where he drew some pages of the Junglemen series. Here he worked with other Venetian artists, among them Hugo Pratt and Alberto Ongaro. When Asso di Picche folded in 1948, the Venetian Group (as they became known) moved to Argentina to work for Italian publisher Cesar Civita. Battaglia remained behind in Italy, opting for marriage instead of joining the Argentine move, but he drew the pirate strip Capitan Caribe, written by Ongaro and published in Héctor Germán Oesterheld's magazine Frontera, and other strips such as Cowboy Kid for Salgari.
In 1950 Battaglia moved to Milan, where he worked for Mondadori's Pecos Bill and for Il Vittorioso. Between 1952 and 1953 he created Mark Fury, a pugilistic strip set in Edwardian England for Intrepido. The series was translated and republished in Junior Express between 1955–56, introducing Battaglia to the British market. In 1959 he started a collaboration with English publisher Fleetway through Milan-based Roy D'Ami studio, producing several short stories for Top Spot, Knockout, Thriller Picture Library and Look and Learn.
Starting in 1960 Battaglia produced a series of adaptations of fairy tales and classic novels for Il Corriere dei Piccoli and Il Corriere dei Ragazzi. In 1965 he drew I Cinque della Selena, a science fiction series written by Mino Milani.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor%20Psycho
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Doctor Psycho
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Background
The character of Doctor Psycho was created by William Moulton Marston, creator of Wonder Woman and author of her original adventures, as an allegory of the folly of abnormal emotions such as misogyny and other hatreds, as well as to be another embodiment of what he called "less actively developed men" (emotionally misaligned) who needed emotional reform by a love leader (Wonder Woman). Marston's creation of Doctor Psycho drew upon his interest in metaphysics and spiritualism. Marston, a psychologist, created Doctor Psycho as a murderous psychopath with an intense hatred of women. The character was partly inspired by actor Lon Chaney ("Man of a thousand faces") and partly by Marston's undergraduate advisor Hugo Münsterberg, who was opposed to women's suffrage and feminism. Doctor Psycho was also one of several villains created for Wonder Woman who were occultists, beguiling the masses for their own self-enriching purposes.
Wonder Woman's rogues and supporting cast were largely jettisoned during the period that Robert Kanigher wrote and edited the issues, but Doctor Psycho remained one of the few villains to appear in the Golden, Silver, and Bronze Age adventures. The character was also one of the few such villains to be modernized in the early issues of the post-Crisis on Infinite Earths Wonder Woman.
Fictional character biography
Pre-Crisis
Doctor Psycho first appears as a pawn of the Duke of Deception. Mars, enraged that women were gaining power in Earth society and potentially threatening his ability to engulf the world in war, ordered Deception to discredit women. Deception called upon Doctor Psycho to set about eliminating women from the war effort.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel-Pouliot%20Gasp%C3%A9%20Airport
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Michel-Pouliot Gaspé Airport
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Michel-Pouliot Gaspé Airport or Gaspé (Michel-Pouliot) Airport is located west of Gaspé, Quebec, Canada. The airport is non-towered, but has a mandatory frequency linked remotely to the flight service station (FSS) located in Mont-Joli. There are instrument approaches available for poor weather.
Both the city and airport are located in a valley that is oriented in a more or less east–west direction, with the eastern end open to the ocean and the western end terminating in the highlands. For this reason, most small (i.e. unpressurized) aircraft prefer to approach from the east, thereby avoiding the steep descent over the high hills to the west.
History
Transport Canada began construction of the airport in 1965, and handed control to the municipality in 1967 (while continuing to subsidize the airport). The airport added a terminal building in 1972, and a hangar and flight service station in 1974. The hangar was destroyed by a fire in 1978 and rebuilt in 1979; the flight service station has subsequently been closed. In 1983, Transport Canada installed navigation aids (the airport has both a VOR and a LOC), and formally handed full control of the airport over to the municipality in 1998 as a result of the National Airports Policy.
Air Canada, the only airline that was operating scheduled passenger flights from the airport, indefinitely suspended its routes to Gaspé Airport in June 2020 due to the financial impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada. Pascan Aviation and PAL Airlines started operation in mid 2021.
Airlines and destinations
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2939513
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manalapan%20Brook
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Manalapan Brook
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Manalapan Brook is a tributary of the South River in Monmouth and Middlesex counties, New Jersey in the United States.
Course
The Manalapan Brook's source is at in western Monmouth County, a few miles south of Monmouth Battlefield State Park, and roughly adjacent to the headwaters of the Manasquan River, Matchaponix Brook and Millstone River systems in the much larger Raritan Basin. This long brook flows generally north, traversing, along with its tributaries, much of Monmouth and Middlesex Counties.
Its drainage basin, the Manalapan Brook watershed, is a area, includes the municipalities of Millstone Township, Freehold Township, Manalapan Township, Englishtown, Monroe Township, Jamesburg, Helmetta, Spotswood, South Brunswick Township, and East Brunswick Township.
There are man-made lakes created by dames alongside the course of the brook, including: Bulk's Lake (near the in Millstone), Millhurst Pond (Manalapan), Lake Manalapan (Jamesburg), Helmetta Pond (Helmetta), and Devoe Lake (Spotswood).
After crossing the dammed section named Lake Manalapan in Jamesburg, Manalapan Brook continues north along CR 615 (Main Street) before flowing into Devoe Lake in Spotswood. The flow then merges with the Matchaponix Brook forming the South River at along the border of Spotswood and Old Bridge Township.
History
The name of the brook of Manalapan is Lenape for "Land of good bread" or "Land of good". The name also derives from Manalapan Township, one of the several municipalities the stream flows through. The Lenape fished at Lake Manalapan and the surrounding watershed.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekiti%20State%20University
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Ekiti State University
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The university started off in a modest way from an old catering rest house in Akure and moved to a temporary site in Ado-Ekiti where lectures started soon after with 136 students spread across the Faculties of Arts, Science and Social Sciences. During the 1983/84 session, new courses were established to strengthen the existing faculties; these included geology, biology, chemistry, French, Yoruba studies, philosophy, religious studies, political science and psychology. A fourth faculty, the Faculty of Education, was established in 1983/84 session increasing the student population to 724. In the 1985/86 session, the Faculty of Engineering (Civil, Mechanical and Electrical) and a Department of Banking and Finance were established. The Faculty of Law was established during the 1991/92 session and the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences was established in 2001, bringing the Faculties to 8 in total and a student population of 10,000. The student population is now in excess of 25,000 spread across the various academic programmes.
Today the university is running degree programmes in 66 fields of academic specialisation across the existing faculties and academic programmes, from the School of Postgraduate Studies, Directorate of Continuing Education, Directorate of Part Time Programme, Directorate of Sandwich Education Degree Programme, Affiliate Colleges, Institute of Education, Institute of Science Laboratory Technology, Directorate of Pre-Degree Programmes, General Studies Unit, Centre for Entrepreneurial Studies and the Centre for Research and Development, among others. The faculties have increased from 8 in 2001 to 10 in 2010 with the creation of the College of Medicine which houses the Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences and Faculty of Clinical Sciences while making use of the Ekiti State Teaching Hospital Complex, Ado-Ekiti.
Change of name
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekiti%20State%20University
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Ekiti State University
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In 1984, the ownership of the university came under the military administration of Ondo State since the governance of the country came under the military junta. In 1985, the government as proprietor of the university cancelled the multi-campus and non-residential policy of the university and changed the name to Ondo State University, Ado-Ekiti. (The change of the University's name did not affect the site/location of the campus at Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. Reference can be made in records of the National Universities Commission (Nigeria), Association of Commonwealth Universities and other public records.)
Impact of political change on the university ownership and name
In 1996, the Federal Military Government of Nigeria created 6 additional new states to the existing 30 states of the Nigerian Federation. Ekiti State of Nigeria was one of the 6 new states and it was carved out of the Ondo State which was created earlier in 1976 out of defunct Western State of Nigeria. Due to the state creation, economic assets, institutions and establishments previously owned by the Ondo State were shared with the new Ekiti State. Hence, the ownership and proprietorship of the Ondo State University, Ado-Ekiti came under the joint administration of the Governments of Ekiti State and the Ondo State.
In 1998, due to a collapse of agreements on asset sharing and running of the Ondo State University, Ado-Ekiti between the governments of Ondo and Ekiti States, the government of Ondo State created a new university named Ondo State University at Akungba Akoko, in Ondo State (The Ondo State University, Akungba Akoko was later renamed Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko while the Ondo State Government also created Ondo State University of Science and Technology at Okitipupa in 2003).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekiti%20State%20University
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Ekiti State University
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In view of the policy decisions taken by the Ondo government, the government of Ekiti State took over the ownership, administrative control and funding of the Ondo State University at Ado-Ekiti and enacted a law to rename it the University of Ado-Ekiti. The Ekiti government also took steps to ensure that all records and properties of the university remained intact. By law, the Ekiti State Government transferred all assets, liabilities and records of the Ondo State University, Ado-Ekiti to University of Ado-Ekiti, and the National Universities Commission was informed of the change.
Political Developments in Ekiti State (2007–2011) and its impact
In 2007, a new civilian Government was installed in Ekiti State. The Government established two new state owned Universities, in addition to the existing University of Ado-Ekiti. The names of the two Universities were The University of Education, Ikere-Ekiti and The University of Science and Technology, Ifaki-Ekiti. These two Universities, along with the existing University of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria, were funded from the public treasury; this took a great toll on the public purse and led to the polarisation of the educational system.
In 2010, there was a change of government in Ekiti and the new government convened a statewide education summit in 2011 to consider the best ways to sustain tertiary education and to fund public institutions owned by the government of Ekiti State. Part of the decisions taken at the summit were to merge the three state-owned universities as a single public institution. The Ekiti government by law merged the University of Ado-Ekiti, the University of Education, and the University of Science and Technology, into a new university named Ekiti University. Subsequently, the National Universities Commission in Abuja licensed the University consolidating all the assets and records of the three universities as one institution
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2939553
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Adventures%20of%20Augie%20March
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The Adventures of Augie March
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The Adventures of Augie March is a picaresque novel by Saul Bellow, published in 1953 by Viking Press. It features the eponymous Augie March, who grows up during the Great Depression, and it is an example of Bildungsroman, tracing the development of an individual through a series of encounters, occupations and relationships from boyhood to manhood.
The Adventures of Augie March won the 1954 U.S. National Book Award for Fiction. Both Time magazine and the Modern Library Board named it one of the hundred best novels in the English language.
Plot summary
The story describes Augie March's growth from childhood to a fairly stable maturity. Augie, with his brother Simon and the mentally abnormal George have no father and are brought up by their mother, who is losing her eyesight, and a tyrannical, grandmother-like boarder, in very humble circumstances in the rough parts of Chicago. Augie drifts from one situation to another in a free-wheeling manner — jobs, women, homes, education and lifestyle.
Augie March's path seems to be partly self-made and partly comes around through chance. In lifestyle he ranges from near adoption by a wealthy couple who spoil him, to a struggle for existence stealing books and helping out friends in desperate straits. His most unusual adventure is his flight to Mexico with the wild and irrepressible Thea who tries to catch lizards with an eagle. Thea attempts to convince Augie to join her in this seemingly impossible task.
His jobs include general assistance to the slightly corrupt Einhorn, helping in a dog training parlor, working for his brother at a coal-tip, and working for the Congress of Industrial Organizations until finally he joins the merchant navy in the war.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Adventures%20of%20Augie%20March
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The Adventures of Augie March
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Literary significance and criticism
The Adventures of Augie March can be seen as a dispelling of the traditional idea of an American hero. He is "the American chasing after self-exploration." He is given a background common of protagonists in inspirational American stories; "he comes from a poor family; he does not know the identity of his father; he refuses to be trapped by fine clothing, social position, or wealth," and he has plenty of "heroic qualities" such as his intelligence, compassion, and clear observation. However, despite these advantages, Augie does not truly live out the life of a hero. He has no commitments of his own, and merely goes along with plans and schemes developed by others. He never truly decides what he wants to do with himself, and "manages a deep enthusiasm just twice in the novel: he falls in love twice...The first experience fails completely; and the second, as the novels ends, is failing." Everyone around Augie finds a greater measure of success than he because they commit themselves to some pursuit or goal, even if it is not the most noble. Ultimately, though Augie has every chance to succeed in the world, he never does so because he refuses to engage in that world, and instead keeps chasing the vague "better fate" he has convinced himself he deserves. Through this Bellow makes his case that a sharp mind and pure ideals are of no value if they are not coupled with active pursuit and a clear understanding of one's relationship with others.
