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Print subscriptions Newsletters Sign in US edition UK edition Australia edition Europe edition International edition News Opinion Sport Culture Lifestyle document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function(){ var columnInput = document.getElementById('News-button'); if (!columnInput) return; // Sticky nav replaces the nav so element no longer exists for users in test. columnInput.addEventListener('keydown', function(e){ // keyCode: 13 => Enter key | keyCode: 32 => Space key if (e.keyCode === 13 || e.keyCode === 32) { e.preventDefault() document.getElementById('News-checkbox-input').click(); } }) }) News View all News US news US politics World news Climate crisis Middle East Ukraine US immigration Soccer Business Environment Tech Science Newsletters Wellness View all News US news US politics World news Climate crisis Middle East Ukraine US immigration Soccer Business Environment Tech Science Newsletters Wellness document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function(){ var columnInput = document.getElementById('Opinion-button'); if (!columnInput) return; // Sticky nav replaces the nav so element no longer exists for users in test. columnInput.addEventListener('keydown', function(e){ // keyCode: 13 => Enter key | keyCode: 32 => Space key if (e.keyCode === 13 || e.keyCode === 32) { e.preventDefault() document.getElementById('Opinion-checkbox-input').click(); } }) }) Opinion View all Opinion The Guardian view Columnists Letters Opinion videos Cartoons View all Opinion The Guardian view Columnists Letters Opinion videos Cartoons document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function(){ var columnInput = document.getElementById('Sport-button'); if (!columnInput) return; // Sticky nav replaces the nav so element no longer exists for users in test. columnInput.addEventListener('keydown', function(e){ // keyCode: 13 => Enter key | keyCode: 32 => Space key if (e.keyCode === 13 || e.keyCode === 32) { e.preventDefault() document.getElementById('Sport-checkbox-input').click(); } }) }) Sport View all Sport Soccer NFL Tennis MLB MLS NBA WNBA NHL F1 Golf View all Sport Soccer NFL Tennis MLB MLS NBA WNBA NHL F1 Golf document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function(){ var columnInput = document.getElementById('Culture-button'); if (!columnInput) return; // Sticky nav replaces the nav so element no longer exists for users in test. columnInput.addEventListener('keydown', function(e){ // keyCode: 13 => Enter key | keyCode: 32 => Space key if (e.keyCode === 13 || e.keyCode === 32) { e.preventDefault() document.getElementById('Culture-checkbox-input').click(); } }) }) Culture View all Culture Film Books Music Art & design TV & radio Stage Classical Games View all Culture Film Books Music Art & design TV & radio Stage Classical Games document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function(){ var columnInput = document.getElementById('Lifestyle-button'); if (!columnInput) return; // Sticky nav replaces the nav so element no longer exists for users in test. columnInput.addEventListener('keydown', function(e){ // keyCode: 13 => Enter key | keyCode: 32 => Space key if (e.keyCode === 13 || e.keyCode === 32) { e.preventDefault() document.getElementById('Lifestyle-checkbox-input').click(); } }) }) Lifestyle View all Lifestyle The Filter Wellness Fashion Food Recipes Love & sex Home & garden Health & fitness Family Travel Money View all Lifestyle The Filter Wellness Fashion Food Recipes Love & sex Home & garden Health & fitness Family Travel Money Search input google-search Search Support us Print subscriptions Newsletters Download the app Search jobs Digital Archive Guardian Licensing Live events About Us The Guardian app Video Podcasts Pictures Inside the Guardian Guardian Weekly Crosswords Wordiply Corrections Tips Search jobs Digital Archive Guardian Licensing Live events About Us The Guardian app Video Podcasts Pictures Inside the Guardian Guardian Weekly Crosswords Wordiply Corrections Tips Search input google-search Search Search jobs Digital Archive Guardian Licensing Live events About Us Search jobs Digital Archive Guardian Licensing Live events About Us Film Books Music Art & design TV & radio Stage Classical Games Music This article is more than 17 years old Obituary Obituary: Eartha Kitt This article is more than 17 years old Adrian Jack Fri 26 Dec 2008 10.27 EST Share For six decades, the American entertainer Eartha Kitt, who has died aged 81 of colon cancer, was a showbusiness force of nature. At home, on stage and in the recording studio, and an effective performer on movie and television screens, she made an impact all the greater as an African-American woman breaking new ground. Her official birth details were established in 1997, when she challenged a group of students to find the certificate that declared her to have been born Eartha Mae Keith in the town of North, South Carolina. Her father, William Kitt, was a share-cropper in South Carolina and chose the Christian name, it is said, because Eartha was born the year of a good harvest. He left Eartha's mother, Anna Mae Riley, less than two years later, and the destitute black-Cherokee woman persuaded black neighbours to take in Eartha and her younger half-sister Pearl. Pearl was black and pretty, but Eartha had bushy red hair, which she later dyed, and lighter skin; she was dubbed "that yella gal". Eventually, her aunt, Marnie Lue Riley, sent for her and gave her a home in the Puerto Rican-Italian part of Manhattan. Their relationship was difficult, but Eartha had piano lessons paid for as well as savings she knew of only later. She ran away several times, but once she achieved independence, Marnie became mother, and Eartha came to believe that she was really her biological mother. Down south, Kitt had already impressed the local church congregation with her singing. At school in New York she won respect and popularity with her talent for reading aloud, and she was lucky enough to have teachers who were genuinely interested in her. She also went down well at the local Caribbean dances, where she picked up routines that were to stand her in good stead, not only as a professional entertainer, but also amusing her fellow-workers when she took factory jobs. Just after her 16th birthday, she auditioned, more or less by accident, for the Katherine Dunham Dance Troupe, whose style was based on Afro-Caribbean folklore. She won a full scholarship to study ballet as well as Dunham's own technique and her first appearance on Broadway was dancing in Blue Holiday with Ethel Waters and Avon Long. Dunham told "Kitty" she would never make a real dancer because her breasts were too large, but chose her for the troupe which toured the US, Mexico, South America and Europe; increasingly, Kitt took on solo roles, singing as well as dancing, and made her film debut, uncredited, in Casbah (1948). When the Dunham company was in Paris, Kitt was offered her first nightclub engagement at Carroll's, whose formidable lesbian owner Fred told the waitresses "this one must not be touched". Kitt later claimed she had no act to speak of at that time, though she had been to the club and seen Juliette Greco's show. Yet she quickly became a sensation, and when Carroll's opened a new club, Le Perroquet, the café-au-lait performer was the main attraction, with songs in English, Spanish and French that she prepared with the help of the Cuban bandleader. Singing C'est Si Bon for the first time, she forgot the words and ad-libbed, with such success, she repeated her list of desirables, "mink coat, big Cadillac car" and so on, ever after. Between the two club engagements, Kitt was cast by Orson Welles as Helen of Troy in his own version of the Faust story, Time Runs, sharing what limelight could be snatched from Welles himself with Michael McLiammoir and Hilton Edwards. If Welles thought her "the most exciting woman in the world", Kitt later reflected, it was because they never went to bed together. He ate, she watched; he talked, she listened. She was always an admirer of Great Men, and went to considerable lengths to meet Albert Einstein and Jawaharlal Nehru. After Le Perroquet, Kitt's next night-club engagement was at the cosmopolitan Karavansari in Istanbul. There she learned a number of Turkish songs by ear, including Usku Dara, which she later recorded as her first single for RCA Victor. By the time she opened at La Vie En Rose in New York, she claimed to sing in seven languages. Despite an inventive campaign of newspaper ads, which read "Learn to say 'Eartha Kitt' ", she was not a success, and her two-week contract was terminated after six days. Whatever went wrong, La Vie En Rose's loss was the Village Vanguard's gain, and a short engagement at its sister club, The Blue Angel, was extended to 25 weeks. She was spotted by the producer of a long-established revue. For New Faces of 1952, she sang Monotonous while crawling catlike from one chaise-longue to the next. Thereafter, Kitt found it hard to do without at least one such piece of furniture, and for a Royal Variety Performance in the 1960s, she appeared on it through the stage trapdoor. Kitt became the unquestioned star of New Faces and a film version followed in 1954. Meanwhile, she starred in Mrs Patterson, her first major Broadway success, and fell in love with Arthur Loew Junior, heir to a chain of cinemas. Feelings were mutual, but the affair never came to anything because his mother opposed it. In London, Kitt had appeared briefly at Churchill's in the early 1950s, but she really arrived with her act at the Café de Paris, wearing an aquamarine silk satin dress designed by Pierre Balmain. Lord Snowdon photographed her. The 1950s were the golden decade of Kitt's record hits. After Usku Dara came Monotonous, I Want To Be Evil and Santa Baby, among others, which established the image of a teasing, self-mocking "sex kitten". She recorded Just An Old-Fashioned Girl, the song that became her signature tune in Britain, in 1955, but Thursday's Child and The Day That The Circus Left Town, recorded a short while later, said more about her as the wistful waif people thought weird. There have been many attempts to describe her extraordinary voice. Kenneth Tynan got it wrong when he spoke of her vibrato, for she hardly used it. Although she cultivated a tremor for special effect, her pitch was remarkably clean, and she would bend it, very often sharp, with slow deliberation. She said she understood everything her voice could and couldn't do. She played off a gritty chest register against a cooing falsetto, and as she savoured its sound, she would experiment with verbal distortions. Welles complained that she seemed to come from nowhere. Kitt's very distinctive style made it hard for her to develop her career and diversify. If she was not 100% herself, you felt cheated. Yet she never stopped trying. Her films included St Louis Blues (with Nat King Cole) and Accused (1957), Anna Lucasta (with Sammy Davis Jr) and Mark Of The Hawk (1958), Saint Of Devil's Island (1961), Synanon (1965) and Dragonard (with Oliver Reed, 1971). Apart from many celebrity appearances on TV, she found one role tailormade as Catwoman in Batman (1967-68). She took further parts on Broadway, in Shinbone Alley (1957) and Timbuktu (1978), an all-black musical based on Kismet. In London she played Mrs Gracedew in Henry James's The High Bid (1970) and the title role in Bunny (1972). In 1988 her appearance in Sondheim's Follies at London's Shaftesbury theatre — she spent most of it elegantly posed in a long mink coat until she stopped the show with I'm Still Here — led the following year to her first one-woman show, Eartha Kitt in Concert. Prancing around with three toy boys, she was pretty well as lissome as ever, and even more over the top. In Manchester, she even tried panto, as the Genie of the Lamp in Aladdin. Also in 1989 came her autobiography, I'm Still Here: Confessions of a Sex Kitten. It retells and updates her earlier memoirs, the first volume of which, Thursday's Child, was published in 1957. I'm Still Here ends with Kitt's struggle to come to terms with the marriage of her only daughter, Kitt, of whom she was fiercely possessive. Her own marriage to Kitt's father, Bill McDonald, in 1960 soon fizzled out. Kitt made no bones about the fact that the thing she needed most, after the love of her daughter, was the applause of an audience: I once saw her give everything she'd got to what was virtually an empty house, at the New Theatre, Oxford, one weekday matinee. She looked like almost losing her American public after she upset Lady Bird Johnson by speaking her mind about the Vietnam war at a 1968 luncheon at the White House. The CIA described her as "a sadistic nymphomaniac". America's temporary loss was Britain's gain, for Kitt spent more time here, touring variety clubs in the north of England. At the opposite cultural extreme, she made two extraordinary concert appearances in London with Richard Rodney Bennett, as pianist and arranger, and the Nash Ensemble, singing songs by Kurt Weill, Cole Porter and other American standards. Kitt's occasional attempts to move with the times — she even dipped into disco funk — had qualified success. In 1984 she was back in the charts with Where Is My Man and I Love Men. She did not need to update herself, and a live recording of a concert she gave with jazz musicians in Wuppertal, Germany, in 1992 shows that she was best given a tight format – never better than in the immaculate arrangements of Henri René and his Orchestra in the early days. An album called I'm Still Here came out the same year as the book, and in 1993 Rollercoaster issued a five-disc compilation representing her entire repertoire to date. Her work continued, notably in cabaret: in 2000 she provided the voice of Yzma for the Disney animation The Emperor's New Groove; her appearance at the Cheltenham jazz festival last April saw her in yet another medium, the live performance on DVD; and she continued to perform until last October. Her album Back in Business (1995) had made a bid for the universal by dressing up old favourites by Cole Porter, Rogers and Hart, Duke Ellington, and Kurt Weill, not to mention Henry Mancini's Moon River, in highly produced, sumptuous jazz arrangements. One of the more straightforward is the classic of the 1930s depression, Brother, Can You Spare a Dime?, and here Kitt rings true with raw anger. Eartha Mae Kitt (Keith), singer and entertainer, born 17 January 1927; died 25 December 2008 Explore more on these topics Music obituaries Share Reuse this content Obituary: Eartha Kitt For six decades, the American entertainer Eartha Kitt, who has died aged 81 of colon cancer, was a showbusiness force of nature. At home, on stage and in the recording studio, and an effective performer on movie and television screens, she made an impact all the greater as an African-American woman breaking new ground. Her official birth details were established in 1997, when she challenged a group of students to find the certificate that declared her to have been born Eartha Mae Keith in the town of North, South Carolina. Her father, William Kitt, was a share-cropper in South Carolina and chose the Christian name, it is said, because Eartha was born the year of a good harvest. He left Eartha's mother, Anna Mae Riley, less than two years later, and the destitute black-Cherokee woman persuaded black neighbours to take in Eartha and her younger half-sister Pearl. Pearl was black and pretty, but Eartha had bushy red hair, which she later dyed, and lighter skin; she was dubbed "that yella gal". Eventually, her aunt, Marnie Lue Riley, sent for her and gave her a home in the Puerto Rican-Italian part of Manhattan. Their relationship was difficult, but Eartha had piano lessons paid for as well as savings she knew of only later. She ran away several times, but once she achieved independence, Marnie became mother, and Eartha came to believe that she was really her biological mother. Down south, Kitt had already impressed the local church congregation with her singing. At school in New York she won respect and popularity with her talent for reading aloud, and she was lucky enough to have teachers who were genuinely interested in her. She also went down well at the local Caribbean dances, where she picked up routines that were to stand her in good stead, not only as a professional entertainer, but also amusing her fellow-workers when she took factory jobs. Just after her 16th birthday, she auditioned, more or less by accident, for the Katherine Dunham Dance Troupe, whose style was based on Afro-Caribbean folklore. She won a full scholarship to study ballet as well as Dunham's own technique and her first appearance on Broadway was dancing in Blue Holiday with Ethel Waters and Avon Long. Dunham told "Kitty" she would never make a real dancer because her breasts were too large, but chose her for the troupe which toured the US, Mexico, South America and Europe; increasingly, Kitt took on solo roles, singing as well as dancing, and made her film debut, uncredited, in Casbah (1948). When the Dunham company was in Paris, Kitt was offered her first nightclub engagement at Carroll's, whose formidable lesbian owner Fred told the waitresses "this one must not be touched". Kitt later claimed she had no act to speak of at that time, though she had been to the club and seen Juliette Greco's show. Yet she quickly became a sensation, and when Carroll's opened a new club, Le Perroquet, the café-au-lait performer was the main attraction, with songs in English, Spanish and French that she prepared with the help of the Cuban bandleader. Singing C'est Si Bon for the first time, she forgot the words and ad-libbed, with such success, she repeated her list of desirables, "mink coat, big Cadillac car" and so on, ever after. Between the two club engagements, Kitt was cast by Orson Welles as Helen of Troy in his own version of the Faust story, Time Runs, sharing what limelight could be snatched from Welles himself with Michael McLiammoir and Hilton Edwards. If Welles thought her "the most exciting woman in the world", Kitt later reflected, it was because they never went to bed together. He ate, she watched; he talked, she listened. She was always an admirer of Great Men, and went to considerable lengths to meet Albert Einstein and Jawaharlal Nehru. After Le Perroquet, Kitt's next night-club engagement was at the cosmopolitan Karavansari in Istanbul. There she learned a number of Turkish songs by ear, including Usku Dara, which she later recorded as her first single for RCA Victor. By the time she opened at La Vie En Rose in New York, she claimed to sing in seven languages. Despite an inventive campaign of newspaper ads, which read "Learn to say 'Eartha Kitt' ", she was not a success, and her two-week contract was terminated after six days. Whatever went wrong, La Vie En Rose's loss was the Village Vanguard's gain, and a short engagement at its sister club, The Blue Angel, was extended to 25 weeks. She was spotted by the producer of a long-established revue. For New Faces of 1952, she sang Monotonous while crawling catlike from one chaise-longue to the next. Thereafter, Kitt found it hard to do without at least one such piece of furniture, and for a Royal Variety Performance in the 1960s, she appeared on it through the stage trapdoor. Kitt became the unquestioned star of New Faces and a film version followed in 1954. Meanwhile, she starred in Mrs Patterson, her first major Broadway success, and fell in love with Arthur Loew Junior, heir to a chain of cinemas. Feelings were mutual, but the affair never came to anything because his mother opposed it. In London, Kitt had appeared briefly at Churchill's in the early 1950s, but she really arrived with her act at the Café de Paris, wearing an aquamarine silk satin dress designed by Pierre Balmain. Lord Snowdon photographed her. The 1950s were the golden decade of Kitt's record hits. After Usku Dara came Monotonous, I Want To Be Evil and Santa Baby, among others, which established the image of a teasing, self-mocking "sex kitten". She recorded Just An Old-Fashioned Girl, the song that became her signature tune in Britain, in 1955, but Thursday's Child and The Day That The Circus Left Town, recorded a short while later, said more about her as the wistful waif people thought weird. There have been many attempts to describe her extraordinary voice. Kenneth Tynan got it wrong when he spoke of her vibrato, for she hardly used it. Although she cultivated a tremor for special effect, her pitch was remarkably clean, and she would bend it, very often sharp, with slow deliberation. She said she understood everything her voice could and couldn't do. She played off a gritty chest register against a cooing falsetto, and as she savoured its sound, she would experiment with verbal distortions. Welles complained that she seemed to come from nowhere. Kitt's very distinctive style made it hard for her to develop her career and diversify. If she was not 100% herself, you felt cheated. Yet she never stopped trying. Her films included St Louis Blues (with Nat King Cole) and Accused (1957), Anna Lucasta (with Sammy Davis Jr) and Mark Of The Hawk (1958), Saint Of Devil's Island (1961), Synanon (1965) and Dragonard (with Oliver Reed, 1971). Apart from many celebrity appearances on TV, she found one role tailormade as Catwoman in Batman (1967-68). She took further parts on Broadway, in Shinbone Alley (1957) and Timbuktu (1978), an all-black musical based on Kismet. In London she played Mrs Gracedew in Henry James's The High Bid (1970) and the title role in Bunny (1972). In 1988 her appearance in Sondheim's Follies at London's Shaftesbury theatre — she spent most of it elegantly posed in a long mink coat until she stopped the show with I'm Still Here — led the following year to her first one-woman show, Eartha Kitt in Concert. Prancing around with three toy boys, she was pretty well as lissome as ever, and even more over the top. In Manchester, she even tried panto, as the Genie of the Lamp in Aladdin. Also in 1989 came her autobiography, I'm Still Here: Confessions of a Sex Kitten. It retells and updates her earlier memoirs, the first volume of which, Thursday's Child, was published in 1957. I'm Still Here ends with Kitt's struggle to come to terms with the marriage of her only daughter, Kitt, of whom she was fiercely possessive. Her own marriage to Kitt's father, Bill McDonald, in 1960 soon fizzled out. Kitt made no bones about the fact that the thing she needed most, after the love of her daughter, was the applause of an audience: I once saw her give everything she'd got to what was virtually an empty house, at the New Theatre, Oxford, one weekday matinee. She looked like almost losing her American public after she upset Lady Bird Johnson by speaking her mind about the Vietnam war at a 1968 luncheon at the White House. The CIA described her as "a sadistic nymphomaniac". America's temporary loss was Britain's gain, for Kitt spent more time here, touring variety clubs in the north of England. At the opposite cultural extreme, she made two extraordinary concert appearances in London with Richard Rodney Bennett, as pianist and arranger, and the Nash Ensemble, singing songs by Kurt Weill, Cole Porter and other American standards. Kitt's occasional attempts to move with the times — she even dipped into disco funk — had qualified success. In 1984 she was back in the charts with Where Is My Man and I Love Men. She did not need to update herself, and a live recording of a concert she gave with jazz musicians in Wuppertal, Germany, in 1992 shows that she was best given a tight format – never better than in the immaculate arrangements of Henri René and his Orchestra in the early days. An album called I'm Still Here came out the same year as the book, and in 1993 Rollercoaster issued a five-disc compilation representing her entire repertoire to date. Her work continued, notably in cabaret: in 2000 she provided the voice of Yzma for the Disney animation The Emperor's New Groove; her appearance at the Cheltenham jazz festival last April saw her in yet another medium, the live performance on DVD; and she continued to perform until last October. Her album Back in Business (1995) had made a bid for the universal by dressing up old favourites by Cole Porter, Rogers and Hart, Duke Ellington, and Kurt Weill, not to mention Henry Mancini's Moon River, in highly produced, sumptuous jazz arrangements. One of the more straightforward is the classic of the 1930s depression, Brother, Can You Spare a Dime?, and here Kitt rings true with raw anger. Eartha Mae Kitt (Keith), singer and entertainer, born 17 January 1927; died 25 December 2008 Music obituaries More on this story More on this story Legendary singer Eartha Kitt dies 26 Dec 2008 … … comments Pieces of me: Eartha Kitt Eartha Kitt's finest moments on YouTube 26 Dec 2008 … … comments More on this story More on this story Legendary singer Eartha Kitt dies 26 Dec 2008 … … comments Legendary singer Eartha Kitt dies Pieces of me: Eartha Kitt Pieces of me: Eartha Kitt Eartha Kitt's finest moments on YouTube 26 Dec 2008 … … comments Eartha Kitt's finest moments on YouTube Most viewed Most viewed Most viewed Most viewed Film Books Music Art & design TV & radio Stage Classical Games News Opinion Sport Culture Lifestyle About us Help Complaints & corrections Contact us Tip us off SecureDrop Privacy policy Cookie policy Tax strategy Terms & conditions All topics All writers Newsletters Digital newspaper archive Bluesky Facebook Instagram LinkedIn Threads TikTok YouTube Advertise with us Guardian Labs Search jobs Work with us Accessibility settings
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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Physics > Physics and Society Title: Dynamics of conflicts in Wikipedia Abstract: In this work we study the dynamical features of editorial wars in Wikipedia (WP). Based on our previously established algorithm, we build up samples of controversial and peaceful articles and analyze the temporal characteristics of the activity in these samples. On short time scales, we show that there is a clear correspondence between conflict and burstiness of activity patterns, and that memory effects play an important role in controversies. On long time scales, we identify three distinct developmental patterns for the overall behavior of the articles. We are able to distinguish cases eventually leading to consensus from those cases where a compromise is far from achievable. Finally, we analyze discussion networks and conclude that edit wars are mainly fought by few editors only. Comments: Supporting information added Subjects: Physics and Society (physics.soc-ph) ; Social and Information Networks (cs.SI); Data Analysis, Statistics and Probability (physics.data-an) Cite as: arXiv:1202.3643 [physics.soc-ph] (or arXiv:1202.3643v2 [physics.soc-ph] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Journal reference: PLoS ONE 7(6): e38869 (2012) Related DOI : Focus to learn more DOI(s) linking to related resources Submission history Access Paper: View PDF TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–5 of 5 results for author: Cheng, C L Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10342 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI C-GRASP: Clinically-Grounded Reasoning for Affective Signal Processing Authors: Cheng Lin Cheng , Ting Chuan Lin , Chai Kai Chang Abstract : Heart rate variability (HRV) is a pivotal noninvasive marker for autonomic monitoring; however, applying Large Language Models (LLMs) to HRV interpretation is hindered by physiological hallucinations. These include respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) contamination, short-data instability in nonlinear metrics, and the neglect of individualized baselines in favor of population norms. We propose C-GRA… ▽ More Heart rate variability (HRV) is a pivotal noninvasive marker for autonomic monitoring; however, applying Large Language Models (LLMs) to HRV interpretation is hindered by physiological hallucinations. These include respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) contamination, short-data instability in nonlinear metrics, and the neglect of individualized baselines in favor of population norms. We propose C-GRASP (Clinically-Grounded Reasoning for Affective Signal Processing), a guardrailed RAG-enhanced pipeline that decomposes HRV interpretation into eight traceable reasoning steps. Central to C-GRASP is a Z-score Priority Hierarchy that enforces the weighting of individualized baseline shifts over normative statistics. The system effectively mitigates spectral hallucinations through automated RSA-aware guardrails, preventing contamination of frequency-domain indices. Evaluated on 414 trials from the DREAMER dataset, C-GRASP integrated with high-scale reasoning models (e.g., MedGemma3-thinking) achieved superior performance in 4-class emotion classification (37.3% accuracy) and a Clinical Reasoning Consistency (CRC) score of 69.6%. Ablation studies confirm that the individualized Delta Z-score module serves as the critical logical anchor, preventing the "population bias" common in native LLMs. Ultimately, C-GRASP transitions affective computing from black-box classification to transparent, evidence-based clinical decision support, paving the way for safer AI integration in biomedical engineering. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10342 [ pdf , ps , other ] C-GRASP: Clinically-Grounded Reasoning for Affective Signal Processing Authors: Cheng Lin Cheng , Ting Chuan Lin , Chai Kai Chang Abstract : Heart rate variability (HRV) is a pivotal noninvasive marker for autonomic monitoring; however, applying Large Language Models (LLMs) to HRV interpretation is hindered by physiological hallucinations. These include respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) contamination, short-data instability in nonlinear metrics, and the neglect of individualized baselines in favor of population norms. We propose C-GRA… ▽ More Heart rate variability (HRV) is a pivotal noninvasive marker for autonomic monitoring; however, applying Large Language Models (LLMs) to HRV interpretation is hindered by physiological hallucinations. These include respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) contamination, short-data instability in nonlinear metrics, and the neglect of individualized baselines in favor of population norms. We propose C-GRASP (Clinically-Grounded Reasoning for Affective Signal Processing), a guardrailed RAG-enhanced pipeline that decomposes HRV interpretation into eight traceable reasoning steps. Central to C-GRASP is a Z-score Priority Hierarchy that enforces the weighting of individualized baseline shifts over normative statistics. The system effectively mitigates spectral hallucinations through automated RSA-aware guardrails, preventing contamination of frequency-domain indices. Evaluated on 414 trials from the DREAMER dataset, C-GRASP integrated with high-scale reasoning models (e.g., MedGemma3-thinking) achieved superior performance in 4-class emotion classification (37.3% accuracy) and a Clinical Reasoning Consistency (CRC) score of 69.6%. Ablation studies confirm that the individualized Delta Z-score module serves as the critical logical anchor, preventing the "population bias" common in native LLMs. Ultimately, C-GRASP transitions affective computing from black-box classification to transparent, evidence-based clinical decision support, paving the way for safer AI integration in biomedical engineering. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2509.24231 [ pdf ] cs.CV EVLF-FM: Explainable Vision Language Foundation Model for Medicine Authors: Yang Bai , Haoran Cheng , Yang Zhou , Jun Zhou , Arun Thirunavukarasu , Yuhe Ke , Jie Yao , Kanae Fukutsu , Chrystie Wan Ning Quek , Ashley Hong , Laura Gutierrez , Zhen Ling Teo , Darren Shu Jeng Ting , Brian T. Soetikno , Christopher S. Nielsen , Tobias Elze , Zengxiang Li , Linh Le Dinh , Hiok Hong Chan , Victor Koh , Marcus Tan , Kelvin Z. Li , Leonard Yip , Ching Yu Cheng , Yih Chung Tham , et al. (18 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Despite the promise of foundation models in medical AI, current systems remain limited - they are modality-specific and lack transparent reasoning processes, hindering clinical adoption. To address this gap, we present EVLF-FM, a multimodal vision-language foundation model (VLM) designed to unify broad diagnostic capability with fine-grain explainability. The development and testing of EVLF-FM enc… ▽ More Despite the promise of foundation models in medical AI, current systems remain limited - they are modality-specific and lack transparent reasoning processes, hindering clinical adoption. To address this gap, we present EVLF-FM, a multimodal vision-language foundation model (VLM) designed to unify broad diagnostic capability with fine-grain explainability. The development and testing of EVLF-FM encompassed over 1.3 million total samples from 23 global datasets across eleven imaging modalities related to six clinical specialties: dermatology, hepatology, ophthalmology, pathology, pulmonology, and radiology. External validation employed 8,884 independent test samples from 10 additional datasets across five imaging modalities. Technically, EVLF-FM is developed to assist with multiple disease diagnosis and visual question answering with pixel-level visual grounding and reasoning capabilities. In internal validation for disease diagnostics, EVLF-FM achieved the highest average accuracy (0.858) and F1-score (0.797), outperforming leading generalist and specialist models. In medical visual grounding, EVLF-FM also achieved stellar performance across nine modalities with average mIOU of 0.743 and Acc@0.5 of 0.837. External validations further confirmed strong zero-shot and few-shot performance, with competitive F1-scores despite a smaller model size. Through a hybrid training strategy combining supervised and visual reinforcement fine-tuning, EVLF-FM not only achieves state-of-the-art accuracy but also exhibits step-by-step reasoning, aligning outputs with visual evidence. EVLF-FM is an early multi-disease VLM model with explainability and reasoning capabilities that could advance adoption of and trust in foundation models for real-world clinical deployment. △ Less Submitted 28 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.24231 [ pdf ] EVLF-FM: Explainable Vision Language Foundation Model for Medicine Authors: Yang Bai , Haoran Cheng , Yang Zhou , Jun Zhou , Arun Thirunavukarasu , Yuhe Ke , Jie Yao , Kanae Fukutsu , Chrystie Wan Ning Quek , Ashley Hong , Laura Gutierrez , Zhen Ling Teo , Darren Shu Jeng Ting , Brian T. Soetikno , Christopher S. Nielsen , Tobias Elze , Zengxiang Li , Linh Le Dinh , Hiok Hong Chan , Victor Koh , Marcus Tan , Kelvin Z. Li , Leonard Yip , Ching Yu Cheng , Yih Chung Tham , et al. (18 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Despite the promise of foundation models in medical AI, current systems remain limited - they are modality-specific and lack transparent reasoning processes, hindering clinical adoption. To address this gap, we present EVLF-FM, a multimodal vision-language foundation model (VLM) designed to unify broad diagnostic capability with fine-grain explainability. The development and testing of EVLF-FM enc… ▽ More Despite the promise of foundation models in medical AI, current systems remain limited - they are modality-specific and lack transparent reasoning processes, hindering clinical adoption. To address this gap, we present EVLF-FM, a multimodal vision-language foundation model (VLM) designed to unify broad diagnostic capability with fine-grain explainability. The development and testing of EVLF-FM encompassed over 1.3 million total samples from 23 global datasets across eleven imaging modalities related to six clinical specialties: dermatology, hepatology, ophthalmology, pathology, pulmonology, and radiology. External validation employed 8,884 independent test samples from 10 additional datasets across five imaging modalities. Technically, EVLF-FM is developed to assist with multiple disease diagnosis and visual question answering with pixel-level visual grounding and reasoning capabilities. In internal validation for disease diagnostics, EVLF-FM achieved the highest average accuracy (0.858) and F1-score (0.797), outperforming leading generalist and specialist models. In medical visual grounding, EVLF-FM also achieved stellar performance across nine modalities with average mIOU of 0.743 and Acc@0.5 of 0.837. External validations further confirmed strong zero-shot and few-shot performance, with competitive F1-scores despite a smaller model size. Through a hybrid training strategy combining supervised and visual reinforcement fine-tuning, EVLF-FM not only achieves state-of-the-art accuracy but also exhibits step-by-step reasoning, aligning outputs with visual evidence. EVLF-FM is an early multi-disease VLM model with explainability and reasoning capabilities that could advance adoption of and trust in foundation models for real-world clinical deployment. △ Less Submitted 28 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2507.00185 [ pdf ] eess.IV cs.AI cs.CV Multimodal, Multi-Disease Medical Imaging Foundation Model (MerMED-FM) Authors: Yang Zhou , Chrystie Wan Ning Quek , Jun Zhou , Yan Wang , Yang Bai , Yuhe Ke , Jie Yao , Laura Gutierrez , Zhen Ling Teo , Darren Shu Jeng Ting , Brian T. Soetikno , Christopher S. Nielsen , Tobias Elze , Zengxiang Li , Linh Le Dinh , Lionel Tim-Ee Cheng , Tran Nguyen Tuan Anh , Chee Leong Cheng , Tien Yin Wong , Nan Liu , Iain Beehuat Tan , Tony Kiat Hon Lim , Rick Siow Mong Goh , Yong Liu , Daniel Shu Wei Ting Abstract : Current artificial intelligence models for medical imaging are predominantly single modality and single disease. Attempts to create multimodal and multi-disease models have resulted in inconsistent clinical accuracy. Furthermore, training these models typically requires large, labour-intensive, well-labelled datasets. We developed MerMED-FM, a state-of-the-art multimodal, multi-specialty foundatio… ▽ More Current artificial intelligence models for medical imaging are predominantly single modality and single disease. Attempts to create multimodal and multi-disease models have resulted in inconsistent clinical accuracy. Furthermore, training these models typically requires large, labour-intensive, well-labelled datasets. We developed MerMED-FM, a state-of-the-art multimodal, multi-specialty foundation model trained using self-supervised learning and a memory module. MerMED-FM was trained on 3.3 million medical images from over ten specialties and seven modalities, including computed tomography (CT), chest X-rays (CXR), ultrasound (US), pathology patches, color fundus photography (CFP), optical coherence tomography (OCT) and dermatology images. MerMED-FM was evaluated across multiple diseases and compared against existing foundational models. Strong performance was achieved across all modalities, with AUROCs of 0.988 (OCT); 0.982 (pathology); 0.951 (US); 0.943 (CT); 0.931 (skin); 0.894 (CFP); 0.858 (CXR). MerMED-FM has the potential to be a highly adaptable, versatile, cross-specialty foundation model that enables robust medical imaging interpretation across diverse medical disciplines. △ Less Submitted 30 June, 2025; originally announced July 2025. Comments: 42 pages, 3 composite figures, 4 tables arXiv:2507.00185 [ pdf ] Multimodal, Multi-Disease Medical Imaging Foundation Model (MerMED-FM) Authors: Yang Zhou , Chrystie Wan Ning Quek , Jun Zhou , Yan Wang , Yang Bai , Yuhe Ke , Jie Yao , Laura Gutierrez , Zhen Ling Teo , Darren Shu Jeng Ting , Brian T. Soetikno , Christopher S. Nielsen , Tobias Elze , Zengxiang Li , Linh Le Dinh , Lionel Tim-Ee Cheng , Tran Nguyen Tuan Anh , Chee Leong Cheng , Tien Yin Wong , Nan Liu , Iain Beehuat Tan , Tony Kiat Hon Lim , Rick Siow Mong Goh , Yong Liu , Daniel Shu Wei Ting Abstract : Current artificial intelligence models for medical imaging are predominantly single modality and single disease. Attempts to create multimodal and multi-disease models have resulted in inconsistent clinical accuracy. Furthermore, training these models typically requires large, labour-intensive, well-labelled datasets. We developed MerMED-FM, a state-of-the-art multimodal, multi-specialty foundatio… ▽ More Current artificial intelligence models for medical imaging are predominantly single modality and single disease. Attempts to create multimodal and multi-disease models have resulted in inconsistent clinical accuracy. Furthermore, training these models typically requires large, labour-intensive, well-labelled datasets. We developed MerMED-FM, a state-of-the-art multimodal, multi-specialty foundation model trained using self-supervised learning and a memory module. MerMED-FM was trained on 3.3 million medical images from over ten specialties and seven modalities, including computed tomography (CT), chest X-rays (CXR), ultrasound (US), pathology patches, color fundus photography (CFP), optical coherence tomography (OCT) and dermatology images. MerMED-FM was evaluated across multiple diseases and compared against existing foundational models. Strong performance was achieved across all modalities, with AUROCs of 0.988 (OCT); 0.982 (pathology); 0.951 (US); 0.943 (CT); 0.931 (skin); 0.894 (CFP); 0.858 (CXR). MerMED-FM has the potential to be a highly adaptable, versatile, cross-specialty foundation model that enables robust medical imaging interpretation across diverse medical disciplines. △ Less Submitted 30 June, 2025; originally announced July 2025. Comments: 42 pages, 3 composite figures, 4 tables arXiv:2506.00119 [ pdf , ps , other ] hep-ph cs.LG hep-ex Generator Based Inference (GBI) Authors: Chi Lung Cheng , Ranit Das , Runze Li , Radha Mastandrea , Vinicius Mikuni , Benjamin Nachman , David Shih , Gup Singh Abstract : Statistical inference in physics is often based on samples from a generator (sometimes referred to as a ``forward model") that emulate experimental data and depend on parameters of the underlying theory. Modern machine learning has supercharged this workflow to enable high-dimensional and unbinned analyses to utilize much more information than ever before. We propose a general framework for descri… ▽ More Statistical inference in physics is often based on samples from a generator (sometimes referred to as a ``forward model") that emulate experimental data and depend on parameters of the underlying theory. Modern machine learning has supercharged this workflow to enable high-dimensional and unbinned analyses to utilize much more information than ever before. We propose a general framework for describing the integration of machine learning with generators called Generator Based Inference (GBI). A well-studied special case of this setup is Simulation Based Inference (SBI) where the generator is a physics-based simulator. In this work, we examine other methods within the GBI toolkit that use data-driven methods to build the generator. In particular, we focus on resonant anomaly detection, where the generator describing the background is learned from sidebands. We show how to perform