Widely heralded as a classic of American literature, the novel was named one of the 100 best novels in the English language by TIME magazine (best in the history of TIME, 1923 to 2005) and by Modern Library (number 81 of the editorial board's 20th-century hundred).
As a novel "centering on the quest for identity", it has been compared to novels as diverse as The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Moby-Dick and The Catcher in the Rye.
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2939554
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koreagate
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Koreagate
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"Koreagate" was an American political scandal in 1976 involving South Korean political figures seeking influence from 10 Democratic members of Congress. The scandal involved the uncovering of evidence that the Korea Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA) was allegedly funneling bribes and favors through South Korean businessman Tongsun Park in an attempt to gain favor and influence in American politics. Reversing Presidential candidate Jimmy Carter's pledge to withdraw American military forces from South Korea is thought to have been one of their primary objectives.
The United States House of Representatives formed the Subcommittee on International Organizations of the Committee on International Relations to investigate the scandal. During the following hearings, Kim Hyong-uk, former director of the KCIA, and various members of the Unification Church of the United States testified to Park's involvement. Park fled the United States and the South Korean government refused to send him back unless he received immunity. Immunity was refused and Park remained in South Korea.
Following the publication of a report detailing the scandal, two members of Congress were charged with crimes: Representative Richard T. Hanna of California and Representative Otto Passman of Louisiana. Passman was acquitted after a trial. Hanna pleaded guilty and served one year in prison. Three other congressmen were reprimanded by the House.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koreagate
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Koreagate
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Parties involved
Tongsun Park and U.S. Congressman Richard T. Hanna (D-CA) were two of the main actors involved in the Koreagate scandal. Tongsun Park represented the Korean side of the secret agreement, while Richard Hanna was largely responsible for the American side of the deal. According to the agreement, both parties would share the commissions from American rice sales to South Korea and to use them to obtain favorable decisions for Seoul in the United States Congress. Hanna was responsible for aiding Chung Il Kwon and Park in finding effective lobbying techniques, which he did by advising the pair to emulate Taiwanese and Israeli models that had succeeded in the past.
Park was also responsible for providing extra financial incentives to Hanna and other members of Congress, a task made easy by large rice sale commissions. Such financial incentives reportedly ranged from US$100,000 to $200,000 at a time per individual. Some 115 members of Congress were supposedly involved. Speculation also focused on the role of Unification movement founder Sun Myung Moon, former KCIA Director Kim Hyong-uk, and former South Korean Prime Minister Chung Il-kwon.
Objectives
The reasons behind the scandal involved political, social, and financial motivations. Korean leaders, including Tongsun Park and President Park, were angered with candidate Jimmy Carter's promise to withdraw soldiers from South Korea and felt it was urgent to build support for preserving the United States military presence. The Park government was also concerned with the approval of a substantial package of assistance for South Korea's military modernization programs. Another reason behind the scandal was to repress or counter increasing criticism of Park's illegitimate policies and human rights violations. According to many, the deceitfulness of Park's objectives would ultimately lead to his downfall.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koreagate
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Koreagate
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After Koreagate was publicized, political relations between the United States and South Korea became shaky at best. Animosity between the United States and South Korea was further aggravated by mutual misperceptions and procedural disagreements. The United States adopted a legalistic platform and expected South Korea to cooperate with any pending investigations. On the other hand, South Korean officials believed the story had been exaggerated, spun, or even concocted by American journalists. Furthermore, South Korea interpreted American action as arising from an anti-Park conspiracy. Political experts on both sides also suspected that the scandal was being framed in this manner to aid Gerald Ford's election strategy. According to this interpretation, the Ford administration intended to neutralize the Democratic Party's exploitation of Watergate and Ford's pardon of Richard Nixon as issues by linking key Democratic congressmen to the Koreagate operations.
Aftermath
Despite persistent disagreement about extradition between the United States and South Korea, Tongsun Park ultimately came to the United States in April 1978 to testify publicly in a House hearing. During the testimony, Park admitted to disbursing cash to thirty members of Congress. Ten members of Congress were implicated, of whom most decided to resign, while the statute of limitations expired for three. Park was granted full immunity for his testimony. Congressional members Edward Roybal (D-CA), Charles H. Wilson (D-CA) and John J. McFall (D-CA) were censured and reprimanded; Congressman Edward J. Patten (D-NJ) was found not guilty, and Otto Passman (D-LA) was indicted on bribery, conspiracy, illegal gratuities and tax evasion. He was tried in his home district in Monroe, Louisiana and was acquitted. Richard Hanna was convicted and sentenced to six to thirty months in prison. Once in the White House, President Carter ultimately decided to maintain the U.S. military presence in South Korea at existing levels.
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2939579
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration%20of%20Helsinki
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Declaration of Helsinki
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The Declaration of Helsinki (DoH, ) is a set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation developed originally in 1964 for the medical community by the World Medical Association (WMA). It is widely regarded as the cornerstone document on human research ethics.
It is not a legally binding instrument under international law, but instead draws its authority from the degree to which it has been codified in, or influenced, national or regional legislation and regulations. Its role was described by a Brazilian forum in 2000 in these words: "Even though the Declaration of Helsinki is the responsibility of the World Medical Association, the document should be considered the property of all humanity."
Principles
The Declaration is morally binding on physicians, and that obligation overrides any national or local laws or regulations, if the Declaration provides for a higher standard of protection of humans than the latter. Investigators still have to abide by local legislation but will be held to the higher standard.
Basic principles
The fundamental principle is respect for the individual (Article 8), his or her right to self-determination and the right to make informed decisions (Articles 20, 21 and 22) regarding participation in research, both initially and during the course of the research. The investigator's duty is solely to the patient (Articles 2, 3 and 10) or volunteer (Articles 16, 18), and while there is always a need for research (Article 6), the participant's welfare must always take precedence over the interests of science and society (Article 5), and ethical considerations must always take precedence over laws and regulations (Article 9).
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2939579
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration%20of%20Helsinki
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Declaration of Helsinki
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The recognition of the increased vulnerability of individuals and groups calls for special vigilance (Article 8). It is recognized that when the research participant is incompetent, physically or mentally incapable of giving consent, or is a minor (Articles 23, 24), then allowance should be considered for surrogate consent by an individual acting in the participant's best interest, although his or her consent should still be obtained if at all possible (Article 25).
Operational principles
Research should be based on a thorough knowledge of the scientific background (Article 11), a careful assessment of risks and benefits (Articles 16, 17), have a reasonable likelihood of benefit to the population studied (Article 19) and be conducted by suitably trained investigators (Article 15) using approved protocols, subject to independent ethical review and oversight by a properly convened committee (Article 13). The protocol should address the ethical issues and indicate that it is in compliance with the Declaration (Article 14). Studies should be discontinued if the available information indicates that the original considerations are no longer satisfied (Article 17). Information regarding the study should be publicly available (Article 16). Ethical principles extend to publication of the results and consideration of any potential conflict of interest (Article 27). Experimental investigations should always be compared against the best methods, but under certain circumstances a placebo or no treatment group may be utilized (Article 29). The interests of the participant after the study is completed should be part of the overall ethical assessment, including assuring their access to the best proven care (Article 30). Wherever possible unproven methods should be tested in the context of research where there is reasonable belief of possible benefit (Article 32).
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2939579
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration%20of%20Helsinki
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Declaration of Helsinki
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Additional guidelines or regulations
Investigators often find themselves in the position of having to follow several different codes or guidelines, and are therefore required to understand the differences between them. One of these is Good Clinical Practice (GCP), an international guide, while each country may also have local regulations such as the Common Rule in the US, in addition to the requirements of the FDA and Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) in that country. There are a number of available tools which compare these.
Other countries have guides with similar roles, such as the Tri-Council Policy Statement in Canada. Additional international guidelines include those of the CIOMS, Nuffield Council and UNESCO.
History
The Declaration was originally adopted in June 1964 in Helsinki, Finland, and has since undergone eight revisions (the most recent at the General Assembly in October 2024) and two clarifications, growing considerably in length from 11 paragraphs in 1964 to 37 in the 2024 version. The Declaration is an important document in the history of research ethics as it is the first significant effort of the medical community to regulate research itself, and forms the basis of most subsequent documents.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration%20of%20Helsinki
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Declaration of Helsinki
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Amongst the many changes was an increased emphasis on the need to benefit the communities in which research is undertaken, and to draw attention to the ethical problems of experimenting on those who would not benefit from the research, such as developing countries in which innovative medications would not be available. Article 19 first introduces the concept of social justice, and extends the scope from individuals to the community as a whole by stating that 'research is only justified if there is a reasonable likelihood that the populations in which the research is carried out stand to benefit from the results of the research'. This new role for the Declaration has been both denounced
and praised,
Macklin R. Future challenges for the Declaration of Helsinki: Maintaining credibility in the face of ethical controversies. Address to Scientific Session, World Medical Association General Assembly, September 2003, Helsinki
and even considered for a clarification footnote. Article 27 expanded the concept of publication ethics, adding the necessity to disclose conflict of interest (echoed in Articles 13 and 22), and to include publication bias amongst ethically problematic behavior.
Additional principles
The most controversial revisions
(Articles 29, 30) were placed in this new category. These predictably were those that like the fourth revision were related to the ongoing debate in international health research. The discussions indicate that there was felt a need to send a strong signal that exploitation of poor populations as a means to an end, by research from which they would not benefit, was unacceptable. In this sense the Declaration endorsed ethical universalism.
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2939589
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brocket%20deer
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Brocket deer
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Brockets or brocket deer are the species of deer in the genus Mazama. They are medium to small in size, and are found in the Yucatán Peninsula, Central and South America, and the island of Trinidad. Most species are primarily found in forests. They are superficially similar to the African duikers and the Asian muntjacs, but only distantly related. About 10 species of brocket deer are described.
The genus name Mazama is derived from Nahuatl mazame, the plural of mazatl "deer". The common English name "brocket" (from French brocart < broche, spindle) comes from the word for a stag in its second year, with unbranched antlers.
Taxonomy
The taxonomy among Mazama species has changed significantly in the last decades, and as recently as 1999, some authorities only recognized four species. These four "species", M. americana, M. gouazoubira, M. rufina, and M. chunnyi, included several distinct populations that subsequently were elevated to species status, resulting in a total of nine different species being recognized in Mammal Species of the World in 2005. A tenth species, M. nemorivaga, has traditionally been included in M. gouazoubira, but this was shown to be mistaken in 2000. M. nemorivaga was not recognized as a separate species in Mammal Species of the World, but this was apparently in error. Yet another species, the fair brocket (M. tienhoveni), has recently been described from the lower Amazon basin. What may be an undescribed small species of brocket with a reddish coat and blackish legs has been photographed in the lowlands of Manú National Park in Peru, and based on sight records may also occur in northwestern Bolivia.
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2939589
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brocket%20deer
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Brocket deer
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Molecular dating suggests that the family Cervidae originated and radiated in central Asia during the Late Miocene, and that the Odocoileini dispersed to North America during the Miocene/Pliocene boundary and underwent an adaptive radiation in South America after their Pliocene dispersal across the Isthmus of Panama. According to the systematic relationships and evolutionary history of neotropical deer, at least eight ancestral forms of deer invaded South America during the late Pliocene (2.5–3 Mya), and members of the red brockets had an independent early explosive diversification soon after their ancestor arrived there, giving rise to a number of morphologically cryptic species.
Deer endemic to the New World fall in two biogeographic lineages: the first, which includes genus Odocoileus and Mazama americana, is distributed in North, Central, and South America, whereas the second is composed of South American species only and includes Mazama gouazoubira. This implies that the genus Mazama is not a monophyletic taxon. Genetic analysis reveals high levels of molecular and cytogenetic divergence between groups of morphologically similar species of brockets (Mazama) and suggests a polyphyletic origin. In particular, M. americana showed a striking kinship with Odocoileus on the basis of several DNA sequences, in contrast to that expected, since this M. americana (now M. temama) haplotype, of Mexican origin, was not close to several Bolivian Mazama sequences analyzed. Thus, Mazama as traditionally circumscribed may not be monophyletic. These Bolivian Mazama species were instead grouped with Pudu puda and Ozotoceros bezoarticus. This could be explained by various possibilities, among them the existence of common ancestral haplotypes among the species or the need for a revised phylogenetic tree, with revised placement into true monophyletic genera that better reflect the true ancestry.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brocket%20deer
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Brocket deer
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M. americana and M. temama are usually found in forest. They are relatively large to medium brocket deer with a reddish to reddish-brown pelage. The head, neck, and legs are often grayish or blackish.