machine learning-based parameter estimation in this context with data-derived generators. This transforms the statistical outputs of anomaly detection to be directly interpretable and the performance on the LHCO community benchmark dataset establishes a new state-of-the-art for anomaly detection sensitivity. △ Less Submitted 30 May, 2025; originally announced June 2025. Comments: 9 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2506.00119 [ pdf , ps , other ] Generator Based Inference (GBI) Authors: Chi Lung Cheng , Ranit Das , Runze Li , Radha Mastandrea , Vinicius Mikuni , Benjamin Nachman , David Shih , Gup Singh Abstract : Statistical inference in physics is often based on samples from a generator (sometimes referred to as a ``forward model") that emulate experimental data and depend on parameters of the underlying theory. Modern machine learning has supercharged this workflow to enable high-dimensional and unbinned analyses to utilize much more information than ever before. We propose a general framework for descri… ▽ More Statistical inference in physics is often based on samples from a generator (sometimes referred to as a ``forward model") that emulate experimental data and depend on parameters of the underlying theory. Modern machine learning has supercharged this workflow to enable high-dimensional and unbinned analyses to utilize much more information than ever before. We propose a general framework for describing the integration of machine learning with generators called Generator Based Inference (GBI). A well-studied special case of this setup is Simulation Based Inference (SBI) where the generator is a physics-based simulator. In this work, we examine other methods within the GBI toolkit that use data-driven methods to build the generator. In particular, we focus on resonant anomaly detection, where the generator describing the background is learned from sidebands. We show how to perform machine learning-based parameter estimation in this context with data-derived generators. This transforms the statistical outputs of anomaly detection to be directly interpretable and the performance on the LHCO community benchmark dataset establishes a new state-of-the-art for anomaly detection sensitivity. △ Less Submitted 30 May, 2025; originally announced June 2025. Comments: 9 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2410.12705 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.CV WorldCuisines: A Massive-Scale Benchmark for Multilingual and Multicultural Visual Question Answering on Global Cuisines Authors: Genta Indra Winata , Frederikus Hudi , Patrick Amadeus Irawan , David Anugraha , Rifki Afina Putri , Yutong Wang , Adam Nohejl , Ubaidillah Ariq Prathama , Nedjma Ousidhoum , Afifa Amriani , Anar Rzayev , Anirban Das , Ashmari Pramodya , Aulia Adila , Bryan Wilie , Candy Olivia Mawalim , Ching Lam Cheng , Daud Abolade , Emmanuele Chersoni , Enrico Santus , Fariz Ikhwantri , Garry Kuwanto , Hanyang Zhao , Haryo Akbarianto Wibowo , Holy Lovenia , et al. (26 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Vision Language Models (VLMs) often struggle with culture-specific knowledge, particularly in languages other than English and in underrepresented cultural contexts. To evaluate their understanding of such knowledge, we introduce WorldCuisines, a massive-scale benchmark for multilingual and multicultural, visually grounded language understanding. This benchmark includes a visual question answering… ▽ More Vision Language Models (VLMs) often struggle with culture-specific knowledge, particularly in languages other than English and in underrepresented cultural contexts. To evaluate their understanding of such knowledge, we introduce WorldCuisines, a massive-scale benchmark for multilingual and multicultural, visually grounded language understanding. This benchmark includes a visual question answering (VQA) dataset with text-image pairs across 30 languages and dialects, spanning 9 language families and featuring over 1 million data points, making it the largest multicultural VQA benchmark to date. It includes tasks for identifying dish names and their origins. We provide evaluation datasets in two sizes (12k and 60k instances) alongside a training dataset (1 million instances). Our findings show that while VLMs perform better with correct location context, they struggle with adversarial contexts and predicting specific regional cuisines and languages. To support future research, we release a knowledge base with annotated food entries and images along with the VQA data. △ Less Submitted 8 May, 2025; v1 submitted 16 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. Comments: Best Theme Paper at NAACL 2025 arXiv:2410.12705 [ pdf , other ] WorldCuisines: A Massive-Scale Benchmark for Multilingual and Multicultural Visual Question Answering on Global Cuisines Authors: Genta Indra Winata , Frederikus Hudi , Patrick Amadeus Irawan , David Anugraha , Rifki Afina Putri , Yutong Wang , Adam Nohejl , Ubaidillah Ariq Prathama , Nedjma Ousidhoum , Afifa Amriani , Anar Rzayev , Anirban Das , Ashmari Pramodya , Aulia Adila , Bryan Wilie , Candy Olivia Mawalim , Ching Lam Cheng , Daud Abolade , Emmanuele Chersoni , Enrico Santus , Fariz Ikhwantri , Garry Kuwanto , Hanyang Zhao , Haryo Akbarianto Wibowo , Holy Lovenia , et al. (26 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Vision Language Models (VLMs) often struggle with culture-specific knowledge, particularly in languages other than English and in underrepresented cultural contexts. To evaluate their understanding of such knowledge, we introduce WorldCuisines, a massive-scale benchmark for multilingual and multicultural, visually grounded language understanding. This benchmark includes a visual question answering… ▽ More Vision Language Models (VLMs) often struggle with culture-specific knowledge, particularly in languages other than English and in underrepresented cultural contexts. To evaluate their understanding of such knowledge, we introduce WorldCuisines, a massive-scale benchmark for multilingual and multicultural, visually grounded language understanding. This benchmark includes a visual question answering (VQA) dataset with text-image pairs across 30 languages and dialects, spanning 9 language families and featuring over 1 million data points, making it the largest multicultural VQA benchmark to date. It includes tasks for identifying dish names and their origins. We provide evaluation datasets in two sizes (12k and 60k instances) alongside a training dataset (1 million instances). Our findings show that while VLMs perform better with correct location context, they struggle with adversarial contexts and predicting specific regional cuisines and languages. To support future research, we release a knowledge base with annotated food entries and images along with the VQA data. △ Less Submitted 8 May, 2025; v1 submitted 16 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. Comments: Best Theme Paper at NAACL 2025 About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Dimensions and planes of existence Toggle Dimensions and planes of existence subsection 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 2 Theoretical joint points Toggle Theoretical joint points subsection 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 3 The "problem of psychology" Toggle The "problem of psychology" subsection 3.1 Solution 3.1 Solution 4 Consciousness and human behavior 5 Toward the integration of human knowledge 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Tree of knowledge system العربية Español فارسی Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these messages ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The tree of knowledge ( ToK ) system is a new [ when? ] map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques , who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University . [ 1 ] The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [ 2 ] [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in Review of General Psychology . [ 3 ] Two special issues of the Journal of Clinical Psychology in December 2004 [ 4 ] and January 2005 [ 5 ] were devoted to the elaboration and evaluation of the model. In 2008, a special issue of Theory & Psychology [ 6 ] was devoted to the ToK System. In 2011, Henriques published A New Unified Theory of Psychology . That same year he also launched the blog Theory of Knowledge: A Unified Approach to Psychology and Philosophy on Psychology Today , which remains active. There is also a Theory Of Knowledge Society and discussion listserve that is devoted to discussing Henriques' work and other big picture viewpoints. In some ways, the ToK System reflects a fairly common hierarchy of nature and of the sciences that has been represented in one way or another since the time of Auguste Comte , who in the 19th century used a hierarchical conception of nature to argue for the existence of sociology. It also has clear parallels with Aristotle's conception of the scales of nature and the first four levels of the Great Chain of Being . Despite some overlap with a number of traditional schemes, the ToK System is properly thought of as a new theory of both ontic reality and our scientific knowledge of that reality. One of the most important and salient features of the Tree of Knowledge is how it represents reality as consisting of four different planes of existence. The theory is that, following Matter, Life, Mind and Culture each represent complex adaptive landscapes that are organized and mediated by novel emergent information processing and communication systems. Specifically, DNA/RNA store information that is processed by cells which then engage in intercellular communication to create the plane of existence called Life. Similarly, the brain and nervous system store and process information in animals which then engage in communication networks on the complex adaptive plane called Mind. Finally, linguistic storage and processing and communication between human beings generates the emergence of the Culture-Person plane of existence. The separable planes of existence or dimension of complexity argument is one of the most crucial aspects of the system. Many have argued nature is hierarchically leveled; for example, a list of such levels might be subatomic particles , atoms , molecules , cells , organ structures, multi-celled organisms, consciousness , and society is common. The ToK System embraces a view of nature as levels, but adds the notion that there are also separable dimensions of complexity . The difference becomes particularly clear in the extension of the ToK System into the Periodic Table of Behavior . The Periodic Table of Behavior (PTB) shows that natural science can be arranged in terms of the four fundamental dimensions (i.e., matter, life, mind, and culture) and three fundamental levels of analysis (i.e., part, whole, group). The PTB also demonstrates that behavior is a central concept in science. Epistemologically, natural scientists view the world via a third person behavioral lens. Ontologically, science is about mapping different kinds of behaviors that take place in nature at various levels and dimensions of analysis. The second central insight of the ToK System is that it shows how natural science is a particular kind of justification system that emerges out of Culture based on novel methods and specific epistemological commitments and assumptions (i.e., an exterior view point, quantification and experimentation). This epistemology and methodology functions to justify scientific ontology, which in turn maps the ontic reality. Specifically, the domains of the physical, biological, (basic) psychological and social sciences map the ontic dimensions of matter, life, mind and culture. The Periodic Table of Behavior further shows how science is a justification system that is arranged to map behavioral frequencies at different dimensions of complexity and levels of analysis. Dimensions and planes of existence This section relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. ( April 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Matter/Object — Physical sciences The dimension of matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with modern cosmology , matter is theorized to have emerged from a pure energy singularity at the Big Bang . Space and time were also born at such a point. Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics , chemistry , geology, astronomy ) describe the behavior of material objects. [ 3 ] Life/Organism — Biological sciences The dimension of life refers to organisms and their behaviors through time. Living objects are considered a unique subset of material objects. Just as quantum particles form the fundamental units of material complexity, genes are the fundamental units of living information. Although many questions about the emergence of life remain unanswered, in accordance with modern biology, the ToK posits that natural selection operating on genetic combinations through time is the unified theory of biology and forms the foundational understanding for the emergence of organic complexity. [ 3 ] Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition , in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science . [ 3 ] Henriques argues that comparative psychology , ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. Culture/Person — Human social sciences Culture in the ToK system refers to the set of sociolinguistic behaviors, which range from large scale nation states to individual human justifications for particular actions. Just as genetic information processing is associated with the Life dimension and neuronal information processing associated with the Mind dimension, symbolic information processing emerges with the Cultural dimension. [ 3 ] Henriques argues that human cognitive science, human psychology and the social sciences (i.e., anthropology, sociology, political science, and economics) work to map this domain. Theoretical joint points Quantum gravity Quantum gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science which are quantum mechanics , the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general relativity , the science of the macroscopic (e.g., galaxies ). Currently, these two great domains of science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything , yet progress is being made, most notably through string theory , loop quantum gravity , black hole thermodynamics and the study of the early universe. Some of the difficulties combining these two pillars of physical science are philosophical in nature and it is possible that the macro view of knowledge offered by the ToK may eventually aid in the construction of a coherent theory of quantum gravity. The reason the ToK might help is that it locates scientific knowledge in relationship to the physical universe. The modern synthesis The modern synthesis refers to the merger of genetics with natural selection which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s and offers a reasonably complete framework for understanding the emergence of biological complexity. Although there remain significant gaps in biological knowledge surrounding questions such as the origin of life and the emergence of sexual reproduction, the modern synthesis represents the most complete and well-substantiated joint point. Behavioral investment theory Behavioral investment theory (BIT) is a metatheoretical formulation for the mind, brain and animal behavioral sciences. Henriques proposes that it enables the merger of the selection science of behaviorism with the information science of cognitive neuroscience that has conceptual parallels with the modern synthesis. BIT posits that the nervous system evolved as an increasingly flexible computational control system that coordinates the behavioral expenditure of energy of the animal as a whole. Expenditure of behavioral energy is theorized to be computed on an investment value system built evolutionarily through natural selection operating on genetic combinations and ontogenetically through behavioral selection operating on neural combinations. As such, the current behavioral investments of the animal are conceptualized as the joint product of the two vectors of phylogeny and ontogeny . A unique element of BIT is that it finds a core of agreement and builds bridges between five brain-behavior paradigms: (1) cognitive science ; (2) behavioral science ; (3) evolutionary theory and genetics; (4) neuroscience; and (5) cybernetics / systems theory . David C. Geary noted the similarities between his "motive-to-control" hypothesis and Henriques' Behavioral Investment Theory, which were developed independently of each other. Furthermore, Geary suggested that his model "seem[ed] to fill in many of the proximate mechanisms and evolutionary pressures that define the life-mind joint point, and provided a framework for further development of the mind-culture joint point." [ 7 ] Justification systems theory The justification systems theory (JUST; formerly known as the justification hypothesis) posits that the evolution of language reached a tipping point with emergence of propositional claims. Specifically, propositional claims can be questioned, which generates the "question-answer" dynamic. This creates the problem of justification, which Henriques argues drives both the design of the human self-consciousness system as a mental organ of justification and gives rise to the evolution of the Culture-Person plane of existence. JUST is a novel proposal that allows for both the understanding of the evolution of culture and for identifying what makes humans distinct animals. A basic initial claim of JUST is that the process of justification is a crucial component of human mental behavior at both the individual and societal level. Unlike all other animals, humans everywhere ask for and give explanations for their actions. Arguments, debates, moral dictates, rationalizations, and excuses all involve the process of explaining why one's claims, thoughts or actions are warranted. In virtually every form of social exchange, from warfare to politics to family struggles to science, humans are constantly justifying their behavioral investments to themselves and others. JUST consists of three key postulates: The first is that the evolution of propositional language must have created the problem of justification, which involves three interlocking problems of deciphering what is (1) analytically true and what is (2) good for the group and (3) good for the individual. The second postulate is that the structure and functional design of human consciousness can be understood as a solution to the problem of justification. Specifically, the three domains of human consciousness that Henriques identifies in the Updated Tripartite Model of the (1) experiential; (2) private narrator; and (3) public narrator are directly consistent with adaptive pressures that arise from the logic of the problem of justification. This analysis deepens when one considers the dynamic relationships and filtering that takes place between these three domains. The third postulate is that culture can be understood as large scale justification systems that coordinate the behavior of human populations. Cultural systems are seen to evolve much in the same way as organisms do in biological evolution: there is a process of variation, selection and retention of belief systems. The "problem of psychology" The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework . The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are ignorant of different approaches. In most cases, individual psychologists have to determine for themselves which elements of which perspective to apply, and how to integrate them into their overall understanding. Henriques argues that the problem of psychology is a central feature of modern knowledge systems. In A New Unified Theory of Psychology , he described it as follows: The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The reason for psychology's fragmentation, according to the ToK System, is that there has been no meta-theoretical frame that allows scholars to agree on the basic questions that need to be addressed. As such, the different schools of thought in psychology are like the blind men who each grab a part of the elephant and proclaim they have discovered its true nature. With its novel depiction of evolving dimensions of complexity, the ToK allows scholars finally to see the elephant. In his 2003 Review of General Psychology paper, [ 8 ] Henriques used the ToK System with the attempt to clarify and align the views of B.F. Skinner and Sigmund Freud . These luminaries were chosen because when one considers their influence and historical opposition, it can readily be argued that they represent two schools of thought that are the most difficult to integrate. Henriques used the meta-perspective offered by the ToK to argue how one can retain the key insights from each school of thought, identify errors and points of confusion, and integrate the insights into a coherent whole. Cultural and personality psychologist, Michael Katzko, [ 10 ] however critiques Henriques' position on "the problem of psychology": There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] Solution The problem of psychology, according to the ToK, is its conceptual incoherence, which Henriques identifies by the following: When the various conceptions of psychology (e.g., behavioral, humanistic, cognitive) are viewed through the lens of the ToK System, psychology spans two different dimensions of complexity: the mental and the cultural. In other words, the discipline has historically spanned two fundamentally separate problems: If, as previously thought, nature simply consisted of levels of complexity, psychology would not be crisply defined in relationship to biology or the social sciences. And, indeed, it is frequently suggested that psychology exists in an amorphous space between biology and the social sciences. However, with its dimension of complexity depiction, the ToK System suggests that psychology can be crisply defined as the science of mind, which is the third dimension of complexity. Furthermore, because human behavior exists in the fourth dimension, psychology must be divided into two broad scientific domains of Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). [ 9 ] Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] In a similar vein, Scott O. Lilienfeld, who described Henriques' effort as "thoughtful", contended that psychology is "an inherently fuzzy concept that resists precise definition" and that "attempts to define psychology [would be] likely to hamper rather than foster consilience across disciplines". Lilienfield went on further to suggest that the scientist-practitioner gap in psychology lies not in definitional issues, but in different "epistemic attitudes" between these two groups. He stated that scientists have an epistemic attitude of empiricism , (where questions regarding human nature are settled by scientific evidence), and that practitioners have an epistemic attitude of romanticism , (where questions of human nature are settled by intuition). Lilienfeld suggested that the solution to the scientist-practitioner gulf isn't definitional, but in "train[ing] future clinical scientists to appreciate the proper places of romanticism and empiricism within science". [ 13 ] Consciousness and human behavior A frequent question and point of confusion in the ToK System is the definition and meaning of consciousness . As mentioned above, mind is not synonymous with consciousness. And, to understand consciousness from a ToK vantage point, it is crucial to recognize that the term is often ambiguous in its meaning. Two primary meanings are sentience , which is the capacity for mental experience and self-awareness , which is the capacity to be aware of one's awareness. Sentience is conceptualized as a "level 3" phenomenon, possessed by many animals other than humans and is defined as a "perceived" electro-neuro-chemical representation of animal-environment relations. The ingredient of neurological behavior that allows for the emergence of mental experience is considered the "hard" problem of consciousness and the ToK System does not address this question explicitly. In contrast, through the Justification Hypothesis (see below), the ToK System involves a very direct analysis of the other issue of consciousness, that of self-awareness . Another frequent question that is raised is "Where does individual human behavior fall on the ToK?" To analyze human behavior from the context of the ToK, one uses the ToK like a prism to separate the dimensions of behavior into physiochemical, biogenetic, neuropsychological and sociolinguistic. Thus if we imagine a conversation between a husband and wife as follows: Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” The words represent the sociolinguistic dimension and are understood as a function of justification. Justification systems are seen both at the level of individual, micro-social and societal (i.e., the context of justification in which men work and women stay at home). The actions of the husband and wife in terms of facial expression , body movement, etc. are seen as the mental dimension and are understood as a function of behavioral investment. The physiological make up of the organ systems and cells of each body is seen as the biogenetic dimension. Finally, the position, temperature, molecular make up is seen as the physiochemical dimension. Each of the more basic dimensions represent conditions of possibility that allow for the emergence of the higher dimension of process. Thus, insufficient oxygen disrupts organic processes which in turn renders neuropsychological and sociolinguistic processes impossible. Toward the integration of human knowledge As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience . Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In a 2008 article on the ToK, [ 14 ] Henriques cites Oliver Reiser 's 1958 call for unifying scientific knowledge that Henriques implies is similar in theme to the ToK: With its depiction of the dimensions of complexity and interlocking theoretical joint points, Henriques' believes that his ToK System offers new avenues that might allow scholars to meet Reiser’s call for academic synthesis. Henriques, like Reiser, believes that with a shared sense of purpose and a common background of explanation, people might yet be able to integrate bodies of knowledge into a unified interpretation of humanity, with humanity's place in nature and its potentialities for creating the good society. See also Tree of knowledge (philosophy) by René Descartes Tinbergen's four questions Behavioral repertoire Consilience Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Descriptive psychology General System Theory Psychological behaviorism Social meaning-making The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution – 1959 book by C. P. Snow Unified theory of cognition Unity of science Metasystem transition References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} " "About Me" section of the ToK System website" . Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 . Retrieved 3 January 2009 . ^ " "The Tree of Knowledge System" section of the 8 key ideas in the Unified Theory of Knowledge website" . Archived from the original on 2 July 2022 . Retrieved 2 July 2022 . ^ a b c d e Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 60, No 12" . Archived from the original on 3 March 2011 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 61, No 1" . Archived from the original on 16 December 2012 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Theory & Psychology - Volume 18, Number 6, Dec 01, 2008" . Sage Journals . ^ Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2003). The tree of knowledge system and the theoretical unification of psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. ^ Homepage of Michael Katzko ^ Katzko, M. W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology , 18, 817–828. Abstract ^ Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. ^ Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Final draft ^ Reiser, O.L. (1958). The integration of human knowledge. Boston: Porter Sargent. Bibliography Anchin, J.C. (2008). The critical role of the dialectic in viable metatheory: A commentary on Henriques' Tree of Knowledge System for integrating human knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 801–816. Full text Calhoun, L.G. (2004). The unification of psychology: A noble quest. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 60, 1283–1289. Abstract Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. Full text Gilbert, P. (2004). A much needed macro level view: A commentary on Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1223–1226. Full text Goertzen, J.R. (2008). On the possibility of unification: The reality and nature of the crisis in psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18, 829–852. Full text Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. Full text Hayes, S.C. (2004). Taxonomy as a contextualist views it. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1231–1236. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). A new vision for the field: Introduction to the second special issue on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61, 3–6. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). Toward a useful mass movement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 121–139. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. Full text Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Henriques, G.R. (2004). The development of the unified theory and the future of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 39, 16–21. Final draft Henriques, G.R., & Cobb, H.C. (2004). Introduction to the special issues on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1203–1205. Full text Henriques, G.R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Unified professional psychology: Implications for combined-integrated doctoral training programs. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1051–1063. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. Full text Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Henriques, G.R. (2002). The harmful dysfunction analysis and the differentiation between mental disorder and disease. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice , 1, 157–173. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2000). Depression: Disease or behavioral shutdown mechanism? Journal of Science and Health Policy, 1, 152–165. Full text Jones, R. (2005). From that dirty little science grows a Tree of Knowledge. The Madison, 1, 36–45. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 817–828. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2004). Psychology's dilemma: An institutional neurosis? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1237–1242. Full text Kihlstrom, J.F. (2004). Unity within psychology, and unity between science and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1243–1247. Full text Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. Full text Mayer, J.D. (2004). How does psychotherapy influence personality? A theoretical integration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1291–1315. Full text Presbury, J. (2004). Rooting the tree of knowledge: A response to Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1255–1258. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2008). Theoretical unification as a practical project: Kant and the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 757–777. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2005). Remythologizing culture: Narrativity, justification, and the politics of personalization. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 67–80. Full text Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rand, K.L., & Ilardi, S.S. (2005). Toward a consilient science of psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 7–20. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2008). Religion as a large-scale justification system: Does the Justification Hypothesis explain animistic attribution? Theory & Psychology, 18, 779–799. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2006). Durkheim's aphorism, the Justification Hypothesis, and the nature of social facts. Sociological Viewpoints, fall issue, 57–70. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2005). From mirror self-recognition to the looking glass self: Exploring the justification hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 47–65 . Full text Shealy, C.N. (2005). Justifying the justification hypothesis: Scientific-humanism, Equilintegration (EI) Theory, and the Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 81–106. Full text Slife, B. (2005). Testing the limits of Henriques' proposal: Wittgensteinian lessons and hermenuetic dialogue. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 107–120. Full text Stam, H.J. (2004). Unifying psychology: Epistemological act or disciplinary maneuver? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1259–1262. Full text Stanovich, K.E. (2004). Metarepresentation and the great cognitive divide: A commentary on Henriques' "Psychology Defined". Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1263–1266. Full text Stricker, G. (2004). The unification of psychology and psychological organizations. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1267–1269. Full text Vazire, S., & Robins, R.W. (2004). Beyond the Justification Hypothesis: A Broader Theory of the Evolution of Self-Consciousness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1271–1273. Full text Viney, W. (2004). Pluralism in the sciences is not easily dismissed. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1275–1278. Full text Yanchar, S.C. (2004). Some discontents with theoretical unification. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1279–1281. Full text External links The Official Tree of Knowledge Website Archived 6 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques at the Psychology Wiki This page uses content from the English-language version of Psychology Wiki . The original article was at Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques . The list of authors can be seen in the page history . The text of both The Psychology Wiki and Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License . Science studies Systems Systems theory Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with possible conflicts of interest from October 2020 Wikipedia external links cleanup from September 2022 Articles with multiple maintenance issues Use dmy dates from September 2017 All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from March 2023 Articles needing additional references from April 2024 All articles needing additional references This page was last edited on 5 November 2025, at 05:53 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. 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Der volgn nog 348 doagn (349 doagn in e schrikkeljoar) toet 't ende van 't joar. dec - januoari - feb << 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 >> 17 januoari is de 17stn dag van 't joar in de Gregorioansche kalender . Der volgn nog 348 doagn (349 doagn in e schrikkeljoar) toet 't ende van 't joar. Gebeurtenissn [ bewerkn | brontekst bewerken ] 1773 - Kapiteing James Cook is den êerstn die de Zuydpoolcirkel bereikt. 1917 - De Verênigde Stoatn koopn de Moagdneilandn van Denemarkn vo $25 miljoen. 1961 - De premier Patrice Lumumba van 't vroegere Belgisch Congo wordt vermôord oender omstandigheedn die de steun en de medeplichtigheid van de regeriengn van België en de Verênigde Stoatn suggereern. 2013 - De coureur Lance Armstrong gèeft in een interview met Oprah Winfrey toe dat 'n joarnlank dopienge gebruykt hèt binst zyn carrière. Gebeurtenissn 1773 - Kapiteing James Cook is den êerstn die de Zuydpoolcirkel bereikt. 1917 - De Verênigde Stoatn koopn de Moagdneilandn van Denemarkn vo $25 miljoen. 1961 - De premier Patrice Lumumba van 't vroegere Belgisch Congo wordt vermôord oender omstandigheedn die de steun en de medeplichtigheid van de regeriengn van België en de Verênigde Stoatn suggereern. 2013 - De coureur Lance Armstrong gèeft in een interview met Oprah Winfrey toe dat 'n joarnlank dopienge gebruykt hèt binst zyn carrière. Geboorn [ bewerkn | brontekst bewerken ] 1342 - Filips de Stoutn , hertog van Bourgondië, groaf van Vloandern (gestorvn 1404 ) 1820 - Anne Brontë, Iengelsche schryfster (gestorvn 1849 ) 1896 - Léon Devos , West-Vlamsche coureur (gestorvn 1963 ) 1914 - Théo Lefèvre, Vlamsche polletieker (gestorvn 1973 ) 1924 - Rik De Saedeleer, Vlamsche foetballist en sportverslaggever (gestorvn 2013 ) 1933 - Dalida, Egyptisch-Fransche zangeresse en actrice (gestorvn 1987 ) 1942 - Muhammad Ali (Cassius Clay), Amerikoanschn bokseur (gestorvn 2016 ) 1942 - Karel Van Miert, Vlamsche polletieker (gestorvn 2009 ) 1944 - Françoise Hardy, Fransche zangeresse en actrice 1964 - Michelle Obama, Amerikoansche avocoate en vrouwe van Barack Obama 1968 - Ilja Leonard Pfeijffer, Hollandschn dichter en schryver 1969 - Reinhild Vandekerckhove , West-Vlamsche toalkundige Geboorn 1342 - Filips de Stoutn , hertog van Bourgondië, groaf van Vloandern (gestorvn 1404 ) 1820 - Anne Brontë, Iengelsche schryfster (gestorvn 1849 ) 1896 - Léon Devos , West-Vlamsche coureur (gestorvn 1963 ) 1914 - Théo Lefèvre, Vlamsche polletieker (gestorvn 1973 ) 1924 - Rik De Saedeleer, Vlamsche foetballist en sportverslaggever (gestorvn 2013 ) 1933 - Dalida, Egyptisch-Fransche zangeresse en actrice (gestorvn 1987 ) 1942 - Muhammad Ali (Cassius Clay), Amerikoanschn bokseur (gestorvn 2016 ) 1942 - Karel Van Miert, Vlamsche polletieker (gestorvn 2009 ) 1944 - Françoise Hardy, Fransche zangeresse en actrice 1964 - Michelle Obama, Amerikoansche avocoate en vrouwe van Barack Obama 1968 - Ilja Leonard Pfeijffer, Hollandschn dichter en schryver 1969 - Reinhild Vandekerckhove , West-Vlamsche toalkundige Gestorvn [ bewerkn | brontekst bewerken ] 1934 - Richard Acke (62), West-Vlamschn architect 1961 - Patrice Lumumba (36), Congoleesche polletieker 2008 - Bobby Fischer (64), Amerikoansche schoaker Gestorvn 1934 - Richard Acke (62), West-Vlamschn architect 1961 - Patrice Lumumba (36), Congoleesche polletieker 2008 - Bobby Fischer (64), Amerikoansche schoaker Datum Boovnstoand blad es vo de latste ki veranderd om 10:47 ip 22 jan 2023. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January–March 1.2 April–June 1.3 July–September 1.4 October–December 1.5 Date unknown 1.1 January–March 1.2 April–June 1.3 July–September 1.4 October–December 1.5 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January–March 2.2 April–June 2.3 July–September 2.4 October–December 2.1 January–March 2.2 April–June 2.3 July–September 2.4 October–December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January–March 3.2 April–June 3.3 July–September 3.4 October–December 3.5 Date unknown 3.1 January–March 3.2 April–June 3.3 July–September 3.4 October–December 3.5 Date unknown 4 References 1612 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Bikol Central Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Кырык мары Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла संस्कृतम् Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 16th century 17th century 18th century 16th century 17th century 18th century Decades 1590s 1600s 1610s 1620s 1630s 1590s 1600s 1610s 1620s 1630s Years 1609 1610 1611 1612 1613 1614 1615 1609 1610 1611 1612 1613 1614 1615 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1612 by topic Arts and science Architecture Art Literature Music Science Architecture Art Literature Music Science Leaders State leaders Colonial governors Religious leaders State leaders Colonial governors Religious leaders Birth and death categories Births – Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments – Disestablishments Works category Works Works v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1612 MDCXII Ab urbe condita 2365 Armenian calendar 1061 ԹՎ ՌԿԱ Assyrian calendar 6362 Balinese saka calendar 1533–1534 Bengali calendar 1018–1019 Berber calendar 2562 English Regnal year 9 Ja. 1 – 10 Ja. 1 Buddhist calendar 2156 Burmese calendar 974 Byzantine calendar 7120–7121 Chinese calendar 辛亥 年 (Metal Pig ) 4309 or 4102 — to — 壬子年 (Water Rat ) 4310 or 4103 Coptic calendar 1328–1329 Discordian calendar 2778 Ethiopian calendar 1604–1605 Hebrew calendar 5372–5373 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 1668–1669 - Shaka Samvat 1533–1534 - Kali Yuga 4712–4713 Holocene calendar 11612 Igbo calendar 612–613 Iranian calendar 990–991 Islamic calendar 1020–1021 Japanese calendar Keichō 17 (慶長１７年) Javanese calendar 1532–1533 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 10 days Korean calendar 3945 Minguo calendar 300 before ROC 民前300年 Nanakshahi calendar 144 Thai solar calendar 2154–2155 Tibetan calendar ལྕགས་མོ་ཕག་ལོ་ (female Iron- Boar ) 1738 or 1357 or 585 — to — ཆུ་ཕོ་བྱི་བ་ལོ་ (male Water- Rat ) 1739 or 1358 or 586 1612 ( MDCXII ) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar , the 1612th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 612th year of the 2nd millennium , the 12th year of the 17th century , and the 3rd year of the 1610s decade. As of the start of 1612, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Events January–March January 6 – Axel Oxenstierna becomes Lord High Chancellor of Sweden . He persuades the Riksdag of the Estates to grant the Swedish nobility the right and privilege to hold all higher offices of government. January 10 – Gustavus Adolphus replies to Metropolitan Isidor, Odoevskij and the estates of Novgorod , stating that he himself wishes to assume responsibility for the government of Novgorod and also of all Russians. A number of land grants signed the same day show that the Swedish king has assumed the title of Tsar . [ 1 ] January 20 Rudolf II , Holy Roman Emperor , dies and several candidates vie to succeed him, with Archduke Matthias eventually being elected. [ 2 ] An uprising led by Dmitry Pozharsky begins in Moscow against occupying Polish troops. Rudolf II , Holy Roman Emperor , dies and several candidates vie to succeed him, with Archduke Matthias eventually being elected. [ 2 ] An uprising led by Dmitry Pozharsky begins in Moscow against occupying Polish troops. February 11 – Battle of Vittsjö : King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and 3,000 of his troops are forced to retreat from Denmark . The 17-year old king almost drowns while attempting to ride his horse across a frozen lake, but is rescued by two other members of his cavalry. The horse is lost. March 2 – The False Dmitry III , one of three pretenders to the Russian throne who all claim to be sons of Ivan the Terrible , is recognized as Tsar of Russia by the Cossacks . March 12 – At Daulambapur, near Kamalganj in what is now the Sylhet Division in Bangladesh , a battle takes place between 4,500 troops led by General Islam Khan I of India's Mughal Empire , and 12,000 defenders led by the Afghan warlord Khwaja Usman . The Mughals are almost defeated until Usman is struck in the eye by an arrow fired from a crossbow. April–June April 10 – In England, 12 persons who become known as the Pendle witches allegedly hold a coven at the Malkin Tower in Lancashire on Good Friday, after which 10 people die mysteriously. [ 3 ] All but two of the accused witches are tried for causing harm by witchcraft on August 18. April 11 – In Lichfield , Edward Wightman , a radical Anabaptist , becomes the last person to be burned at the stake in England as punishment for heresy . [ 2 ] May 10 – Prince Khurram , the 20-year-old son of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir , marries 19-year-old Arjumand Banu Begum at a ceremony in Delhi . In 1628, Khurram becomes the Emperor Shah Jahan with Arjumand Begum as his chief consort Mumtaz Mahal. Arjumand dies in 1631 and Khurram later commissions and builds the Taj Mahal in her memory. [ 4 ] May 25 – A Sicilian – Spanish galley fleet defeats the Tunisians at La Goulette after a battle. June 13 – Archduke Matthias of Austria is formally elected as the new Holy Roman Emperor . [ 2 ] June 26 – The coronation of Matthias as Holy Roman Emperor takes place at the Frankfurt Cathedral . July–September July 4 – (8th waxing of Waso 974 ME ) In what is now Myanmar , Min Khamaung becomes the new King of Arakan upon the death of his father, King Min Razagyi . July 22 – Four women and one man are hanged following the Northamptonshire witch trials in England. July 24 – Marcantonio Memmo is elected as the Doge of the Republic of Venice on the first ballot of the Venetian council, winning 38 of the 41 votes. Memmo succeeds the late Doge Leonardo Donato , who died on July 16. August 20 – Ten Pendle witches are hanged, having been found guilty of practising witchcraft in Lancashire in England. August 26 – Battle of Kringen : A Scottish mercenary force is destroyed in Norway. September 1 – Battle of Moscow (1612) : Led by General Jan Karol Chodkiewicz , a relief force from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, whose troops had been occupying Moscow for two years, make an unsuccessful attempt to break the Russian siege of the Kremlin , where General Mikolaj Strus and his troops are trapped. Both the Russians (led by Dmitry Pozharsky ) and the Commonwealth troops suffer at least 1,000 deaths, but the Russians prevail. General Chodkiewicz tries a second attack the next day and fails. September 2 (August 23 O.S.) – The Lutheran Duchy of Prussia , a fiefdom within Poland, becomes the first Protestant government to follow the Roman Catholic nations in adopting the Gregorian calendar . September 5 – England's East India Company gets its first warships and establishes the "'Honourable East India Company's Marine'" to protect its freighters. The force develops over the centuries into the Royal Indian Navy and, after India's independence in 1947, the Indian Navy . September 22 – Retreating Polish and Lithuanian troops burn the Russian city of Vologda in reprisal for their defeat at Moscow. October–December October 27 – Forces of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth , which had been occupying Moscow for more than two years, surrender unconditionally to Russian militia forces and are allowed to leave after the Kremlin is liberated by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky and Prince Kuzma Minin . [ 5 ] November 20 – The Treaty of Nasuh Pasha is signed, between the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) and the Safavid Empire (Iran), with the Ottomans ceding back land they had captured from the Safavids after 1555, in return for Safavid payment of 200 loads of silk. [ 6 ] November 30 – Battle of Swally : Forces of the British East India Company and Portugal engage off the coast of India, resulting in an English victory. [ 7 ] December 15 – Simon Marius becomes the first person on Earth to observe the Andromeda Galaxy through a telescope. December 28 – Galileo Galilei becomes the first astronomer to observe the planet Neptune when in conjunction with Jupiter . He mistakenly catalogues it as a fixed star , because of its extremely slow motion along the ecliptic . Neptune will not be truly recognized as a planet until 1846 , about 234 years later, when Johann Gottfried Galle first sights it in the Berlin Observatory . Date unknown The Nagoya Castle is completed in Japan . The Okamoto Daihachi incident in Japan. Thomas Shelton 's English translation of the first half of Don Quixote is published. It is the first translation of the Spanish novel into any language. Births January–March January 17 – Thomas Fairfax , English Civil War general (d. 1671 ) [ 8 ] January 21 – Henry Casimir I of Nassau-Dietz , Stadtholder of Groningen, Friesland and Drenthe (d. 1640 ) January 22 – Daniel Zwicker , German physician (d. 1678 ) January 23 – George FitzGerald, 16th Earl of Kildare , Irish earl (d. 1660 ) February 1 – William West , English politician (d. 1670 ) February 2 – Thomas Wentworth, 5th Baron Wentworth , English baron and politician (d. 1665 ) February 4 – Arthur Spry , English politician (d. 1685 ) February 5 – Crown Prince Sohyeon , Korean crown prince (d. 1645 ) February 6 – Antoine Arnauld , French theologian (d. 1694 ) February 7 – Thomas Killigrew , English dramatist and theatre manager (d. 1683 ) [ 9 ] February 9 – Pier Francesco Mola , Italian painter of the High Baroque (d. 1666 ) February 15 – Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve , French military officer, founder of Montreal in New France (d. 1676 ) February 20 – Richard Olmsted , Connecticut settler (d. 1687 ) February 21 – Lorenzo Imperiali , Italian cardinal (d. 1673 ) February 22 (bapt.) – George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol , English statesman (d. 1677 ) March 20 – Anne Bradstreet , née Dudley, English-born American Puritan poet (d. 1672 ) April–June April 6 – James Stewart, 1st Duke of Richmond (d. 1655 ) April 10 – Francesco Lorenzo Brancati di Lauria , Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1693 ) April 12 – Simone Cantarini , Italian painter and engraver (d. 1648 ) April 28 – Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza from 1622 to 1646 (d. 1646 ) May 6 – François-Joseph Bressani , Italian missionary (d. 1672 ) May 10 – Francesco Palliola , Italian Servant of God (d. 1648 ) May 12 – Laurence Womock , English Bishop of St David's (d. 1687 ) May 17 Matthew Babington , English politician (d. 1669 ) Joannes Meyssens , Flemish painter (d. 1670 ) Matthew Babington , English politician (d. 1669 ) Joannes Meyssens , Flemish painter (d. 1670 ) May 26 – Raja Wodeyar II , King of Mysore (d. 1638 ) May 31 – Margherita de' Medici , Italian noble (d. 1679 ) June 1 – Frans Post , Dutch painter (d. 1680 ) June 23 – André Tacquet , Brabantian mathematician, Jesuit priest (d. 1660 ) June 25 – John Albert Vasa , Polish bishop (d. 1634 ) June 29 – Sir William Bowyer, 1st Baronet , English politician (d. 1679 ) July–September July 23 – Christian Lupus , Flemish historian (d. 1681 ) July 27 – Murad IV , Ottoman Sultan (d. 1640 ) August 2 – Saskia van Uylenburgh , wife of painter Rembrandt van Rijn (d. 1642 ) August 10 – Charles de Grimaldi-Régusse , French aristocrat (d. 1687 ) August 12 – Allart Pieter van Jongestall , Dutch jurist, politician, and diplomat (d. 1676 ) August 17 – Jeremi Wiśniowiecki , Polish nobleman (d. 1651 ) August 23 – Francis Lascelles , English politician (d. 1667 ) August 28 – Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn , Dutch scholar (d. 1653 ) September 1 – Nicolas Chorier , French historian, lawyer and writer (d. 1692 ) September 24 – William Gawdy , English politician (d. 1669 ) October–December October 6 Claude Françoise de Lorraine , Princess of Lorraine (d. 1648 ) Louis Maracci , Italian priest (d. 1700 ) Claude Françoise de Lorraine , Princess of Lorraine (d. 1648 ) Louis Maracci , Italian priest (d. 1700 ) October 14 Pierre Bailloquet , French missionary (d. 1692 ) Thomas Fitch , Connecticut settler (d. 1704 ) Pierre Bailloquet , French missionary (d. 1692 ) Thomas Fitch , Connecticut settler (d. 1704 ) October 18 – John Eliot , English politician (d. 1685 ) October 19 – Nicolas Chaperon , French painter (d. 1656 ) October 20 – Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Burlington , Anglo-Irish nobleman, Lord High Treasurer of Ireland, Cavalier (d. 1698 ) October 23 – Henry Lingen , English politician (d. 1662 ) October 25 – James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose , Scottish soldier (d. 1650 ) October 26 – Henry Wilmot, 1st Earl of Rochester (d. 1658 ) October 27 – Margravine Magdalene Sibylle of Brandenburg-Bayreuth , Electress of Saxony by marriage (1656–1680) (d. 1687 ) October 30 – Paul Würtz , Swedish general (d. 1676 ) November 7 – Pierre Mignard , French painter (d. 1695 ) November 11 Jean Garnier , French historian (d. 1681 ) August Philipp, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck , Danish-German prince and member of the House of Oldenburg (d. 1675 ) Richard Sherlock , English priest (d. 1689 ) Jean Garnier , French historian (d. 1681 ) August Philipp, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck , Danish-German prince and member of the House of Oldenburg (d. 1675 ) Richard Sherlock , English priest (d. 1689 ) November 17 – Dorgon , Chinese Manchu prince (d. 1650 ) November 28 – Sir Thomas Whitmore, 1st Baronet , English politician and Baronet (d. 1653 ) December 2 – David Ryckaert III , Flemish painter (d. 1661 ) Deaths January–March January 4 – Hendrik Laurenszoon Spiegel , Dutch writer (b. 1549 ) January 9 – Leonard Holliday , Lord Mayor of London, 1605-1606 (b. 1550 ) January 11 – Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah , fifth sultan of the Qutb Shahi Dynasty of Golkonda; founded the city of Hyderabad (b. 1565 ) January 12 – Charles III de Croÿ , Belgian noble (b. 1560 ) January 13 – Jane Dormer , English lady-in-waiting to Mary I (b. 1538 ) January 20 – Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor , Austrian Habsburg ruler (b. 1552 ) [ 10 ] February 6 – Christopher Clavius , German mathematician and astronomer (b. 1538 ) February 9 – Vincenzo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua (b. 1562 ) February 12 – Jodocus Hondius , Flemish cartographer (b. 1563 ) February 17 – Ernest of Bavaria , German Catholic bishop (b. 1554 ) February 18 – Roberto di Ridolfi , Italian conspirator against Elizabeth I of England (b. 1531 ) [ 11 ] February 21 – Christian Barnekow , Danish noble, explorer and diplomat (b. 1556 ) March 16 – Margaret Fiennes, 11th Baroness Dacre (b. 1541 ) March 18 – Bartholomew Legate , English anti-Trinitarian martyr (b. c. 1575 ) March 19 – Sophia Olelkovich Radziwill , Polish-Lithuanian noble (b. 1585 ) April–June April 5 – Diana Scultori , Italian engraver April 8 – Anne Catherine of Brandenburg (b. 1575 ) April 11 Emanuel van Meteren , Flemish historian (b. 1535 ) [ 12 ] Edward Wightman , English Baptist preacher (burned at the stake) (b. 1580 ) Emanuel van Meteren , Flemish historian (b. 1535 ) [ 12 ] Edward Wightman , English Baptist preacher (burned at the stake) (b. 1580 ) April 19 – Anne d'Escars de Givry , French Catholic cardinal (b. 1546 ) April 21 – David van Goorle , theologian and theoretical scientist (b. 1591 ) May – False Dmitry III , pretender to the Russian throne (secretly executed) [ 13 ] May 19 – Gregorio Petrocchini , Italian Cardinal Bishop, Conclave member, Cardinal protector of the Augustines (b. 1535 ) May 24 – Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury , English statesman and spymaster (b. 1563 ) May 31 – Willem Isaacsz Swanenburg , Dutch engraver (b. 1580 ) June 5 – Arima Harunobu , Japanese daimyō (b. 1567 ) June 8 – Hans Leo Hassler , German composer (b. 1562 ) June 21 – Edward Seymour, Lord Beauchamp (b. 1561 ) June 26 – Roger Manners, 5th Earl of Rutland , eldest surviving son of John Manners (b. 1576 ) July–September July 16 – Leonardo Donato , Doge of Venice (b. 1536 ) July 24 Ottavio Mirto Frangipani , Italian bishop and papal diplomat (b. 1544 ) John Salusbury , Welsh politician (b. 1567 ) [ 14 ] Ottavio Mirto Frangipani , Italian bishop and papal diplomat (b. 1544 ) John Salusbury , Welsh politician (b. 1567 ) [ 14 ] July 29 – Jacques Bongars , French scholar and diplomat (b. 1554 ) [ 15 ] August 3 – John Bond , English politician and classicist (b. 1550 ) August 4 – Hugh Broughton , English scholar (b. 1549 ) August 9 – Philipp Ludwig II, Count of Hanau-Münzenberg (1580–1612) (b. 1576 ) August 12 – Giovanni Gabrieli , Italian composer (b. c. 1554 ) August 15 – Michael Hicks , English politician (b. 1543 ) August 18 – Giacomo Boncompagni , Italian feudal lord of the 16th century (b. 1548 ) August 20 – Naitō Nobunari , Japanese samurai and daimyō of Omi Province (b. 1545 ) September 9 – Nakagawa Hidenari , Japanese warlord (b. 1570 ) September 12 – Tsar Vasili IV of Russia (b. 1552 ) September 13 – Karin Månsdotter , Queen of Sweden (b. 1550 ) September 24 – Johannes Lippius , German theologian, philosopher, composer, and music theorist (b. 1585 ) [ 16 ] September 27 – Piotr Skarga , Polish Jesuit and polemicist (b. 1536 ) [ 17 ] September 28 – Ernst Soner , German physician (b. 1572 ) October–December October 7 Menso Alting , Dutch preacher and reformer (b. 1541 ) Giovanni Battista Guarini , Italian poet (b. 1538 ) [ 18 ] Menso Alting , Dutch preacher and reformer (b. 1541 ) Giovanni Battista Guarini , Italian poet (b. 1538 ) [ 18 ] October 10 – Bernardino Poccetti , Italian painter (b. 1548 ) October 23 – János Petki , Hungarian politician (b. 1572 ) October 28 – Edward Darcy , English politician (b. 1544 ) November 1 – Charles, Count of Soissons , French prince du sang and military commander in the struggles over religion and the throne (b. 1566 ) November 2 – Maurice, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg , 1581–1612 (b. 1551 ) November 6 Nicholas Fitzherbert , English martyr (b. 1550 ) Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales , elder son of King James I & VI and Anne of Denmark (b. 1594 ) [ 19 ] Nicholas Fitzherbert , English martyr (b. 1550 ) Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales , elder son of King James I & VI and Anne of Denmark (b. 1594 ) [ 19 ] November 9 – Paul Jenisch , German pastor (b. 1551 ) November 16 – William Stafford , English spy (b. 1554 ) November 20 – John Harington , English courtier, writer and inventor of a flush toilet (b. 1561 ) [ 20 ] November 23 Juan Fernández de Olivera , Spanish colonial governor (b. 1560 ) Elizabeth Jane Weston , English Czech poet (b. 1582 ) Juan Fernández de Olivera , Spanish colonial governor (b. 1560 ) Elizabeth Jane Weston , English Czech poet (b. 1582 ) November 26 – Thomas Walmsley , English judge (b. 1537 ) December 4 – Jacob Taets van Amerongen , Teutonic Knights commander (b. 1542 ) December 12 – Nicholas Mosley , Lord Mayor of London (b. 1527 ) December 22 – Francesco IV Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua (b. 1586 ) [ 21 ] Date unknown Federico Barocci , Italian painter (b. c. 1535 ) Isabel Barreto , Spanish admiral (b. 1567 ) References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Löfstrand, Elisabeth; Nordquist, Laila (2005). Accounts of an occupied city : catalogue of the Novgorod Occupation Archives 1611-1617 (PDF) (1st ed.). Stockholm: National Archives of Sweden . p. 41. ISBN 9188366677 . ^ a b c Williams, Hywel (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History . London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 244 . ISBN 0-304-35730-8 . ^ "The Lancashire Witches in Historical Context", by James Sharpe, in The Lancashire Witches: Histories and Stories , ed. by Robert Poole, (Manchester University Press, 2002) p.2 ^ Soma Mukherjee (2001). Royal Mughal Ladies and Their Contributions . Gyan Books. p. 52. ISBN 978-81-212-0760-7 . ^ Chester Dunning, A Short History of Russia's First Civil War: The Time of Troubles and the Founding of the Romanov Dynasty (Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004) pp. 296–297 ^ "Ahmed I" , Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire ^ Manekshah Sorabshah Commissariat (1980). A History of Gujarat: Including a Survey of Its Chief Architectural Monuments and Inscriptions . Longmans, Green & Company, Limited. p. 192. ^ Geoffrey Ridsdill Smith; Margaret Toynbee; Peter Young (1977). Leaders of the Civil Wars, 1642-1648 . Roundwood Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-900093-56-2 . ^ Christopher Baker (2002). Absolutism and the Scientific Revolution, 1600-1720: A Biographical Dictionary . Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-313-30827-7 . ^ "Rudolf II | Holy Roman emperor" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved April 13, 2020 . ^ Hugh Chisholm; James Louis Garvin (1926). The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature & General Information . Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Limited. p. 320. ^ Walpole Society (Great Britain) (1980). The ... Volume of the Walpole Society . Walpole Society. p. 205. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica, inc (1998). The New Encyclopaedia Britannica . Encyclopaedia Britannica. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-85229-633-2 . ^ Edmund Gosse (January 28, 2019). The Life and Letters of John Donne, Vol I: Dean of St. Paul's . Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 312. ISBN 978-1-5326-7810-3 . ^ Keith Busby (1993). Les Manuscrits de Chrétien de Troyes . Rodopi. p. 98. ISBN 90-5183-603-1 . ^ Benito V. Rivera (1980). German Music Theory in the Early 17th Century: The Treatises of Johannes Lippius . UMI Research Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8357-1074-9 . ^ Harvard Theological Studies . Scholars Press. 1995. p. 865. ISBN 978-0-8006-7085-6 . ^ Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800 . Gale Research Company. 2004. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7876-6968-3 . ^ Robert L. Martensen; James a Knight Chair in Humanities and Ethics in Medicine and Professor of Surgery Robert L Martensen (April 8, 2004). The Brain Takes Shape: An Early History . Oxford University Press, USA. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-19-515172-5 . ^ Jason Scott-Warren (2001). Sir John Harington and the Book as Gift . Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-924445-4 . ^ Ludwig Burchard; Roger Adolf d' Hulst (1963). Rubens Drawings . Arcade Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-8390-9043-4 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) 1612 Leap years in the Gregorian calendar CS1 errors: ISBN date Use mdy dates from March 2011 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text This page was last edited on 15 December 2024, at 16:21 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Formats Toggle Formats subsection 1.1 Television 1.1.1 Talking heads 1.2 Radio 1.3 Mobile phones 1.1 Television 1.1.1 Talking heads 1.1.1 Talking heads 1.2 Radio 1.3 Mobile phones 2 Usage 3 Criticism 4 References Breaking news العربية বাংলা भोजपुरी Català Dansk Deutsch Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית 日本語 Polski Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikidata item The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject . You may improve this article , discuss the issue on the talk page , or create a new article , as appropriate. ( June 2019 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Breaking news , also called late-breaking news , a special report , special coverage , or a news flash , is a current issue that warrants the interruption of a scheduled broadcast in order to report its details. News broadcasters also use the term for continuing coverage of events of broad interest to viewers, attracting accusations of sensationalism . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Formats Journalism News Article ( Headline · Byline · Dateline · Report · Special report · Exclusive · Interview · Column · Opinion piece · Editorial · Op-ed ) Writing style ( Five Ws · Inverted pyramid ) Index of journalism articles News Article ( Headline · Byline · Dateline · Report · Special report · Exclusive · Interview · Column · Opinion piece · Editorial · Op-ed ) Writing style ( Five Ws · Inverted pyramid ) Index of journalism articles Beats Arts Business Data Entertainment Environment Fashion Local Medicine Music Politics Science Sports Technology Traffic Video games War Weather World Arts Business Data Entertainment Environment Fashion Local Medicine Music Politics Science Sports Technology Traffic Video games War Weather World Genres Adversarial Advocacy ( Interventionism ) Analytic Blogging Citizen Civic Collaborative Comics-based Community Database Enterprise Explanatory Feature story Gonzo Human-interest Immersion Infotainment / Soft media Interpretive Investigative Long-form Narrative New Journalism Opinion Peace Sensor Underground Visual Watchdog Adversarial Advocacy ( Interventionism ) Analytic Blogging Citizen Civic Collaborative Comics-based Community Database Enterprise Explanatory Feature story Gonzo Human-interest Immersion Infotainment / Soft media Interpretive Investigative Long-form Narrative New Journalism Opinion Peace Sensor Underground Visual Watchdog Ethics and standards Broadcast Chequebook Churnalism Codes of ethics Culture Editing ( Copy editing · Corrections · Fact-checking · Spiking ) Fake news ( Websites ) Horse race Journalese Media bias ( False balance ) News values ( Above the fold · Man bites dog ) Objectivity Pink-slime Scandals Sensationalism Sources Tabloid ( Television ) Yellow Journalism school ( Student publication ) Broadcast Chequebook Churnalism Codes of ethics Culture Editing ( Copy editing · Corrections · Fact-checking · Spiking ) Fake news ( Websites ) Horse race Journalese Media bias ( False balance ) News values ( Above the fold · Man bites dog ) Objectivity Pink-slime Scandals Sensationalism Sources Tabloid ( Television ) Yellow Journalism school ( Student publication ) Challenges Decline of newspapers ( News desert ) Fourth Estate Fifth Estate Editorial independence ( Independent · State ) Media capture · Media plurality Freedom of information Freedom of the press ( Defamation · Safety ) Source protection Decline of newspapers ( News desert ) Fourth Estate Fifth Estate Editorial independence ( Independent · State ) Media capture · Media plurality Freedom of information Freedom of the press ( Defamation · Safety ) Source protection Public relations Media manipulation Media relations News embargo News leak News propaganda ( Model ) Press conference ( Media scrum ) Press gallery Press line Press pass Press pool Press release Sound bite Spin Spin room Media manipulation Media relations News embargo News leak News propaganda ( Model ) Press conference ( Media scrum ) Press gallery Press line Press pass Press pool Press release Sound bite Spin Spin room News media Newspapers ( Newspaper of record · Middle-market · Newspaper formats · Broadsheet · Tabloid · Online · Extra edition ) Magazines Broadcast ( TV and radio ) Digital Multimedia ( Video ) Documentary film / television News agencies Alternative media Nonprofit Public service Newspapers ( Newspaper of record · Middle-market · Newspaper formats · Broadsheet · Tabloid · Online · Extra edition ) Magazines Broadcast ( TV and radio ) Digital Multimedia ( Video ) Documentary film / television News agencies Alternative media Nonprofit Public service Public service Newsroom Journalist ( Staff writer · Correspondent · Photojournalist · News presenter ) Columnist Editors ( Editor-in-chief · Managing editor · Political editor · Editorial board · Assignment editor · Duty editor · Public editor · Editor-at-large · Contributing editor ) Weather presenter News bureau News director Pundit Stringer Journalist ( Staff writer · Correspondent · Photojournalist · News presenter ) Columnist Editors ( Editor-in-chief · Managing editor · Political editor · Editorial board · Assignment editor · Duty editor · Public editor · Editor-at-large · Contributing editor ) Weather presenter News bureau News director Pundit Stringer Journalism portal Category: Journalism Journalism portal Category: Journalism .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Breaking news has been common to U.S. mass media since the 1930s, when the mass adoption of radio allowed the public to learn about new events without the need to print an extra edition of a newspaper . [ 3 ] History The early 2000s introduced major changes to breaking news through digital journalism and continuous news streams and expanding online news outlets. News organizations transformed their sense of urgency and newsworthiness through the creation of the 24-hour news cycle, which cable networks started before web-based platforms expanded it. The shift of news into an endless cycle caused scholars to observe that breaking news alerts became more common for stories of different importance to keep audiences engaged. [ 4 ] Television When a news event warrants an interruption of current non-news programming (or, in some cases, regularly scheduled newscasts), the broadcaster will usually alert all of its affiliates, telling them to stand by for the interruption. The network's feed will then switch to a countdown sequence, to allow any affiliated stations to switch to the network feed. If a national network newscast is in progress when the breaking news event occurs, the newscast will pause temporarily to allow other network affiliates to join the feed. There is then an opening graphic, with a distinctive music cue. The open is followed by the introduction of a news anchor , who welcomes the viewer to the broadcast and introduces the story at hand. Lower thirds and other graphics may also be altered to convey a sense of urgency. [ 5 ] In recent years, major networks such as NBC have begun using "Special Report" tickers for select breaking stories during regularly scheduled programming, lessening the need for cut-ins. Depending on the story being followed, the report may last only a few minutes, or continue for multiple hours or days. If coverage continues for an extended amount of time, the network may integrate analysis about the story through analysts in-studio, via phone, satellite , broadband (B-GAN) or through other means of communication. Depending on the severity of the event, regular commercial advertising may be suspended entirely for sustained coverage. Network affiliates will be required to insert their station identification in at the top of the hour overlaid during the report rather than through the usual means of a station imaging promo or program reminder. Breaking news reports are often incomplete because reporters have only a basic awareness of the story. For example, major U.S. broadcast networks analyzed the search warrant affidavit related to the FBI search of Mar-a-Lago in real time, while on the air, breaking into programming immediately after the document was released. [ 6 ] The Radio Television Digital News Association (RTDNA) maintains a list of guidelines for broadcasters reporting breaking news. [ 7 ] Talking heads Breaking news reports often face the same problems in reporting: no footage of the incident, no reporters at the scene, and little available information. To be able to report on current affairs despite this, many networks either employ full-time (typical in the United States) or contact freelance (typical in the United Kingdom) experts and pundits to be "talking heads". These people have either experience or expertise and are considered reliable by the general public. They have been common on television, and can also appear on radio. [ 8 ] In the United States, the competitive nature of commercial networks has allowed for pundits to develop their skills and dedicate themselves to respond to breaking news with analysis in a variety of fields, most often political. These talking heads can be paid millions to work exclusively for a network. In the United Kingdom, TV talking heads are sometimes considered filler who talk around the subject. They are not full-time employees of networks and are not always paid – when they are it is a flat fee for the slot – and will be urgently called in to discuss the relevant field (in which they will typically work full-time). Pundits in the UK have said that they do it because they deem it important to get expert coverage of breaking news, and because it can put their field (and themselves) in the spotlight. Research has suggested that talking heads in the United States are more likely to be partial than talking heads in the United Kingdom. [ 8 ] In 2015, the Financial Times suggested that with modern technological developments broadening news coverage, and with networks opting to show "livelier" non-expert comments from social media more, the need for talking heads may be shrinking. [ 8 ] Radio National news that is broadcast over a radio network requires constant monitoring by station employees to allow the network coverage to air, although many stations will take a signal sent by the network and break into programming immediately. In the United Kingdom, Independent Radio News provides special alarm systems specifically to notify its affiliates of deaths in the British royal family , mandating their participation in heavily coordinated mourning protocols (such as " Operation London Bridge ") that are practiced by the government and broadcasters. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Mobile phones Smartphone users who have mobile apps for news may choose to receive push notifications about news updates. In 2016, the Pew Charitable Trusts conducted a survey and found that 55% of U.S. smartphone users received news alerts, although only 13% of users reported receiving them "often". [ 12 ] The New York Times split its push notifications into "Breaking News" and less urgent "Top Stories" in 2016, after modifying its email lists in the same way. [ 13 ] National Public Radio increased its push notifications significantly in 2018, notifying app users about both breaking news and programming information, to mixed reactions from its audience. [ 14 ] The Columbia Journalism Review found in a 2017 study that 43% of news apps' push notifications were not related to breaking news. [ 15 ] The social media platforms, especially Twitter, have revolutionized the way breaking news spreads through real-time updates from journalists and eyewitnesses. The immediate nature of this process enables information to appear online before traditional news verification and reporting processes take place in organizations. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Usage News bulletins have been a fixture of radio broadcasting since the 1920s. Examples of early news bulletins in the Golden Age of Radio include fictionalized versions in the 1938 radio drama The War of the Worlds and coverage of the attack on Pearl Harbor , which was also the first television news bulletin, reported on stations in New York and Pennsylvania . KTLA in Los Angeles is credited with being the first television station to provide extended coverage of a breaking news event: for 27½ hours from April 8 to 9, 1949, the station carried live coverage of an attempt to rescue three-year-old Kathy Fiscus , who had fallen down an abandoned well in San Marino, California , where she ultimately perished due to asphyxia from a lack of oxygen. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Before 24-hour news networks existed, programming interruptions were restricted to extremely urgent news, such as for the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy in 1963. [ 20 ] Such breaks are now common at 24-hour news channels , which have an anchor available for live interruption at any time. Another type of breaking news is for severe weather events. In North America until the 1990s, television and radio stations normally only provided long-form weather coverage during immediate, ongoing threats, such as a tornado or a landfalling hurricane . Cut-ins and alert crawls during regular programming were used otherwise, even when higher-end alerts such as tornado warnings were issued. [ 21 ] Advancements in newsgathering and weather technology (including the deployment of helicopters to provide aerial coverage and radar systems that can detect specific storm attributes), coupled with a few highly life-threatening events during the 1990s (such as Hurricane Andrew and the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak ) and the resulting heightened urgency to advise those in the storm's path to take safety precautions in advance made extended (or "wall-to-wall") weather coverage once a high-end alert is issued more common in storm-prone areas, with cut-ins only being used in weather events of lesser severity. Not all viewers agree that stories labeled as "breaking news" are urgent or important. CNN chairman and CEO Chris Licht wrote upon assuming the position in 2022, "It has become such a fixture on every channel and network that its impact has become lost on the audience." To address this, he began limiting CNN's use of the term only to stories of utmost importance. [ 22 ] Challenges in digital age Social media platforms, together with user-generated content, have rapidly accelerated the spread of breaking news throughout the digital revolution. News dissemination at high speed through modern media channels has established major challenges for verifying misinformation. News organizations require time to verify content through their editorial standards, but Twitter, Facebook, and TikTok allow unverified information to spread rapidly in real time. News organizations face immediate pressure to publish news, which leads to the premature release of unverified information. Newsrooms have developed extensive verification procedures that employ digital authentication tools to authenticate eyewitness reports and visual materials. News distributions changes, according to media scholars, have forced journalistic standards of credibility to face challenges because of the need for immediate reporting [ 23 ] Criticism In early coverage of a breaking story, details are often inaccurate or incomplete. For example, during the Sago Mine disaster , there were initial reports that 12 of the 13 miners were found alive, but news organizations later learned that only one actually survived. [ 24 ] Some commentators question as to whether the use of the term "breaking news" is excessive, citing occasions when the term is used even though scheduled programming is not interrupted. For example, an evening broadcast may begin with "Breaking news as we come on the air" to cover a story that has been covered by other broadcasts repetitively within the last 24 hours. [ 25 ] In June 2013, Fox affiliate WDRB in Louisville, Kentucky gained notice in the television industry for a promo that criticized the broad and constant use of the "breaking news" term, explaining that it has been overused as a "marketing ploy" by other news-producing stations, who tend to apply the term to stories that are low in urgency or relevance. To coincide with the promo, on its website, WDRB posted "Contracts" with its viewers and advertisers, with the former list promising to use "breaking news" judiciously (applying it to stories that are "both 'breaking' and 'news ' "). [ 26 ] [ 27 ] In June 2022, CNN chief Chris Licht oversaw the addition of guidance regarding the use of "breaking news" to the network's style guide. Licht, who took over leadership after the recent merger of its parent company WarnerMedia with Discovery Inc. , argued in an internal memo that overuse of the term by news channels had made it lose its impact among viewers, and that "We are truth-tellers, focused on informing, not alarming our viewers." [ 28 ] References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Christopher Merrill (January 20, 2014). "Always Free Online" . Collins English Dictionary . Retrieved January 24, 2014 . ^ "Definition of Breaking News – Journalism Terms" . Journalism.about.com. December 20, 2013. Archived from the original on December 31, 2013 . Retrieved January 24, 2014 . ^ "Breaking News of the 1930s | American Experience" . PBS . Retrieved September 23, 2023 . ^ Usher, Nikki. "Breaking news production processes in US metropolitan newspapers: Immediacy and journalistic authority." Journalism 17, no. 6 (2016): 714–730. ^ Hill, Michael P. (February 22, 2022). "CBS News breaks in new special report look and sound" . NewscastStudio . Retrieved September 23, 2023 . ^ Hill, Michael P. (August 26, 2022). "Networks go 'quick and dirty' to show document after release of Trump affidavit" . NewscastStudio . Retrieved September 23, 2023 . ^ "Covering Breaking News" . Radio Television Digital News Association . Retrieved September 23, 2023 . ^ a b c Mance, Henry (November 20, 2015). "TV's talking heads: who are they and why do we need them?" . Financial Times . Retrieved March 24, 2022 . ^ Gogarty, Conor (July 7, 2018). "Operation London Bridge: This is what will happen when the Queen dies" . Gloucestershire Live . Retrieved August 26, 2018 . ^ " 'London Bridge is down': the secret plan for the days after the Queen's death" . the Guardian . March 17, 2017 . Retrieved July 15, 2022 . ^ "Prince Philip has died aged 99, Buckingham Palace announces" . BBC News . April 9, 2021 . Retrieved April 10, 2021 . ^ Lu, Kristine; Matsa, Katerina Eva. "More than half of smartphone users get news alerts, but few get them often" . Pew Research Center . Retrieved September 23, 2023 . ^ Spayd, Liz (August 25, 2016). "Why'd You Do That? How The Times Decides to Send News Alerts" . The New York Times . Retrieved September 23, 2023 . ^ Jensen, Elizabeth (May 18, 2018). "You Call That Breaking News?" . NPR . Retrieved September 23, 2023 . ^ Brown, Pete (November 29, 2017). "US newsrooms use mobile alerts to define their brand" . Columbia Journalism Review . Retrieved September 23, 2023 . ^ "How social media changed breaking news forever" . NiemanLab . October 2022. ^ Usher, Nikki (2016). "Breaking news production processes in US metropolitan newspapers: Immediacy and journalistic authority" . Journalism . Vol. 17, no. 6. pp. 714– 730. ^ Stan Chambers (April 8, 1989). "The Kathy Fiscus Story: Turning Point in TV News" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved February 14, 2015 . ^ "Los Angeles Television News Pioneer Stan Chambers Dies at 91" . ABC News . February 14, 2015. Archived from the original on February 16, 2015. ^ "Press Coverage the Kennedy Assassination" . PBS . Retrieved September 24, 2023 . ^ Timothy A. Coleman; Kevin R. Knupp; James Spann ; J. B. Elliot; Brian E. Peters (May 2011). "The History (and Future) of Tornado Warning Dissemination in the United States" . Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . 92 (5). American Meteorological Society : 567– 582. Bibcode : 2011BAMS...92..567C . doi : 10.1175/2010BAMS3062.1 . ^ Fischer, Sara (June 2, 2022). "CNN cutting back on over-hyping everything as "breaking news" " . Axios . Axios Media Inc . Retrieved June 24, 2022 . ^ ^ Davis, Matthew (January 5, 2006). "US mining safety under scrutiny" . BBC News . Retrieved April 24, 2013 . ^ "When Is Breaking News… Not?" . InsideTheCBC.com . Archived from the original on February 8, 2008. ^ "Louisville Station Stops Using 'Breaking News' " . TVSpy . June 4, 2013. Archived from the original on June 8, 2013. ^ Averlo. "Averlo - breaking news" . Archived from the original on February 28, 2025 . Retrieved February 28, 2025 . ^ Johnson, Ted (June 2, 2022). "New CNN Boss Chris Licht Wants To Cut Back On Use Of "Breaking News" Chyron, Announces Creation Of "Guns In America" Beat" . Deadline . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Usage guidelines 2 Precise language 3 "As of" categories 4 Maintenance tasks Toggle Maintenance tasks subsection 4.1 Article maintenance 4.2 Creating this month's maintenance category 4.1 Article maintenance 4.2 Creating this month's maintenance category 5 See also Wikipedia : As of Dagbanli Esperanto ភាសាខ្មែរ Русский සිංහල Project page Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This page documents an English Wikipedia editing guideline . Editors should generally follow it, though exceptions may apply. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus . .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:AO WP:AO WP:ASOF WP:ASOF WP:AO WP:AO WP:ASOF WP:ASOF This page in a nutshell: Wikipedia contains date-sensitive information which may require revision on a future date. The template {{ As of }} is used to help track and maintain such statements. The "as of" technique is a method to deal with information that will quickly become dated. Some articles have information that is valid only at a specific moment in history, such as population statistics and current events. If you suspect that a fact in an article will become dated at some point in the future, and want to ensure that people will update it, include a tag of the form with the year of validity in place of .mw-parser-output .mw-tmpl-kbd{background:#EEE;color:var(--color-base)}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mw-tmpl-kbd{background:#171a1d}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mw-tmpl-kbd{background:#171a1d}} year and the month number in place of month . See the {{ As of }} template for additional options and detailed examples. Every individual, non-contiguous statement in an article that may date quickly should be so tagged, even if there are several such statements that link to the same year. Otherwise, it is possible that when one statement is updated, other statements in the article might be overlooked, and no one will realize that they need to be checked also. Usage guidelines The {{ As of }} template is meant for cases where an article aims to provide the most current information and will need future updates. It should not be used for historical facts that won't change, such as "population of Toledo, Ohio , was 13,768 as of the 1860 Census." Instead, use it for statements that will need updating with new data, like "the population of Toledo as of the 2020 Census was 287,208" which should be updated when a newer census is conducted. The date used for a given statement should be the date of the most recent reliable source (for currently valid statements), or the date on which the data were obtained (for example, when using census figures). "As of" should not be used with future dates, as it will place the article in nonexistent categories . Instead use {{ Update after }} to mark when the next event will occur. Here are two ways to correctly mark statements with future dates: {{As of|2026|post=,}} construction is expected to finish in 2036 and cost US$28 billion. Construction is expected to finish in 2036 and cost US$28 billion.{{update after|2036}} Remember to always use precise language when writing about future or current events. The statement should make sense to a reader years into the future, even if the information has changed. If it is possible to predict when a statement will need updating, use the {{ Update after }} template to indicate when it should be updated. In the above statement the most obvious date is 31 December 2036, after which time construction will have finished or the statement will have become inaccurate. In either case the article should be updated to reflect this. When "As of" phrasing is not ideal, you can improve encyclopedic prose in either of two ways: {{As of |since=y |2026|01|post=,}} the head of the congregation has been the Rev. Ann O. Nymous , which gives: Since January 2026, [update] the head of the congregation has been the Rev. Ann O. Nymous {{As of |alt=Beginning in early 2026 |2026|01|post=,}} production of the series moved to Toronto , which gives: Beginning in early 2026, [update] production of the series moved to Toronto Avoid starting multiple paragraphs or sentences with "As of" to prevent a distracting list-like effect . Both "As of" and "Since" can be made lower-case for use in mid-sentence, by addition of the |lc=y parameter, and any use of |alt=... can contain text beginning with lower case. Precise language WP:PRECISELANG WP:PRECISELANG WP:CURRENTLY WP:CURRENTLY In general, editors should avoid using statements that will date quickly. This does not apply to quotes, which must remain true to their source. Where possible, avoid terms such as "now" and "soon" (unless their intended meaning is made apparent), "currently" and "recently" (except on rare occasions where they are not redundant), or phrases such as "in modern times" and "the sixties" (unless their frame of reference was previously made clear). One exception to this is in articles that are regularly updated, such as those that cover current events . Do not use variables to automatically update the date, such as "as of {{CURRENTYEAR}} ", unless the information being referenced is automatically updated each time the page is parsed, such as {{NUMBEROFARTICLES}} . When writing about past events, use more precise language, such as "during the 1990s", or "in August 1969". For future and current events use phrases such as "as of March 2007", or "since the start of 2005", which indicate that the information is time-specific. The "as of" technique/template described above can be used to assist fellow editors in keeping information up-to-date, but this technique is not intended to replace precise language. "As of" categories When statements are tagged using {{ As of }} the article they are in is automatically added to one or more of the categories in the table below. This allows editors to browse the statements by date of origin. Statements from 2005 onwards will be sorted into categories by month and year if a month is specified, otherwise they will be placed in the parent year category. Statements from 1990–2004 will be categorised by year only, and all other statements will be placed in a separate category . New categories should be created every month using the {{ Category as of }} template, and the navbox below should be updated to reflect the changes. No other maintenance should be required for these categories. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Articles containing potentially dated statements v t e Pre-1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 All Pre-1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 All 2005 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2006 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2007 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2008 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2009 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2010 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2011 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2012 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2013 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2014 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2015 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2016 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2017 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2018 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2019 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2020 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2021 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2022 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2023 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2024 January February March April May June July August September October November December January February March April May June July August September October November December 2025 January February January February Maintenance tasks Article maintenance If you are looking for work and are interested in helping this project there are a number of routine tasks that you can perform. The most demanding, and also most important, is to go through the above categories checking the statements that have been tagged, updating the statement or "as of" tag wherever possible. You may not be able to update some data at this point in time, for example census figures. You may find it easiest to work through the subcategories chronologically, or you may prefer to look through all tagged articles or work on today's focus letter . When checking articles for updates you may find it helpful to add one of the following lines of code to your common.css page : This displays a link to the location specified by the url parameter in the article, if given, which should lead to a webpage containing an updated version of the statement. The URL is visible in the edit window if available, this technique is intended to provide a faster way to check information. For an example see the template documentation . If the url parameter is not specified, this will display a link to edit the page, indicating the implementation of the template and allowing editors to quickly update pages. Creating this month's maintenance category Parts of this Wikipedia page (those related to this section) need to be updated . The reason given is: Bots have been creating the monthly categories since 2011, and humans apparently gave up on "fixing" them to {{ Cat ASOF }} in 2013. Template:Navbox as of would be better automated with Scribunto. Please help update this Wikipedia page to reflect recent events or newly available information. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . (June 2025) If you have less time to spare, you can check if this link shows as a red link (it is a dynamic link to this month's maintenance category). If so, please create it, with the content being the template {{ Cat ASOF }} , and then add the current month's category (which you just created) to the category navbox . See also Wikipedia:Template messages/General#Timing-related messages Wikipedia:Updating information , for updating information at a known future date , and: The accompanying {{ Update }} template. The accompanying {{ Update after }} template. The accompanying {{ Update }} template. The accompanying {{ Update after }} template. {{ Recentism }} {{ Show by date }} /{{ subst:Show by }} MOS:RELTIME v t e Wikipedia community v t e For a listing of current collaborations, tasks, and news, see the Community portal . For a listing of ongoing discussions and current requests, see the Dashboard . 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Reward board Contests A nice cup of tea and a sit down Charitableness WikiLove Compliment before criticism Kindness Campaign Compliment before criticism Kindness Campaign Thanks! 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Plot Toggle Plot subsection 1.1 Background 1.2 Events 1.1 Background 1.2 Events 2 Production 3 Themes 4 Broadcast and reception 5 References 6 External links Say Hello to My Little Friend ( Awake ) Français 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item " Say Hello to My Little Friend " Awake episode Episode no. Season 1 Episode 11 Directed by Laura Innes Written by Kyle Killen Leonard Chang Kyle Killen Leonard Chang Featured music " Bohemian Rhapsody " Production code 1ATR10 Original air date May 10, 2012 ( 2012-05-10 ) Running time 44 minutes Guest appearances Laura Innes as Tricia Harper Daniela Bobadilla as Emma Kevin Weisman as Ed Hawkins Carlos Lacamara as Joaquin Evan Helmuth as Roland Petrowski Wayne Bastrup as Thompson Sharon Omi as Sarah Paul Casey Kramer as Cindy Marcus Choi as Harvey Josh Novak as Tom [ 1 ] Laura Innes as Tricia Harper Daniela Bobadilla as Emma Kevin Weisman as Ed Hawkins Carlos Lacamara as Joaquin Evan Helmuth as Roland Petrowski Wayne Bastrup as Thompson Sharon Omi as Sarah Paul Casey Kramer as Cindy Marcus Choi as Harvey Josh Novak as Tom [ 1 ] Episode chronology ← Previous " Slack Water " Next → " Two Birds " ← Previous " Slack Water " Next → " Two Birds " " Say Hello to My Little Friend " is the eleventh episode of the American television police procedural fantasy drama Awake , which originally aired on NBC on May 10, 2012. Written by Leonard Chang and series creator Kyle Killen , "Say Hello to My Little Friend" earned a Nielsen rating of 0.9, being watched by 2.51 million viewers upon its initial broadcast in the United States. Directed by recurring guest actress Laura Innes , the episode generally received positive reviews, with many critics claiming that it was the best episode of the series since " Pilot " and that Jason Isaacs ' performance deserved an Emmy Award . Awake centers on Michael Britten (Isaacs), a detective living in two separate realities after a car crash. In one reality, in which he wears a red wristband, his wife Hannah Britten ( Laura Allen ) survived the collision, and in another reality, in which he wears a green wristband, his son Rex Britten ( Dylan Minnette ) survived. In this episode, Michael passes out during a bungee jump while he is at a carnival with Rex and Emma ( Daniela Bobadilla ). He is unable to switch realities, consistently hallucinates and realizes that Ed Hawkins ( Kevin Weisman ), a detective who is working with Michael's former partner Bird ( Steve Harris ), was attempting to kill him in the crash. Meanwhile, Hannah deals with Emma's new baby by trying to convince her parents to let her keep the baby. Shortly after this episode was broadcast, NBC announced their decision to cancel Awake , due to declining ratings, although NBC still decided to air the remaining two episodes in the show's original time slot. Isaacs found "Say Hello to My Little Friend" the most difficult to shoot, and had to imagine an awful thing happening to his family. It was filmed in Los Angeles , California , and continued and introduced key thematic elements to the series. Plot Background The Brittens are involved in a fatal car crash. As a result, Michael Britten , a Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) detective, begins to live in two separate realities. In one reality, in which he wears a red wristband, his wife Hannah Britten ( Laura Allen ) survives the crash, and in the other reality, in which he wears a green wristband, his son Rex Britten ( Dylan Minnette ) survives. Michael does not know which reality is real, and uses the wristbands to differentiate the two. Michael sees two separate therapists: Dr. Jonathan Lee ( BD Wong ) in the "red reality", and Dr. Judith Evans ( Cherry Jones ) in the "green reality". Meanwhile, in the "red reality", Michael and Hannah continue with their plan to move to Oregon . Michael works with Detective Isaiah "Bird" Freeman ( Steve Harris ) in the "green reality" and with Detective Efrem Vega ( Wilmer Valderrama ) in the "red reality" after the collision. Events Dr. Lee asks Michael about his latest experience with "green reality". At a police carnival at an amusement park, Emma ( Daniela Bobadilla ), Rex's girlfriend, asks if she and Rex can bungee jump. As they are walking to the ride, Michael bumps into someone who claims that it was his fault. At the ride, Michael goes first, but the person in charge of the ride seems concerned about something; Michael passes out and wakes up in the "red reality" (where Hannah is alive, but Rex is dead), as if the "green reality" were a dream. In the "red reality", Dr. Lee says it is progress, that Michael is trying to tell himself that his son is dead and that he is on the verge of a breakthrough. Shortly after getting into his car, Michael suddenly sees the man who he bumped into at the amusement park. Michael sees the mystery man several more times throughout the episode, and it becomes more clear the man is only a hallucination . Michael passes out and remembers events shortly before and after the crash; Hannah and Rex are singing the Queen song, " Bohemian Rhapsody ". Later, Michael meets with Emma's father, Joaquin ( Carlos Lacamara ) at a coffee shop to discuss the new baby, the mystery man appears to let Michael know that he sees the real mystery man through the window, and Michael chases after him. When a police artist (Chad Cleven) draws an image of the man, his real name is revealed to be Ed Hawkins ( Kevin Weisman ), another detective who took over Michael's spot at the police department after the crash, now working with Bird ( Steve Harris ), Michael's former partner in the "red reality" and his current one in the "green reality". Michael meets with Bird and Hawkins, and the latter says that he was one of the first on the scene of the crash and that he is sorry about Rex's death. Michael starts to believe that his son is really dead; he remembers the crash, yet again, with additional information. Michael realizes that Hawkins was trying to kill him in the crash. As soon as he figures out the situation, Michael wakes up with Rex and Emma; he is relieved to see Rex. After the carnival, Michael phones Dr. Evans to tell her what he now knows about the crash. Production The episode was written by Leonard Chang and series creator Kyle Killen . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] It was Killen's sixth credit and Chang's second writing acknowledgment for the show. [ 3 ] The entry was directed by Laura Innes , who guest stars in the recurring role of Captain Tricia Harper in the series. [ 1 ] [ 4 ] It was Innes' first and only directing credit for Awake . [ 3 ] Killen noted that, during the filming of the episode, he became "hungry" and wanted to "bend the rules" with the installment. [ 5 ] He stated that the installment was a model episode that he wanted to "pursue with the show going forward". [ 5 ] Killen also thought the last "three or four episodes" of Awake , including this episode, represent what the show's writers were able to accomplish throughout Awake 's original run. [ 6 ] "Say Hello to My Little Friend" marked the first appearance of Hawkins, a detective who was described as a titular "little guy", [ 7 ] from the series' second episode, " The Little Guy ". [ 8 ] Weisman obtained a recurring role in January 2012 [ 9 ] and later garnered the role of the character. [ 10 ] He was later revealed as the man who caused the Britten family 's collision. [ 10 ] This entry's production code was "1ATR10". [ 11 ] It was filmed in Los Angeles , California . [ 12 ] Isaacs found "Say Hello to My Little Friend" the "most difficult [episode] to shoot" as one of the character's realities was fabricated and had to disappear by the end. [ 4 ] To prepare himself for the episode, he imagined that he had suddenly lost his own child or that something awful happened to his family. [ 4 ] While Isaacs had "played cheesy disco music" through filming the majority of the episodes, he played nothing during the filming of "Say Hello to My Little Friend". [ 4 ] During a scene where Michael sits on the floor and starts crying, Isaacs had "no idea what came out of [his mouth]". [ 4 ] That scene was shot three or four times with a different performance by Isaacs each time; the actor did not know which take Innes would use. [ 4 ] Themes "Say Hello to My Little Friend" continued and introduced key thematic elements to the series that were originally introduced in "The Little Guy". Key themes in this installment included when Michael was unable to see Rex and realized that Hawkins was trying to kill him in the car crash. [ 8 ] It was described as a "show about grief" when it first started airing and that the "cause of the car crash didn't really matter" at that time. [ 10 ] Now, however, The A.V. Club noted that Awake is "dabbling in crooked cops and God only knows what else". [ 10 ] He observed that Michael could be having another defense to keep the fantasy world alive because of his thoughts with Hawkins. [ 10 ] The A.V. Club also thought that Hawkins was the reasoning for the second episode's name. [ 10 ] Writing for HitFix , Alan Sepinwall observed that the episode came from Michael's perspective. [ 2 ] According to Sepinwall, "Say Hello to My Little Friend" showed Hannah and Rex together for the first time in the flashback shortly before the crash. [ 2 ] He opined that the only people who currently watch the series are "the ones who can quickly identify the red filter from the green filter and figure things out accordingly". [ 2 ] Maggie Furlong from The Huffington Post thought that "Say Hello to My Little Friend" "surfaces some serious issues for Britten" that has only been "cryptically referenced" previously. [ 13 ] Broadcast and reception "Say Hello to My Little Friend" originally aired on NBC on May 10, 2012, [ 14 ] and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky Atlantic on July 13, 2012. [ 15 ] The episode's initial broadcast in the United States was viewed by approximately 2.51 million viewers. [ 16 ] "Say Hello to My Little Friend" earned a Nielsen rating of 0.9, with a 2 share, meaning that roughly 0.9 percent of all television-equipped households and 2 percent of households watching television were tuned in to the episode. [ 16 ] A sneak peek was released online shortly before the episode's original broadcast. [ 13 ] In the United Kingdom, the episode obtained 275,000 viewers, making it the third most-viewed program for the channel behind Alan Partridges: Mid Morning Matters and The Newsroom . [ 15 ] Shortly after this episode was broadcast, NBC announced their decision to cancel Awake , due to declining ratings. [ 17 ] Despite the series' cancellation, NBC still decided to air the remaining two episodes. [ 2 ] Before its original airing, "Say Hello to My Little Friend" was highly anticipated by commentators. In a review for " Slack Water ", The A.V. Club claimed that "Say Hello to My Little Friend" would be "very cool" because Michael will "face a crisis when he stops waking up in [the green reality]". [ 18 ] In a review for the same episode, Sepinwall called "Say Hello to My Little Friend" and the following episode "quite good". [ 19 ] This episode generally received positive reviews from critics. Commentators from IGN , Paste and TV Fanatic were pleased with Isaacs' performance; they felt that his performance deserved an Emmy Award . [ 8 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] IGN 's Matt Fowler described Isaacs' performance as "suspense"-worthy, [ 8 ] while Paste writer Ross Bonaime thought that his acting deserved an Emmy nomination "at the very least". [ 21 ] Although he did not note that his performance was Emmy-worthy, in his "A−" review, Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club claimed that Isaacs' is usually the "bad guy", but he seems like a "dad". [ 10 ] Fowler gave the episode itself a "9.5 out of 10", classifying it as "amazing"; the entry's story was called "powerful". [ 8 ] However, Bonaime gave the entry a "8.9" rating. [ 21 ] Fowler and Nick McHatton, a TV Fanatic critic, stated that this was the best episode of the program since " Pilot "; [ 8 ] [ 20 ] Handlen said that the episode, for the most part, was "a great hour of television, and a fine uptick from the last couple weeks of Awake ", [ 10 ] while Bonaime called it "one of Awake 's most compelling episodes to date". [ 21 ] McHatton called the emotional problems of the episode "heart wrenching" to watch", as they had him in tears; he gave a "4.9 out of 5" rating for the episode. [ 20 ] Handlen complimented the "powerful scene, as [Michael] tries to convince her father that he should do anything possible to avoid losing touch with his daughter", and also noted that the episode "raises the stakes for [Michael], changing what he's come to accept as his routine for the first time since the start of the series: while bungee jumping at a fair with Rex and Emma in [the green reality], [Michael] has a fainting spell, and comes to in [the red reality]". [ 10 ] Handlen claimed the episode "doesn't seem to fit everything else". [ 10 ] Sepinwall complained that viewers went into "the episode already knowing that the Britten family's car crash was anything but". [ 2 ] Sepinwall noted that "as it played not only with the structure of the show, but the emotions of our hero by showing us what happens if he stops going to sleep in one reality and waking up in the other". [ 2 ] According to Sepinwall, "Say Hello to My Little Friend" was "effective" as it "forced [Michael] to finally confront a truth about his situation", and that he finally needs to grieve, by recognizing that one of his two loved ones is dead. [ 2 ] Sepinwall praised how the episode "kept mirroring moments in the pilot", [ 2 ] while Screen Rant writer Kevin Yeoman called the installment itself "powerful" and "compelling". [ 22 ] Yeoman compared Awake to Mission: Impossible , writing that "with just two episodes left", Awake has to go into Mission: Impossible mode to "provide answers". [ 22 ] References ^ a b c .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Crawford, David. "Awake | Series 1 – 11. Say Hello to My Little Friend" . Radio Times . Immediate Media Company. Archived from the original on July 11, 2015 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ a b c d e f g h i Sepinwall, Alan (May 10, 2012). "Review: 'Awake' – 'Say Hello to My Little Friend': Is this the real life? Is this just fantasy?" . HitFix . Archived from the original on February 23, 2014 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ a b "Awake | Series 1 episode guide" . Radio Times . Immediate Media Company. Archived from the original on July 10, 2015 . Retrieved August 19, 2012 . Note: Information is listed on individual episodes included on the list. ^ a b c d e f Bierly, Mandi (May 24, 2012). " 'Awake' series finale will be satisfying, Jason Isaacs and Kyle Killen promise" . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Archived from the original on October 15, 2012 . Retrieved August 8, 2012 . ^ a b Surette, Tim (May 25, 2012). "Awake Q&A: Creator Kyle Killen Explains the Finale and More" . TV.com . CBS Interactive . Archived from the original on December 15, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Sepinwall, Alan (May 24, 2012). " 'Awake' series finale interview with creator Kyle Killen" . HitFix . Archived from the original on July 12, 2015 . Retrieved August 8, 2012 . ^ Webb Mitovich, Matt (May 9, 2012). "Exclusive Awake Video: Has Britten Found 'The Little Guy'? Or Is He Spoilering?" . TVLine . PMC . Archived from the original on September 4, 2015 . Retrieved July 21, 2012 . ^ a b c d e f Fowler, Matt (May 10, 2012). "Awake: 'Say Hello to My Little Friend' Review" . IGN . News Corporation . Archived from the original on June 14, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Hibberd, James (January 26, 2012). " 'Alias' actor joins NBC's 'Awake' " . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc. Archived from the original on February 22, 2014 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j Handlen, Zack (May 10, 2012). " 'Say Hello to My Little Friend' " . The A.V. Club . The Onion . Archived from the original on July 19, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ "Awake (a Titles & Air Dates Guide)" . epguides . May 10, 2012. Archived from the original on September 12, 2015 . Retrieved August 8, 2012 . ^ Andreeva, Nellie (June 9, 2011). "New Series Locations Update: NY Has Stellar Year, But LA Gains With Post-Upfront Moves" . Deadline Hollywood . PMC . Archived from the original on April 26, 2012 . Retrieved August 22, 2012 . ^ a b Furlong, Maggie (May 10, 2012). " 'Awake' On NBC Shocking Twist: Exclusive Sneak Peek At 'Say Hello To My Little Friend' (Video)" . The Huffington Post . AOL . Archived from the original on June 5, 2012 . Retrieved August 8, 2012 . ^ "Awake Episode Guide 2012 Season 1 – Say Hello to My Little Friend, episode 11" . TV Guide . May 10, 2012. Archived from the original on July 25, 2012 . Retrieved August 8, 2012 . ^ a b "BARB's multichannel top 10 programmes" . Broadcasters' Audience Research Board . Archived from the original on December 14, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . Note: Information is in the section titled "w/e 15 Jul 2012", listed under Sky Atlantic ^ a b Kondolojy, Amanda (May 11, 2012). "Thursday Final Ratings: 'Big Bang Theory', 'Idol', 'Vampire Diaries', 'Office', 'Secret Circle', 'Grey's' Adjusted Up; 'Touch', 'Scandal' Adjusted Down" . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Archived from the original on May 13, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Harnick, Chris (May 11, 2012). " 'Awake' Canceled: NBC Pulls Plug On Drama, 'Best Friends Forever,' 'Are You There Chelsea?' And 'Bent' " . The Huffington Post . AOL. Archived from the original on June 5, 2012 . Retrieved June 9, 2012 . ^ Handlen, Zack (May 3, 2012). " 'Slack Water' " . The A.V. Club . The Onion. Archived from the original on July 9, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Sepinwall, Alan (May 3, 2012). "Review: 'Awake' – 'Slack Water': Moving day" . HitFix . Archived from the original on September 8, 2014 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ a b c McHatton, Nick (May 11, 2012). "Awake Review: We're Not In Green Anymore" . TV Fanatic . Sheknows Entertainment. Archived from the original on July 10, 2015 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ a b c d Bonaime, Ross (May 11, 2012). "Awake Review: 'Say Hello to My Little Friend' (Episode 1.11)" . Paste . Wolfgang's Vault . Archived from the original on June 24, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ a b Yeoman, Kevin (May 11, 2012). " 'Awake' Season 1, episode 11: 'Say Hello To My Little Friend' Recap" . Screen Rant. Archived from the original on November 8, 2023 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . External links Television portal "Say Hello to My Little Friend" at NBC.com "Say Hello to My Little Friend" at IMDb .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Awake v t e Characters Britten family Michael Britten Hannah Britten Rex Britten Cast members Britten family Michael Britten Hannah Britten Rex Britten Michael Britten Hannah Britten Rex Britten Cast members Episodes " Pilot " " The Little Guy " " Guilty " " Kate Is Enough " " Oregon " " That's Not My Penguin " " Ricky's Tacos " " Nightswimming " " Game Day " " Slack Water " " Say Hello to My Little Friend " " Two Birds " " Turtles All the Way Down " " Pilot " " The Little Guy " " Guilty " " Kate Is Enough " " Oregon " " That's Not My Penguin " " Ricky's Tacos " " Nightswimming " " Game Day " " Slack Water " " Say Hello to My Little Friend " " Two Birds " " Turtles All the Way Down " Category Commons WikiProject Category Commons WikiProject 2012 American television episodes Awake (TV series) episodes Use American English from January 2025 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from January 2025 Featured articles Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Television episode articles with short description for single episodes Television episode articles with short description and disambiguated page names This page was last edited on 2 December 2025, at 01:38 (UTC) . 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Physics > Physics and Society Title: The most controversial topics in Wikipedia: A multilingual and geographical analysis Abstract: We present, visualize and analyse the similarities and differences between the controversial topics related to "edit wars" identified in 10 different language versions of Wikipedia. After a brief review of the related work we describe the methods developed to locate, measure, and categorize the controversial topics in the different languages. Visualizations of the degree of overlap between the top 100 lists of most controversial articles in different languages and the content related to geographical locations will be presented. We discuss what the presented analysis and visualizations can tell us about the multicultural aspects of Wikipedia and practices of peer-production. Our results indicate that Wikipedia is more than just an encyclopaedia; it is also a window into convergent and divergent social-spatial priorities, interests and preferences. Comments: This is a draft of a book chapter to be published in 2014 by Scarecrow Press. Please cite as: Yasseri T., Spoerri A., Graham M., and Kertész J., The most controversial topics in Wikipedia: A multilingual and geographical analysis. In: Fichman P., Hara N., editors, Global Wikipedia:International and cross-cultural issues in online collaboration. Scarecrow Press (2014) Subjects: Physics and Society (physics.soc-ph) ; Computation and Language (cs.CL); Digital Libraries (cs.DL); Social and Information Networks (cs.SI); Data Analysis, Statistics and Probability (physics.data-an) Cite as: arXiv:1305.5566 [physics.soc-ph] (or arXiv:1305.5566v2 [physics.soc-ph] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Submission history Access Paper: View PDF References & Citations INSPIRE HEP NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar 1 blog link BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 644 results for author: Zhao, R Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10504 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL DR-Arena: an Automated Evaluation Framework for Deep Research Agents Authors: Yiwen Gao , Ruochen Zhao , Yang Deng , Wenxuan Zhang Abstract : As Large Language Models (LLMs) increasingly operate as Deep Research (DR) Agents capable of autonomous investigation and information synthesis, reliable evaluation of their task performance has become a critical bottleneck. Current benchmarks predominantly rely on static datasets, which suffer from several limitations: limited task generality, temporal misalignment, and data contamination. To add… ▽ More As Large Language Models (LLMs) increasingly operate as Deep Research (DR) Agents capable of autonomous investigation and information synthesis, reliable evaluation of their task performance has become a critical bottleneck. Current benchmarks predominantly rely on static datasets, which suffer from several limitations: limited task generality, temporal misalignment, and data contamination. To address these, we introduce DR-Arena, a fully automated evaluation framework that pushes DR agents to their capability limits through dynamic investigation. DR-Arena constructs real-time Information Trees from fresh web trends to ensure the evaluation rubric is synchronized with the live world state, and employs an automated Examiner to generate structured tasks testing two orthogonal capabilities: Deep reasoning and Wide coverage. DR-Arena further adopts Adaptive Evolvement Loop, a state-machine controller that dynamically escalates task complexity based on real-time performance, demanding deeper deduction or wider aggregation until a decisive capability boundary emerges. Experiments with six advanced DR agents demonstrate that DR-Arena achieves a Spearman correlation of 0.94 with the LMSYS Search Arena leaderboard. This represents the state-of-the-art alignment with human preferences without any manual efforts, validating DR-Arena as a reliable alternative for costly human adjudication. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 22 pages, 8 figures arXiv:2601.10504 [ pdf , ps , other ] DR-Arena: an Automated Evaluation Framework for Deep Research Agents Authors: Yiwen Gao , Ruochen Zhao , Yang Deng , Wenxuan Zhang Abstract : As Large Language Models (LLMs) increasingly operate as Deep Research (DR) Agents capable of autonomous investigation and information synthesis, reliable evaluation of their task performance has become a critical bottleneck. Current benchmarks predominantly rely on static datasets, which suffer from several limitations: limited task generality, temporal misalignment, and data contamination. To add… ▽ More As Large Language Models (LLMs) increasingly operate as Deep Research (DR) Agents capable of autonomous investigation and information synthesis, reliable evaluation of their task performance has become a critical bottleneck. Current benchmarks predominantly rely on static datasets, which suffer from several limitations: limited task generality, temporal misalignment, and data contamination. To address these, we introduce DR-Arena, a fully automated evaluation framework that pushes DR agents to their capability limits through dynamic investigation. DR-Arena constructs real-time Information Trees from fresh web trends to ensure the evaluation rubric is synchronized with the live world state, and employs an automated Examiner to generate structured tasks testing two orthogonal capabilities: Deep reasoning and Wide coverage. DR-Arena further adopts Adaptive Evolvement Loop, a state-machine controller that dynamically escalates task complexity based on real-time performance, demanding deeper deduction or wider aggregation until a decisive capability boundary emerges. Experiments with six advanced DR agents demonstrate that DR-Arena achieves a Spearman correlation of 0.94 with the LMSYS Search Arena leaderboard. This represents the state-of-the-art alignment with human preferences without any manual efforts, validating DR-Arena as a reliable alternative for costly human adjudication. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 22 pages, 8 figures arXiv:2601.10485 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Panning for Gold: Expanding Domain-Specific Knowledge Graphs with General Knowledge Authors: Runhao Zhao , Weixin Zeng , Wentao Zhang , Chong Chen , Zhengpin Li , Xiang Zhao , Lei Chen Abstract : Domain-specific knowledge graphs (DKGs) often lack coverage compared to general knowledge graphs (GKGs). To address this, we introduce Domain-specific Knowledge Graph Fusion (DKGF), a novel task that enriches DKGs by integrating relevant facts from GKGs. DKGF faces two key challenges: high ambiguity in domain relevance and misalignment in knowledge granularity across graphs. We propose ExeFuse, a… ▽ More Domain-specific knowledge graphs (DKGs) often lack coverage compared to general knowledge graphs (GKGs). To address this, we introduce Domain-specific Knowledge Graph Fusion (DKGF), a novel task that enriches DKGs by integrating relevant facts from GKGs. DKGF faces two key challenges: high ambiguity in domain relevance and misalignment in knowledge granularity across graphs. We propose ExeFuse, a simple yet effective Fact-as-Program paradigm. It treats each GKG fact as a latent semantic program, maps abstract relations to granularity-aware operators, and verifies domain relevance via program executability on the target DKG. This unified probabilistic framework jointly resolves relevance and granularity issues. We construct two benchmarks, DKGF(W-I) and DKGF(Y-I), with 21 evaluation configurations. Extensive experiments validate the task's importance and our model's effectiveness, providing the first standardized testbed for DKGF. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 13 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2601.10485 [ pdf , ps , other ] Panning for Gold: Expanding Domain-Specific Knowledge Graphs with General Knowledge Authors: Runhao Zhao , Weixin Zeng , Wentao Zhang , Chong Chen , Zhengpin Li , Xiang Zhao , Lei Chen Abstract : Domain-specific knowledge graphs (DKGs) often lack coverage compared to general knowledge graphs (GKGs). To address this, we introduce Domain-specific Knowledge Graph Fusion (DKGF), a novel task that enriches DKGs by integrating relevant facts from GKGs. DKGF faces two key challenges: high ambiguity in domain relevance and misalignment in knowledge granularity across graphs. We propose ExeFuse, a… ▽ More Domain-specific knowledge graphs (DKGs) often lack coverage compared to general knowledge graphs (GKGs). To address this, we introduce Domain-specific Knowledge Graph Fusion (DKGF), a novel task that enriches DKGs by integrating relevant facts from GKGs. DKGF faces two key challenges: high ambiguity in domain relevance and misalignment in knowledge granularity across graphs. We propose ExeFuse, a simple yet effective Fact-as-Program paradigm. It treats each GKG fact as a latent semantic program, maps abstract relations to granularity-aware operators, and verifies domain relevance via program executability on the target DKG. This unified probabilistic framework jointly resolves relevance and granularity issues. We construct two benchmarks, DKGF(W-I) and DKGF(Y-I), with 21 evaluation configurations. Extensive experiments validate the task's importance and our model's effectiveness, providing the first standardized testbed for DKGF. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 13 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2601.09295 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.MA MACRO-LLM: LLM-Empowered Multi-Agent Collaborative Reasoning under Spatiotemporal Partial Observability Authors: Handi Chen , Running Zhao , Xiuzhe Wu , Edith C. H. Ngai Abstract : Large Language Model (LLM) agents deployed in complex real-world scenarios typically operate as spatially distributed entities. However, this physical dispersion constrains agents to limited local perception and finite temporal horizons. We characterize this bottleneck as spatiotemporal partial observability. Given such fragmented awareness, distributed agents struggle to coordinate efficiently. T… ▽ More Large Language Model (LLM) agents deployed in complex real-world scenarios typically operate as spatially distributed entities. However, this physical dispersion constrains agents to limited local perception and finite temporal horizons. We characterize this bottleneck as spatiotemporal partial observability. Given such fragmented awareness, distributed agents struggle to coordinate efficiently. To bridge this gap, we introduce MACRO-LLM, LLM-empowered multi-agent collaborative reasoning under spatiotemporal partial observability. The architecture addresses spatiotemporal constraints via three modules: (1) the CoProposer mitigates temporal uncertainty by verifying candidate actions via predictive rollouts; (2) the Negotiator overcomes spatial myopia by resolving conflicts through mean-field statistical aggregation; and (3) the Introspector ensures continuous adaptation by analyzing historical experience to refine strategies via semantic gradient descent. Extensive evaluations on two complex long-horizon tasks, cooperative adaptive cruise control and pandemic control, demonstrate that our framework effectively mitigates spatiotemporal partial observability through spatial and temporal strategies, enabling robust coordination. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09295 [ pdf , ps , other ] MACRO-LLM: LLM-Empowered Multi-Agent Collaborative Reasoning under Spatiotemporal Partial Observability Authors: Handi Chen , Running Zhao , Xiuzhe Wu , Edith C. H. Ngai Abstract : Large Language Model (LLM) agents deployed in complex real-world scenarios typically operate as spatially distributed entities. However, this physical dispersion constrains agents to limited local perception and finite temporal horizons. We characterize this bottleneck as spatiotemporal partial observability. Given such fragmented awareness, distributed agents struggle to coordinate efficiently. T… ▽ More Large Language Model (LLM) agents deployed in complex real-world scenarios typically operate as spatially distributed entities. However, this physical dispersion constrains agents to limited local perception and finite temporal horizons. We characterize this bottleneck as spatiotemporal partial observability. Given such fragmented awareness, distributed agents struggle to coordinate efficiently. To bridge this gap, we introduce MACRO-LLM, LLM-empowered multi-agent collaborative reasoning under spatiotemporal partial observability. The architecture addresses spatiotemporal constraints via three modules: (1) the CoProposer mitigates temporal uncertainty by verifying candidate actions via predictive rollouts; (2) the Negotiator overcomes spatial myopia by resolving conflicts through mean-field statistical aggregation; and (3) the Introspector ensures continuous adaptation by analyzing historical experience to refine strategies via semantic gradient descent. Extensive evaluations on two complex long-horizon tasks, cooperative adaptive cruise control and pandemic control, demonstrate that our framework effectively mitigates spatiotemporal partial observability through spatial and temporal strategies, enabling robust coordination. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08970 [ pdf ] cond-mat.mtrl-sci cs.LG Machine Learning-Driven Creep Law Discovery Across Alloy Compositional Space Authors: Hongshun Chen , Ryan Zhou , Rujing Zha , Zihan Chen , Wenpan Li , Rowan Rolark , John Patrick Reidy , Jian Cao , Ping Guo , David C. Dunand , Horacio D. Espinosa Abstract : Hihg-temperature creep characterization of structural alloys traditionally relies on serial uniaxial tests, which are highly inefficient for exploring the large search space of alloy compositions and for material discovery. Here, we introduce a machine-learning-assisted, high-throughput framework for creep law identification based on a dimple array bulge instrument (DABI) configuration, which enab… ▽ More Hihg-temperature creep characterization of structural alloys traditionally relies on serial uniaxial tests, which are highly inefficient for exploring the large search space of alloy compositions and for material discovery. Here, we introduce a machine-learning-assisted, high-throughput framework for creep law identification based on a dimple array bulge instrument (DABI) configuration, which enables parallel creep testing of 25 dimples, each fabricated from a different alloy, in a single experiment. Full-field surface displacements of dimples undergoing time-dependent creep-induced bulging under inert gas pressure are measured by 3D digital image correlation. We train a recurrent neural network (RNN) as a surrogate model, mapping creep parameters and loading conditions to the time-dependent deformation response of DABI. Coupling this surrogate with a particle swarm optimization scheme enables rapid and global inverse identification with sparsity regularization of creep parameters from experiment displacement-time histories. In addition, we propose a phenomenological creep law with a time-dependent stress exponent that captures the sigmoidal primary creep observed in wrought INCONEL 625 and extracts its temperature dependence from DABI test at multiple temperatures. Furthermore, we employ a general creep law combining several conventional forms together with regularized inversion to identify the creep laws for 47 additional Fe-, Ni-, and Co-rich alloys and to automatically select the dominant functional form for each alloy. This workflow combined with DABI experiment provides a quantitative, high-throughput creep characterization platform that is compatible with data mining, composition-property modeling, and nonlinear structural optimization with creep behavior across a large alloy design space. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 27 pages, 7 figures arXiv:2601.08970 [ pdf ] Machine Learning-Driven Creep Law Discovery Across Alloy Compositional Space Authors: Hongshun Chen , Ryan Zhou , Rujing Zha , Zihan Chen , Wenpan Li , Rowan Rolark , John Patrick Reidy , Jian Cao , Ping Guo , David C. Dunand , Horacio D. Espinosa Abstract : Hihg-temperature creep characterization of structural alloys traditionally relies on serial uniaxial tests, which are highly inefficient for exploring the large search space of alloy compositions and for material discovery. Here, we introduce a machine-learning-assisted, high-throughput framework for creep law identification based on a dimple array bulge instrument (DABI) configuration, which enab… ▽ More Hihg-temperature creep characterization of structural alloys traditionally relies on serial uniaxial tests, which are highly inefficient for exploring the large search space of alloy compositions and for material discovery. Here, we introduce a machine-learning-assisted, high-throughput framework for creep law identification based on a dimple array bulge instrument (DABI) configuration, which enables parallel creep testing of 25 dimples, each fabricated from a different alloy, in a single experiment. Full-field surface displacements of dimples undergoing time-dependent creep-induced bulging under inert gas pressure are measured by 3D digital image correlation. We train a recurrent neural network (RNN) as a surrogate model, mapping creep parameters and loading conditions to the time-dependent deformation response of DABI. Coupling this surrogate with a particle swarm optimization scheme enables rapid and global inverse identification with sparsity regularization of creep parameters from experiment displacement-time histories. In addition, we propose a phenomenological creep law with a time-dependent stress exponent that captures the sigmoidal primary creep observed in wrought INCONEL 625 and extracts its temperature dependence from DABI test at multiple temperatures. Furthermore, we employ a general creep law combining several conventional forms together with regularized inversion to identify the creep laws for 47 additional Fe-, Ni-, and Co-rich alloys and to automatically select the dominant functional form for each alloy. This workflow combined with DABI experiment provides a quantitative, high-throughput creep characterization platform that is compatible with data mining, composition-property modeling, and nonlinear structural optimization with creep behavior across a large alloy design space. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 27 pages, 7 figures arXiv:2601.06430 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IT eess.SP Robust and Secure Blockage-Aware Pinching Antenna-assisted Wireless Communication Authors: Ruotong Zhao , Shaokang Hu , Deepak Mishra , Derrick Wing Kwan Ng Abstract : In this work, we investigate a blockage-aware pinching antenna (PA) system designed for secure and robust wireless communication. The considered system comprises a base station equipped with multiple waveguides, each hosting multiple PAs, and serves multiple single-antenna legitimate users in the presence of multi-antenna eavesdroppers under imperfect channel state information (CSI). To safeguard… ▽ More In this work, we investigate a blockage-aware pinching antenna (PA) system designed for secure and robust wireless communication. The considered system comprises a base station equipped with multiple waveguides, each hosting multiple PAs, and serves multiple single-antenna legitimate users in the presence of multi-antenna eavesdroppers under imperfect channel state information (CSI). To safeguard confidential transmissions, artificial noise (AN) is deliberately injected to degrade the eavesdropping channels. Recognizing that conventional linear CSI-error bounds become overly conservative for spatially distributed PA architectures, we develop new geometry-aware uncertainty sets that jointly characterize eavesdroppers position and array-orientation errors. Building upon these sets, we formulate a robust joint optimization problem that determines per-waveguide beamforming and AN covariance, individual PA power-ratio allocation, and PA positions to maximize the system sum rate subject to secrecy constraints. The highly non-convex design problem is efficiently addressed via a low computational complexity iterative algorithm that capitalizes on block coordinate descent, penalty-based methods, majorization-minimization, the S-procedure, and Lipschitz-based surrogate functions. Simulation results demonstrate that sum rates for the proposed algorithm outperforms conventional fixed antenna systems by 4.7 dB, offering substantially improved rate and secrecy performance. In particular, (i) adaptive PA positioning preserves LoS to legitimate users while effectively exploiting waveguide geometry to disrupt eavesdropper channels, and (ii) neglecting blockage effects in the PA system significantly impacts the system design, leading to performance degradation and inadequate secrecy guarantees. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: This work has been submitted to IEEE TMC arXiv:2601.06430 [ pdf , ps , other ] Robust and Secure Blockage-Aware Pinching Antenna-assisted Wireless Communication Authors: Ruotong Zhao , Shaokang Hu , Deepak Mishra , Derrick Wing Kwan Ng Abstract : In this work, we investigate a blockage-aware pinching antenna (PA) system designed for secure and robust wireless communication. The considered system comprises a base station equipped with multiple waveguides, each hosting multiple PAs, and serves multiple single-antenna legitimate users in the presence of multi-antenna eavesdroppers under imperfect channel state information (CSI). To safeguard… ▽ More In this work, we investigate a blockage-aware pinching antenna (PA) system designed for secure and robust wireless communication. The considered system comprises a base station equipped with multiple waveguides, each hosting multiple PAs, and serves multiple single-antenna legitimate users in the presence of multi-antenna eavesdroppers under imperfect channel state information (CSI). To safeguard confidential transmissions, artificial noise (AN) is deliberately injected to degrade the eavesdropping channels. Recognizing that conventional linear CSI-error bounds become overly conservative for spatially distributed PA architectures, we develop new geometry-aware uncertainty sets that jointly characterize eavesdroppers position and array-orientation errors. Building upon these sets, we formulate a robust joint optimization problem that determines per-waveguide beamforming and AN covariance, individual PA power-ratio allocation, and PA positions to maximize the system sum rate subject to secrecy constraints. The highly non-convex design problem is efficiently addressed via a low computational complexity iterative algorithm that capitalizes on block coordinate descent, penalty-based methods, majorization-minimization, the S-procedure, and Lipschitz-based surrogate functions. Simulation results demonstrate that sum rates for the proposed algorithm outperforms conventional fixed antenna systems by 4.7 dB, offering substantially improved rate and secrecy performance. In particular, (i) adaptive PA positioning preserves LoS to legitimate users while effectively exploiting waveguide geometry to disrupt eavesdropper channels, and (ii) neglecting blockage effects in the PA system significantly impacts the system design, leading to performance degradation and inadequate secrecy guarantees. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: This work has been submitted to IEEE TMC arXiv:2601.02996 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Large Reasoning Models Are (Not Yet) Multilingual Latent Reasoners Authors: Yihong Liu , Raoyuan Zhao , Hinrich Schütze , Michael A. Hedderich Abstract : Large reasoning models (LRMs) achieve strong performance on mathematical reasoning tasks, often attributed to their capability to generate explicit chain-of-thought (CoT) explanations. However, recent work shows that LRMs often arrive at the correct answer before completing these textual reasoning steps, indicating the presence of latent reasoning -- internal, non-verbal computation encoded in hid… ▽ More Large reasoning models (LRMs) achieve strong performance on mathematical reasoning tasks, often attributed to their capability to generate explicit chain-of-thought (CoT) explanations. However, recent work shows that LRMs often arrive at the correct answer before completing these textual reasoning steps, indicating the presence of latent reasoning -- internal, non-verbal computation encoded in hidden states. While this phenomenon has been explored in English, its multilingual behavior remains largely unknown. In this paper, we conduct a systematic investigation of multilingual latent reasoning in LRMs across 11 languages. Using a truncation-based strategy, we examine how the correct answer emerges as the model is given only partial reasoning traces, allowing us to measure stepwise latent prediction formation. Our results reveal clear evidence of multilingual latent reasoning, though unevenly: strong in resource-rich languages, weaker in low-resource ones, and broadly less observable on harder benchmarks. To understand whether these differences reflect distinct internal mechanisms, we further perform representational analyses. Despite surface-level disparities, we find that the internal evolution of predictions is highly consistent across languages and broadly aligns with English -- a pattern suggesting an English-centered latent reasoning pathway. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: preprint arXiv:2601.02996 [ pdf , ps , other ] Large Reasoning Models Are (Not Yet) Multilingual Latent Reasoners Authors: Yihong Liu , Raoyuan Zhao , Hinrich Schütze , Michael A. Hedderich Abstract : Large reasoning models (LRMs) achieve strong performance on mathematical reasoning tasks, often attributed to their capability to generate explicit chain-of-thought (CoT) explanations. However, recent work shows that LRMs often arrive at the correct answer before completing these textual reasoning steps, indicating the presence of latent reasoning -- internal, non-verbal computation encoded in hid… ▽ More Large reasoning models (LRMs) achieve strong performance on mathematical reasoning tasks, often attributed to their capability to generate explicit chain-of-thought (CoT) explanations. However, recent work shows that LRMs often arrive at the correct answer before completing these textual reasoning steps, indicating the presence of latent reasoning -- internal, non-verbal computation encoded in hidden states. While this phenomenon has been explored in English, its multilingual behavior remains largely unknown. In this paper, we conduct a systematic investigation of multilingual latent reasoning in LRMs across 11 languages. Using a truncation-based strategy, we examine how the correct answer emerges as the model is given only partial reasoning traces, allowing us to measure stepwise latent prediction formation. Our results reveal clear evidence of multilingual latent reasoning, though unevenly: strong in resource-rich languages, weaker in low-resource ones, and broadly less observable on harder benchmarks. To understand whether these differences reflect distinct internal mechanisms, we further perform representational analyses. Despite surface-level disparities, we find that the internal evolution of predictions is highly consistent across languages and broadly aligns with English -- a pattern suggesting an English-centered latent reasoning pathway. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: preprint arXiv:2512.24674 [ pdf , ps , other ] eess.IV cs.AI An Adaptive, Disentangled Representation for Multidimensional MRI Reconstruction Authors: Ruiyang Zhao , Fan Lam Abstract : We present a new approach for representing and reconstructing multidimensional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data. Our method builds on a novel, learned feature-based image representation that disentangles different types of features, such as geometry and contrast, into distinct low-dimensional latent spaces, enabling better exploitation of feature correlations in multidimensional images and in… ▽ More We present a new approach for representing and reconstructing multidimensional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data. Our method builds on a novel, learned feature-based image representation that disentangles different types of features, such as geometry and contrast, into distinct low-dimensional latent spaces, enabling better exploitation of feature correlations in multidimensional images and incorporation of pre-learned priors specific to different feature types for reconstruction. More specifically, the disentanglement was achieved via an encoderdecoder network and image transfer training using large public data, enhanced by a style-based decoder design. A latent diffusion model was introduced to impose stronger constraints on distinct feature spaces. New reconstruction formulations and algorithms were developed to integrate the learned representation with a zero-shot selfsupervised learning adaptation and subspace modeling. The proposed method has been evaluated on accelerated T1 and T2 parameter mapping, achieving improved performance over state-of-the-art reconstruction methods, without task-specific supervised training or fine-tuning. This work offers a new strategy for learning-based multidimensional image reconstruction where only limited data are available for problem-specific or task-specific training. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24674 [ pdf , ps , other ] An Adaptive, Disentangled Representation for Multidimensional MRI Reconstruction Authors: Ruiyang Zhao , Fan Lam Abstract : We present a new approach for representing and reconstructing multidimensional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data. Our method builds on a novel, learned feature-based image representation that disentangles different types of features, such as geometry and contrast, into distinct low-dimensional latent spaces, enabling better exploitation of feature correlations in multidimensional images and in… ▽ More We present a new approach for representing and reconstructing multidimensional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data. Our method builds on a novel, learned feature-based image representation that disentangles different types of features, such as geometry and contrast, into distinct low-dimensional latent spaces, enabling better exploitation of feature correlations in multidimensional images and incorporation of pre-learned priors specific to different feature types for reconstruction. More specifically, the disentanglement was achieved via an encoderdecoder network and image transfer training using large public data, enhanced by a style-based decoder design. A latent diffusion model was introduced to impose stronger constraints on distinct feature spaces. New reconstruction formulations and algorithms were developed to integrate the learned representation with a zero-shot selfsupervised learning adaptation and subspace modeling. The proposed method has been evaluated on accelerated T1 and T2 parameter mapping, achieving improved performance over state-of-the-art reconstruction methods, without task-specific supervised training or fine-tuning. This work offers a new strategy for learning-based multidimensional image reconstruction where only limited data are available for problem-specific or task-specific training. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23162 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.CV SurgWorld: Learning Surgical Robot Policies from Videos via World Modeling Authors: Yufan He , Pengfei Guo , Mengya Xu , Zhaoshuo Li , Andriy Myronenko , Dillan Imans , Bingjie Liu , Dongren Yang , Mingxue Gu , Yongnan Ji , Yueming Jin , Ren Zhao , Baiyong Shen , Daguang Xu Abstract : Data scarcity remains a fundamental barrier to achieving fully autonomous surgical robots. While large scale vision language action (VLA) models have shown impressive generalization in household and industrial manipulation by leveraging paired video action data from diverse domains, surgical robotics suffers from the paucity of datasets that include both visual observations and accurate robot kine… ▽ More Data scarcity remains a fundamental barrier to achieving fully autonomous surgical robots. While large scale vision language action (VLA) models have shown impressive generalization in household and industrial manipulation by leveraging paired video action data from diverse domains, surgical robotics suffers from the paucity of datasets that include both visual observations and accurate robot kinematics. In contrast, vast corpora of surgical videos exist, but they lack corresponding action labels, preventing direct application of imitation learning or VLA training. In this work, we aim to alleviate this problem by learning policy models from SurgWorld, a world model designed for surgical physical AI. We curated the Surgical Action Text Alignment (SATA) dataset with detailed action description specifically for surgical robots. Then we built SurgeWorld based on the most advanced physical AI world model and SATA. It's able to generate diverse, generalizable and realistic surgery videos. We are also the first to use an inverse dynamics model to infer pseudokinematics from synthetic surgical videos, producing synthetic paired video action data. We demonstrate that a surgical VLA policy trained with these augmented data significantly outperforms models trained only on real demonstrations on a real surgical robot platform. Our approach offers a scalable path toward autonomous surgical skill acquisition by leveraging the abundance of unlabeled surgical video and generative world modeling, thus opening the door to generalizable and data efficient surgical robot policies. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; v1 submitted 28 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23162 [ pdf , ps , other ] SurgWorld: Learning Surgical Robot Policies from Videos via World Modeling Authors: Yufan He , Pengfei Guo , Mengya Xu , Zhaoshuo Li , Andriy Myronenko , Dillan Imans , Bingjie Liu , Dongren Yang , Mingxue Gu , Yongnan Ji , Yueming Jin , Ren Zhao , Baiyong Shen , Daguang Xu Abstract : Data scarcity remains a fundamental barrier to achieving fully autonomous surgical robots. While large scale vision language action (VLA) models have shown impressive generalization in household and industrial manipulation by leveraging paired video action data from diverse domains, surgical robotics suffers from the paucity of datasets that include both visual observations and accurate robot kine… ▽ More Data scarcity remains a fundamental barrier to achieving fully autonomous surgical robots. While large scale vision language action (VLA) models have shown impressive generalization in household and industrial manipulation by leveraging paired video action data from diverse domains, surgical robotics suffers from the paucity of datasets that include both visual observations and accurate robot kinematics. In contrast, vast corpora of surgical videos exist, but they lack corresponding action labels, preventing direct application of imitation learning or VLA training. In this work, we aim to alleviate this problem by learning policy models from SurgWorld, a world model designed for surgical physical AI. We curated the Surgical Action Text Alignment (SATA) dataset with detailed action description specifically for surgical robots. Then we built SurgeWorld based on the most advanced physical AI world model and SATA. It's able to generate diverse, generalizable and realistic surgery videos. We are also the first to use an inverse dynamics model to infer pseudokinematics from synthetic surgical videos, producing synthetic paired video action data. We demonstrate that a surgical VLA policy trained with these augmented data significantly outperforms models trained only on real demonstrations on a real surgical robot platform. Our approach offers a scalable path toward autonomous surgical skill acquisition by leveraging the abundance of unlabeled surgical video and generative world modeling, thus opening the door to generalizable and data efficient surgical robot policies. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; v1 submitted 28 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.17250 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Accelerating Multi-modal LLM Gaming Performance via Input Prediction and Mishit Correction Authors: Ziyang Lin , Zixuan Sun , Sanhorn Chen , Xiaoyang Chen , Roy Zhao Abstract : Real-time sequential control agents are often bottlenecked by inference latency. Even modest per-step planning delays can destabilize control and degrade overall performance. We propose a speculation-and-correction framework that adapts the predict-then-verify philosophy of speculative execution to model-based control with TD-MPC2. At each step, a pretrained world model and latent-space MPC planne… ▽ More Real-time sequential control agents are often bottlenecked by inference latency. Even modest per-step planning delays can destabilize control and degrade overall performance. We propose a speculation-and-correction framework that adapts the predict-then-verify philosophy of speculative execution to model-based control with TD-MPC2. At each step, a pretrained world model and latent-space MPC planner generate a short-horizon action queue together with predicted latent rollouts, allowing the agent to execute multiple planned actions without immediate replanning. When a new observation arrives, the system measures the mismatch between the encoded real latent state and the queued predicted latent. For small to moderate mismatch, a lightweight learned corrector applies a residual update to the speculative action, distilled offline from a replanning teacher. For large mismatch, the agent safely falls back to full replanning and clears stale action queues. We study both a gated two-tower MLP corrector and a temporal Transformer corrector to address local errors and systematic drift. Experiments on the DMC Humanoid-Walk task show that our method reduces the number of planning inferences from 500 to 282, improves end-to-end step latency by 25 percent, and maintains strong control performance with only a 7.1 percent return reduction. Ablation results demonstrate that speculative execution without correction is unreliable over longer horizons, highlighting the necessity of mismatch-aware correction for robust latency reduction. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: UIUC 25 Fall CS 498 arXiv:2512.17250 [ pdf , ps , other ] Accelerating Multi-modal LLM Gaming Performance via Input Prediction and Mishit Correction Authors: Ziyang Lin , Zixuan Sun , Sanhorn Chen , Xiaoyang Chen , Roy Zhao Abstract : Real-time sequential control agents are often bottlenecked by inference latency. Even modest per-step planning delays can destabilize control and degrade overall performance. We propose a speculation-and-correction framework that adapts the predict-then-verify philosophy of speculative execution to model-based control with TD-MPC2. At each step, a pretrained world model and latent-space MPC planne… ▽ More Real-time sequential control agents are often bottlenecked by inference latency. Even modest per-step planning delays can destabilize control and degrade overall performance. We propose a speculation-and-correction framework that adapts the predict-then-verify philosophy of speculative execution to model-based control with TD-MPC2. At each step, a pretrained world model and latent-space MPC planner generate a short-horizon action queue together with predicted latent rollouts, allowing the agent to execute multiple planned actions without immediate replanning. When a new observation arrives, the system measures the mismatch between the encoded real latent state and the queued predicted latent. For small to moderate mismatch, a lightweight learned corrector applies a residual update to the speculative action, distilled offline from a replanning teacher. For large mismatch, the agent safely falls back to full replanning and clears stale action queues. We study both a gated two-tower MLP corrector and a temporal Transformer corrector to address local errors and systematic drift. Experiments on the DMC Humanoid-Walk task show that our method reduces the number of planning inferences from 500 to 282, improves end-to-end step latency by 25 percent, and maintains strong control performance with only a 7.1 percent return reduction. Ablation results demonstrate that speculative execution without correction is unreliable over longer horizons, highlighting the necessity of mismatch-aware correction for robust latency reduction. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: UIUC 25 Fall CS 498 arXiv:2512.13281 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Video Reality Test: Can AI-Generated ASMR Videos fool VLMs and Humans? Authors: Jiaqi Wang , Weijia Wu , Yi Zhan , Rui Zhao , Ming Hu , James Cheng , Wei Liu , Philip Torr , Kevin Qinghong Lin Abstract : Recent advances in video generation have produced vivid content that are often indistinguishable from real videos, making AI-generated video detection an emerging societal challenge. Prior AIGC detection benchmarks mostly evaluate video without audio, target broad narrative domains, and focus on classification solely. Yet it remains unclear whether state-of-the-art video generation models can prod… ▽ More Recent advances in video generation have produced vivid content that are often indistinguishable from real videos, making AI-generated video detection an emerging societal challenge. Prior AIGC detection benchmarks mostly evaluate video without audio, target broad narrative domains, and focus on classification solely. Yet it remains unclear whether state-of-the-art video generation models can produce immersive, audio-paired videos that reliably deceive humans and VLMs. To this end, we introduce Video Reality Test, an ASMR-sourced video benchmark suite for testing perceptual realism under tight audio-visual coupling, featuring the following dimensions: (i) Immersive ASMR video-audio sources. Built on carefully curated real ASMR videos, the benchmark targets fine-grained action-object interactions with diversity across objects, actions, and backgrounds. (ii) Peer-Review evaluation. An adversarial creator-reviewer protocol where video generation models act as creators aiming to fool reviewers, while VLMs serve as reviewers seeking to identify fakeness. Our experimental findings show: The best creator Veo3.1-Fast even fools most VLMs: the strongest reviewer (Gemini 2.5-Pro) achieves only 56% accuracy (random 50%), far below that of human experts (81.25%). Adding audio improves real-fake discrimination, yet superficial cues such as watermarks can still significantly mislead models. These findings delineate the current boundary of video generation realism and expose limitations of VLMs in perceptual fidelity and audio-visual consistency. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 17 December, 2025; v1 submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Code is at page is at arXiv:2512.13281 [ pdf , ps , other ] Video Reality Test: Can AI-Generated ASMR Videos fool VLMs and Humans? Authors: Jiaqi Wang , Weijia Wu , Yi Zhan , Rui Zhao , Ming Hu , James Cheng , Wei Liu , Philip Torr , Kevin Qinghong Lin Abstract : Recent advances in video generation have produced vivid content that are often indistinguishable from real videos, making AI-generated video detection an emerging societal challenge. Prior AIGC detection benchmarks mostly evaluate video without audio, target broad narrative domains, and focus on classification solely. Yet it remains unclear whether state-of-the-art video generation models can prod… ▽ More Recent advances in video generation have produced vivid content that are often indistinguishable from real videos, making AI-generated video detection an emerging societal challenge. Prior AIGC detection benchmarks mostly evaluate video without audio, target broad narrative domains, and focus on classification solely. Yet it remains unclear whether state-of-the-art video generation models can produce immersive, audio-paired videos that reliably deceive humans and VLMs. To this end, we introduce Video Reality Test, an ASMR-sourced video benchmark suite for testing perceptual realism under tight audio-visual coupling, featuring the following dimensions: (i) Immersive ASMR video-audio sources. Built on carefully curated real ASMR videos, the benchmark targets fine-grained action-object interactions with diversity across objects, actions, and backgrounds. (ii) Peer-Review evaluation. An adversarial creator-reviewer protocol where video generation models act as creators aiming to fool reviewers, while VLMs serve as reviewers seeking to identify fakeness. Our experimental findings show: The best creator Veo3.1-Fast even fools most VLMs: the strongest reviewer (Gemini 2.5-Pro) achieves only 56% accuracy (random 50%), far below that of human experts (81.25%). Adding audio improves real-fake discrimination, yet superficial cues such as watermarks can still significantly mislead models. These findings delineate the current boundary of video generation realism and expose limitations of VLMs in perceptual fidelity and audio-visual consistency. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 17 December, 2025; v1 submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Code is at page is at arXiv:2512.13030 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.LG cs.RO Motus: A Unified Latent Action World Model Authors: Hongzhe Bi , Hengkai Tan , Shenghao Xie , Zeyuan Wang , Shuhe Huang , Haitian Liu , Ruowen Zhao , Yao Feng , Chendong Xiang , Yinze Rong , Hongyan Zhao , Hanyu Liu , Zhizhong Su , Lei Ma , Hang Su , Jun Zhu Abstract : While a general embodied agent must function as a unified system, current methods are built on isolated models for understanding, world modeling, and control. This fragmentation prevents unifying multimodal generative capabilities and hinders learning from large-scale, heterogeneous data. In this paper, we propose Motus, a unified latent action world model that leverages existing general pretraine… ▽ More While a general embodied agent must function as a unified system, current methods are built on isolated models for understanding, world modeling, and control. This fragmentation prevents unifying multimodal generative capabilities and hinders learning from large-scale, heterogeneous data. In this paper, we propose Motus, a unified latent action world model that leverages existing general pretrained models and rich, sharable motion information. Motus introduces a Mixture-of-Transformer (MoT) architecture to integrate three experts (i.e., understanding, video generation, and action) and adopts a UniDiffuser-style scheduler to enable flexible switching between different modeling modes (i.e., world models, vision-language-action models, inverse dynamics models, video generation models, and video-action joint prediction models). Motus further leverages the optical flow to learn latent actions and adopts a recipe with three-phase training pipeline and six-layer data pyramid, thereby extracting pixel-level "delta action" and enabling large-scale action pretraining. Experiments show that Motus achieves superior performance against state-of-the-art methods in both simulation (a +15% improvement over X-VLA and a +45% improvement over Pi0.5) and real-world scenarios(improved by +11~48%), demonstrating unified modeling of all functionalities and priors significantly benefits downstream robotic tasks. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; v1 submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13030 [ pdf , ps , other ] Motus: A Unified Latent Action World Model Authors: Hongzhe Bi , Hengkai Tan , Shenghao Xie , Zeyuan Wang , Shuhe Huang , Haitian Liu , Ruowen Zhao , Yao Feng , Chendong Xiang , Yinze Rong , Hongyan Zhao , Hanyu Liu , Zhizhong Su , Lei Ma , Hang Su , Jun Zhu Abstract : While a general embodied agent must function as a unified system, current methods are built on isolated models for understanding, world modeling, and control. This fragmentation prevents unifying multimodal generative capabilities and hinders learning from large-scale, heterogeneous data. In this paper, we propose Motus, a unified latent action world model that leverages existing general pretraine… ▽ More While a general embodied agent must function as a unified system, current methods are built on isolated models for understanding, world modeling, and control. This fragmentation prevents unifying multimodal generative capabilities and hinders learning from large-scale, heterogeneous data. In this paper, we propose Motus, a unified latent action world model that leverages existing general pretrained models and rich, sharable motion information. Motus introduces a Mixture-of-Transformer (MoT) architecture to integrate three experts (i.e., understanding, video generation, and action) and adopts a UniDiffuser-style scheduler to enable flexible switching between different modeling modes (i.e., world models, vision-language-action models, inverse dynamics models, video generation models, and video-action joint prediction models). Motus further leverages the optical flow to learn latent actions and adopts a recipe with three-phase training pipeline and six-layer data pyramid, thereby extracting pixel-level "delta action" and enabling large-scale action pretraining. Experiments show that Motus achieves superior performance against state-of-the-art methods in both simulation (a +15% improvement over X-VLA and a +45% improvement over Pi0.5) and real-world scenarios(improved by +11~48%), demonstrating unified modeling of all functionalities and priors significantly benefits downstream robotic tasks. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; v1 submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13015 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV What Happens Next? Next Scene Prediction with a Unified Video Model Authors: Xinjie Li , Zhimin Chen , Rui Zhao , Florian Schiffers , Zhenyu Liao , Vimal Bhat Abstract : Recent unified models for joint understanding and generation have significantly advanced visual generation capabilities. However, their focus on conventional tasks like text-to-video generation has left the temporal reasoning potential of unified models largely underexplored. To address this gap, we introduce Next Scene Prediction (NSP), a new task that pushes unified video models toward temporal… ▽ More Recent unified models for joint understanding and generation have significantly advanced visual generation capabilities. However, their focus on conventional tasks like text-to-video generation has left the temporal reasoning potential of unified models largely underexplored. To address this gap, we introduce Next Scene Prediction (NSP), a new task that pushes unified video models toward temporal and causal reasoning. Unlike text-to-video generation, NSP requires predicting plausible futures from preceding context, demanding deeper understanding and reasoning. To tackle this task, we propose a unified framework combining Qwen-VL for comprehension and LTX for synthesis, bridged by a latent query embedding and a connector module. This model is trained in three stages on our newly curated, large-scale NSP dataset: text-to-video pre-training, supervised fine-tuning, and reinforcement learning (via GRPO) with our proposed causal consistency reward. Experiments demonstrate our model achieves state-of-the-art performance on our benchmark, advancing the capability of generalist multimodal systems to anticipate what happens next. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13015 [ pdf , ps , other ] What Happens Next? Next Scene Prediction with a Unified Video Model Authors: Xinjie Li , Zhimin Chen , Rui Zhao , Florian Schiffers , Zhenyu Liao , Vimal Bhat Abstract : Recent unified models for joint understanding and generation have significantly advanced visual generation capabilities. However, their focus on conventional tasks like text-to-video generation has left the temporal reasoning potential of unified models largely underexplored. To address this gap, we introduce Next Scene Prediction (NSP), a new task that pushes unified video models toward temporal… ▽ More Recent unified models for joint understanding and generation have significantly advanced visual generation capabilities. However, their focus on conventional tasks like text-to-video generation has left the temporal reasoning potential of unified models largely underexplored. To address this gap, we introduce Next Scene Prediction (NSP), a new task that pushes unified video models toward temporal and causal reasoning. Unlike text-to-video generation, NSP requires predicting plausible futures from preceding context, demanding deeper understanding and reasoning. To tackle this task, we propose a unified framework combining Qwen-VL for comprehension and LTX for synthesis, bridged by a latent query embedding and a connector module. This model is trained in three stages on our newly curated, large-scale NSP dataset: text-to-video pre-training, supervised fine-tuning, and reinforcement learning (via GRPO) with our proposed causal consistency reward. Experiments demonstrate our model achieves state-of-the-art performance on our benchmark, advancing the capability of generalist multimodal systems to anticipate what happens next. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.09277 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DC cs.AR Efficient MoE Serving in the Memory-Bound Regime: Balance Activated Experts, Not Tokens Authors: Yanpeng Yu , Haiyue Ma , Krish Agarwal , Nicolai Oswald , Qijing Huang , Hugo Linsenmaier , Chunhui Mei , Ritchie Zhao , Ritika Borkar , Bita Darvish Rouhani , David Nellans , Ronny Krashinsky , Anurag Khandelwal Abstract : Expert Parallelism (EP) permits Mixture of Experts (MoE) models to scale beyond a single GPU. To address load imbalance across GPUs in EP, existing approaches aim to balance the number of tokens each GPU processes. Surprisingly, we find that this objective degrades performance rather than improving it when processing is memory-bound - a common occurrence in MoE serving, especially in the decode ph… ▽ More Expert Parallelism (EP) permits Mixture of Experts (MoE) models to scale beyond a single GPU. To address load imbalance across GPUs in EP, existing approaches aim to balance the number of tokens each GPU processes. Surprisingly, we find that this objective degrades performance rather than improving it when processing is memory-bound - a common occurrence in MoE serving, especially in the decode phase. Our analysis reveals that balancing the number of tokens processed per GPU increases the number of activated experts, exacerbating memory pressure in the memory-bound regime. We propose Minimum Expert Token ROuting, a novel token-routing algorithm for high-performance expert-parallel MoE serving in the memory-bound regime that balances the number of activated experts per GPU rather than token counts. METRO achieves near-optimal routing quality with minimal computational overhead by jointly optimizing algorithmic efficiency and leveraging the GPU's parallel processing power. To guarantee routing quality, METRO also employs a novel allGather scheme to gather global top-k knowledge, which has minimal overhead compared to conventional allToAll. Our evaluation of METRO against EPLB on both real systems (vLLM over 8 A100 GPUs) and a proprietary simulator (8-16 B200 GPUs) shows that METRO reduces decode latency by 11 - 22%, and total token throughput by 3 - 21% for Qwen3 and DeepSeek-V3 serving, where prefill and decode phases are co-deployed. In addition, by trading latency headroom for throughput, METRO improves decode throughput by up to 4.11x over EPLB at a fixed decode SLO. △ Less Submitted 9 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.09277 [ pdf , ps , other ] Efficient MoE Serving in the Memory-Bound Regime: Balance Activated Experts, Not Tokens Authors: Yanpeng Yu , Haiyue Ma , Krish Agarwal , Nicolai Oswald , Qijing Huang , Hugo Linsenmaier , Chunhui Mei , Ritchie Zhao , Ritika Borkar , Bita Darvish Rouhani , David Nellans , Ronny Krashinsky , Anurag Khandelwal Abstract : Expert Parallelism (EP) permits Mixture of Experts (MoE) models to scale beyond a single GPU. To address load imbalance across GPUs in EP, existing approaches aim to balance the number of tokens each GPU processes. Surprisingly, we find that this objective degrades performance rather than improving it when processing is memory-bound - a common occurrence in MoE serving, especially in the decode ph… ▽ More Expert Parallelism (EP) permits Mixture of Experts (MoE) models to scale beyond a single GPU. To address load imbalance across GPUs in EP, existing approaches aim to balance the number of tokens each GPU processes. Surprisingly, we find that this objective degrades performance rather than improving it when processing is memory-bound - a common occurrence in MoE serving, especially in the decode phase. Our analysis reveals that balancing the number of tokens processed per GPU increases the number of activated experts, exacerbating memory pressure in the memory-bound regime. We propose Minimum Expert Token ROuting, a novel token-routing algorithm for high-performance expert-parallel MoE serving in the memory-bound regime that balances the number of activated experts per GPU rather than token counts. METRO achieves near-optimal routing quality with minimal computational overhead by jointly optimizing algorithmic efficiency and leveraging the GPU's parallel processing power. To guarantee routing quality, METRO also employs a novel allGather scheme to gather global top-k knowledge, which has minimal overhead compared to conventional allToAll. Our evaluation of METRO against EPLB on both real systems (vLLM over 8 A100 GPUs) and a proprietary simulator (8-16 B200 GPUs) shows that METRO reduces decode latency by 11 - 22%, and total token throughput by 3 - 21% for Qwen3 and DeepSeek-V3 serving, where prefill and decode phases are co-deployed. In addition, by trading latency headroom for throughput, METRO improves decode throughput by up to 4.11x over EPLB at a fixed decode SLO. △ Less Submitted 9 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.07218 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG NeSTR: A Neuro-Symbolic Abductive Framework for Temporal Reasoning in Large Language Models Authors: Feng Liang , Weixin Zeng , Runhao Zhao , Xiang Zhao Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable performance across a wide range of natural language processing tasks. However, temporal reasoning, particularly under complex temporal constraints, remains a major challenge. To this end, existing approaches have explored symbolic methods, which encode temporal structure explicitly, and reflective mechanisms, which revise reasoning errors t… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable performance across a wide range of natural language processing tasks. However, temporal reasoning, particularly under complex temporal constraints, remains a major challenge. To this end, existing approaches have explored symbolic methods, which encode temporal structure explicitly, and reflective mechanisms, which revise reasoning errors through multi-step inference. Nonetheless, symbolic approaches often underutilize the reasoning capabilities of LLMs, while reflective methods typically lack structured temporal representations, which can result in inconsistent or hallucinated reasoning. As a result, even when the correct temporal context is available, LLMs may still misinterpret or misapply time-related information, leading to incomplete or inaccurate answers. To address these limitations, in this work, we propose Neuro-Symbolic Temporal Reasoning (NeSTR), a novel framework that integrates structured symbolic representations with hybrid reflective reasoning to enhance the temporal sensitivity of LLM inference. NeSTR preserves explicit temporal relations through symbolic encoding, enforces logical consistency via verification, and corrects flawed inferences using abductive reflection. Extensive experiments on diverse temporal question answering benchmarks demonstrate that NeSTR achieves superior zero-shot performance and consistently improves temporal reasoning without any fine-tuning, showcasing the advantage of neuro-symbolic integration in enhancing temporal understanding in large language models. △ Less Submitted 8 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2512.07218 [ pdf , ps , other ] NeSTR: A Neuro-Symbolic Abductive Framework for Temporal Reasoning in Large Language Models Authors: Feng Liang , Weixin Zeng , Runhao Zhao , Xiang Zhao Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable performance across a wide range of natural language processing tasks. However, temporal reasoning, particularly under complex temporal constraints, remains a major challenge. To this end, existing approaches have explored symbolic methods, which encode temporal structure explicitly, and reflective mechanisms, which revise reasoning errors t… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable performance across a wide range of natural language processing tasks. However, temporal reasoning, particularly under complex temporal constraints, remains a major challenge. To this end, existing approaches have explored symbolic methods, which encode temporal structure explicitly, and reflective mechanisms, which revise reasoning errors through multi-step inference. Nonetheless, symbolic approaches often underutilize the reasoning capabilities of LLMs, while reflective methods typically lack structured temporal representations, which can result in inconsistent or hallucinated reasoning. As a result, even when the correct temporal context is available, LLMs may still misinterpret or misapply time-related information, leading to incomplete or inaccurate answers. To address these limitations, in this work, we propose Neuro-Symbolic Temporal Reasoning (NeSTR), a novel framework that integrates structured symbolic representations with hybrid reflective reasoning to enhance the temporal sensitivity of LLM inference. NeSTR preserves explicit temporal relations through symbolic encoding, enforces logical consistency via verification, and corrects flawed inferences using abductive reflection. Extensive experiments on diverse temporal question answering benchmarks demonstrate that NeSTR achieves superior zero-shot performance and consistently improves temporal reasoning without any fine-tuning, showcasing the advantage of neuro-symbolic integration in enhancing temporal understanding in large language models. △ Less Submitted 8 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2512.04358 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV MAFNet:Multi-frequency Adaptive Fusion Network for Real-time Stereo Matching Authors: Ao Xu , Rujin Zhao , Xiong Xu , Boceng Huang , Yujia Jia , Hongfeng Long , Fuxuan Chen , Zilong Cao , Fangyuan Chen Abstract : Existing stereo matching networks typically rely on either cost-volume construction based on 3D convolutions or deformation methods based on iterative optimization. The former incurs significant computational overhead during cost aggregation, whereas the latter often lacks the ability to model non-local contextual information. These methods exhibit poor compatibility on resource-constrained mobile… ▽ More Existing stereo matching networks typically rely on either cost-volume construction based on 3D convolutions or deformation methods based on iterative optimization. The former incurs significant computational overhead during cost aggregation, whereas the latter often lacks the ability to model non-local contextual information. These methods exhibit poor compatibility on resource-constrained mobile devices, limiting their deployment in real-time applications. To address this, we propose a Multi-frequency Adaptive Fusion Network (MAFNet), which can produce high-quality disparity maps using only efficient 2D convolutions. Specifically, we design an adaptive frequency-domain filtering attention module that decomposes the full cost volume into high-frequency and low-frequency volumes, performing frequency-aware feature aggregation separately. Subsequently, we introduce a Linformer-based low-rank attention mechanism to adaptively fuse high- and low-frequency information, yielding more robust disparity estimation. Extensive experiments demonstrate that the proposed MAFNet significantly outperforms existing real-time methods on public datasets such as Scene Flow and KITTI 2015, showing a favorable balance between accuracy and real-time performance. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; v1 submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.04358 [ pdf , ps , other ] MAFNet:Multi-frequency Adaptive Fusion Network for Real-time Stereo Matching Authors: Ao Xu , Rujin Zhao , Xiong Xu , Boceng Huang , Yujia Jia , Hongfeng Long , Fuxuan Chen , Zilong Cao , Fangyuan Chen Abstract : Existing stereo matching networks typically rely on either cost-volume construction based on 3D convolutions or deformation methods based on iterative optimization. The former incurs significant computational overhead during cost aggregation, whereas the latter often lacks the ability to model non-local contextual information. These methods exhibit poor compatibility on resource-constrained mobile… ▽ More Existing stereo matching networks typically rely on either cost-volume construction based on 3D convolutions or deformation methods based on iterative optimization. The former incurs significant computational overhead during cost aggregation, whereas the latter often lacks the ability to model non-local contextual information. These methods exhibit poor compatibility on resource-constrained mobile devices, limiting their deployment in real-time applications. To address this, we propose a Multi-frequency Adaptive Fusion Network (MAFNet), which can produce high-quality disparity maps using only efficient 2D convolutions. Specifically, we design an adaptive frequency-domain filtering attention module that decomposes the full cost volume into high-frequency and low-frequency volumes, performing frequency-aware feature aggregation separately. Subsequently, we introduce a Linformer-based low-rank attention mechanism to adaptively fuse high- and low-frequency information, yielding more robust disparity estimation. Extensive experiments demonstrate that the proposed MAFNet significantly outperforms existing real-time methods on public datasets such as Scene Flow and KITTI 2015, showing a favorable balance between accuracy and real-time performance. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; v1 submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.02899 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Glance: Accelerating Diffusion Models with 1 Sample Authors: Zhuobai Dong , Rui Zhao , Songjie Wu , Junchao Yi , Linjie Li , Zhengyuan Yang , Lijuan Wang , Alex Jinpeng Wang Abstract : Diffusion models have achieved remarkable success in image generation, yet their deployment remains constrained by the heavy computational cost and the need for numerous inference steps. Previous efforts on fewer-step distillation attempt to skip redundant steps by training compact student models, yet they often suffer from heavy retraining costs and degraded generalization. In this work, we take… ▽ More Diffusion models have achieved remarkable success in image generation, yet their deployment remains constrained by the heavy computational cost and the need for numerous inference steps. Previous efforts on fewer-step distillation attempt to skip redundant steps by training compact student models, yet they often suffer from heavy retraining costs and degraded generalization. In this work, we take a different perspective: we accelerate smartly, not evenly, applying smaller speedups to early semantic stages and larger ones to later redundant phases. We instantiate this phase-aware strategy with two experts that specialize in slow and fast denoising phases. Surprisingly, instead of investing massive effort in retraining student models, we find that simply equipping the base model with lightweight LoRA adapters achieves both efficient acceleration and strong generalization. We refer to these two adapters as Slow-LoRA and Fast-LoRA. Through extensive experiments, our method achieves up to 5 acceleration over the base model while maintaining comparable visual quality across diverse benchmarks. Remarkably, the LoRA experts are trained with only 1 samples on a single V100 within one hour, yet the resulting models generalize strongly on unseen prompts. △ Less Submitted 11 December, 2025; v1 submitted 2 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.02899 [ pdf , ps , other ] Glance: Accelerating Diffusion Models with 1 Sample Authors: Zhuobai Dong , Rui Zhao , Songjie Wu , Junchao Yi , Linjie Li , Zhengyuan Yang , Lijuan Wang , Alex Jinpeng Wang Abstract : Diffusion models have achieved remarkable success in image generation, yet their deployment remains constrained by the heavy computational cost and the need for numerous inference steps. Previous efforts on fewer-step distillation attempt to skip redundant steps by training compact student models, yet they often suffer from heavy retraining costs and degraded generalization. In this work, we take… ▽ More Diffusion models have achieved remarkable success in image generation, yet their deployment remains constrained by the heavy computational cost and the need for numerous inference steps. Previous efforts on fewer-step distillation attempt to skip redundant steps by training compact student models, yet they often suffer from heavy retraining costs and degraded generalization. In this work, we take a different perspective: we accelerate smartly, not evenly, applying smaller speedups to early semantic stages and larger ones to later redundant phases. We instantiate this phase-aware strategy with two experts that specialize in slow and fast denoising phases. Surprisingly, instead of investing massive effort in retraining student models, we find that simply equipping the base model with lightweight LoRA adapters achieves both efficient acceleration and strong generalization. We refer to these two adapters as Slow-LoRA and Fast-LoRA. Through extensive experiments, our method achieves up to 5 acceleration over the base model while maintaining comparable visual quality across diverse benchmarks. Remarkably, the LoRA experts are trained with only 1 samples on a single V100 within one hour, yet the resulting models generalize strongly on unseen prompts. △ Less Submitted 11 December, 2025; v1 submitted 2 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2511.23075 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI SpaceMind: Camera-Guided Modality Fusion for Spatial Reasoning in Vision-Language Models Authors: Ruosen Zhao , Zhikang Zhang , Jialei Xu , Jiahao Chang , Dong Chen , Lingyun Li , Weijian Sun , Zizhuang Wei Abstract : Large vision-language models (VLMs) show strong multimodal understanding but still struggle with 3D spatial reasoning, such as distance estimation, size comparison, and cross-view consistency. Existing 3D-aware methods either depend on auxiliary 3D information or enhance RGB-only VLMs with geometry encoders through shallow feature fusion. We propose SpaceMind, a multimodal large language model exp… ▽ More Large vision-language models (VLMs) show strong multimodal understanding but still struggle with 3D spatial reasoning, such as distance estimation, size comparison, and cross-view consistency. Existing 3D-aware methods either depend on auxiliary 3D information or enhance RGB-only VLMs with geometry encoders through shallow feature fusion. We propose SpaceMind, a multimodal large language model explicitly designed for spatial reasoning solely from RGB inputs. The model adopts a dual-encoder architecture, integrating VGGT as a spatial understanding encoder and InternViT as a 2D visual encoder. The key idea is to treat the camera representation as an active guiding modality rather than passive metadata. Specifically, SpaceMind introduces a lightweight Camera-Guided Modality Fusion module before the language model to replace shallow fusion. It applies camera-conditioned biasing to spatial tokens, assigns query-independent weights reflecting their geometric importance, and uses the camera embedding to gate the fused representation. Empirically, SpaceMind establishes new state-of-the-art results on VSI-Bench, SQA3D and SPBench, surpassing both open and proprietary systems on VSI-Bench and SPBench by large margins and achieving state-of-the-art performance on SQA3D. These results demonstrate that camera-guided modality fusion is an effective and practical inductive bias for equipping VLMs with genuinely spatially grounded intelligence. We will release code and model checkpoints to support future research. △ Less Submitted 4 December, 2025; v1 submitted 28 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.23075 [ pdf , ps , other ] SpaceMind: Camera-Guided Modality Fusion for Spatial Reasoning in Vision-Language Models Authors: Ruosen Zhao , Zhikang Zhang , Jialei Xu , Jiahao Chang , Dong Chen , Lingyun Li , Weijian Sun , Zizhuang Wei Abstract : Large vision-language models (VLMs) show strong multimodal understanding but still struggle with 3D spatial reasoning, such as distance estimation, size comparison, and cross-view consistency. Existing 3D-aware methods either depend on auxiliary 3D information or enhance RGB-only VLMs with geometry encoders through shallow feature fusion. We propose SpaceMind, a multimodal large language model exp… ▽ More Large vision-language models (VLMs) show strong multimodal understanding but still struggle with 3D spatial reasoning, such as distance estimation, size comparison, and cross-view consistency. Existing 3D-aware methods either depend on auxiliary 3D information or enhance RGB-only VLMs with geometry encoders through shallow feature fusion. We propose SpaceMind, a multimodal large language model explicitly designed for spatial reasoning solely from RGB inputs. The model adopts a dual-encoder architecture, integrating VGGT as a spatial understanding encoder and InternViT as a 2D visual encoder. The key idea is to treat the camera representation as an active guiding modality rather than passive metadata. Specifically, SpaceMind introduces a lightweight Camera-Guided Modality Fusion module before the language model to replace shallow fusion. It applies camera-conditioned biasing to spatial tokens, assigns query-independent weights reflecting their geometric importance, and uses the camera embedding to gate the fused representation. Empirically, SpaceMind establishes new state-of-the-art results on VSI-Bench, SQA3D and SPBench, surpassing both open and proprietary systems on VSI-Bench and SPBench by large margins and achieving state-of-the-art performance on SQA3D. These results demonstrate that camera-guided modality fusion is an effective and practical inductive bias for equipping VLMs with genuinely spatially grounded intelligence. We will release code and model checkpoints to support future research. △ Less Submitted 4 December, 2025; v1 submitted 28 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.22195 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO 3D Affordance Keypoint Detection for Robotic Manipulation Authors: Zhiyang Liu , Ruiteng Zhao , Lei Zhou , Chengran Yuan , Yuwei Wu , Sheng Guo , Zhengshen Zhang , Chenchen Liu , Marcelo H Ang Jr Abstract : This paper presents a novel approach for affordance-informed robotic manipulation by introducing 3D keypoints to enhance the understanding of object parts' functionality. The proposed approach provides direct information about what the potential use of objects is, as well as guidance on where and how a manipulator should engage, whereas conventional methods treat affordance detection as a semantic… ▽ More This paper presents a novel approach for affordance-informed robotic manipulation by introducing 3D keypoints to enhance the understanding of object parts' functionality. The proposed approach provides direct information about what the potential use of objects is, as well as guidance on where and how a manipulator should engage, whereas conventional methods treat affordance detection as a semantic segmentation task, focusing solely on answering the what question. To address this gap, we propose a Fusion-based Affordance Keypoint Network (FAKP-Net) by introducing 3D keypoint quadruplet that harnesses the synergistic potential of RGB and Depth image to provide information on execution position, direction, and extent. Benchmark testing demonstrates that FAKP-Net outperforms existing models by significant margins in affordance segmentation task and keypoint detection task. Real-world experiments also showcase the reliability of our method in accomplishing manipulation tasks with previously unseen objects. △ Less Submitted 27 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted to IROS 2024 arXiv:2511.22195 [ pdf , ps , other ] 3D Affordance Keypoint Detection for Robotic Manipulation Authors: Zhiyang Liu , Ruiteng Zhao , Lei Zhou , Chengran Yuan , Yuwei Wu , Sheng Guo , Zhengshen Zhang , Chenchen Liu , Marcelo H Ang Jr Abstract : This paper presents a novel approach for affordance-informed robotic manipulation by introducing 3D keypoints to enhance the understanding of object parts' functionality. The proposed approach provides direct information about what the potential use of objects is, as well as guidance on where and how a manipulator should engage, whereas conventional methods treat affordance detection as a semantic… ▽ More This paper presents a novel approach for affordance-informed robotic manipulation by introducing 3D keypoints to enhance the understanding of object parts' functionality. The proposed approach provides direct information about what the potential use of objects is, as well as guidance on where and how a manipulator should engage, whereas conventional methods treat affordance detection as a semantic segmentation task, focusing solely on answering the what question. To address this gap, we propose a Fusion-based Affordance Keypoint Network (FAKP-Net) by introducing 3D keypoint quadruplet that harnesses the synergistic potential of RGB and Depth image to provide information on execution position, direction, and extent. Benchmark testing demonstrates that FAKP-Net outperforms existing models by significant margins in affordance segmentation task and keypoint detection task. Real-world experiments also showcase the reliability of our method in accomplishing manipulation tasks with previously unseen objects. △ Less Submitted 27 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted to IROS 2024 arXiv:2511.20439 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Object-Centric Vision Token Pruning for Vision Language Models Authors: Guangyuan Li , Rongzhen Zhao , Jinhong Deng , Yanbo Wang , Joni Pajarinen Abstract : In Vision Language Models (VLMs), vision tokens are quantity-heavy yet information-dispersed compared with language tokens, thus consume too much unnecessary computation. Pruning redundant vision tokens for high VLM inference efficiency has been continuously studied but all existing methods resort to indirect and non-guaranteed ways. We propose OC-VTP, a direct and guaranteed approach to select th… ▽ More In Vision Language Models (VLMs), vision tokens are quantity-heavy yet information-dispersed compared with language tokens, thus consume too much unnecessary computation. Pruning redundant vision tokens for high VLM inference efficiency has been continuously studied but all existing methods resort to indirect and non-guaranteed ways. We propose OC-VTP, a direct and guaranteed approach to select the most representative vision tokens for high-efficiency yet accuracy-preserving VLM inference. Our OC-VTP requires merely light-weight pre-training of a small object-centric vision token pruner, which can then be inserted into existing VLMs, without fine-tuning of any models on any datasets. It is gauranteed that the most representative vision tokens are kept by minimizing the error in reconstructing the original unpruned tokens from the selected ones. Across any vision pruning ratios, i.e., inference efficiency, our OC-VTP consistently helps mainstream VLMs to preserve the highest inference accuracy. Our pruning also demonstrates interesting interpretability. Our codes are available at △ Less Submitted 25 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.20439 [ pdf , ps , other ] Object-Centric Vision Token Pruning for Vision Language Models Authors: Guangyuan Li , Rongzhen Zhao , Jinhong Deng , Yanbo Wang , Joni Pajarinen Abstract : In Vision Language Models (VLMs), vision tokens are quantity-heavy yet information-dispersed compared with language tokens, thus consume too much unnecessary computation. Pruning redundant vision tokens for high VLM inference efficiency has been continuously studied but all existing methods resort to indirect and non-guaranteed ways. We propose OC-VTP, a direct and guaranteed approach to select th… ▽ More In Vision Language Models (VLMs), vision tokens are quantity-heavy yet information-dispersed compared with language tokens, thus consume too much unnecessary computation. Pruning redundant vision tokens for high VLM inference efficiency has been continuously studied but all existing methods resort to indirect and non-guaranteed ways. We propose OC-VTP, a direct and guaranteed approach to select the most representative vision tokens for high-efficiency yet accuracy-preserving VLM inference. Our OC-VTP requires merely light-weight pre-training of a small object-centric vision token pruner, which can then be inserted into existing VLMs, without fine-tuning of any models on any datasets. It is gauranteed that the most representative vision tokens are kept by minimizing the error in reconstructing the original unpruned tokens from the selected ones. Across any vision pruning ratios, i.e., inference efficiency, our OC-VTP consistently helps mainstream VLMs to preserve the highest inference accuracy. Our pruning also demonstrates interesting interpretability. Our codes are available at △ Less Submitted 25 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.19914 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO CoC-VLA: Delving into Adversarial Domain Transfer for Explainable Autonomous Driving via Chain-of-Causality Visual-Language-Action Model Authors: Dapeng Zhang , Fei Shen , Rui Zhao , Yinda Chen , Peng Zhi , Chenyang Li , Rui Zhou , Qingguo Zhou Abstract : Autonomous driving represents a prominent application of artificial intelligence. Recent approaches have shifted from focusing solely on common scenarios to addressing complex, long-tail situations such as subtle human behaviors, traffic accidents, and non-compliant driving patterns. Given the demonstrated capabilities of large language models (LLMs) in understanding visual and natural language in… ▽ More Autonomous driving represents a prominent application of artificial intelligence. Recent approaches have shifted from focusing solely on common scenarios to addressing complex, long-tail situations such as subtle human behaviors, traffic accidents, and non-compliant driving patterns. Given the demonstrated capabilities of large language models (LLMs) in understanding visual and natural language inputs and following instructions, recent methods have integrated LLMs into autonomous driving systems to enhance reasoning, interpretability, and performance across diverse scenarios. However, existing methods typically rely either on real-world data, which is suitable for industrial deployment, or on simulation data tailored to rare or hard case scenarios. Few approaches effectively integrate the complementary advantages of both data sources. To address this limitation, we propose a novel VLM-guided, end-to-end adversarial transfer framework for autonomous driving that transfers long-tail handling capabilities from simulation to real-world deployment, named CoC-VLA. The framework comprises a teacher VLM model, a student VLM model, and a discriminator. Both the teacher and student VLM models utilize a shared base architecture, termed the Chain-of-Causality Visual-Language Model (CoC VLM), which integrates temporal information via an end-to-end text adapter. This architecture supports chain-of-thought reasoning to infer complex driving logic. The teacher and student VLM models are pre-trained separately on simulated and real-world datasets. The discriminator is trained adversarially to facilitate the transfer of long-tail handling capabilities from simulated to real-world environments by the student VLM model, using a novel backpropagation strategy. △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.19914 [ pdf , ps , other ] CoC-VLA: Delving into Adversarial Domain Transfer for Explainable Autonomous Driving via Chain-of-Causality Visual-Language-Action Model Authors: Dapeng Zhang , Fei Shen , Rui Zhao , Yinda Chen , Peng Zhi , Chenyang Li , Rui Zhou , Qingguo Zhou Abstract : Autonomous driving represents a prominent application of artificial intelligence. Recent approaches have shifted from focusing solely on common scenarios to addressing complex, long-tail situations such as subtle human behaviors, traffic accidents, and non-compliant driving patterns. Given the demonstrated capabilities of large language models (LLMs) in understanding visual and natural language in… ▽ More Autonomous driving represents a prominent application of artificial intelligence. Recent approaches have shifted from focusing solely on common scenarios to addressing complex, long-tail situations such as subtle human behaviors, traffic accidents, and non-compliant driving patterns. Given the demonstrated capabilities of large language models (LLMs) in understanding visual and natural language inputs and following instructions, recent methods have integrated LLMs into autonomous driving systems to enhance reasoning, interpretability, and performance across diverse scenarios. However, existing methods typically rely either on real-world data, which is suitable for industrial deployment, or on simulation data tailored to rare or hard case scenarios. Few approaches effectively integrate the complementary advantages of both data sources. To address this limitation, we propose a novel VLM-guided, end-to-end adversarial transfer framework for autonomous driving that transfers long-tail handling capabilities from simulation to real-world deployment, named CoC-VLA. The framework comprises a teacher VLM model, a student VLM model, and a discriminator. Both the teacher and student VLM models utilize a shared base architecture, termed the Chain-of-Causality Visual-Language Model (CoC VLM), which integrates temporal information via an end-to-end text adapter. This architecture supports chain-of-thought reasoning to infer complex driving logic. The teacher and student VLM models are pre-trained separately on simulated and real-world datasets. The discriminator is trained adversarially to facilitate the transfer of long-tail handling capabilities from simulated to real-world environments by the student VLM model, using a novel backpropagation strategy. △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.16931 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CY cs.CE cs.CL OmniScientist: Toward a Co-evolving Ecosystem of Human and AI Scientists Authors: Chenyang Shao , Dehao Huang , Yu Li , Keyu Zhao , Weiquan Lin , Yining Zhang , Qingbin Zeng , Zhiyu Chen , Tianxing Li , Yifei Huang , Taozhong Wu , Xinyang Liu , Ruotong Zhao , Mengsheng Zhao , Jiaoyang Li , Xuhua Zhang , Yue Wang , Yuanyi Zhen , Fengli Xu , Yong Li , Tie-Yan Liu Abstract : With the rapid development of Large Language Models (LLMs), AI agents have demonstrated increasing proficiency in scientific tasks, ranging from hypothesis generation and experimental design to manuscript writing. Such agent systems are commonly referred to as "AI Scientists." However, existing AI Scientists predominantly formulate scientific discovery as a standalone search or optimization proble… ▽ More With the rapid development of Large Language Models (LLMs), AI agents have demonstrated increasing proficiency in scientific tasks, ranging from hypothesis generation and experimental design to manuscript writing. Such agent systems are commonly referred to as "AI Scientists." However, existing AI Scientists predominantly formulate scientific discovery as a standalone search or optimization problem, overlooking the fact that scientific research is inherently a social and collaborative endeavor. Real-world science relies on a complex scientific infrastructure composed of collaborative mechanisms, contribution attribution, peer review, and structured scientific knowledge networks. Due to the lack of modeling for these critical dimensions, current systems struggle to establish a genuine research ecosystem or interact deeply with the human scientific community. To bridge this gap, we introduce OmniScientist, a framework that explicitly encodes the underlying mechanisms of human research into the AI scientific workflow. OmniScientist not only achieves end-to-end automation across data foundation, literature review, research ideation, experiment automation, scientific writing, and peer review, but also provides comprehensive infrastructural support by simulating the human scientific system, comprising: (1) a structured knowledge system built upon citation networks and conceptual correlations; (2) a collaborative research protocol (OSP), which enables seamless multi-agent collaboration and human researcher participation; and (3) an open evaluation platform (ScienceArena) based on blind pairwise user voting and Elo rankings. This infrastructure empowers agents to not only comprehend and leverage human knowledge systems but also to collaborate and co-evolve, fostering a sustainable and scalable innovation ecosystem. △ Less Submitted 14 December, 2025; v1 submitted 20 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.16931 [ pdf , ps , other ] OmniScientist: Toward a Co-evolving Ecosystem of Human and AI Scientists Authors: Chenyang Shao , Dehao Huang , Yu Li , Keyu Zhao , Weiquan Lin , Yining Zhang , Qingbin Zeng , Zhiyu Chen , Tianxing Li , Yifei Huang , Taozhong Wu , Xinyang Liu , Ruotong Zhao , Mengsheng Zhao , Jiaoyang Li , Xuhua Zhang , Yue Wang , Yuanyi Zhen , Fengli Xu , Yong Li , Tie-Yan Liu Abstract : With the rapid development of Large Language Models (LLMs), AI agents have demonstrated increasing proficiency in scientific tasks, ranging from hypothesis generation and experimental design to manuscript writing. Such agent systems are commonly referred to as "AI Scientists." However, existing AI Scientists predominantly formulate scientific discovery as a standalone search or optimization proble… ▽ More With the rapid development of Large Language Models (LLMs), AI agents have demonstrated increasing proficiency in scientific tasks, ranging from hypothesis generation and experimental design to manuscript writing. Such agent systems are commonly referred to as "AI Scientists." However, existing AI Scientists predominantly formulate scientific discovery as a standalone search or optimization problem, overlooking the fact that scientific research is inherently a social and collaborative endeavor. Real-world science relies on a complex scientific infrastructure composed of collaborative mechanisms, contribution attribution, peer review, and structured scientific knowledge networks. Due to the lack of modeling for these critical dimensions, current systems struggle to establish a genuine research ecosystem or interact deeply with the human scientific community. To bridge this gap, we introduce OmniScientist, a framework that explicitly encodes the underlying mechanisms of human research into the AI scientific workflow. OmniScientist not only achieves end-to-end automation across data foundation, literature review, research ideation, experiment automation, scientific writing, and peer review, but also provides comprehensive infrastructural support by simulating the human scientific system, comprising: (1) a structured knowledge system built upon citation networks and conceptual correlations; (2) a collaborative research protocol (OSP), which enables seamless multi-agent collaboration and human researcher participation; and (3) an open evaluation platform (ScienceArena) based on blind pairwise user voting and Elo rankings. This infrastructure empowers agents to not only comprehend and leverage human knowledge systems but also to collaborate and co-evolve, fostering a sustainable and scalable innovation ecosystem. △ Less Submitted 14 December, 2025; v1 submitted 20 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.16150 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Reasoning Guided Embeddings: Leveraging MLLM Reasoning for Improved Multimodal Retrieval Authors: Chunxu Liu , Jiyuan Yang , Ruopeng Gao , Yuhan Zhu , Feng Zhu , Rui Zhao , Limin Wang Abstract : Multimodal embeddings are widely used in downstream tasks such as multimodal retrieval, enabling alignment of interleaved modalities in a shared representation space. While recent studies show that Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) can serve as strong embedding extractors, existing approaches treat embedding extraction as a direct encoding step, overlooking the fact that MLLMs possess the g… ▽ More Multimodal embeddings are widely used in downstream tasks such as multimodal retrieval, enabling alignment of interleaved modalities in a shared representation space. While recent studies show that Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) can serve as strong embedding extractors, existing approaches treat embedding extraction as a direct encoding step, overlooking the fact that MLLMs possess the generative capability for reasoning that could be leveraged to enhance representation quality. In this work, we explore how to explicitly incorporate reasoning into the embedding process. To this end, we propose Reasoning Guided Embeddings (RGE), which preserves the generative rationale process of MLLMs and couples it with contrastive training. Our method first enables the model to perform structured rationale generation conditioned on the instruction, and then extracts representations after reasoning has unfolded. This simple design enhances the context-conditional inference signals within the embedding, leading to improved multimodal representation quality. Experiments on the MMEB benchmark show that reasoning-guided conditioning improves multimodal retrieval performance by 4.9% over the non-reasoning baseline, confirming that explicit reasoning can effectively enhance embedding quality. △ Less Submitted 20 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.16150 [ pdf , ps , other ] Reasoning Guided Embeddings: Leveraging MLLM Reasoning for Improved Multimodal Retrieval Authors: Chunxu Liu , Jiyuan Yang , Ruopeng Gao , Yuhan Zhu , Feng Zhu , Rui Zhao , Limin Wang Abstract : Multimodal embeddings are widely used in downstream tasks such as multimodal retrieval, enabling alignment of interleaved modalities in a shared representation space. While recent studies show that Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) can serve as strong embedding extractors, existing approaches treat embedding extraction as a direct encoding step, overlooking the fact that MLLMs possess the g… ▽ More Multimodal embeddings are widely used in downstream tasks such as multimodal retrieval, enabling alignment of interleaved modalities in a shared representation space. While recent studies show that Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) can serve as strong embedding extractors, existing approaches treat embedding extraction as a direct encoding step, overlooking the fact that MLLMs possess the generative capability for reasoning that could be leveraged to enhance representation quality. In this work, we explore how to explicitly incorporate reasoning into the embedding process. To this end, we propose Reasoning Guided Embeddings (RGE), which preserves the generative rationale process of MLLMs and couples it with contrastive training. Our method first enables the model to perform structured rationale generation conditioned on the instruction, and then extracts representations after reasoning has unfolded. This simple design enhances the context-conditional inference signals within the embedding, leading to improved multimodal representation quality. Experiments on the MMEB benchmark show that reasoning-guided conditioning improves multimodal retrieval performance by 4.9% over the non-reasoning baseline, confirming that explicit reasoning can effectively enhance embedding quality. △ Less Submitted 20 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.15407 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CV cs.LG IPR-1: Interactive Physical Reasoner Authors: Mingyu Zhang , Lifeng Zhuo , Tianxi Tan , Guocan Xie , Xian Nie , Yan Li , Renjie Zhao , Zizhu He , Ziyu Wang , Jiting Cai , Yong-Lu Li Abstract : Humans learn by observing, interacting with environments, and internalizing physics and causality. Here, we aim to ask whether an agent can similarly acquire human-like reasoning from interaction and keep improving with more experience. To study this, we introduce a Game-to-Unseen (G2U) benchmark of 1,000+ heterogeneous games that exhibit significant visual domain gaps. Existing approaches, includ… ▽ More Humans learn by observing, interacting with environments, and internalizing physics and causality. Here, we aim to ask whether an agent can similarly acquire human-like reasoning from interaction and keep improving with more experience. To study this, we introduce a Game-to-Unseen (G2U) benchmark of 1,000+ heterogeneous games that exhibit significant visual domain gaps. Existing approaches, including VLMs and world models, struggle to capture underlying physics and causality since they are not focused on core mechanisms and overfit to visual details. VLM/VLA agents reason but lack look-ahead in interactive settings, while world models imagine but imitate visual patterns rather than analyze physics and causality. We therefore propose IPR (Interactive Physical Reasoner), using world-model rollouts to score and reinforce a VLM's policy, and introduce PhysCode, a physics-centric action code aligning semantic intent with dynamics to provide a shared action space for prediction and reasoning. Pretrained on 1,000+ games, our IPR performs robustly on levels from primitive intuition to goal-driven reasoning, and even surpasses GPT-5 overall. We find that performance improves with more training games and interaction steps, and that the model also zero-shot transfers to unseen games. These results support physics-centric interaction as a path to steadily improving physical reasoning. Further demos and project details can be found at △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; v1 submitted 19 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 13 pages of main text and 19 pages of appendices. Project page: arXiv:2511.15407 [ pdf , ps , other ] IPR-1: Interactive Physical Reasoner Authors: Mingyu Zhang , Lifeng Zhuo , Tianxi Tan , Guocan Xie , Xian Nie , Yan Li , Renjie Zhao , Zizhu He , Ziyu Wang , Jiting Cai , Yong-Lu Li Abstract : Humans learn by observing, interacting with environments, and internalizing physics and causality. Here, we aim to ask whether an agent can similarly acquire human-like reasoning from interaction and keep improving with more experience. To study this, we introduce a Game-to-Unseen (G2U) benchmark of 1,000+ heterogeneous games that exhibit significant visual domain gaps. Existing approaches, includ… ▽ More Humans learn by observing, interacting with environments, and internalizing physics and causality. Here, we aim to ask whether an agent can similarly acquire human-like reasoning from interaction and keep improving with more experience. To study this, we introduce a Game-to-Unseen (G2U) benchmark of 1,000+ heterogeneous games that exhibit significant visual domain gaps. Existing approaches, including VLMs and world models, struggle to capture underlying physics and causality since they are not focused on core mechanisms and overfit to visual details. VLM/VLA agents reason but lack look-ahead in interactive settings, while world models imagine but imitate visual patterns rather than analyze physics and causality. We therefore propose IPR (Interactive Physical Reasoner), using world-model rollouts to score and reinforce a VLM's policy, and introduce PhysCode, a physics-centric action code aligning semantic intent with dynamics to provide a shared action space for prediction and reasoning. Pretrained on 1,000+ games, our IPR performs robustly on levels from primitive intuition to goal-driven reasoning, and even surpasses GPT-5 overall. We find that performance improves with more training games and interaction steps, and that the model also zero-shot transfers to unseen games. These results support physics-centric interaction as a path to steadily improving physical reasoning. Further demos and project details can be found at △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; v1 submitted 19 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 13 pages of main text and 19 pages of appendices. Project page: arXiv:2511.11831 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CV cs.LG TopoPerception: A Shortcut-Free Evaluation of Global Visual Perception in Large Vision-Language Models Authors: Wenhao Zhou , Hao Zheng , Rong Zhao Abstract : Large Vision-Language Models (LVLMs) typically align visual features from an encoder with a pre-trained Large Language Model (LLM). However, this makes the visual perception module a bottleneck, which constrains the