M. gouazoubira, M. nemorivaga, and M. pandora are found in forest, woodland, and shrubland. They are medium-sized with a brownish to grayish pelage and pale underparts.
M. nana, M. bricenii, M. chunyi, and M. rufina are found in forest and high-altitude grassland (M. nana in Atlantic forest; the remaining species in Andean cloud forest, elfin forest and páramo). They are medium to small in size, and the pelage is reddish. In most, a part of the legs and the upper part of the head are blackish or dark gray, but in M. chunyi, the foreparts and neck are also blackish or dark gray.
M. bororo is found in Atlantic forest in southeastern Brazil. In appearance, it is intermediate in appearance between M. americana (first group) and M. nana (third group).
Behavior
In addition to being small and nocturnal, Mazama species are shy and are thus rarely observed. They are found living alone or in mated pairs within their own small territory, the boundaries usually marked with urine, feces, or secretions from the eye glands. When threatened by predators (primarily the cougar and the jaguar), they use their knowledge of their territory to finding hiding places in nearby vegetation. As herbivores, their diet consists of leaves, fruits, and shoots.
Reproduction
Mated pairs that live together remain monogamous. Single male deer usually mate with nearby females. When males compete for a mate, they fight by biting and stabbing with their short antlers. Brocket species that live in tropical areas have no fixed mating season, but those in temperate areas have a distinct rutting period in the autumn.
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2939599
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chepstow%20School
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Chepstow School
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Chepstow School and Sixth Form Centre () is a comprehensive school located in the town of Chepstow, Monmouthshire, Wales. The catchment area includes Chepstow and its surrounding villages.
History of the school and its site
The school, located at Crossway Green, was opened in 1964 by Monmouthshire County Council as St Kingsmark School and Community College. At the time it was a Secondary Modern school with state of the art premises. In 1969 it merged with Larkfield Grammar School and both original schools ceased to exist. The new school set up on comprehensive principles was named Chepstow School. It operated on both sites for quite a number of years afterwards. This system was quite a common method of establishing comprehensive education at the time. The name "St Kingsmark" was derived from that of a medieval priory dedicated to St Cynfarch which existed close to the school, on what is now Kingsmark Lane. No traces of the priory now remain above ground. The badge chosen reflects the fact that two schools in Chepstow joined together (the Severn Bridge) and the portcullis badge is associated with the Beaufort family who had interests in Chepstow.
Curriculum
As a state school, Chepstow School follows the National Curriculum. English, English Literature, Welsh, Mathematics and Science are required GCSE subjects while religious studies is a required non-exam course.
The school was linked to the OCR innovative science model since the introduction of the pilot scheme over 5 years ago. Since the introduction of the broadened curriculum, results have improved from 55% to 65% for the science core and 72% for Additional Science.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chepstow%20School
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Chepstow School
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Facilities
The sports facilities include two rugby union pitches, one football (soccer) pitch, four tennis courts, an astro-turf all weather playing surface, and a swimming pool and indoor sports hall which is part of Chepstow Leisure Centre. The school campus is used for community education in the evenings.
The buildings are wheelchair-friendly and easily accessible for disabled students.
Extracurricular activities
Students are encouraged to take part in various activities and be involved in the community. Work experience is available for Year 10 and 12 students. Students taking AS French spend a week of work experience in France.
Sport
The "5x60" programme works alongside the existing school sports system. The 5x60 clubs give students the opportunity to perform in physical activity for 60 minutes, 5 times a week. The clubs run during lunchtimes and after school. Through this programme, students have the opportunity to try non-traditional sports such as fencing and golf. Students George Sariak and Anna Stanley were awarded Youth Sport Trust Ambassador Status in 2012.
Staff
Claire Price took over as head teacher in January 2012, following the retirement of John E. Barnbrook. She left the post in August 2018. Mike Coady was appointed as interim head from September 2018. Deputy headteacher Jo Lindley became acting head in January 2019.
Matthew Sims was appointed as the permanent Headteacher in January 2019 and took up the post in April 2019. Deputy headteacher Kelly Bowd became acting head in September 2022.
As of September 2023, it has been confirmed that Kelly Bowd was appointed Head Teacher who is now Kelly Waythe.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callovian
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Callovian
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In the geologic timescale, the Callovian is an age and stage in the Middle Jurassic, lasting between 165.3 ± 1.1 Ma (million years ago) and 161.5 ± 1.0 Ma. It is the last stage of the Middle Jurassic, following the Bathonian and preceding the Oxfordian.
Stratigraphic definitions
The Callovian Stage was first described by French palaeontologist Alcide d'Orbigny in 1852. Its name derives from the latinized name for Kellaways Bridge, a small hamlet 3 km north-east of Chippenham, Wiltshire, England.
The base of the Callovian is defined as the place in the stratigraphic column where the ammonite genus Kepplerites first appears, which is the base of the biozone of Macrocephalites herveyi. A global reference profile (a GSSP) for the base had in 2009 not yet been assigned.
The top of the Callovian (the base of the Oxfordian) is at the first appearance of ammonite species Brightia thuouxensis.
Subdivision
The Callovian is often subdivided into three substages (or subages): Lower/Early, Middle and Upper/Late Callovian. In the Tethys domain, the Callovian encompasses six ammonite biozones:
zone of Quenstedtoceras lamberti
zone of Peltoceras athleta
zone of Erymnoceras coronatum
zone of Reineckeia anceps
zone of Macrocephalites gracilis
zone of Bullatimorphites bullatus
Palaeogeography
During the Callovian, Europe was an archipelago of a dozen or so large islands. Between them were extensive areas of continental shelf. Consequently, there are shallow marine Callovian deposits in Russia and from Belarus, through Poland and Germany, into France and eastern Spain and much of England. Around the former island coasts are frequently, land-derived sediments. These are to be found, for example, in western Scotland.
The Louann Salt and the southern Campeche Salt of the Gulf of Mexico are thought to have formed by an embayment of the Pacific Ocean across modern-day Mexico.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20George%20Bowen
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Edward George Bowen
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After a successful demonstration in February 1935 of the reflection of radio waves by an aircraft, the development of radar went ahead, and a team of five people including Bowen was set up at Orfordness under the cover of doing ionospheric research. Bowen's job was to assemble a transmitter, managing quickly to raise the pulse-power to over 100 kilowatts.
The first detection of an aircraft was made on 17 June 1935 at a range of 17 miles. By early 1936 after many improvements, aircraft were being detected at ranges of up to 100 miles. This caused work to be started on a chain of radar stations (Chain Home or CH), initially just covering the approaches to London. The team at Orfordness was enlarged as a result, and in March 1936 a new headquarters was acquired at Bawdsey Manor.
Bowen, at his own request, was moved on to investigating whether radar could be installed in an aircraft. However, Bowen was able to save the day when a demonstration of the new transmitter at Bawdsey Manor failed. Before a disgruntled Sir Hugh Dowding returned to London, Bowen gave him an impromptu demonstration of an experimental radar, built as part of his airborne radar programme, which was detecting the aircraft at ranges of up to 50 miles. After working through the night, Bowen resurrected the old transmitter at Orford Ness for the following day's demonstration, allowing the Government and RAF to continue with the extension of the chain of coastal stations.
Airborne radar
Installing radar in an aircraft was difficult because of the size and weight of the equipment and the aerial. Furthermore, the equipment had to operate in a vibrating and cold environment. Over the next few years Bowen and his group solved most of these problems. For example, he solved the problem of the power supply in aircraft by using an engine-driven alternator, and he encouraged Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) to produce the first radio-frequency cables with solid polythene insulation.
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2939632
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20George%20Bowen
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Edward George Bowen
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Bowen played a key role in the design of the radio telescope at Parkes. At its inauguration in October 1961, he remarked, "...the search for truth is one of the noblest aims of mankind and there is nothing which adds to the glory of the human race or lends it such dignity as the urge to bring the vast complexity of the Universe within the range of human understanding."
The Parkes Telescope proved timely for the US space program and tracked many space probes, including the Apollo missions. Later, Bowen played an important role in guiding the optical Anglo-Australian Telescope project during its design phase. This was opened in 1974.
Bowen also instigated rain-making experiments in Australia in 1947, and continued after he retired in 1971. He was also interested in the phenomenon of Climatic Singularities, suggesting that they might be related to the Earth's passage through belts of meteor dust – whose particles then acted as ice-nuclei for seeding clouds.
Honours
Bowen was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1941, then promoted to Commander in 1962. He was also awarded the American Medal of Freedom in 1947.
He became a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science in 1957 and of the Royal Society in 1975.
Personal life and death
At Swansea University Bowen had met his future wife, Enid Vesta Williams, who was from nearby Neath. They married in 1938, and had three sons: Edward, David and John. Bowen had an enduring love of cricket, and played regularly. He also became a keen sailor.
Although
In December 1987, he suffered a stroke and gradually deteriorated. He died on 12 August 1991 in Chatswood, Sydney, at the age of 80.
| 2.46875
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2939640
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campanian
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Campanian
|
The Campanian is the fifth of six ages of the Late Cretaceous epoch on the geologic timescale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). In chronostratigraphy, it is the fifth of six stages in the Upper Cretaceous Series. Campanian spans the time from 83.6 (± 0.2) to 72.1 (± 0.2) million years ago. It is preceded by the Santonian and it is followed by the Maastrichtian.
The Campanian was an age when a worldwide sea level rise covered many coastal areas. The morphology of some of these areas has been preserved: it is an unconformity beneath a cover of marine sedimentary rocks.
Etymology
The Campanian was introduced in scientific literature by Henri Coquand in 1857. It is named after the French village of Champagne in the department of Charente-Maritime. The original type locality was a series of outcrops near the village of Aubeterre-sur-Dronne in the same region.
Definition
The base of the Campanian Stage is defined as a place in the stratigraphic column where the extinction of crinoid species Marsupites testudinarius is located. A GSSP was ratified for the base of the Campanian in October 2022, having been placed in Bottaccione, Gubbio, Italy. The top of the Campanian stage is defined as the place in the stratigraphic column where the ammonite Pachydiscus neubergicus first appears.
Subdivisions
The Campanian can be subdivided into Lower, Middle and Upper Subages. In the western interior of the United States, the base of the Middle Campanian is defined as the first occurrence of the ammonite Baculites obtusus (80.97 Ma) and the base of the Upper Campanian defined as the first occurrence of the ammonite Didymoceras nebrascense (76.27 Ma). In the Tethys domain, the Campanian encompasses six ammonite biozones. They are, from young to old:
zone of Nostoceras hyatti
zone of Didymoceras chayennense
zone of Bostrychoceras polyplocum
zone of Hoplitoplacenticeras marroti / Hoplitoplacenticeras vari
zone of Delawarella delawarensis
zone of Placenticeras bidorsatum
Paleontology
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2939665
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelston%2C%20New%20Zealand
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Kelston, New Zealand
|
Of those at least 15 years old, 960 (21.7%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, 1,944 (43.9%) had a post-high school certificate or diploma, and 1,521 (34.3%) people exclusively held high school qualifications. The median income was $39,100, compared with $41,500 nationally. 270 people (6.1%) earned over $100,000 compared to 12.1% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 2,373 (53.6%) people were employed full-time, 477 (10.8%) were part-time, and 165 (3.7%) were unemployed.
Education
The first school to open in the area was the New Lynn School, which opened on the modern site of Kelston Girls' College in 1888, moving from the site in 1914. In 1953, Kelston Primary School opened, and in 1954 a coeducational school, Kelston High School, opened at the old site of the New Lynn School, as the third high school to open in West Auckland after Avondale College (1945) and Henderson High School (1953). Kelston High School was separated into two schools in 1963, with Kelston Girls' High School remaining at the site and Kelston Boys' High School moving to a new campus to the north. In 2004, the school was renamed Kelston Girls' College.
Kelston Boys' High School is a single-sex state secondary (years 9–15) school with a roll of students. It is renowned for its rugby union team, the Kelston Boys High 1st XV. The school has produced a number of All Blacks, and regularly wins Auckland, nationwide and even worldwide secondary school rugby championships. Kelston Girls' College is a single-sex state secondary (years 9–15) school with a roll of .
| 2.6875
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2939670
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris%20dilator%20muscle
|
Iris dilator muscle
|
The iris dilator muscle (pupil dilator muscle, pupillary dilator, radial muscle of iris, radiating fibers), is a smooth muscle of the eye, running radially in the iris and therefore fit as a dilator. The pupillary dilator consists of a spokelike arrangement of modified contractile cells called myoepithelial cells. These cells are stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system. When stimulated, the cells contract, widening the pupil and allowing more light to enter the eye.
The ciliary muscle, pupillary sphincter muscle and pupillary dilator muscle sometimes are called intrinsic ocular muscles or intraocular muscles.
Structure
Innervation
It is innervated by the sympathetic system, which acts by releasing noradrenaline, which acts on α1-receptors. Thus, when presented with a threatening stimulus that activates the fight-or-flight response, this innervation contracts the muscle and dilates the pupil, thus temporarily letting more light reach the retina.
The dilator muscle is innervated more specifically by postganglionic sympathetic nerves arising from the superior cervical ganglion as the sympathetic root of ciliary ganglion. From there, they travel via the internal carotid artery through the carotid canal to foramen lacerum. They then enter the middle cranial fossa above foramen lacerum, travel through the cavernous sinus in the middle cranial fossa and then travel with the ophthalmic artery in the optic canal or on the ophthalmic nerve through the superior orbital fissure. From there, they travel with the nasociliary nerve and then the long ciliary nerve. They then pierce the sclera, travel between sclera and choroid to reach the iris dilator muscle. They will also pass through ciliary ganglion and travel in short ciliary nerves to reach the iris dilator muscle.
Function
| 2.453125
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2939670
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris%20dilator%20muscle
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Iris dilator muscle
|
The pupillary dilator acts to increase the size of the pupil to allow more light to enter the eye. It works in opposition to the pupillary constrictor. Pupil dilation occurs when there is insufficient light for the normal function of the eye, and during heightened sympathetic activity, for example in the "fight-or-flight reflex".
History
Etymology
The English name dilator pupillae muscle as currently used in the list of English equivalents of the Terminologia Anatomica, the reference-work of the official anatomic nomenclature, can be considered as a corruption of the full Latin expression musculus dilatator pupillae. The full Latin expression exhibits three words that each can be traced back to Roman antiquity. The Classical Latin name musculus is actually a diminutive of the Classical Latin name mus, and can be translated as little mouse. In the medical writings of Aulus Cornelius Celsus we can also find this specific name to refer to a muscle instead of its literal meaning. Latin musculus can be explained by the fact that a muscle looks like a little mouse that moves under the skin. In the writings of Greek philosopher Aristotle the Ancient Greek word for mouse, i.e. μῦς is also used to refer to a muscle.
Dilatator in the Latin expression musculus dilatator pupillae is derived from the classical Latin verb dilatare, to dilate, to spread out. Two possible explanations exist concerning the etymological derivation of this verb. The first explanation considers dilatare as frequentative of differere. The Latin verb differe can mean, to carry different ways, to spread abroad, to scatter, but also to delay. The other explanation considers dilatare as a compound from di- and latus, with the latter word meaning, broad or wide, hence the German name Erweiterer for Latin dilatator.
| 3
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2939683
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitanian
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Capitanian
|
In the geologic timescale, the Capitanian is an age or stage of the Permian. It is also the uppermost or latest of three subdivisions of the Guadalupian Epoch or Series. The Capitanian lasted between and million years ago. It was preceded by the Wordian and followed by the Wuchiapingian.
A significant mass extinction event occurred at the end of this stage, which was associated with anoxia and acidification in the oceans and possibly caused by the volcanic eruptions that produced the Emeishan Traps. This extinction event may be related to the much larger Permian–Triassic extinction event that followed about 10 million years later.
Stratigraphy
The Capitanian Stage was introduced into scientific literature by George Burr Richardson in 1904. The name comes from the Capitan Reef in the Guadalupe Mountains (Texas, United States). The Capitanian was first used as a stratigraphic subdivision of the Guadalupian in 1961, when both names were still only used regionally in the southern US. The stage was added to the internationally used ICS timescale in 2001.
Definitions
The base of the Capitanian Stage is defined as the place in the stratigraphic record where fossils of conodont species Jinogondolella postserrata first appear. The global reference profile for this stratigraphic boundary is located at Nipple Hill in the southern Guadalupe Mountains of Texas.
The top of the Capitanian (the base of the Wuchiapingian and Lopingian series) is defined as the place in the stratigraphic record where the conodont species Clarkina postbitteri postbitteri first appears.
The Capitanian Stage was part of the time in which the Zechstein was deposited in Europe. It is coeval with the old European regional Saxonian Stage. In the eastern Tethys domain, the Capitanian overlaps the regional Murgabian Stage, the Midian Stage and the lower part of the Laibinian Stage. In Russia the Capitanian equals the lower part of the regional Severodvinian Stage.
| 3.015625
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2939684
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris%20sphincter%20muscle
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Iris sphincter muscle
|
The iris sphincter muscle (pupillary sphincter, pupillary constrictor, circular muscle of iris, circular fibers) is a muscle in the part of the eye called the iris. It encircles the pupil of the iris, appropriate to its function as a constrictor of the pupil.
The ciliary muscle, pupillary sphincter muscle and pupillary dilator muscle sometimes are called intrinsic ocular muscles or intraocular muscles.
Comparative anatomy
This structure is found in vertebrates and in some cephalopods.
General structure
All the myocytes are of the smooth muscle type.
Its dimensions are about 0.75 mm wide by 0.15 mm thick.
Mode of action
In humans, it functions to constrict the pupil in bright light (pupillary light reflex) or during accommodation. In lower animals, the muscle cells themselves are photosensitive causing iris action without brain input.
Innervation
It is controlled by parasympathetic postganglionic fibers releasing acetylcholine acting primarily on the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (M3) of iris sphincter muscle. Preganglionic fibers originate from the Edinger–Westphal nucleus, travel along the oculomotor nerve (CN III), and make nicotinic cholinergic synapses on neurons in the ciliary ganglion. Those neurons' postganglionic parasympathetic fibers then enter the eye through the short ciliary nerves. The short ciliary nerves then run forward and pierce the sclera at the back of the eye, traveling between the sclera and the choroid to innervate the iris sphincter muscle.
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2939687
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council%20for%20International%20Organizations%20of%20Medical%20Sciences
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Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences
|
The Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS) is an international non-governmental organization of 40 international, national, and associate member groups representing the biomedical science community. It was jointly established by the World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1949 as a successor to the International Medical Congress that organized 17 conferences from 1867 until the 1913 outbreak of World War I.
The group's main goal is advancing public health by publishing guidelines on ethics, product development, and safety in medical research, such as the 2016 International Ethical Guidelines for Health-Related Research Involving Humans.
Governance
The General Assembly of all CIOMS member organizations meets every year, alternating between in-person and teleconference formats, to elect the Executive Committee and its voting President. The Executive Committee of twelve representatives from national and international member groups meets at least one a year, appointing and guiding the Secretariat, consisting of the Secretary-General and their team in Geneva, Switzerland. The Executive Committee can invite non-voting ad hoc observers and technical experts.
Round Tables and Working Groups
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2939687
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council%20for%20International%20Organizations%20of%20Medical%20Sciences
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Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences
|
After its 1948 founding by UNESCO and the WHO as the Council for Coordination of International Medical Congresses, these UN specialized agencies funded its first conference in Brussels, Belgium. In 1952, the group was renamed as the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS) to reflect a focus on guiding member organizations that internally organize field-specific conferences. From 1967 to 1997, it organized annual round tables on medical science topics, offering a standardized conference format:
I. Biomedical Science and the Dilemma of Human Experimentation Paris, France, 1967
II. Heart Transplantation Geneva, Switzerland, 1968
III. Evaluation of Drugs: Whose Responsibility? Liège, Belgium, 1968
IV. Medical Research: Priorities and Responsibilities, Geneva, Switzerland, 1969
V. Training of Research Workers in Medical Sciences, Geneva, Switzerland, 1970
VI. Drug Abuse: Non-Medical Use of Dependence-Producing Drugs, Geneva, Switzerland, 1971
VII. Recent Progress in Biology and Medicine: Its Social and Ethical Implications, Paris, France, 1972
VIII. Protection of Human Rights in the Light of Scientific and Technological Progress in Biology and Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland, 1973
IX. Medical Care and Society, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1974
X. Health Needs of Society: A Challenge for Medical Education Ulm, Germany, 1976
XI. Trends and Prospects in Drug Research and Development, Geneva, Switzerland, 1977
XII. Medical Ethics and the Protection of Human Rights Cascais, Portugal, 1978
XIII. Economics and Health Policy, Geneva, Switzerland, 1979
XIV. Medical Ethics and Medical Education, Mexico, 1980
XV. Human Experimentation and Medical Ethics, Manila, Philippines, 1981
XVI. Health for All – A Challenge to Research in Health Manpower Development, Ibadan, Nigeria, 1982
XVII. Biomedical Research Involving Animals – Proposed International Guiding Principles, Geneva, Switzerland, 1983
XVIII. Health Policy Ethics and Human Values: An International Dialogue, Athens, Greece, 1984
| 2.484375
| 0
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2939694
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenge%20of%20the%20Ancient%20Empires%21
|
Challenge of the Ancient Empires!
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Challenge of the Ancient Empires!, also known as Ancient Empires is an educational computer game created by The Learning Company in 1990 for both MS-DOS and Macintosh. It is designed to improve history, logic, and problem solving skills in children ages 7 to 10 (or 10 and up, according to the box art seen to the right).
Challenge of the Ancient Empires! is an adventure game whose objective is to obtain the artifacts hidden in each of the four regions. To do this, the player must navigate through cavern chambers, dodging enemies and obstacles, recovering pieces of artifacts and putting them together in a tiling puzzle in order to advance to the next level.
Gameplay
The objective of Challenge of the Ancient Empires! is to collect the hidden treasures from caverns in 4 different regions of the world: Greece and Rome, Egypt, India and China, and the Near East. Each of these caverns consists of four chambers. The decorations and artifacts in each of these chambers correlates to the region being explored. For example, the Egyptian cavern features decorations of hieroglyphs and mummies and will contain artifacts like the sphinx or the Rosetta Stone.
Additionally, each cavern has a different style of puzzle; The Near East section implements switches that move panels blocking the way, while the Egyptian section consists mainly of triangular reflectors, which the player must orient correctly to direct a light beam and trigger a switch. Greece and Rome caverns imply Greek letter coded gates that open by entering the right combination. India and China involves the manipulation of conveyor belts to advance in the proper direction. Upon successfully navigating a chamber's puzzle and collecting six pieces of the artifact, the player must then solve a puzzle by orienting and placing rectangular puzzle pieces in the proper configuration to reveal a picture of the artifact. Afterwards, he must find the exit door and solve a logic puzzle to advance to the next chamber.
| 3.03125
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2939694
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenge%20of%20the%20Ancient%20Empires%21
|
Challenge of the Ancient Empires!
|
The four main caverns, associated with the four regions of the world, may be played in any order. Once the player completes all four chambers in each of the four caverns, a new cavern opens. This cavern is referred to as the "Ancient World" and is composed of four new chambers. Each chamber is in the style of one of the four regions from the previous caverns. The Ancient World cavern is more difficult than the others and consists of a combination of all the puzzles in the main caverns.
The player has three items to help him navigate through each cavern's puzzles. These items include a miner's hat, a pair of special shoes, called "turbo tennies" that allow the player to jump higher, and four force fields that will protect the player from all damage for a few seconds. The miner's hat shines a beam of light used to flip switches or temporarily stun any cave animals that can cause the player damage. The Egyptian cavern has several challenges that involve rotating prisms and mirrors to deflect the light beam to a specific sensor. The shoes allow the player to jump much higher than a normal. A force field will prevent all damage for five seconds when used, but the player is only given four of them per level.
A display at the bottom of the screen show the player's current collected artifact pieces, chosen tool, current cavern and chamber, and remaining energy. The energy bar functions as a life bar and has four segments. If the player comes into contact with a cave animal or a projectile, one segment is depleted. If all four segments are lost, the player must begin the chamber over again. Health can be restored either by picking up apples in the caverns or by correctly solving a logic puzzle on the first attempt.
| 2.265625
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2939698
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnian
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Carnian
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The Otischalkian land vertebrate faunachron corresponds to the early late Carnian, while the Adamanian land vertebrate faunachron corresponds to the latest Carnian.
Paleogeography and climate
The paleogeography of the Carnian was basically the same as for the rest of the Triassic. Most continents were merged into the supercontinent Pangaea, and there was a single global ocean, Panthalassa. The global ocean had a western branch at tropical latitudes called Paleo-Tethys. The sediments of Paleo-Tethys now crop out in southeastern Europe, in the Middle East, in the Himalayas, and up to the island of Timor.