overall capabilities of LVLMs. Conventional evaluation benchmarks, while rich in visual semantics, often contain unavoidable local shortcuts that can lead to an overestimation of model… ▽ More Large Vision-Language Models (LVLMs) typically align visual features from an encoder with a pre-trained Large Language Model (LLM). However, this makes the visual perception module a bottleneck, which constrains the overall capabilities of LVLMs. Conventional evaluation benchmarks, while rich in visual semantics, often contain unavoidable local shortcuts that can lead to an overestimation of models' perceptual abilities. Here, we introduce TopoPerception, a benchmark that leverages topological properties to rigorously evaluate the global visual perception capabilities of LVLMs across various granularities. Since topology depends on the global structure of an image and is invariant to local features, TopoPerception enables a shortcut-free assessment of global perception, fundamentally distinguishing it from semantically rich tasks. We evaluate state-of-the-art models on TopoPerception and find that even at the coarsest perceptual granularity, all models perform no better than random chance, indicating a profound inability to perceive global visual features. Notably, a consistent trend emerge within model families: more powerful models with stronger reasoning capabilities exhibit lower accuracy. This suggests that merely scaling up models is insufficient to address this deficit and may even exacerbate it. Progress may require new training paradigms or architectures. TopoPerception not only exposes a critical bottleneck in current LVLMs but also offers a lens and direction for improving their global visual perception. The data and code are publicly available at: △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.11831 [ pdf , ps , other ] TopoPerception: A Shortcut-Free Evaluation of Global Visual Perception in Large Vision-Language Models Authors: Wenhao Zhou , Hao Zheng , Rong Zhao Abstract : Large Vision-Language Models (LVLMs) typically align visual features from an encoder with a pre-trained Large Language Model (LLM). However, this makes the visual perception module a bottleneck, which constrains the overall capabilities of LVLMs. Conventional evaluation benchmarks, while rich in visual semantics, often contain unavoidable local shortcuts that can lead to an overestimation of model… ▽ More Large Vision-Language Models (LVLMs) typically align visual features from an encoder with a pre-trained Large Language Model (LLM). However, this makes the visual perception module a bottleneck, which constrains the overall capabilities of LVLMs. Conventional evaluation benchmarks, while rich in visual semantics, often contain unavoidable local shortcuts that can lead to an overestimation of models' perceptual abilities. Here, we introduce TopoPerception, a benchmark that leverages topological properties to rigorously evaluate the global visual perception capabilities of LVLMs across various granularities. Since topology depends on the global structure of an image and is invariant to local features, TopoPerception enables a shortcut-free assessment of global perception, fundamentally distinguishing it from semantically rich tasks. We evaluate state-of-the-art models on TopoPerception and find that even at the coarsest perceptual granularity, all models perform no better than random chance, indicating a profound inability to perceive global visual features. Notably, a consistent trend emerge within model families: more powerful models with stronger reasoning capabilities exhibit lower accuracy. This suggests that merely scaling up models is insufficient to address this deficit and may even exacerbate it. Progress may require new training paradigms or architectures. TopoPerception not only exposes a critical bottleneck in current LVLMs but also offers a lens and direction for improving their global visual perception. The data and code are publicly available at: △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.11113 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.LG VIDEOP2R: Video Understanding from Perception to Reasoning Authors: Yifan Jiang , Yueying Wang , Rui Zhao , Toufiq Parag , Zhimin Chen , Zhenyu Liao , Jayakrishnan Unnikrishnan Abstract : Reinforcement fine-tuning (RFT), a two-stage framework consisting of supervised fine-tuning (SFT) and reinforcement learning (RL) has shown promising results on improving reasoning ability of large language models (LLMs). Yet extending RFT to large video language models (LVLMs) remains challenging. We propose VideoP2R, a novel process-aware video RFT framework that enhances video reasoning by mode… ▽ More Reinforcement fine-tuning (RFT), a two-stage framework consisting of supervised fine-tuning (SFT) and reinforcement learning (RL) has shown promising results on improving reasoning ability of large language models (LLMs). Yet extending RFT to large video language models (LVLMs) remains challenging. We propose VideoP2R, a novel process-aware video RFT framework that enhances video reasoning by modeling perception and reasoning as distinct processes. In the SFT stage, we develop a three-step pipeline to generate VideoP2R-CoT-162K, a high-quality, process-aware chain-of-thought (CoT) dataset for perception and reasoning. In the RL stage, we introduce a novel process-aware group relative policy optimization (PA-GRPO) algorithm that supplies separate rewards for perception and reasoning. Extensive experiments show that VideoP2R achieves state-of-the-art (SotA) performance on six out of seven video reasoning and understanding benchmarks. Ablation studies further confirm the effectiveness of our process-aware modeling and PA-GRPO and demonstrate that model's perception output is information-sufficient for downstream reasoning. △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.11113 [ pdf , ps , other ] VIDEOP2R: Video Understanding from Perception to Reasoning Authors: Yifan Jiang , Yueying Wang , Rui Zhao , Toufiq Parag , Zhimin Chen , Zhenyu Liao , Jayakrishnan Unnikrishnan Abstract : Reinforcement fine-tuning (RFT), a two-stage framework consisting of supervised fine-tuning (SFT) and reinforcement learning (RL) has shown promising results on improving reasoning ability of large language models (LLMs). Yet extending RFT to large video language models (LVLMs) remains challenging. We propose VideoP2R, a novel process-aware video RFT framework that enhances video reasoning by mode… ▽ More Reinforcement fine-tuning (RFT), a two-stage framework consisting of supervised fine-tuning (SFT) and reinforcement learning (RL) has shown promising results on improving reasoning ability of large language models (LLMs). Yet extending RFT to large video language models (LVLMs) remains challenging. We propose VideoP2R, a novel process-aware video RFT framework that enhances video reasoning by modeling perception and reasoning as distinct processes. In the SFT stage, we develop a three-step pipeline to generate VideoP2R-CoT-162K, a high-quality, process-aware chain-of-thought (CoT) dataset for perception and reasoning. In the RL stage, we introduce a novel process-aware group relative policy optimization (PA-GRPO) algorithm that supplies separate rewards for perception and reasoning. Extensive experiments show that VideoP2R achieves state-of-the-art (SotA) performance on six out of seven video reasoning and understanding benchmarks. Ablation studies further confirm the effectiveness of our process-aware modeling and PA-GRPO and demonstrate that model's perception output is information-sufficient for downstream reasoning. △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.11045 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Hyperbolic Hierarchical Alignment Reasoning Network for Text-3D Retrieval Authors: Wenrui Li , Yidan Lu , Yeyu Chai , Rui Zhao , Hengyu Man , Xiaopeng Fan Abstract : With the daily influx of 3D data on the internet, text-3D retrieval has gained increasing attention. However, current methods face two major challenges: Hierarchy Representation Collapse (HRC) and Redundancy-Induced Saliency Dilution (RISD). HRC compresses abstract-to-specific and whole-to-part hierarchies in Euclidean embeddings, while RISD averages noisy fragments, obscuring critical semantic cu… ▽ More With the daily influx of 3D data on the internet, text-3D retrieval has gained increasing attention. However, current methods face two major challenges: Hierarchy Representation Collapse (HRC) and Redundancy-Induced Saliency Dilution (RISD). HRC compresses abstract-to-specific and whole-to-part hierarchies in Euclidean embeddings, while RISD averages noisy fragments, obscuring critical semantic cues and diminishing the model's ability to distinguish hard negatives. To address these challenges, we introduce the Hyperbolic Hierarchical Alignment Reasoning Network (H$^{2}$ARN) for text-3D retrieval. H$^{2}$ARN embeds both text and 3D data in a Lorentz-model hyperbolic space, where exponential volume growth inherently preserves hierarchical distances. A hierarchical ordering loss constructs a shrinking entailment cone around each text vector, ensuring that the matched 3D instance falls within the cone, while an instance-level contrastive loss jointly enforces separation from non-matching samples. To tackle RISD, we propose a contribution-aware hyperbolic aggregation module that leverages Lorentzian distance to assess the relevance of each local feature and applies contribution-weighted aggregation guided by hyperbolic geometry, enhancing discriminative regions while suppressing redundancy without additional supervision. We also release the expanded T3DR-HIT v2 benchmark, which contains 8,935 text-to-3D pairs, 2.6 times the original size, covering both fine-grained cultural artefacts and complex indoor scenes. Our codes are available at △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI-2026 arXiv:2511.11045 [ pdf , ps , other ] Hyperbolic Hierarchical Alignment Reasoning Network for Text-3D Retrieval Authors: Wenrui Li , Yidan Lu , Yeyu Chai , Rui Zhao , Hengyu Man , Xiaopeng Fan Abstract : With the daily influx of 3D data on the internet, text-3D retrieval has gained increasing attention. However, current methods face two major challenges: Hierarchy Representation Collapse (HRC) and Redundancy-Induced Saliency Dilution (RISD). HRC compresses abstract-to-specific and whole-to-part hierarchies in Euclidean embeddings, while RISD averages noisy fragments, obscuring critical semantic cu… ▽ More With the daily influx of 3D data on the internet, text-3D retrieval has gained increasing attention. However, current methods face two major challenges: Hierarchy Representation Collapse (HRC) and Redundancy-Induced Saliency Dilution (RISD). HRC compresses abstract-to-specific and whole-to-part hierarchies in Euclidean embeddings, while RISD averages noisy fragments, obscuring critical semantic cues and diminishing the model's ability to distinguish hard negatives. To address these challenges, we introduce the Hyperbolic Hierarchical Alignment Reasoning Network (H$^{2}$ARN) for text-3D retrieval. H$^{2}$ARN embeds both text and 3D data in a Lorentz-model hyperbolic space, where exponential volume growth inherently preserves hierarchical distances. A hierarchical ordering loss constructs a shrinking entailment cone around each text vector, ensuring that the matched 3D instance falls within the cone, while an instance-level contrastive loss jointly enforces separation from non-matching samples. To tackle RISD, we propose a contribution-aware hyperbolic aggregation module that leverages Lorentzian distance to assess the relevance of each local feature and applies contribution-weighted aggregation guided by hyperbolic geometry, enhancing discriminative regions while suppressing redundancy without additional supervision. We also release the expanded T3DR-HIT v2 benchmark, which contains 8,935 text-to-3D pairs, 2.6 times the original size, covering both fine-grained cultural artefacts and complex indoor scenes. Our codes are available at △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI-2026 arXiv:2511.06722 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.CL Revisiting the Data Sampling in Multimodal Post-training from a Difficulty-Distinguish View Authors: Jianyu Qi , Ding Zou , Wenrui Yan , Rui Ma , Jiaxu Li , Zhijie Zheng , Zhiguo Yang , Rongchang Zhao Abstract : Recent advances in Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have spurred significant progress in Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning. Building on the success of Deepseek-R1, researchers extended multimodal reasoning to post-training paradigms based on reinforcement learning (RL), focusing predominantly on mathematical datasets. However, existing post-training paradigms tend to neglect two critical as… ▽ More Recent advances in Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have spurred significant progress in Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning. Building on the success of Deepseek-R1, researchers extended multimodal reasoning to post-training paradigms based on reinforcement learning (RL), focusing predominantly on mathematical datasets. However, existing post-training paradigms tend to neglect two critical aspects: (1) The lack of quantifiable difficulty metrics capable of strategically screening samples for post-training optimization. (2) Suboptimal post-training paradigms that fail to jointly optimize perception and reasoning capabilities. To address this gap, we propose two novel difficulty-aware sampling strategies: Progressive Image Semantic Masking (PISM) quantifies sample hardness through systematic image degradation, while Cross-Modality Attention Balance (CMAB) assesses cross-modal interaction complexity via attention distribution analysis. Leveraging these metrics, we design a hierarchical training framework that incorporates both GRPO-only and SFT+GRPO hybrid training paradigms, and evaluate them across six benchmark datasets. Experiments demonstrate consistent superiority of GRPO applied to difficulty-stratified samples compared to conventional SFT+GRPO pipelines, indicating that strategic data sampling can obviate the need for supervised fine-tuning while improving model accuracy. Our code will be released at △ Less Submitted 10 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accpeted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2511.06722 [ pdf , ps , other ] Revisiting the Data Sampling in Multimodal Post-training from a Difficulty-Distinguish View Authors: Jianyu Qi , Ding Zou , Wenrui Yan , Rui Ma , Jiaxu Li , Zhijie Zheng , Zhiguo Yang , Rongchang Zhao Abstract : Recent advances in Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have spurred significant progress in Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning. Building on the success of Deepseek-R1, researchers extended multimodal reasoning to post-training paradigms based on reinforcement learning (RL), focusing predominantly on mathematical datasets. However, existing post-training paradigms tend to neglect two critical as… ▽ More Recent advances in Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have spurred significant progress in Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning. Building on the success of Deepseek-R1, researchers extended multimodal reasoning to post-training paradigms based on reinforcement learning (RL), focusing predominantly on mathematical datasets. However, existing post-training paradigms tend to neglect two critical aspects: (1) The lack of quantifiable difficulty metrics capable of strategically screening samples for post-training optimization. (2) Suboptimal post-training paradigms that fail to jointly optimize perception and reasoning capabilities. To address this gap, we propose two novel difficulty-aware sampling strategies: Progressive Image Semantic Masking (PISM) quantifies sample hardness through systematic image degradation, while Cross-Modality Attention Balance (CMAB) assesses cross-modal interaction complexity via attention distribution analysis. Leveraging these metrics, we design a hierarchical training framework that incorporates both GRPO-only and SFT+GRPO hybrid training paradigms, and evaluate them across six benchmark datasets. Experiments demonstrate consistent superiority of GRPO applied to difficulty-stratified samples compared to conventional SFT+GRPO pipelines, indicating that strategic data sampling can obviate the need for supervised fine-tuning while improving model accuracy. Our code will be released at △ Less Submitted 10 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accpeted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2511.01678 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV UniLumos: Fast and Unified Image and Video Relighting with Physics-Plausible Feedback Authors: Ropeway Liu , Hangjie Yuan , Bo Dong , Jiazheng Xing , Jinwang Wang , Rui Zhao , Yan Xing , Weihua Chen , Fan Wang Abstract : Relighting is a crucial task with both practical demand and artistic value, and recent diffusion models have shown strong potential by enabling rich and controllable lighting effects. However, as they are typically optimized in semantic latent space, where proximity does not guarantee physical correctness in visual space, they often produce unrealistic results, such as overexposed highlights, misa… ▽ More Relighting is a crucial task with both practical demand and artistic value, and recent diffusion models have shown strong potential by enabling rich and controllable lighting effects. However, as they are typically optimized in semantic latent space, where proximity does not guarantee physical correctness in visual space, they often produce unrealistic results, such as overexposed highlights, misaligned shadows, and incorrect occlusions. We address this with UniLumos, a unified relighting framework for both images and videos that brings RGB-space geometry feedback into a flow matching backbone. By supervising the model with depth and normal maps extracted from its outputs, we explicitly align lighting effects with the scene structure, enhancing physical plausibility. Nevertheless, this feedback requires high-quality outputs for supervision in visual space, making standard multi-step denoising computationally expensive. To mitigate this, we employ path consistency learning, allowing supervision to remain effective even under few-step training regimes. To enable fine-grained relighting control and supervision, we design a structured six-dimensional annotation protocol capturing core illumination attributes. Building upon this, we propose LumosBench, a disentangled attribute-level benchmark that evaluates lighting controllability via large vision-language models, enabling automatic and interpretable assessment of relighting precision across individual dimensions. Extensive experiments demonstrate that UniLumos achieves state-of-the-art relighting quality with significantly improved physical consistency, while delivering a 20x speedup for both image and video relighting. Code is available at △ Less Submitted 3 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2511.01678 [ pdf , ps , other ] UniLumos: Fast and Unified Image and Video Relighting with Physics-Plausible Feedback Authors: Ropeway Liu , Hangjie Yuan , Bo Dong , Jiazheng Xing , Jinwang Wang , Rui Zhao , Yan Xing , Weihua Chen , Fan Wang Abstract : Relighting is a crucial task with both practical demand and artistic value, and recent diffusion models have shown strong potential by enabling rich and controllable lighting effects. However, as they are typically optimized in semantic latent space, where proximity does not guarantee physical correctness in visual space, they often produce unrealistic results, such as overexposed highlights, misa… ▽ More Relighting is a crucial task with both practical demand and artistic value, and recent diffusion models have shown strong potential by enabling rich and controllable lighting effects. However, as they are typically optimized in semantic latent space, where proximity does not guarantee physical correctness in visual space, they often produce unrealistic results, such as overexposed highlights, misaligned shadows, and incorrect occlusions. We address this with UniLumos, a unified relighting framework for both images and videos that brings RGB-space geometry feedback into a flow matching backbone. By supervising the model with depth and normal maps extracted from its outputs, we explicitly align lighting effects with the scene structure, enhancing physical plausibility. Nevertheless, this feedback requires high-quality outputs for supervision in visual space, making standard multi-step denoising computationally expensive. To mitigate this, we employ path consistency learning, allowing supervision to remain effective even under few-step training regimes. To enable fine-grained relighting control and supervision, we design a structured six-dimensional annotation protocol capturing core illumination attributes. Building upon this, we propose LumosBench, a disentangled attribute-level benchmark that evaluates lighting controllability via large vision-language models, enabling automatic and interpretable assessment of relighting precision across individual dimensions. Extensive experiments demonstrate that UniLumos achieves state-of-the-art relighting quality with significantly improved physical consistency, while delivering a 20x speedup for both image and video relighting. Code is available at △ Less Submitted 3 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2511.00808 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Do Math Reasoning LLMs Help Predict the Impact of Public Transit Events? Authors: Bowen Fang , Ruijian Zha , Xuan Di Abstract : Predicting public transit incident duration from unstructured text alerts is a critical but challenging task. Addressing the domain sparsity of transit operations with standard Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) is difficult, as the task involves noisy, continuous labels and lacks reliable expert demonstrations for reasoning. While Reinforcement Learning from Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) excels at tasks wi… ▽ More Predicting public transit incident duration from unstructured text alerts is a critical but challenging task. Addressing the domain sparsity of transit operations with standard Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) is difficult, as the task involves noisy, continuous labels and lacks reliable expert demonstrations for reasoning. While Reinforcement Learning from Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) excels at tasks with binary correctness, like mathematics, its applicability to noisy, continuous forecasting is an open question. This work, to our knowledge, is the first to bridge the gap between RLVR LLM training with the critical, real-world forecasting challenges in public transit operations. We adapt RLVR to this task by introducing a tolerance-based, shaped reward function that grants partial credit within a continuous error margin, rather than demanding a single correct answer. We systematically evaluate this framework on a curated dataset of NYC MTA service alerts. Our findings show that general-purpose, instruction-tuned LLMs significantly outperform specialized math-reasoning models, which struggle with the ambiguous, real-world text. We empirically demonstrate that the binary reward is unstable and degrades performance, whereas our shaped reward design is critical and allows our model to dominate on the most challenging metrics. While classical regressors are superior at minimizing overall MAE or MSE, our RLVR approach achieved a 35\% relative improvement in 5-minute accuracy (Acc@5) over the strongest baseline. This demonstrates that RLVR can be successfully adapted to real-world, noisy forecasting, but requires a verifier design that reflects the continuous nature of the problem. △ Less Submitted 2 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.00808 [ pdf , ps , other ] Do Math Reasoning LLMs Help Predict the Impact of Public Transit Events? Authors: Bowen Fang , Ruijian Zha , Xuan Di Abstract : Predicting public transit incident duration from unstructured text alerts is a critical but challenging task. Addressing the domain sparsity of transit operations with standard Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) is difficult, as the task involves noisy, continuous labels and lacks reliable expert demonstrations for reasoning. While Reinforcement Learning from Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) excels at tasks wi… ▽ More Predicting public transit incident duration from unstructured text alerts is a critical but challenging task. Addressing the domain sparsity of transit operations with standard Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) is difficult, as the task involves noisy, continuous labels and lacks reliable expert demonstrations for reasoning. While Reinforcement Learning from Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) excels at tasks with binary correctness, like mathematics, its applicability to noisy, continuous forecasting is an open question. This work, to our knowledge, is the first to bridge the gap between RLVR LLM training with the critical, real-world forecasting challenges in public transit operations. We adapt RLVR to this task by introducing a tolerance-based, shaped reward function that grants partial credit within a continuous error margin, rather than demanding a single correct answer. We systematically evaluate this framework on a curated dataset of NYC MTA service alerts. Our findings show that general-purpose, instruction-tuned LLMs significantly outperform specialized math-reasoning models, which struggle with the ambiguous, real-world text. We empirically demonstrate that the binary reward is unstable and degrades performance, whereas our shaped reward design is critical and allows our model to dominate on the most challenging metrics. While classical regressors are superior at minimizing overall MAE or MSE, our RLVR approach achieved a 35\% relative improvement in 5-minute accuracy (Acc@5) over the strongest baseline. This demonstrates that RLVR can be successfully adapted to real-world, noisy forecasting, but requires a verifier design that reflects the continuous nature of the problem. △ Less Submitted 2 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.00060 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.RO eess.IV Which LiDAR scanning pattern is better for roadside perception: Repetitive or Non-repetitive? Authors: Zhiqi Qi , Runxin Zhao , Hanyang Zhuang , Chunxiang Wang , Ming Yang Abstract : LiDAR-based roadside perception is a cornerstone of advanced Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). While considerable research has addressed optimal LiDAR placement for infrastructure, the profound impact of differing LiDAR scanning patterns on perceptual performance remains comparatively under-investigated. The inherent nature of various scanning modes - such as traditional repetitive (mechan… ▽ More LiDAR-based roadside perception is a cornerstone of advanced Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). While considerable research has addressed optimal LiDAR placement for infrastructure, the profound impact of differing LiDAR scanning patterns on perceptual performance remains comparatively under-investigated. The inherent nature of various scanning modes - such as traditional repetitive (mechanical/solid-state) versus emerging non-repetitive (e.g. prism-based) systems - leads to distinct point cloud distributions at varying distances, critically dictating the efficacy of object detection and overall environmental understanding. To systematically investigate these differences in infrastructure-based contexts, we introduce the "InfraLiDARs' Benchmark," a novel dataset meticulously collected in the CARLA simulation environment using concurrently operating infrastructure-based LiDARs exhibiting both scanning paradigms. Leveraging this benchmark, we conduct a comprehensive statistical analysis of the respective LiDAR scanning abilities and evaluate the impact of these distinct patterns on the performance of various leading 3D object detection algorithms. Our findings reveal that non-repetitive scanning LiDAR and the 128-line repetitive LiDAR were found to exhibit comparable detection performance across various scenarios. Despite non-repetitive LiDAR's limited perception range, it's a cost-effective option considering its low price. Ultimately, this study provides insights for setting up roadside perception system with optimal LiDAR scanning patterns and compatible algorithms for diverse roadside applications, and publicly releases the "InfraLiDARs' Benchmark" dataset to foster further research. △ Less Submitted 28 October, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.00060 [ pdf , ps , other ] Which LiDAR scanning pattern is better for roadside perception: Repetitive or Non-repetitive? Authors: Zhiqi Qi , Runxin Zhao , Hanyang Zhuang , Chunxiang Wang , Ming Yang Abstract : LiDAR-based roadside perception is a cornerstone of advanced Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). While considerable research has addressed optimal LiDAR placement for infrastructure, the profound impact of differing LiDAR scanning patterns on perceptual performance remains comparatively under-investigated. The inherent nature of various scanning modes - such as traditional repetitive (mechan… ▽ More LiDAR-based roadside perception is a cornerstone of advanced Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). While considerable research has addressed optimal LiDAR placement for infrastructure, the profound impact of differing LiDAR scanning patterns on perceptual performance remains comparatively under-investigated. The inherent nature of various scanning modes - such as traditional repetitive (mechanical/solid-state) versus emerging non-repetitive (e.g. prism-based) systems - leads to distinct point cloud distributions at varying distances, critically dictating the efficacy of object detection and overall environmental understanding. To systematically investigate these differences in infrastructure-based contexts, we introduce the "InfraLiDARs' Benchmark," a novel dataset meticulously collected in the CARLA simulation environment using concurrently operating infrastructure-based LiDARs exhibiting both scanning paradigms. Leveraging this benchmark, we conduct a comprehensive statistical analysis of the respective LiDAR scanning abilities and evaluate the impact of these distinct patterns on the performance of various leading 3D object detection algorithms. Our findings reveal that non-repetitive scanning LiDAR and the 128-line repetitive LiDAR were found to exhibit comparable detection performance across various scenarios. Despite non-repetitive LiDAR's limited perception range, it's a cost-effective option considering its low price. Ultimately, this study provides insights for setting up roadside perception system with optimal LiDAR scanning patterns and compatible algorithms for diverse roadside applications, and publicly releases the "InfraLiDARs' Benchmark" dataset to foster further research. △ Less Submitted 28 October, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2510.26406 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.AI Human-in-the-loop Online Rejection Sampling for Robotic Manipulation Authors: Guanxing Lu , Rui Zhao , Haitao Lin , He Zhang , Yansong Tang Abstract : Reinforcement learning (RL) is widely used to produce robust robotic manipulation policies, but fine-tuning vision-language-action (VLA) models with RL can be unstable due to inaccurate value estimates and sparse supervision at intermediate steps. In contrast, imitation learning (IL) is easy to train but often underperforms due to its offline nature. In this paper, we propose Hi-ORS, a simple yet… ▽ More Reinforcement learning (RL) is widely used to produce robust robotic manipulation policies, but fine-tuning vision-language-action (VLA) models with RL can be unstable due to inaccurate value estimates and sparse supervision at intermediate steps. In contrast, imitation learning (IL) is easy to train but often underperforms due to its offline nature. In this paper, we propose Hi-ORS, a simple yet effective post-training method that utilizes rejection sampling to achieve both training stability and high robustness. Hi-ORS stabilizes value estimation by filtering out negatively rewarded samples during online fine-tuning, and adopts a reward-weighted supervised training objective to provide dense intermediate-step supervision. For systematic study, we develop an asynchronous inference-training framework that supports flexible online human-in-the-loop corrections, which serve as explicit guidance for learning error-recovery behaviors. Across three real-world tasks and two embodiments, Hi-ORS fine-tunes a pi-base policy to master contact-rich manipulation in just 1.5 hours of real-world training, outperforming RL and IL baselines by a substantial margin in both effectiveness and efficiency. Notably, the fine-tuned policy exhibits strong test-time scalability by reliably executing complex error-recovery behaviors to achieve better performance. △ Less Submitted 30 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 8 pages arXiv:2510.26406 [ pdf , ps , other ] Human-in-the-loop Online Rejection Sampling for Robotic Manipulation Authors: Guanxing Lu , Rui Zhao , Haitao Lin , He Zhang , Yansong Tang Abstract : Reinforcement learning (RL) is widely used to produce robust robotic manipulation policies, but fine-tuning vision-language-action (VLA) models with RL can be unstable due to inaccurate value estimates and sparse supervision at intermediate steps. In contrast, imitation learning (IL) is easy to train but often underperforms due to its offline nature. In this paper, we propose Hi-ORS, a simple yet… ▽ More Reinforcement learning (RL) is widely used to produce robust robotic manipulation policies, but fine-tuning vision-language-action (VLA) models with RL can be unstable due to inaccurate value estimates and sparse supervision at intermediate steps. In contrast, imitation learning (IL) is easy to train but often underperforms due to its offline nature. In this paper, we propose Hi-ORS, a simple yet effective post-training method that utilizes rejection sampling to achieve both training stability and high robustness. Hi-ORS stabilizes value estimation by filtering out negatively rewarded samples during online fine-tuning, and adopts a reward-weighted supervised training objective to provide dense intermediate-step supervision. For systematic study, we develop an asynchronous inference-training framework that supports flexible online human-in-the-loop corrections, which serve as explicit guidance for learning error-recovery behaviors. Across three real-world tasks and two embodiments, Hi-ORS fine-tunes a pi-base policy to master contact-rich manipulation in just 1.5 hours of real-world training, outperforming RL and IL baselines by a substantial margin in both effectiveness and efficiency. Notably, the fine-tuned policy exhibits strong test-time scalability by reliably executing complex error-recovery behaviors to achieve better performance. △ Less Submitted 30 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 8 pages arXiv:2510.16617 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO MoS-VLA: A Vision-Language-Action Model with One-Shot Skill Adaptation Authors: Ruihan Zhao , Tyler Ingebrand , Sandeep Chinchali , Ufuk Topcu Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models trained on large robot datasets promise general-purpose, robust control across diverse domains and embodiments. However, existing approaches often fail out-of-the-box when deployed in novel environments, embodiments, or tasks. We introduce Mixture of Skills VLA (MoS-VLA), a framework that represents robot manipulation policies as linear combinations of a finite… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models trained on large robot datasets promise general-purpose, robust control across diverse domains and embodiments. However, existing approaches often fail out-of-the-box when deployed in novel environments, embodiments, or tasks. We introduce Mixture of Skills VLA (MoS-VLA), a framework that represents robot manipulation policies as linear combinations of a finite set of learned basis functions. During pretraining, MoS-VLA jointly learns these basis functions across datasets from the Open X-Embodiment project, producing a structured skill space. At test time, adapting to a new task requires only a single expert demonstration. The corresponding skill representation is then inferred via a lightweight convex optimization problem that minimizes the L1 action error, without requiring gradient updates. This gradient-free adaptation incurs minimal overhead while enabling rapid instantiation of new skills. Empirically, MoS-VLA achieves lower action-prediction error on five out of five unseen datasets and succeeds in both simulation and real-robot tasks where a pretrained VLA model fails outright. Project page: mos-vla.github.io/ △ Less Submitted 18 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.16617 [ pdf , ps , other ] MoS-VLA: A Vision-Language-Action Model with One-Shot Skill Adaptation Authors: Ruihan Zhao , Tyler Ingebrand , Sandeep Chinchali , Ufuk Topcu Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models trained on large robot datasets promise general-purpose, robust control across diverse domains and embodiments. However, existing approaches often fail out-of-the-box when deployed in novel environments, embodiments, or tasks. We introduce Mixture of Skills VLA (MoS-VLA), a framework that represents robot manipulation policies as linear combinations of a finite… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models trained on large robot datasets promise general-purpose, robust control across diverse domains and embodiments. However, existing approaches often fail out-of-the-box when deployed in novel environments, embodiments, or tasks. We introduce Mixture of Skills VLA (MoS-VLA), a framework that represents robot manipulation policies as linear combinations of a finite set of learned basis functions. During pretraining, MoS-VLA jointly learns these basis functions across datasets from the Open X-Embodiment project, producing a structured skill space. At test time, adapting to a new task requires only a single expert demonstration. The corresponding skill representation is then inferred via a lightweight convex optimization problem that minimizes the L1 action error, without requiring gradient updates. This gradient-free adaptation incurs minimal overhead while enabling rapid instantiation of new skills. Empirically, MoS-VLA achieves lower action-prediction error on five out of five unseen datasets and succeeds in both simulation and real-robot tasks where a pretrained VLA model fails outright. Project page: mos-vla.github.io/ △ Less Submitted 18 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.15019 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV NANO3D: A Training-Free Approach for Efficient 3D Editing Without Masks Authors: Junliang Ye , Shenghao Xie , Ruowen Zhao , Zhengyi Wang , Hongyu Yan , Wenqiang Zu , Lei Ma , Jun Zhu Abstract : 3D object editing is essential for interactive content creation in gaming, animation, and robotics, yet current approaches remain inefficient, inconsistent, and often fail to preserve unedited regions. Most methods rely on editing multi-view renderings followed by reconstruction, which introduces artifacts and limits practicality. To address these challenges, we propose Nano3D, a training-free fra… ▽ More 3D object editing is essential for interactive content creation in gaming, animation, and robotics, yet current approaches remain inefficient, inconsistent, and often fail to preserve unedited regions. Most methods rely on editing multi-view renderings followed by reconstruction, which introduces artifacts and limits practicality. To address these challenges, we propose Nano3D, a training-free framework for precise and coherent 3D object editing without masks. Nano3D integrates FlowEdit into TRELLIS to perform localized edits guided by front-view renderings, and further introduces region-aware merging strategies, Voxel/Slat-Merge, which adaptively preserve structural fidelity by ensuring consistency between edited and unedited areas. Experiments demonstrate that Nano3D achieves superior 3D consistency and visual quality compared with existing methods. Based on this framework, we construct the first large-scale 3D editing datasets Nano3D-Edit-100k, which contains over 100,000 high-quality 3D editing pairs. This work addresses long-standing challenges in both algorithm design and data availability, significantly improving the generality and reliability of 3D editing, and laying the groundwork for the development of feed-forward 3D editing models. Project Page: △ Less Submitted 16 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Project Page: arXiv:2510.15019 [ pdf , ps , other ] NANO3D: A Training-Free Approach for Efficient 3D Editing Without Masks Authors: Junliang Ye , Shenghao Xie , Ruowen Zhao , Zhengyi Wang , Hongyu Yan , Wenqiang Zu , Lei Ma , Jun Zhu Abstract : 3D object editing is essential for interactive content creation in gaming, animation, and robotics, yet current approaches remain inefficient, inconsistent, and often fail to preserve unedited regions. Most methods rely on editing multi-view renderings followed by reconstruction, which introduces artifacts and limits practicality. To address these challenges, we propose Nano3D, a training-free fra… ▽ More 3D object editing is essential for interactive content creation in gaming, animation, and robotics, yet current approaches remain inefficient, inconsistent, and often fail to preserve unedited regions. Most methods rely on editing multi-view renderings followed by reconstruction, which introduces artifacts and limits practicality. To address these challenges, we propose Nano3D, a training-free framework for precise and coherent 3D object editing without masks. Nano3D integrates FlowEdit into TRELLIS to perform localized edits guided by front-view renderings, and further introduces region-aware merging strategies, Voxel/Slat-Merge, which adaptively preserve structural fidelity by ensuring consistency between edited and unedited areas. Experiments demonstrate that Nano3D achieves superior 3D consistency and visual quality compared with existing methods. Based on this framework, we construct the first large-scale 3D editing datasets Nano3D-Edit-100k, which contains over 100,000 high-quality 3D editing pairs. This work addresses long-standing challenges in both algorithm design and data availability, significantly improving the generality and reliability of 3D editing, and laying the groundwork for the development of feed-forward 3D editing models. Project Page: △ Less Submitted 16 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Project Page: arXiv:2510.14889 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SI