The extreme land-sea distribution led to "mega-monsoons", i.e., an atmospheric monsoon regime more intense than the present one.
As for most of the Mesozoic, there were no ice caps. Climate was mostly arid in the tropics, but an episode of wet tropical climate is documented at least in the Paleo-Tethys. This putative climatic event is called the "Carnian Pluvial Event", its age being between latest early Carnian (Julian) and the beginning of late Carnian (Tuvalian).
Carnian life
In the marine realm, the Carnian saw the first abundant occurrences of calcareous nanoplankton, a morphological group including the coccolithophores.
Invertebrates
There are a few invertebrates which are typical and characteristic of the Carnian. Among molluscs, the ammonoid genus Trachyceras is exclusive to the lower Carnian (i.e., Julian of the two-substages subdivision, see above). The family Tropitidae and the genus Tropites appear at the base of the upper Carnian (Tuvalian). The bivalve genus Halobia, a bottom-dweller of deep sea environments, differentiated from Daonella at the beginning of this age. Scleractinian coral reefs, i.e., reefs with corals of the modern type, became relatively common for the first time in the Carnian.
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2939698
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnian
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Carnian
|
Vertebrates
The earliest unequivocal dinosaurs, such as those from the Ischigualato Formation (e.g. Herrerasaurus and Eoraptor) and those from the Santa Maria Formation (e.g. Staurikosaurus and Buriolestes) originated during the Carnian, around 230 Ma.
In this stage the archosaurs became the dominant faunas in the world, evolving into groups such as the phytosaurs, rhynchosaurs, aetosaurs, and rauisuchians. The first dinosaurs (and the pterosaur Carniadactylus) also appeared in this stage, and though at the time they were small and insignificant, they diversified rapidly and would dominate the fauna for the rest of the Mesozoic. On the other hand, the therapsids, which included the ancestors of mammals, decreased in both size and diversity, and would remain relatively small until the extinction of the dinosaurs.
Conodonts were present in Triassic marine sediments. Paragondolella polygnathiformis appeared at the base of the Carnian Stage, and is considered a characteristic species. A partial list of Carnian vertebrates is given below. Many Carnian vertebrates are found in Santa Maria Formation rocks of the Paleorrota geopark.
Classic localities and Lagerstätten
The lower Carnian fauna of the San Cassiano Formation (Dolomites, northern Italy) has been studied since the 19th century. Fossiliferous localities are many, and are distributed mostly in the surroundings of Cortina d'Ampezzo and in the high Badia Valley, near the village of San Cassiano, after which the formation was named. This fauna is extremely diverse, including ammonoids, gastropods, bivalves, echinoderms, calcareous sponge, corals, brachiopods, and a variety of less common fossils. A collection of this fauna is exposed in the "Museo delle Regole", a museum in Cortina d'Ampezzo.
The Ischigualasto Formation of the Ischigualasto-Villa Unión Basin in northwestern Argentina yielded a very important vertebrate association, including the oldest dinosaurian assemblage.
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2939719
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brynamman
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Brynamman
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Brynamman () is a village on the south side of the Black Mountain (Y Mynydd Du), part of the Brecon Beacons National Park (Parc Cenedlaethol Bannau Brycheiniog). The village is split into Upper Brynamman and Lower Brynamman by the River Amman, which is also the boundary between the counties of Carmarthenshire and Neath Port Talbot (in the old county of Glamorganshire). Ruins of stone dwellings (possibly prehistoric), an early type of lime kiln and rectangular medieval buildings found on the mountain show that people have lived in this area for a long time. The population of Brynamman was 2,608 as of 2011; the urban area including Gwaun-Cae-Gurwen was 5,692.
Brynamman was previously known as Y Gwter Fawr (); The name was changed when the railway from Ammanford reached the village. George Borrow describes aspects of Gwter Fawr in the mid-19th century in his book Wild Wales published 1862. The current name is derived from "Brynamman House", the home of John Jones, builder of the railway.
Brynamman Golf Club (now defunct) first appeared in the mid-1920s. It continued into the 1930s.
A feasibility study is being conducted into the reopening of Brynamman Lido, which opened in 1934 and closed in 2010.
Ynys Dawela
Ynys Dawela Nature Park is situated to the west of Brynamman, in the upper reaches of the Amman Valley. Its northern boundary is the Brecon Beacons National Park, and the river Amman, fringed with ancient oak woodland, forms its southern boundary. The park covers an area of 39 acres (15.8 hectares) and was once a working farm. The meadows dating from this period now support some scarce flowers, such as the Whorled Caraway and Meadow Thistle, and other wildlife, such as the marsh fritillary butterfly and dormice.
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2939738
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Senate%20Committee%20on%20the%20Philippines
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United States Senate Committee on the Philippines
|
Emilio Aguinaldo
Democrats on the committee pressed Lodge to call as witnesses Emilio Aguinaldo, the Filipino general and independence leader, and several others they thought necessary for the committee to hear. In addition to Mr. Aguinaldo, Mr. Rawlings proposed calling Apolinario Mabini, one of Aguinaldo's principal advisors and Prime Minister of the declared Filipino revolutionary government; Sixto Lopez, an advocate for Philippine independence; Judge Pío del Pilar, General Torres, Howard W. Bray, an Englishman, who has spent many years in the Philippines, Robert M. Collins, and Harold Martin, both Associated Press correspondents. The committee refused this request as well as one that would have sent a subcommittee to the Philippines to collect testimony.
Instead, Mr. Lodge subpoenaed several veterans from a so-called "safe list" supplied by Secretary of War Elihu Root. However, when the soldiers appeared, they began to lecture the committee on the necessity of shooting and burning all Filipinos because of their "inability to appreciate human kindness."
Sergeant L. E. Hallock, Private William J. Gibbs, George C. Boardman, Captain Lee Hall, Richard Thomas O'Brien all testified to what they had seen during their service in the Philippines, including torture of Filipino prisoners, including use of the water cure, murder of natives, and other harassment.
| 1.9375
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2939738
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Senate%20Committee%20on%20the%20Philippines
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United States Senate Committee on the Philippines
|
General MacArthur testified before the committee twice. On April 13, he initially discussed the short war with the Spaniards and the American cooperation with the Filipinos. Then later that month, he testified again, regarding the capture of Emilio Aguinaldo. The General testified he had used deception to capture Mr. Aguinaldo, saying "I am responsible in that matter in every way and particular. It was one of the deceptions frequently practiced in war, and whatever deception attached thereto, I take." He attributed the plan to Gen. Funston, but said he (MacArthur) was responsible for approving the plant. However, he insisted doing so did not violate the rules of civilized warfare. MacArthur also distanced himself from any alleged orders of General Jacob H. Smith to turn Samar a howling wilderness.
MacArthur said that absolute chaos would result should the Filipinos be given complete independence and the United States entirely withdraw from the islands. Aguinaldo also had told him it would be impossible at this stage of their evolution for his own people to establish a stable independent Government. He said Aguinaldo was at the time of the conversation a "qualified prisoner", but that there was no coercion or duress resorted to extract the statement.
In regards to the death toll in the Philippines, he said, "The destruction is simply incident to war, and of course embraces a very small percentage of the total population, which is dense." In response, Senator Patterson noted that the death toll in one province was nearly a third. Gen. MacArthur spoke of the capture of papers from high Filipino officials in which the information was contained that, if President McKinley should be re-elected, the insurgents would surrender to the authority of the United States.
Alleged war crimes
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2939738
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Senate%20Committee%20on%20the%20Philippines
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United States Senate Committee on the Philippines
|
Concentration camps
Colonel Arthur L. Wagner, the Army's chief public relations officer, had spent two and a half years in the Philippines. Wagner testified in May, where he was questioned about concentration camps in the Philippines, 31 including deaths at the camps. In one camp, it was reported that the people were assembled according to villages, so that the people in all cases would have their old neighbors near them. So far as he had been able to observe, there was no evidence of want among the people there congregated. Moreover, they were surprisingly contented. Such camps, he insisted, were created to "protect friendly natives from the insurgents" and to "assure them an adequate food supply", while also teaching them "proper sanitary standards." People were limited to travel within 300 to 800 yards of the camp, beyond which was a so-called "dead line" that anyone caught crossing would be shot, though he claimed the standing order was not to shoot any helpless persons, or any others if the shooting could be avoided.
Colonel Wagner said that one of the principal purposes of concentrating the native people in the Philippines was to protect them against the Ladrones, which had been admirably accomplished. Another object of the camps had been that of facilitating the collection of the rice supplies in order to starve out the Ladrones and guerrillas. The result had been that hostile parties had practically disappeared and their leader, Malvar, had been captured. The policy had been necessary to "protect life and property, and he did not see how any other policy could have been successful. He said that the people were fed and given medical supplies, and the sanitation of the camps was looked after. He insisted that American camps in the Philippines no more could be compared to Valeriano Weyler's reconcentrado camps in Cuba than mercy could be compared to cruelty.
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2939751
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylparaben
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Methylparaben
|
Methylparaben (methyl paraben) one of the parabens, is a preservative with the chemical formula CH3(C6H4(OH)COO). It is the methyl ester of p-hydroxybenzoic acid.
Natural occurrences
Methylparaben serves as a pheromone for a variety of insects and is a component of queen mandibular pheromone.
It is a pheromone in wolves produced during estrus associated with the behavior of alpha male wolves preventing other males from mounting females in heat.
Uses
Methylparaben is an anti-fungal agent often used in a variety of cosmetics and personal-care products. It is also used as a food preservative and has the E number E218.
Methylparaben is commonly used as a fungicide in Drosophila food media at 0.1%. To Drosophila, methylparaben is toxic at higher concentrations, has an estrogenic effect (mimicking estrogen in rats and having anti-androgenic activity), and slows the growth rate in the larval and pupal stages at 0.2%.
Safety
There is controversy about whether methylparaben or propylparabens are harmful at concentrations typically used in body care or cosmetics. Methylparaben and propylparaben are considered generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the USFDA for food and cosmetic antibacterial preservation. Methylparaben is readily metabolized by common soil bacteria, making it completely biodegradable.
Methylparaben is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract or through the skin. It is hydrolyzed to p-hydroxybenzoic acid and rapidly excreted in urine without accumulating in the body. Acute toxicity studies have shown that methylparaben is practically non-toxic by both oral and parenteral administration in animals. In a population with normal skin, methylparaben is practically non-irritating and non-sensitizing; however, allergic reactions to ingested parabens have been reported. A 2008 study found no competitive binding for human estrogen and androgen receptors for methylparaben, but varying levels of competitive binding were seen with butyl- and isobutyl-paraben.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butylparaben
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Butylparaben
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Butylparaben, or butyl p-hydroxybenzoate, is an organic compound with the formula . It is a white solid that is soluble in organic solvents. It has proven to be a highly successful antimicrobial preservative in cosmetics. It is also used in medication suspensions, and as a flavoring additive in food.
Natural occurrence
Members of the paraben family are found in fruit and vegetable products, such as barley, flax seed, and grapes. Butylparaben has also been found to be produced in some microorganisms including Microbulbifer .
Preparation
Butylparaben is prepared by the esterification of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid with 1-butanol in the presence of an acid catalyst such as sulfuric acid. It is produced industrially.
Uses and reactions
Butylparaben is one of the most common bactericidal/fungicidal additives in cosmetics. It has been used in cosmetic products since the 1940s and in pharmaceutical products since 1924. The popularity of butylparaben in these products is due to its low toxicity in humans and its effective antimicrobial properties, in particular those against mold and yeast. It is now found in more than 20,000 cosmetic products including eye shadow, facial moisturizer/treatment, anti-aging cream, foundation, and sunscreen. It is also used as low-ionic strength solutions as a preservative in some foods and drugs. In most cosmetics paraben is used at low levels, ranging from 0.01 to 0.3%. Butylparaben is used in low concentrations in liquid and solid medication suspensions, such as Tylenol (acetaminophen) and ibuprofen.
Mechanism of action
The exact mechanism of how parabens work is unknown but they are proposed to act by inhibiting DNA and RNA synthesis, and enzymes like ATPase and phosphotransferase in some bacterial species. It has also been suggested that they interfere with membrane transport processes by disrupting the lipid bilayer and possibly causing the leakage of intracellular constituents.
Regulation and controversy
Butylparaben has not escaped controversy, which itself is controversial.
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Butylparaben
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It occurs in breast cancers at around tissue. However, parabens have not been proven to cause breast cancer. Estimates by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition have found that the average person is exposed to about 37 ng of butylparaben per day.
Butylparaben has been found in small concentrations in human breast fat and breast tumors. A review by the National Toxicology Program concluded, "There is no evidence of demonstrable risk for the development of breast cancer caused by the use of paraben-containing underarm cosmetics." Animal studies have been inconclusive. Oral administration of butylparaben to eight-week-old rats has caused tumors such as thymic lymphoma, non-thymic lymphoid leukemia, and myeloid leukemia. Similar studies, however, have found no significant increase in tumors upon butylparaben administration. Butylparaben is not listed as a carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer.
Environmental fate
Butylparaben has been found in the sewage. A 2001 study found that concentrations of parabens in Danish sewage facilities was to 1/100 to 1/1000 of the acute or chronic effect concentrations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel%20Sweeney
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Joel Sweeney
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Joel Walker Sweeney (1810 – October 29, 1860), also known as Joe Sweeney, was an American musician and early blackface minstrel performer. He is known for popularizing the playing of the banjo and has often been credited with advancing the physical development of the modern five-string banjo.
Biography
Born to a farming family in Appomattox County, Virginia, he claimed to have learned to play the banjo from local enslaved Africans. He is the earliest known person to have played the banjo on stage. Aside from his important role in popularizing the instrument, he has often been credited with advancing the physical development of the modern five-string banjo. Whereas the instrument's resonating chamber had formerly been constructed from a gourd (like the banjo's African ancestors and cousins), Sweeney popularized the use of a drum-like resonating chamber (legend has it that he adapted a cheese box for this purpose). He has also been credited with adding the banjo's fifth string, which according to legend was for an instrument he created for his niece between 1831 and 1840. He supposedly added the fifth string because he was "allegedly unhappy with the limited rhythm and melodic variation of the four-string banjos popularly in use." In fact, there is no proof that Sweeney introduced either innovation. "Outlandish claims have been made about Sweeney, from his being the "inventor" of the banjo to his being the first white man to play the banjo. These claims are part of an effort, beginning in the nineteenth century, to divorce the banjo from its African American origins."
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Joel Sweeney
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Many people assume Sweeney's "fifth string" is the drone string—the chanterelle—but if Sweeney did really add a fifth string, it would have been another, lower string. That would provide more melodic and harmonic expression, as the quote suggests. The high-pitched, thumb or drone string (the chanterelle, the fifth on a modern banjo) is seen on surviving 18th-century four-string banjos, and in banjo illustrations that long pre-date Sweeney's heyday. The fifth string gives the banjo a reentrant tuning, a feature that existed in instruments of the ancient Greeks.
Sweeney began performing with the banjo in the early 1830s. He first performed throughout central Virginia for county court sessions. A few years later he joined a circus and traveled throughout Virginia and North Carolina. By 1839, Sweeney was performing in various blackface venues in New York. His earliest documented use of the banjo on stage was in April 1839. That same month, he performed alongside James Sanford at the Broadway Circus in New York with a blackface burlesque of The Dying Moor's Defence of His Flag called "Novel Duetts, Songs, &c". This was accompanied by a "Comic Morris Dance by the whole company". According to Billy Whitlock of the Virginia Minstrels, Sweeney gave Whitlock a few banjo lessons around this time.
In colonial America the banjo was known as an instrument of "the lower classes," but by 1841, Sweeney was remaking the banjo into an instrument for the middle class. His advertisements boasted that he played with "scientific touches of perfection". Another raved, "Only those who have heard Sweeny know what music there is in a banjo." For the next few years, he was the benchmark against whom other banjo players were compared. After a performance by Dan Emmett at the Bowery Amphitheatre Circus, the New York Herald wrote, "Emmit's banjo playing is fully equal to Jo Sweeney's, and far ahead of any other now in the United States." "Jenny Get Your Hoe Cake Done" and "Knock a Nigger Down" became two of Sweeney's signature tunes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazoku
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Mazoku
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In Japanese mythology and fantasy, are supernatural beings, normally evil ones such as devils or demons. A or maou is a ruler of mazoku, or in fiction more generically a dark lord or powerful monster.
Etymology
The name ma ( – devil) suggests that they are meant to threaten human existence or defy the gods, while -zoku ( – tribe, clan, family) indicates that they are a family.
Maō () is a term derived from mazoku, suggesting a king ( Ō – king, ruler) that rules the mazoku.
In mythology and folklore
The term "mazoku" was used to describe the asura and yaksha in Hindu mythology, as well as Zoroastrianism's daeva. It is a general term for devils, demons and evil beings. In Japanese polytheism, it is an antonym of (shinzoku), "the tribe of gods".
A maō is a king or ruler over mazoku. For instance, in Bible translations, Satan is a maō. In polytheism, the counterpart of maō is (shin'ō), "the king of gods".
The Japanese feudal lord Oda Nobunaga also called himself a maō in a letter to Takeda Shingen, signing it with ("the demon king of the sixth heaven").
In fiction
In Japanese fantasy, the meaning of "mazoku" differs from work to work. Some works use the term for all evil beings that are enemies of humans or good beings, while others use it to specify a certain group of beings (not necessarily evil). The term (akumazoku) may be used to designate evil mazoku specifically (the word , aku, means "evil").
A maō may be a king of the mazoku, or more generally a king of demons, overlord, dark lord, archenemy of the hero or video game boss. The term is not gender-specific. For instance, "Erlkönig", by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, widely translated as "Elf King" in English, was translated as "maō" in Japanese. The term daimaō or daimaou ( – great demon king) is sometimes used to describe a very high-ranking or powerful maō. An example is Piccolo Daimaō, a villain from the Dragon Ball manga.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Montenegro
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Coat of arms of Montenegro
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The coat of arms of Montenegro () was officially adopted by the law passed in the Parliament on 12 July 2004. It is now the central motif of the flag of Montenegro, as well as the coat of arms of the Armed Forces of Montenegro.
It was constitutionally sanctioned by the Constitution proclaimed on 2 October 2007.
Description
The National Symbols and Statehood Day of Montenegro Law contains the official blazon of the current arms:
The charge is a two-headed eagle, a symbol of Byzantine and ultimately ancient Roman origin. It symbolizes either the unity of or the close connections between the church and the state.
The motif was used by medieval rulers of Zeta—the House of Crnojević—as well as various other European dynasties.
The current layout of the coat of arms of Montenegro was taken from that of the Russian Empire, with which the ruling House of Petrović-Njegoš had close ecclesiastical, dynastic and political ties in the 19th century when the new coat of arms was first adopted in its present shape.
The lion passant on the inescutcheon is as a sign of episcopal authority and could have been conceived of as a metaphor for the Lion of Judah. Furthermore, it bears some similarity to the motif present in the arms of Venice, which had considerable influence in the history of Montenegro. After Montenegro regained its independence from Ottoman Empire, it gradually became a theocracy to have a united front against the numerous Turkish invasions of the country. For this reason, the authority of the church was reflected in various insignia of the age.
After the establishment of the secular dynastic succession in 1851, the lion was placed beneath the eagle, while the initials of the ruler stood on the shield: notably, that of Danilo I, Prince of Montenegro, Danilo II, Prince of Montenegro and King Nicholas I of Montenegro. Curiously, Danilo I was still a prince-bishop while the standard bearing his initials was used.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Montenegro
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Coat of arms of Montenegro
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The modern coat of arms placed the lion d’or back on the shield, erasing that monarchic symbol. Today, Montenegro is a secular, democratic republic, so the fact that the crown of the Petrović-Njegoš dynasty was also represented created some controversy at the time of its adoption. However, this configuration proved extremely popular. The coat of arms can be seen not only in public places such as schools and governmental offices, but also in many private houses, places of business and private universities, due to being a common display of national pride.
Despite the mention of the red background, the coat of arms is almost always used without it, with the eagle appearing as a supporter. The coat of arms appears on a red background on the national seal and the national flag.
Use of national symbols under Montenegrin law
The coat of arms and the flag are used in the shape and contents determined by law. The use of the coat of arms and the flag is free in artistic creativity and educational work, in manners not disturbing the public morale, reputation and dignity of Montenegro.
In the coat of arms and the flag, it is not permitted to correct, add or change anything. Exceptionally, if so determined by special regulations, the coat of arms and the flag could be used as a component of other emblems or signs of the state bodies and other institutions. The coat of arms and the flag can not be used as merchant or service seal, sample or model, nor as any other sign marking the merchandise and services.
The coat of arms and the flag cannot be used if they are defective or otherwise inappropriate for use due to the unsuitable appearance. A defective or unsuitable for use coat of arms or flag are revoked from use.
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Coat of arms of Montenegro
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The history of the state coat of arms begins with the Crnojević dynasty in the 15th century. Their family arms – a golden crowned two-headed eagle on a red background – laid the foundation of the Montenegrin state heraldry: the two-headed eagle became the standard symbol of the state. After gaining power, the Petrović-Njegoš dynasty took the golden two-headed eagle as the state symbol. Vladika Danilo charged on its breast the Great Arms of the Petrović-Njegoš family (shield, crown, mantling), while his successor vladika Sava made major changes to the coat of arms: he removed the family Great Arms from the eagle's breast, and added a sceptre and a globus cruciger ("the imperial orb") in its claws. He also added another symbol retained until present day – a golden lion passant – below the golden eagle. With Petar I, further rearrangement of the coat of arms took place: he removed the royal insignia from the eagle and charged the eagle's breast with the Middle Arms of the Petrović-Njegoš while leaving the lion passant.
Prince Danilo also reorganised the coat of arms: he charged the golden eagle's breast with a shield with a blue background and a golden lion passant on green ground. In one claw the eagle held the orb, and in the other a sword and a sceptre. In the time of King Nicholas I, the sword was removed and later, in conformity with the Constitution of 1905, the colour of the eagle was changed from golden to silver as well as the colour of the inescutcheon – from blue to red.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin%20Cherry
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Colin Cherry
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Edward Colin Cherry (23 June 1914 – 23 November 1979) was a British cognitive scientist whose main contributions were in focused auditory attention, specifically the cocktail party problem regarding the capacity to follow one conversation while many other conversations are going on in a noisy room. Cherry used shadowing tasks to study this problem, which involve playing two different auditory messages to a participant's left and right ears and instructing them to attend to only one. The participant must then shadow this attended message.
Cherry found that very little information about the unattended message was obtained by his participants: physical characteristics were detected but semantic characteristics were not. Cherry therefore concluded that unattended auditory information receives very little processing and that we use physical differences between messages to select which one we attend.
He was born in St Albans in 1914 and educated at St Albans School and Northampton Polytechnic (now City University) gaining his B.Sc. in 1936. After the war, during which he worked on radar research with the British Ministry of Aircraft Production, he taught at the Manchester College of Technology and then Imperial College London. He was awarded the D.Sc. in 1956 and presented the Bernard Price Memorial Lecture in 1958. From 1957 until 1966, he served as one of three founding editors of Information and Control. He was appointed to the Chair of Telecommunications at Imperial College in 1958. In 1978 he was elected to a Marconi International Fellowship. His writings include On Human Communication (1957) and World Communication: Threat or Promise (1971).
Bibliography
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Army%20Ordnance%20Corps
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Royal Army Ordnance Corps
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The Royal Army Ordnance Corps (RAOC) was a corps of the British Army. At its renaming as a Royal Corps in 1918 it was both a supply and repair corps. In the supply area it had responsibility for weapons, armoured vehicles and other military equipment, ammunition and clothing and certain minor functions such as laundry, mobile baths and photography. The RAOC was also responsible for a major element of the repair of Army equipment. In 1942 the latter function was transferred to the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (REME) and the vehicle storage and spares responsibilities of the Royal Army Service Corps were in turn passed over to the RAOC. The RAOC retained repair responsibilities for ammunition, clothing and certain ranges of general stores. In 1964 the McLeod Reorganisation of Army Logistics resulted in the RAOC absorbing petroleum, rations and accommodation stores functions from the Royal Army Service Corps as well as the Army Fire Service, barrack services, sponsorship of NAAFI (EFI) and the management of staff clerks from the same Corps. On 5 April 1993, the RAOC was one of the corps that amalgamated to form The Royal Logistic Corps (RLC).
The permanent establishment of an Ordnance Office long predated that of a standing army in Britain; it has therefore been claimed that 'in a wide sense, as heirs to the master-bowyers, master-fletchers, master-carpenters and master-smiths who, in mediaeval days, were responsible as Officers of Ordnance for the care and provision of warlike matériel, and to their successors the storekeepers, clerks, artificers, armourers and storemen of the Board of Ordnance, the R.A.O.C. can claim a far longer continuous history and more ancient lineage than any other unit of the British Army'.
Predecessors of the RAOC
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Royal Army Ordnance Corps
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Supply and repair of technical equipment, principally artillery and small arms, was the responsibility of the Master General of the Ordnance and the Board of Ordnance from the Middle Ages until they lost their independence in 1855. Thereafter followed thirty years of fluctuating allocation of responsibilities and a great variety of titles of both corps and individuals. This complex, convoluted and largely unsatisfactory period insofar as Army logistics was concerned was summarised in 1889 as follows:
Before Crimea
The Board of Ordnance had its own military establishment consisting of the Royal Artillery and the Royal Engineers (who were not at that time part of the British Army). The Storekeeper's department, on the other hand, was part of the civil establishment, though (as with much of the Board's activity) troops were involved in various aspects of its operation when not deployed elsewhere. In any case, modern distinctions between civilian and military personnel were not so clear cut for those serving under the Board: its officers, engineers and artillerymen received their commissions or patents from the Master-General of the Ordnance, as did the Storekeepers, artificers and storemen. Though civilians, the Storekeepers were provided with uniform, akin to that of the Royal Artillery, described in 1833 as a blue coat with red stand-collar and cuffs, gold epaulettes indicating rank and blue trousers with a gold stripe, worn with a gold-hilted sword and a cocked hat; Clerks on the establishment wore the same uniform but without epaulettes. After Waterloo they were given relative rank (for the purpose of allotting appropriate quarters): Storekeepers to rank as lieutenant colonel, Deputy Storekeepers as major (if in independent charge) or else captain, Assistant Storekeepers as lieutenant and Clerks as a non-commissioned officer. The Storekeepers and their Deputies had oversight of the Ordnance Yards, both at home and abroad, however they were never deployed in the theatre of war.
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Royal Army Ordnance Corps
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With regard to the Royal Artillery and the Royal Engineers, the Field Train Department had additional responsibilities: it provided them with pay, clothing, medical supplies and camp equipment when deployed (while the Commissariat provided their food and forage). The Field Train Department provided the Royal Engineers with their pontoon bridges and other specialist equipment, and (until the formation of a separate Corps of Artillery Drivers) provided for the movement of artillery pieces in the field (other than those pertaining to the Royal Horse Artillery). For the duration of conflict the Department's personnel accompanied the Artillery and Engineer units in the field providing them with logistic support (including repair facilities).
Between 1795 and 1815, the Field Train served in thirty expeditions and campaigns. In peacetime, the civilians and sergeants returned to their former duties, but the cadre of officers was retained; they were based initially in the Royal Arsenal, and then in the Grand Depot (just off Woolwich Common) where the guns were stored ready for deployment. At the start of the Crimean War, the Ordnance Field Train was mobilized once again. A parallel supply corps within the Army (the Royal Waggon Train, first established in 1794) had been disbanded as a cost-cutting measure in 1833, however, and its responsibilities devolved again to the Commissariat (which was by now more attuned to peacetime operations than warfare); after a well-publicised series of logistical failings the Commissariat and the Board of Ordnance, as well as the command-structure of the army itself, were all strongly criticised, leading (among other things) to the abolition of the Board (in 1855) and its Field Train Department (in 1859, its officers having transferred to the new Military Store Department).
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Royal Army Ordnance Corps
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After Crimea
In the years following the Crimean War three corps can be identified as the direct predecessors of the RAOC. The Military Store Department (MSD) created in 1861 granted military commissions and provided officers to manage stores inventories. In parallel a subordinate corps of warrant officers and sergeants, the Military Store Clerks Corps (MSC), was also created to carry out clerical duties. These small corps (235 officers in the MSD and 44 MSC) were based largely at the Tower of London, Woolwich Arsenal and Weedon Bec, but were also deployable on active service. They were supplemented in 1865 by the establishment at Woolwich of a Military Store Staff Corps (MSSC) to provide soldiers: initially 200-strong, it had more than doubled in size by 1869, with units in Portsmouth, Devonport, Aldershot, Dublin and Chatham as well as at Woolwich and the Tower.
In 1870 a further reorganisation, ostensibly to simplify management, resulted in the MSD, MSC and MSSC being grouped with the Army Service Corps (ASC) under the Control Department. The officers remained a separate branch (Ordnance or Military Stores) in the Control Department but the soldiers were absorbed into the ASC. This arrangement lasted until 1876.
The Control Department was disbanded in 1876. The Ordnance/Military Store officers joined a newly created Ordnance Stores Department (OSD). Five years later, in 1881, the soldiers also left the ASC and became the Ordnance Store Corps (OSC). In 1894 there were further changes. The OSD was retitled the Army Ordnance Department (AOD) and absorbed the Inspectors of Machinery from the Royal Artillery (RA). In parallel the OSC was retitled the Army Ordnance Corps (AOC) and at the same time absorbed the Corps of Armourers and the RA's Armament Artificers.
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Royal Army Ordnance Corps
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Depots and other installations
The earliest depot for military stores was the Tower of London, headquarters of the Ordnance Office, which for many centuries sufficed to hold the country's central stocks of artillery, gunpowder, small arms and ammunition albeit in unsatisfactory circumstances. The Tower continued to be used for storage into the 19th century, but in 1671 the Board of Ordnance acquired a parcel of land at Woolwich which soon supplanted the Tower to become the Board's main ordnance storage depot; manufacture as well as storage of guns and ammunition took place on the site, which was later named the Royal Arsenal. In 1760 the Royal Gunpowder Magazine was established at Purfleet, replacing the Tower as Britain's central repository of gunpowder. In 1808 a modern purpose-built depot was constructed at Weedon, alongside the Grand Union Canal, to serve as a safe repository for guns and ammunition; and in 1813 a new Grand Storehouse was opened in the Royal Arsenal, containing multiple warehouses for all kinds of military stores. When Woolwich Dockyard closed in 1869, the entire dockyard site was taken over by the War Office to become a vast ordnance stores complex, annexed (and linked by rail) to the ordnance stores in the Royal Arsenal; large stocks of barrack stores, harnesses, accoutrements and other general stores were transferred to Woolwich Dockyard from the Tower at this time. At the same time the Military Store Department moved its headquarters from the Tower to the Red Barracks at Woolwich. The barracks went on to serve as the regimental depot, headquarters and home of the ordnance corps for the next fifty years. Finally, by about 1887, large stocks of small arms were moved from the Tower of London to Weedon, leaving the Tower to serve as a repository of ancient arms and armour and as a small Ordnance centre for troops in London.
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Royal Army Ordnance Corps
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In addition to these central depots, ordnance yards in the naval and garrison towns of Chatham, Portsmouth and Plymouth held reserve stocks of camp equipment, entrenching tools, small-arms and ammunition, accoutrements, harness and saddlery (similar stores were also provided at Dublin, Gibraltar and Malta). During the Crimean War, however, these arrangements proved unequal to the task of equipping an army with speed at a time of mobilization. After the war an Ordnance station was established as part of the new training camp at Aldershot: a hutted encampment was provided for troops to practise combined training, alongside a depot to furnish them with field stores. In the 1880s an effort was made to decentralise the reserves of equipment; as many as sixty-two small regional centres were set up, in an effort to bring stores closer to the units that would use them. Later, with the establishment of larger camps and garrisons in the early 20th century, these were consolidated into eighteen larger Ordnance stations. At the same time, during the period from the 1860s to 1914, various depots were established to support the Army throughout the world (with the notable exception of India where the Indian Army managed its own parallel organisation in Ordnance Depot Quetta, Rawalpindi and Karachi (then British India and now Pakistan), the Indian Army Ordnance Corps (IAOC). In 1881 there were detachments in Dublin, Jersey, Gibraltar, Malta, Bermuda, Canada, St Helena, Cape of Good Hope, Mauritius and Straits Settlements. There was also a substantial detachment supporting the Anglo-Zulu War in Natal.
In 1895 the Royal Army Clothing Department, with its factory and depot at Pimlico, was taken over by the AOD which then became responsible for the provision of uniforms and other items of clothing for much of the army.
Field units
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Royal Army Ordnance Corps
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In 1855 Captain Henry Gordon (brother of the famous Gordon of Khartoum) left the Army and joined the Ordnance department; From March that year until July 1856 he was sent to Balaklava to take charge of all stores for all branches of the army: the first time an Ordnance Storekeeper had been appointed in the field of battle. The following year, a memorandum was issued making it clear that, in future, a staff of Military Store officers, clerks, artificers and labourers should accompany troops at time of war to ensure abundant provision of equipment for immediate use together with effective maintenance of reserve stocks in the field. These arrangements were put into practice both in China and in New Zealand in 1860. The labourers and artificers were civilians, until the establishment of the Military Store Staff Corps in 1865.
There was substantial support by the RAOC's predecessors for every late Victorian expedition with the major efforts being the campaigns in Egypt and the Sudan (1882-5 and 1898) and the Boer War (1899-1902). All campaigns required the support of very large numbers of troops, animals and equipment in hostile environments. They produced a well-developed system of stores dumps and repair facilities along extended lines of communication.
First World War
As with the rest of the British Army the AOD/AOC was transformed by the First World War. Both the sheer scale of the war and the increasing technical complexity created an organisational structure that, in its outlines, survives until today. The depots at Woolwich, Weedon and Pimlico were supplemented by the wholesale takeover of warehouses throughout the country and in early 1915 a depot was established at Didcot to be the major focus for the receipt and distribution of RAOC stores. Ammunition storage was also expanded dramatically and the former peacetime magazines at places such as Purfleet, Portsmouth and Plymouth were supplemented by purpose built depots at Bramley, Altrincham, Credenhill and Didcot.
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Royal Army Ordnance Corps
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During the war the RAOC HQ (together with the RAOC School) had moved from Hilsea to Middleton Stoney (Bicester); in 1946 it moved again to Matthew Barracks, Tidworth and shortly afterwards to Deepcut. The regimental depot was also moved from Hilsea, in 1946, to Feltham Barracks, Middlesex; in 1955 it too moved to Deepcut. Hilsea, which had been used by the US Army during the war, continued to be used (alongside Deepcut) as a training facility for RAOC-enlisted National Service recruits; with National Service coming to an end the Barracks closed in 1962 (but not before serving again, temporarily, as the regimental depot from 1960-1962 while Deepcut was being rebuilt).
A major task that fell to the RAOC in the wake of the war was disposal of ammunition. As well as disposing of large amounts of surplus stock from depots at home, and returning in good order sites that had been requisitioned for the duration of the war, RAOC units were heavily involved in clearing ammunition from Germany's former depots and dealing with live devices still in the field. The RAOC's skills in bomb disposal were later put to increasing use in dealing with terrorist devices at home as well as in conflict zones overseas. The training of Ammunition Examiners, Ammunition Technicians and Ammunition Technical Officers at the Army School of Ammunition became progressively more specialised during the 1950s and '60s. In May 1970 a section of 321 EOD Unit was sent to Northern Ireland to support the local ammunition inspectorate in dealing with improvised explosive devices; what was initially a 6-month deployment marked the start of a much longer involvement through the Troubles.
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In the period 1945–93 the RAOC, as with the rest of the Army, reduced greatly in size and closed its worldwide bases as garrisons withdrew. At the same time, there was considerable development of warehousing techniques and information technology (the first move towards computerisation came with the opening of an Automated Data Processing Installation at Chilwell in 1963 and one at Bicester the following year.)
The Free Officers Movement (Egypt) concluded the Anglo–Egyptian Agreement of 1954, signed on 19 October, with Great Britain. The agreement stipulated a phased evacuation of British troops from the Suez base, agreed to withdrawal of all troops within 20 months (that is, June 1956); maintenance of the base was to be continued; and allowed Britain to hold the right to return for seven years. The compromise solution to retain British influence over the Suez Canal base area, seen as vital in the event of any future Middle East war with the Soviet Union, was to arrange the Canal Zone depot area to be taken over by specially arranged British civilian contractors. As the risk of British-Egyptian ruptures over the Suez Canal rose, between September 20, 1955, and December 30, 1955, almost all the Middle East Land Forces Canal Zone depots and workshops were handed over to the contractors. Among them were 2 Base Workshop, 5 Base Ordnance Depot, and the Base Vehicle Depot all at Tel el Kebir; 9 Base Ammunition Depot at Abu Sultan near Deversoir Air Base; and the engineering base group (probably including Nos 8 and 9 Engineer Stores Base Depots at Suez and Fanara respectively). Other establishments included 33 Supply Reserve Depot and 10 Base Ordnance Depot.
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Adenanthos
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Adenanthos is a genus of Australian native shrubs in the flowering plant family Proteaceae. Variable in habit and leaf shape, it is the only genus in the family where solitary flowers are the norm. It was discovered in 1791, and formally published by Jacques Labillardière in 1805. The type species is Adenanthos cuneatus, and 33 species are recognised. The genus is placed in subfamily Proteoideae, and is held to be most closely related to several South African genera.
Endemic to Australia, its centre of diversity is southwest Western Australia, where 31 species occur. The other two species occur in South Australia and western Victoria (Australia). They are mainly pollinated by birds.
Description
Habit
The growth habits of Adenanthos species range from prostrate shrubs to small trees, with most species occurring as erect shrubs. There are two basic growth forms. Plants that lack a lignotuber have a single stem. Such plants usually grow into fairly erect shrubs; and sometimes the main stem thickens to become a trunk, resulting in a small tree. Plants with a lignotuber, on the other hand, have many stems arising from the underground rootstock, usually resulting in smaller shrubs with a mallee habit.
Leaf
As with most other Proteaceae genera, leaf shape is highly variable in Adenanthos. Though the leaves are always simple (as in not compound), they may be lobed, or even deeply divided into segments, usually by three.
This segmentation has its extreme in the distinctive leaf form characteristic of those Adenanthos species known as woollybushes, in which the leaf is segmented, sometimes many times, into long thin laciniae, round in cross-section (terete), and often covered in a fine down of soft hairs. The number of laciniae varies greatly. In A. pungens, for example, the leaves may be entire, or there may be a single segmentation into two or three laciniae; in A. sericeus, the leaf is repeatedly tri-segmented into as many as 50 laciniae. This leaf form is seen in around half of the species.
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Other common leaf forms include a wedge-shaped (cuneate) leaf with shallow lobes along the apex, seen, for example, in A. cuneatus and A. stictus; the oval-shaped (obovate) entire leaves of A. ellipticus and A. obovatus; and the long thin leaves of A. detmoldii and A. barbiger. Only two species have leaves that are sharply pointed (pungent): A. pungens has a woollybush form of leaf with pungent laciniae, and A. acanthophyllus is a flat (laminar), deeply lobed leaf with sharp points along its margins.
Some sources state that some leaves of some species are tipped with extrafloral nectaries.
Inflorescence and flower
Unusually for members of the family Proteaceae, Adenanthos flowers are solitary, rather than clustered together in large showy inflorescences. In fact, morphologically speaking, the Adenanthos flower does occur in an inflorescence, but one in which the number of flowers has been reduced to one, leaving only a few vestigial clues to the elaborate structure from which it derived. Each flower is positioned at the end of a short peduncle. The peduncle has minute basal bracts at its base, and sometimes at its midpoint, providing evidence of the loss of some lateral axes. At the end of the peduncle sits the flower, sessile or very nearly so, and surrounded at the base by an imbricate involucre. Very rarely, an involucre may enclose two flowers rather than just one, providing further evidence of reduction from a complex, multi-flowered inflorescence. Inflorescences occur individually at the end of branches (terminal) or at branch junctions (axillary). Most species have terminal inflorescences, and in these cases the inflorescences are usually subtended by leaves, if not branchlets, so the flowers are obscured by the foliage. The species with axillary inflorescences tend to be much more showy.
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The flower of Adenanthos is structurally the same as that of many other Proteaceae. Flower parts occur in multiples of four (tetramerous), but the four tepals are fused into a long, narrow perianth-tube topped by a closed cup (the limb); the filament of each stamen is fused along its entire length with the midrib of a tepal, so that the anthers appear almost sessile, trapped within the limb; and the four carpels form a single compound pistil, the apex of which is also trapped within the limb. Four prominent scale-like nectaries surround the ovary.
Structurally, the flowers of most Adenanthos species are radially symmetrical (actinomorphic); but in the small section Eurylaema, one anther is sterile and reduced to a staminode, rendering the flowers structurally merely bilaterally symmetrical (zygomorphic). In both cases the flower soon becomes zygomorphic, as the pistil grows faster and longer than the perianth tube, causing the style to flex until it pushes its way out through a slit in the perianth-tube, which bends away from the style.
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The apex of the style, called the stigma in most flowering plants, is often referred to as the style-end in Proteaceae, since it performs two distinct functions: it performs the usual stigmatic role of pollen-collector, but also functions as a pollen-presenter. At anthesis, both the style-end and the anthers are trapped within the limb, so that when the anthers release their pollen, the pollen adheres to the style-end. Shortly after pollen release, the tips of the tepals separate, causing the limb to break apart. The style-end is released, the style springs erect, and the flower's pollen is thus held aloft where it may be deposited on the face of a nectarivorous bird. Unlike some other Proteaceae genera, the style-end of Adenanthos shows little evidence of adaption to either of its dual roles. In most species is it slightly broader than the style, and conical in shape, but in section Eurylaema is oval and flattened. In both cases the stigmatic groove is a furrow on one side of the style end.
Fruit and seed
The fruit of Adenanthos is a simple dry hard-shelled nut that surrounds the seed but does not adhere to it (an achene). It is brown, ellipsoid in shape, and ranges in size from three to eight mm long, and one to two millimetres wide. It is not often seen on the plant because it develops within the involucre of the flower, which persists long after the flower itself has withered and fallen. By the time the fruit is mature, the involucre has dried and spread, so that the fruit is free to fall to the ground as soon as it abscisses from the plant. In some species this happens as soon as the fruit is mature; in others, the fruit may be retained on the plant for some time.
The production of seedless fruit (parthenocarpy) is common, as is seed abortion (stenospermocarpy). When a seed is present, it is white, ellipsoidal, and nearly fills the fruit.
Taxonomy
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Early collections
Early explorers who could have seen and collected Adenanthos include Willem de Vlamingh and William Dampier. Vlamingh explored the Swan River and visited Shark Bay in 1697. He almost certainly collected plant specimens, as two south-west Australian endemics were published many years later, based on specimens for which the collection cannot be attributed to any other known voyage. Two years after Vlamingh, Dampier visited the north-west coast, collecting around 40 specimens of 23 plant species from sites at Shark Bay and in the Dampier Archipelago. There is no record in either case of specimens of Adenanthos being seen or collected, but A. cygnorum is fairly common at the Swan River, and A. acanthophyllus occurs at Shark Bay, albeit only at the southern end of Peron Peninsula, where neither expedition is likely to have visited.
The first known collection of the genus was made by Archibald Menzies, surgeon and naturalist to the Vancouver Expedition of 1791–1795. The Vancouver expedition discovered King George Sound in September 1791, and during their stay there Menzies collected specimens of many plant species, including two Adenanthos species, A. sericeus
Jacques Labillardière, naturalist to Bruni d'Entrecasteaux's expedition in search of the lost ships of Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse, visited Esperance Bay on the south coast of Western Australia in 1792, collecting A. cuneatus there.
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In December 1801 and January 1802, at the start of Matthew Flinders' famous circumnavigation of Australia, HMS Investigator visited King George Sound for several weeks. The botanist to the voyage, Robert Brown, made an extensive plant specimen collection, including A. cuneatus, A. sericeus and A. obovatus. A few months later he collected what would become the type specimen of A. terminalis from near Port Lincoln. As HMS Investigator was commencing its anticlockwise circumnavigation, a French expedition under Nicolas Baudin was exploring the coastline in a clockwise direction. The two expeditions famously encountered each other in 1802 at what would be named Encounter Bay in South Australia, then Baudin continued westward, arriving at King George Sound in February 1803. There, botanist Jean Baptiste Leschenault de la Tour, assisted by gardener's boy Antoine Guichenot, collected plant specimens including A. cuneatus, A. obovatus and A. sericeus.
Publication
The genus Adenanthos was first described and named by Labillardière in his 1805 Novae Hollandiae Plantarum Specimen. Though he did not give an explicit etymology for the genus name therein, the type specimen for A. cuneatus contains annotations that show Labillardière experimenting with various Greek word stems, listing in each case the corresponding Latin transliteration and meaning. He eventually settled on Adenanthos, formed from the Greek stems άδὴν (aden, glandula, "gland") and ανθος (anthos, flos, "flower"). Irish botanist E. Charles Nelson states that the name refers to the prominent and copiously productive nectaries.
Labillardière published three species, naming them A. cuneata, A. sericea and A. obovata, giving them feminine gender consistent with his view of the gender of the genus name. He did not say which of the three was to serve as type species for the genus, but Nelson has since chosen A. cuneatus as lectotype, since Labillardière's description of it is referred to by the descriptions of the other two species.
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Relationships within Proteaceae
The framework for classification of genera within Proteaceae was laid by L. A. S. Johnson and Barbara Briggs in their influential 1975 monograph "On the Proteaceae: the evolution and classification of a southern family". Their arrangement has been refined somewhat over the ensuing three decades, most notably by Peter H. Weston and Nigel Barker in 2006. Proteaceae is divided into five subfamilies, with Adenanthos placed in subfamily Proteoideae because of its cluster roots, solitary ovules and indehiscent fruits. On the basis of phylogenetic data it is further placed in tribe Leucodendreae, a morphologically heterogeneous group with no obvious diagnostic characters, and dominated by South African genera. Within Leucodendreae it appears as sister clade to a clade comprising the South African subtribe Leucodendrinae, and is therefore placed alone in subtribe Adenanthinae. The placement of Adenanthos in Proteaceae can be summarised as follows:
Family Proteaceae
Subfamily Bellendenoideae (1 genus)
Subfamily Persoonioideae (2 tribes, 5 genera)
Subfamily Symphionematoideae (2 genera)
Subfamily Proteoideae
(6 genera incertae sedis)
Tribe Conospermeae (2 subtribes, 3 genera)
Tribe Petrophileae (2 genera)
Tribe Proteeae (2 genera)
Tribe Leucadendreae
Subtribe Isopogoninae (1 genus)
Subtribe Adenanthinae
Adenanthos
Subtribe Leucadendrinae (10 genera)
Subfamily Grevilleoideae (4 tribes, 14 subtribes, 47 genera)
Relationships within the genus
The first infrageneric arrangement of Adenanthos was published in 1870 by George Bentham, in the fifth volume of his landmark Flora Australiensis. Bentham divided the genus into two sections on the basis of floral characteristics. Two species were unusual in having flowers with one sterile stamen, and perianth tubes that are curved and swollen above the middle; these were placed in A. sect. Eurylaema. The remaining twelve known species were placed in A. sect. Stenolaema.
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A phenetic analysis of the genus undertaken by Ernest Charles Nelson in 1975 yielded results in which the members of A. sect. Eurylaema occurred together. Nelson therefore retained Bentham's two sections in his 1978 revision of Adenanthos, though A. sect Stenolaema was renamed to the autonym A. sect. Adenanthos in accordance with modern rules of botanical nomenclature. He further divided A. sect. Adenanthos into two subsections, A. subsect. Anaclastos and A. subsect. Adenanthos, but discarded them again in his 1995 treatment of the genus for the Flora of Australia series. By this time, the ICBN had issued a ruling that all genera ending in -anthos must be treated as having masculine gender. This resulted in orthographic changes to all species names in the genus; for example, A. obovata became A. obovatus.
Nelson's arrangement of Adenanthos is as follows:
Adenanthos
A. sect. Eurylaema
A. detmoldii
A. barbiger
A. obovatus
A. × pamela
A. sect. Adenanthos
A. drummondii
A. dobagii
A. apiculatus
A. linearis
A. pungens
A. pungens subsp. pungens
A. pungens subsp. effusus
A. gracilipes
A. venosus
A. dobsonii
A. glabrescens
A. glabrescens subsp. glabrescens
A. glabrescens subsp. exasperatus
A. ellipticus
A. cuneatus
A. stictus
A. ileticos
A. forrestii
A. eyrei
A. cacomorphus
A. flavidiflorus
A. argyreus
A. macropodianus
A. terminalis
A. sericeus
A. sericeus subsp. sericeus
A. sericeus subsp. sphalma
A. × cunninghamii
A. oreophilus
A. cygnorum
A. cygnorum subsp. cygnorum
A. cygnorum subsp. chamaephyton
A. meisneri
A. velutinus
A. filifolius
A. labillardierei
A. acanthophyllus
Species
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