cs.AI cs.CL cs.CY cs.HC Detecting Early and Implicit Suicidal Ideation via Longitudinal and Information Environment Signals on Social Media Authors: Soorya Ram Shimgekar , Ruining Zhao , Agam Goyal , Violeta J. Rodriguez , Paul A. Bloom , Hari Sundaram , Koustuv Saha Abstract : On social media, many individuals experiencing suicidal ideation (SI) do not disclose their distress explicitly. Instead, signs may surface indirectly through everyday posts or peer interactions. Detecting such implicit signals early is critical but remains challenging. We frame early and implicit SI as a forward-looking prediction task and develop a computational framework that models a user's in… ▽ More On social media, many individuals experiencing suicidal ideation (SI) do not disclose their distress explicitly. Instead, signs may surface indirectly through everyday posts or peer interactions. Detecting such implicit signals early is critical but remains challenging. We frame early and implicit SI as a forward-looking prediction task and develop a computational framework that models a user's information environment, consisting of both their longitudinal posting histories as well as the discourse of their socially proximal peers. We adopted a composite network centrality measure to identify top neighbors of a user, and temporally aligned the user's and neighbors' interactions -- integrating the multi-layered signals in a fine-tuned DeBERTa-v3 model. In a Reddit study of 1,000 (500 Case and 500 Control) users, our approach improves early and implicit SI detection by 15% over individual-only baselines. These findings highlight that peer interactions offer valuable predictive signals and carry broader implications for designing early detection systems that capture indirect as well as masked expressions of risk in online environments. △ Less Submitted 30 October, 2025; v1 submitted 16 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.14889 [ pdf , ps , other ] Detecting Early and Implicit Suicidal Ideation via Longitudinal and Information Environment Signals on Social Media Authors: Soorya Ram Shimgekar , Ruining Zhao , Agam Goyal , Violeta J. Rodriguez , Paul A. Bloom , Hari Sundaram , Koustuv Saha Abstract : On social media, many individuals experiencing suicidal ideation (SI) do not disclose their distress explicitly. Instead, signs may surface indirectly through everyday posts or peer interactions. Detecting such implicit signals early is critical but remains challenging. We frame early and implicit SI as a forward-looking prediction task and develop a computational framework that models a user's in… ▽ More On social media, many individuals experiencing suicidal ideation (SI) do not disclose their distress explicitly. Instead, signs may surface indirectly through everyday posts or peer interactions. Detecting such implicit signals early is critical but remains challenging. We frame early and implicit SI as a forward-looking prediction task and develop a computational framework that models a user's information environment, consisting of both their longitudinal posting histories as well as the discourse of their socially proximal peers. We adopted a composite network centrality measure to identify top neighbors of a user, and temporally aligned the user's and neighbors' interactions -- integrating the multi-layered signals in a fine-tuned DeBERTa-v3 model. In a Reddit study of 1,000 (500 Case and 500 Control) users, our approach improves early and implicit SI detection by 15% over individual-only baselines. These findings highlight that peer interactions offer valuable predictive signals and carry broader implications for designing early detection systems that capture indirect as well as masked expressions of risk in online environments. △ Less Submitted 30 October, 2025; v1 submitted 16 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.11295 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Human Uncertainty-Aware Data Selection and Automatic Labeling in Visual Question Answering Authors: Jian Lan , Zhicheng Liu , Udo Schlegel , Raoyuan Zhao , Yihong Liu , Hinrich Schütze , Michael A. Hedderich , Thomas Seidl Abstract : Large vision-language models (VLMs) achieve strong performance in Visual Question Answering but still rely heavily on supervised fine-tuning (SFT) with massive labeled datasets, which is costly due to human annotations. Crucially, real-world datasets often exhibit human uncertainty (HU) -- variation in human confidence across annotations -- but standard SFT simply optimizes toward the most frequen… ▽ More Large vision-language models (VLMs) achieve strong performance in Visual Question Answering but still rely heavily on supervised fine-tuning (SFT) with massive labeled datasets, which is costly due to human annotations. Crucially, real-world datasets often exhibit human uncertainty (HU) -- variation in human confidence across annotations -- but standard SFT simply optimizes toward the most frequent label, disregarding HU distributions. This leaves two open questions: How does HU affect SFT, and how can HU be effectively leveraged in training? In this work, we first conduct a systematic evaluation of VLMs across varying HU levels. We have two key findings: (i) surprisingly, high-HU samples contribute little or even degrade model performance, and (ii) naively training on the full dataset yields under-calibrated models that fail to capture HU distributions. Motivated by these findings, we introduce HaDola, a human uncertainty-aware data selection and automatic labeling framework. HaDola operates in four stages -- discriminate, self-annotate, error trigger, and training -- to iteratively identify harmful samples, prioritize informative ones, and bootstrap from a small seed set (5\% of data). Our approach substantially reduces reliance on costly HU annotations and makes VLMs more accurate and better calibrated. Extensive experiments on VQAv2 and VizWiz datasets demonstrate that HaDola consistently matches or outperforms state-of-the-art baselines with less training data. Our work highlights the importance of explicitly modeling HU in SFT, suggesting that better utilization of HU is more effective than merely scaling up dataset size. △ Less Submitted 30 October, 2025; v1 submitted 13 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.11295 [ pdf , ps , other ] Human Uncertainty-Aware Data Selection and Automatic Labeling in Visual Question Answering Authors: Jian Lan , Zhicheng Liu , Udo Schlegel , Raoyuan Zhao , Yihong Liu , Hinrich Schütze , Michael A. Hedderich , Thomas Seidl Abstract : Large vision-language models (VLMs) achieve strong performance in Visual Question Answering but still rely heavily on supervised fine-tuning (SFT) with massive labeled datasets, which is costly due to human annotations. Crucially, real-world datasets often exhibit human uncertainty (HU) -- variation in human confidence across annotations -- but standard SFT simply optimizes toward the most frequen… ▽ More Large vision-language models (VLMs) achieve strong performance in Visual Question Answering but still rely heavily on supervised fine-tuning (SFT) with massive labeled datasets, which is costly due to human annotations. Crucially, real-world datasets often exhibit human uncertainty (HU) -- variation in human confidence across annotations -- but standard SFT simply optimizes toward the most frequent label, disregarding HU distributions. This leaves two open questions: How does HU affect SFT, and how can HU be effectively leveraged in training? In this work, we first conduct a systematic evaluation of VLMs across varying HU levels. We have two key findings: (i) surprisingly, high-HU samples contribute little or even degrade model performance, and (ii) naively training on the full dataset yields under-calibrated models that fail to capture HU distributions. Motivated by these findings, we introduce HaDola, a human uncertainty-aware data selection and automatic labeling framework. HaDola operates in four stages -- discriminate, self-annotate, error trigger, and training -- to iteratively identify harmful samples, prioritize informative ones, and bootstrap from a small seed set (5\% of data). Our approach substantially reduces reliance on costly HU annotations and makes VLMs more accurate and better calibrated. Extensive experiments on VQAv2 and VizWiz datasets demonstrate that HaDola consistently matches or outperforms state-of-the-art baselines with less training data. Our work highlights the importance of explicitly modeling HU in SFT, suggesting that better utilization of HU is more effective than merely scaling up dataset size. △ Less Submitted 30 October, 2025; v1 submitted 13 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.11052 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Latent Refinement Decoding: Enhancing Diffusion-Based Language Models by Refining Belief States Authors: Qinglin Zhu , Yizhen Yao , Runcong Zhao , Yanzheng Xiang , Amrutha Saseendran , Chen Jin , Philip Teare , Bin Liang , Yulan He , Lin Gui Abstract : Autoregressive (AR) models remain the standard for natural language generation but still suffer from high latency due to strictly sequential decoding. Recent diffusion-inspired approaches, such as LlaDA and Dream, mitigate this by generating in parallel, yet they suffer from two core limitations: information loss, as predictive distributions for non-finalized tokens are discarded at each step, and… ▽ More Autoregressive (AR) models remain the standard for natural language generation but still suffer from high latency due to strictly sequential decoding. Recent diffusion-inspired approaches, such as LlaDA and Dream, mitigate this by generating in parallel, yet they suffer from two core limitations: information loss, as predictive distributions for non-finalized tokens are discarded at each step, and premature commitment, where local decisions are made without sufficient global coordination. We introduce Latent Refinement Decoding (LRD), a two-stage framework with Latent Refinement and a Predictive Feedback Loop. The first stage maintains masked positions as distributional mixtures of predicted tokens and the mask embedding, allowing the model to establish more globally consistent beliefs. The second stage progressively finalizes confident tokens while retaining uncertain ones for iterative feedback. KL-divergence dynamics provide a principled and reliable criterion for convergence and early stopping. Experiments across coding (HumanEval +6.3, MBPP +2.6) and reasoning (GSM8K +2.9, MATH500 +3.8) show that LRD improves accuracy while delivering speedups of up to 10.6x, making it a strong and versatile alternative for parallel sequence generation. △ Less Submitted 15 October, 2025; v1 submitted 13 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.11052 [ pdf , ps , other ] Latent Refinement Decoding: Enhancing Diffusion-Based Language Models by Refining Belief States Authors: Qinglin Zhu , Yizhen Yao , Runcong Zhao , Yanzheng Xiang , Amrutha Saseendran , Chen Jin , Philip Teare , Bin Liang , Yulan He , Lin Gui Abstract : Autoregressive (AR) models remain the standard for natural language generation but still suffer from high latency due to strictly sequential decoding. Recent diffusion-inspired approaches, such as LlaDA and Dream, mitigate this by generating in parallel, yet they suffer from two core limitations: information loss, as predictive distributions for non-finalized tokens are discarded at each step, and… ▽ More Autoregressive (AR) models remain the standard for natural language generation but still suffer from high latency due to strictly sequential decoding. Recent diffusion-inspired approaches, such as LlaDA and Dream, mitigate this by generating in parallel, yet they suffer from two core limitations: information loss, as predictive distributions for non-finalized tokens are discarded at each step, and premature commitment, where local decisions are made without sufficient global coordination. We introduce Latent Refinement Decoding (LRD), a two-stage framework with Latent Refinement and a Predictive Feedback Loop. The first stage maintains masked positions as distributional mixtures of predicted tokens and the mask embedding, allowing the model to establish more globally consistent beliefs. The second stage progressively finalizes confident tokens while retaining uncertain ones for iterative feedback. KL-divergence dynamics provide a principled and reliable criterion for convergence and early stopping. Experiments across coding (HumanEval +6.3, MBPP +2.6) and reasoning (GSM8K +2.9, MATH500 +3.8) show that LRD improves accuracy while delivering speedups of up to 10.6x, making it a strong and versatile alternative for parallel sequence generation. △ Less Submitted 15 October, 2025; v1 submitted 13 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.10003 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.SD eess.AS MTP-S2UT: Enhancing Speech-to-Speech Translation Quality with Multi-token Prediction Authors: Jianjin Wang , Runsong Zhao , Xiaoqian Liu , Yuan Ge , Ziqiang Xu , Tong Xiao , Shengxiang Gao , Zhengtao Yu , Jingbo Zhu Abstract : Current direct speech-to-speech translation methods predominantly employ speech tokens as intermediate representations. However, a single speech token is not dense in semantics, so we generally need multiple tokens to express a complete semantic unit. To address this limitation, we introduce multi-token prediction (MTP) loss into speech-to-unit translation (S2UT) models, enabling models to predict… ▽ More Current direct speech-to-speech translation methods predominantly employ speech tokens as intermediate representations. However, a single speech token is not dense in semantics, so we generally need multiple tokens to express a complete semantic unit. To address this limitation, we introduce multi-token prediction (MTP) loss into speech-to-unit translation (S2UT) models, enabling models to predict multiple subsequent tokens at each position, thereby capturing more complete semantics and enhancing information density per position. Initial MTP implementations apply the loss at the final layer, which improves output representation but initiates information enrichment too late. We hypothesize that advancing the information enrichment process to intermediate layers can achieve earlier and more effective enhancement of hidden representation. Consequently, we propose MTP-S2UT loss, applying MTP loss to hidden representation where CTC loss is computed. Experiments demonstrate that all MTP loss variants consistently improve the quality of S2UT translation, with MTP-S2UT achieving the best performance. △ Less Submitted 11 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Copyright 2026 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. Permission from IEEE must be obtained for all other uses, in any current or future media, including reprinting/republishing this material for advertising or promotional purposes, creating new collective works, for resale or redistribution to servers or lists, or reuse of any copyrighted component of this work in other works arXiv:2510.10003 [ pdf , ps , other ] MTP-S2UT: Enhancing Speech-to-Speech Translation Quality with Multi-token Prediction Authors: Jianjin Wang , Runsong Zhao , Xiaoqian Liu , Yuan Ge , Ziqiang Xu , Tong Xiao , Shengxiang Gao , Zhengtao Yu , Jingbo Zhu Abstract : Current direct speech-to-speech translation methods predominantly employ speech tokens as intermediate representations. However, a single speech token is not dense in semantics, so we generally need multiple tokens to express a complete semantic unit. To address this limitation, we introduce multi-token prediction (MTP) loss into speech-to-unit translation (S2UT) models, enabling models to predict… ▽ More Current direct speech-to-speech translation methods predominantly employ speech tokens as intermediate representations. However, a single speech token is not dense in semantics, so we generally need multiple tokens to express a complete semantic unit. To address this limitation, we introduce multi-token prediction (MTP) loss into speech-to-unit translation (S2UT) models, enabling models to predict multiple subsequent tokens at each position, thereby capturing more complete semantics and enhancing information density per position. Initial MTP implementations apply the loss at the final layer, which improves output representation but initiates information enrichment too late. We hypothesize that advancing the information enrichment process to intermediate layers can achieve earlier and more effective enhancement of hidden representation. Consequently, we propose MTP-S2UT loss, applying MTP loss to hidden representation where CTC loss is computed. Experiments demonstrate that all MTP loss variants consistently improve the quality of S2UT translation, with MTP-S2UT achieving the best performance. △ Less Submitted 11 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Copyright 2026 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. Permission from IEEE must be obtained for all other uses, in any current or future media, including reprinting/republishing this material for advertising or promotional purposes, creating new collective works, for resale or redistribution to servers or lists, or reuse of any copyrighted component of this work in other works arXiv:2510.09555 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL A Comprehensive Evaluation of Multilingual Chain-of-Thought Reasoning: Performance, Consistency, and Faithfulness Across Languages Authors: Raoyuan Zhao , Yihong Liu , Hinrich Schütze , Michael A. Hedderich Abstract : Large reasoning models (LRMs) increasingly rely on step-by-step Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning to improve task performance, particularly in high-resource languages such as English. While recent work has examined final-answer accuracy in multilingual settings, the thinking traces themselves, i.e., the intermediate steps that lead to the final answer, remain underexplored. In this paper, we presen… ▽ More Large reasoning models (LRMs) increasingly rely on step-by-step Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning to improve task performance, particularly in high-resource languages such as English. While recent work has examined final-answer accuracy in multilingual settings, the thinking traces themselves, i.e., the intermediate steps that lead to the final answer, remain underexplored. In this paper, we present the first comprehensive study of multilingual CoT reasoning, evaluating three key dimensions: performance, consistency, and faithfulness. We begin by measuring language compliance, answer accuracy, and answer consistency when LRMs are explicitly instructed or prompt-hacked to think in a target language, revealing strong language preferences and divergent performance across languages. Next, we assess crosslingual consistency of thinking traces by interchanging them between languages. We find that the quality and effectiveness of thinking traces vary substantially depending on the prompt language. Finally, we adapt perturbation-based techniques -- i.e., truncation and error injection -- to probe the faithfulness of thinking traces across languages, showing that models rely on traces to varying degrees. We release our code and data to support future research. △ Less Submitted 10 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: preprint arXiv:2510.09555 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Comprehensive Evaluation of Multilingual Chain-of-Thought Reasoning: Performance, Consistency, and Faithfulness Across Languages Authors: Raoyuan Zhao , Yihong Liu , Hinrich Schütze , Michael A. Hedderich Abstract : Large reasoning models (LRMs) increasingly rely on step-by-step Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning to improve task performance, particularly in high-resource languages such as English. While recent work has examined final-answer accuracy in multilingual settings, the thinking traces themselves, i.e., the intermediate steps that lead to the final answer, remain underexplored. In this paper, we presen… ▽ More Large reasoning models (LRMs) increasingly rely on step-by-step Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning to improve task performance, particularly in high-resource languages such as English. While recent work has examined final-answer accuracy in multilingual settings, the thinking traces themselves, i.e., the intermediate steps that lead to the final answer, remain underexplored. In this paper, we present the first comprehensive study of multilingual CoT reasoning, evaluating three key dimensions: performance, consistency, and faithfulness. We begin by measuring language compliance, answer accuracy, and answer consistency when LRMs are explicitly instructed or prompt-hacked to think in a target language, revealing strong language preferences and divergent performance across languages. Next, we assess crosslingual consistency of thinking traces by interchanging them between languages. We find that the quality and effectiveness of thinking traces vary substantially depending on the prompt language. Finally, we adapt perturbation-based techniques -- i.e., truncation and error injection -- to probe the faithfulness of thinking traces across languages, showing that models rely on traces to varying degrees. We release our code and data to support future research. △ Less Submitted 10 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: preprint arXiv:2510.09536 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Evaluating Robustness of Large Language Models Against Multilingual Typographical Errors Authors: Yihong Liu , Raoyuan Zhao , Lena Altinger , Hinrich Schütze , Michael A. Hedderich Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed in multilingual, real-world applications with user inputs -- naturally introducing typographical errors (typos). Yet most benchmarks assume clean input, leaving the robustness of LLMs to typos across languages largely underexplored. To address this gap, we introduce MulTypo, a multilingual typo generation algorithm that simulates human-like er… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed in multilingual, real-world applications with user inputs -- naturally introducing typographical errors (typos). Yet most benchmarks assume clean input, leaving the robustness of LLMs to typos across languages largely underexplored. To address this gap, we introduce MulTypo, a multilingual typo generation algorithm that simulates human-like errors based on language-specific keyboard layouts and typing behavior. We evaluate 18 open-source LLMs across three model families and five downstream tasks spanning language inference, multi-choice question answering, mathematical reasoning, and machine translation tasks. Our results show that typos consistently degrade performance, particularly in generative tasks and those requiring reasoning -- while the natural language inference task is comparatively more robust. Instruction tuning improves clean-input performance but may increase brittleness under noise. We also observe language-dependent robustness: high-resource languages are generally more robust than low-resource ones, and translation from English is more robust than translation into English. Our findings underscore the need for noise-aware training and multilingual robustness evaluation. We make our code and data publicly available. △ Less Submitted 10 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: preprint arXiv:2510.09536 [ pdf , ps , other ] Evaluating Robustness of Large Language Models Against Multilingual Typographical Errors Authors: Yihong Liu , Raoyuan Zhao , Lena Altinger , Hinrich Schütze , Michael A. Hedderich Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed in multilingual, real-world applications with user inputs -- naturally introducing typographical errors (typos). Yet most benchmarks assume clean input, leaving the robustness of LLMs to typos across languages largely underexplored. To address this gap, we introduce MulTypo, a multilingual typo generation algorithm that simulates human-like er… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed in multilingual, real-world applications with user inputs -- naturally introducing typographical errors (typos). Yet most benchmarks assume clean input, leaving the robustness of LLMs to typos across languages largely underexplored. To address this gap, we introduce MulTypo, a multilingual typo generation algorithm that simulates human-like errors based on language-specific keyboard layouts and typing behavior. We evaluate 18 open-source LLMs across three model families and five downstream tasks spanning language inference, multi-choice question answering, mathematical reasoning, and machine translation tasks. Our results show that typos consistently degrade performance, particularly in generative tasks and those requiring reasoning -- while the natural language inference task is comparatively more robust. Instruction tuning improves clean-input performance but may increase brittleness under noise. We also observe language-dependent robustness: high-resource languages are generally more robust than low-resource ones, and translation from English is more robust than translation into English. Our findings underscore the need for noise-aware training and multilingual robustness evaluation. We make our code and data publicly available. △ Less Submitted 10 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: preprint arXiv:2510.08907 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Autoencoding-Free Context Compression for LLMs via Contextual Semantic Anchors Authors: Xin Liu , Runsong Zhao , Pengcheng Huang , Xinyu Liu , Junyi Xiao , Chunyang Xiao , Tong Xiao , Shengxiang Gao , Zhengtao Yu , Jingbo Zhu Abstract : Context compression presents a promising approach for accelerating large language model (LLM) inference by compressing long contexts into compact representations. Current context compression methods predominantly rely on autoencoding tasks to train context-agnostic compression tokens to compress contextual semantics. While autoencoding tasks enable compression tokens to acquire compression capabil… ▽ More Context compression presents a promising approach for accelerating large language model (LLM) inference by compressing long contexts into compact representations. Current context compression methods predominantly rely on autoencoding tasks to train context-agnostic compression tokens to compress contextual semantics. While autoencoding tasks enable compression tokens to acquire compression capabilities, compression via autoencoding tasks creates a fundamental mismatch: the models are optimized for reconstruction that diverge from actual downstream tasks, thereby weakening the features more beneficial for real-world usage. We propose Semantic-Anchor Compression (SAC), a novel method that shifts from autoencoding task based compression to an architecture that is equipped with this compression capability \textit{a priori}. Instead of training models to compress contexts through autoencoding tasks, SAC directly selects so-called anchor tokens from the original context and aggregates contextual information into their key-value (KV) representations. By deriving representations directly from the contextual tokens, SAC eliminates the need for autoencoding training. To ensure compression performance while directly leveraging anchor tokens, SAC incorporates two key designs: (1) anchor embeddings that enable the compressor to identify critical tokens, and (2) bidirectional attention modification that allows anchor tokens to capture information from the entire context. Experimental results demonstrate that SAC consistently outperforms existing context compression methods across various compression ratios. On out-of-distribution evaluation using MRQA, SAC achieves 1 EM improvement at 5x compression over strong baselines, with increasing advantages at higher compression ratios. △ Less Submitted 17 October, 2025; v1 submitted 9 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 18 pages,9 figures arXiv:2510.08907 [ pdf , ps , other ] Autoencoding-Free Context Compression for LLMs via Contextual Semantic Anchors Authors: Xin Liu , Runsong Zhao , Pengcheng Huang , Xinyu Liu , Junyi Xiao , Chunyang Xiao , Tong Xiao , Shengxiang Gao , Zhengtao Yu , Jingbo Zhu Abstract : Context compression presents a promising approach for accelerating large language model (LLM) inference by compressing long contexts into compact representations. Current context compression methods predominantly rely on autoencoding tasks to train context-agnostic compression tokens to compress contextual semantics. While autoencoding tasks enable compression tokens to acquire compression capabil… ▽ More Context compression presents a promising approach for accelerating large language model (LLM) inference by compressing long contexts into compact representations. Current context compression methods predominantly rely on autoencoding tasks to train context-agnostic compression tokens to compress contextual semantics. While autoencoding tasks enable compression tokens to acquire compression capabilities, compression via autoencoding tasks creates a fundamental mismatch: the models are optimized for reconstruction that diverge from actual downstream tasks, thereby weakening the features more beneficial for real-world usage. We propose Semantic-Anchor Compression (SAC), a novel method that shifts from autoencoding task based compression to an architecture that is equipped with this compression capability \textit{a priori}. Instead of training models to compress contexts through autoencoding tasks, SAC directly selects so-called anchor tokens from the original context and aggregates contextual information into their key-value (KV) representations. By deriving representations directly from the contextual tokens, SAC eliminates the need for autoencoding training. To ensure compression performance while directly leveraging anchor tokens, SAC incorporates two key designs: (1) anchor embeddings that enable the compressor to identify critical tokens, and (2) bidirectional attention modification that allows anchor tokens to capture information from the entire context. Experimental results demonstrate that SAC consistently outperforms existing context compression methods across various compression ratios. On out-of-distribution evaluation using MRQA, SAC achieves 1 EM improvement at 5x compression over strong baselines, with increasing advantages at higher compression ratios. △ Less Submitted 17 October, 2025; v1 submitted 9 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 18 pages,9 figures arXiv:2510.08435 [ pdf , ps , other ] math.ST cs.LG Navigating Sparsities in High-Dimensional Linear Contextual Bandits Authors: Rui Zhao , Zihan Chen , Zemin Zheng Abstract : High-dimensional linear contextual bandit problems remain a significant challenge due to the curse of dimensionality. Existing methods typically consider either the model parameters to be sparse or the eigenvalues of context covariance matrices to be (approximately) sparse, lacking general applicability due to the rigidity of conventional reward estimators. To overcome this limitation, a powerful… ▽ More High-dimensional linear contextual bandit problems remain a significant challenge due to the curse of dimensionality. Existing methods typically consider either the model parameters to be sparse or the eigenvalues of context covariance matrices to be (approximately) sparse, lacking general applicability due to the rigidity of conventional reward estimators. To overcome this limitation, a powerful pointwise estimator is introduced in this work that adaptively navigates both kinds of sparsity. Based on this pointwise estimator, a novel algorithm, termed HOPE, is proposed. Theoretical analyses demonstrate that HOPE not only achieves improved regret bounds in previously discussed homogeneous settings (i.e., considering only one type of sparsity) but also, for the first time, efficiently handles two new challenging heterogeneous settings (i.e., considering a mixture of two types of sparsity), highlighting its flexibility and generality. Experiments corroborate the superiority of HOPE over existing methods across various scenarios. △ Less Submitted 9 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.08435 [ pdf , ps , other ] Navigating Sparsities in High-Dimensional Linear Contextual Bandits Authors: Rui Zhao , Zihan Chen , Zemin Zheng Abstract : High-dimensional linear contextual bandit problems remain a significant challenge due to the curse of dimensionality. Existing methods typically consider either the model parameters to be sparse or the eigenvalues of context covariance matrices to be (approximately) sparse, lacking general applicability due to the rigidity of conventional reward estimators. To overcome this limitation, a powerful… ▽ More High-dimensional linear contextual bandit problems remain a significant challenge due to the curse of dimensionality. Existing methods typically consider either the model parameters to be sparse or the eigenvalues of context covariance matrices to be (approximately) sparse, lacking general applicability due to the rigidity of conventional reward estimators. To overcome this limitation, a powerful pointwise estimator is introduced in this work that adaptively navigates both kinds of sparsity. Based on this pointwise estimator, a novel algorithm, termed HOPE, is proposed. Theoretical analyses demonstrate that HOPE not only achieves improved regret bounds in previously discussed homogeneous settings (i.e., considering only one type of sparsity) but also, for the first time, efficiently handles two new challenging heterogeneous settings (i.e., considering a mixture of two types of sparsity), highlighting its flexibility and generality. Experiments corroborate the superiority of HOPE over existing methods across various scenarios. △ Less Submitted 9 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.07791 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV GTR-Bench: Evaluating Geo-Temporal Reasoning in Vision-Language Models Authors: Qinghongbing Xie , Zhaoyuan Xia , Feng Zhu , Lijun Gong , Ziyue Li , Rui Zhao , Long Zeng Abstract : Recently spatial-temporal intelligence of Visual-Language Models (VLMs) has attracted much attention due to its importance for Autonomous Driving, Embodied AI and General Artificial Intelligence. Existing spatial-temporal benchmarks mainly focus on egocentric perspective reasoning with images/video context, or geographic perspective reasoning with graphics context (eg. a map), thus fail to assess… ▽ More Recently spatial-temporal intelligence of Visual-Language Models (VLMs) has attracted much attention due to its importance for Autonomous Driving, Embodied AI and General Artificial Intelligence. Existing spatial-temporal benchmarks mainly focus on egocentric perspective reasoning with images/video context, or geographic perspective reasoning with graphics context (eg. a map), thus fail to assess VLMs' geographic spatial-temporal intelligence with both images/video and graphics context, which is important for areas like traffic management and emergency response. To address the gaps, we introduce Geo-Temporal Reasoning benchmark (GTR-Bench), a novel challenge for geographic temporal reasoning of moving targets in a large-scale camera network. GTR-Bench is more challenging as it requires multiple perspective switches between maps and videos, joint reasoning across multiple videos with non-overlapping fields of view, and inference over spatial-temporal regions that are unobserved by any video context. Evaluations of more than 10 popular VLMs on GTR-Bench demonstrate that even the best proprietary model, Gemini-2.5-Pro (34.9%), significantly lags behind human performance (78.61%) on geo-temporal reasoning. Moreover, our comprehensive analysis on GTR-Bench reveals three primary deficiencies of current models for geo-temporal reasoning. (1) VLMs' reasoning is impaired by an imbalanced utilization of spatial-temporal context. (2) VLMs are weak in temporal forecasting, which leads to worse performance on temporal-emphasized tasks than on spatial-emphasized tasks. (3) VLMs lack the proficiency to comprehend or align the map data with multi-view video inputs. We believe GTR-Bench offers valuable insights and opens up new opportunities for research and applications in spatial-temporal intelligence. Benchmark and code will be released at △ Less Submitted 10 October, 2025; v1 submitted 9 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 20 pages, 13 figures arXiv:2510.07791 [ pdf , ps , other ] GTR-Bench: Evaluating Geo-Temporal Reasoning in Vision-Language Models Authors: Qinghongbing Xie , Zhaoyuan Xia , Feng Zhu , Lijun Gong , Ziyue Li , Rui Zhao , Long Zeng Abstract : Recently spatial-temporal intelligence of Visual-Language Models (VLMs) has attracted much attention due to its importance for Autonomous Driving, Embodied AI and General Artificial Intelligence. Existing spatial-temporal benchmarks mainly focus on egocentric perspective reasoning with images/video context, or geographic perspective reasoning with graphics context (eg. a map), thus fail to assess… ▽ More Recently spatial-temporal intelligence of Visual-Language Models (VLMs) has attracted much attention due to its importance for Autonomous Driving, Embodied AI and General Artificial Intelligence. Existing spatial-temporal benchmarks mainly focus on egocentric perspective reasoning with images/video context, or geographic perspective reasoning with graphics context (eg. a map), thus fail to assess VLMs' geographic spatial-temporal intelligence with both images/video and graphics context, which is important for areas like traffic management and emergency response. To address the gaps, we introduce Geo-Temporal Reasoning benchmark (GTR-Bench), a novel challenge for geographic temporal reasoning of moving targets in a large-scale camera network. GTR-Bench is more challenging as it requires multiple perspective switches between maps and videos, joint reasoning across multiple videos with non-overlapping fields of view, and inference over spatial-temporal regions that are unobserved by any video context. Evaluations of more than 10 popular VLMs on GTR-Bench demonstrate that even the best proprietary model, Gemini-2.5-Pro (34.9%), significantly lags behind human performance (78.61%) on geo-temporal reasoning. Moreover, our comprehensive analysis on GTR-Bench reveals three primary deficiencies of current models for geo-temporal reasoning. (1) VLMs' reasoning is impaired by an imbalanced utilization of spatial-temporal context. (2) VLMs are weak in temporal forecasting, which leads to worse performance on temporal-emphasized tasks than on spatial-emphasized tasks. (3) VLMs lack the proficiency to comprehend or align the map data with multi-view video inputs. We believe GTR-Bench offers valuable insights and opens up new opportunities for research and applications in spatial-temporal intelligence. Benchmark and code will be released at △ Less Submitted 10 October, 2025; v1 submitted 9 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 20 pages, 13 figures arXiv:2510.07610 [ pdf ] cs.HC The Slow Space Editor : Broadening Access to Restorative XR Authors: Nate Laffan , Ashley Hom , Andrea Nadine Castillo , Elizabeth Gitelman , Rebecca Zhao , Nikita Shenoy , Kaia Rae Schweig , Katherine Isbister Abstract : The Slow Space Editor is a 2D tool for creating 3D spaces. It was built as part of a research-through-design project that investigates how Virtual and Mixed Reality (XR) environments might be used for reflection and attention restoration. In this phase, we seek to radically simplify the creation of virtual environments, thereby broadening the potential group of users who could benefit from them. T… ▽ More The Slow Space Editor is a 2D tool for creating 3D spaces. It was built as part of a research-through-design project that investigates how Virtual and Mixed Reality (XR) environments might be used for reflection and attention restoration. In this phase, we seek to radically simplify the creation of virtual environments, thereby broadening the potential group of users who could benefit from them. The research described in this paper has three aspects. First, we define the concept of "slow space," situating it alongside existing research in HCI and environmental psychology. Second, we report on a series of interviews with professional designers about how slow spaces are created in the physical world. Third, we share the design of the tool itself, focussing on the benefits of providing a simple method for users to control their environments. We conclude with our findings from a 19-person qualitative study of the tool. △ Less Submitted 8 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.07610 [ pdf ] The Slow Space Editor : Broadening Access to Restorative XR Authors: Nate Laffan , Ashley Hom , Andrea Nadine Castillo , Elizabeth Gitelman , Rebecca Zhao , Nikita Shenoy , Kaia Rae Schweig , Katherine Isbister Abstract : The Slow Space Editor is a 2D tool for creating 3D spaces. It was built as part of a research-through-design project that investigates how Virtual and Mixed Reality (XR) environments might be used for reflection and attention restoration. In this phase, we seek to radically simplify the creation of virtual environments, thereby broadening the potential group of users who could benefit from them. T… ▽ More The Slow Space Editor is a 2D tool for creating 3D spaces. It was built as part of a research-through-design project that investigates how Virtual and Mixed Reality (XR) environments might be used for reflection and attention restoration. In this phase, we seek to radically simplify the creation of virtual environments, thereby broadening the potential group of users who could benefit from them. The research described in this paper has three aspects. First, we define the concept of "slow space," situating it alongside existing research in HCI and environmental psychology. Second, we report on a series of interviews with professional designers about how slow spaces are created in the physical world. Third, we share the design of the tool itself, focussing on the benefits of providing a simple method for users to control their environments. We conclude with our findings from a 19-person qualitative study of the tool. △ Less Submitted 8 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.04670 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Improving Multimodal Brain Encoding Model with Dynamic Subject-awareness Routing Authors: Xuanhua Yin , Runkai Zhao , Weidong Cai Abstract : Naturalistic fMRI encoding must handle multimodal inputs, shifting fusion styles, and pronounced inter-subject variability. We introduce AFIRE (Agnostic Framework for Multimodal fMRI Response Encoding), an agnostic interface that standardizes time-aligned post-fusion tokens from varied encoders, and MIND, a plug-and-play Mixture-of-Experts decoder with a subject-aware dynamic gating. Trained end-t… ▽ More Naturalistic fMRI encoding must handle multimodal inputs, shifting fusion styles, and pronounced inter-subject variability. We introduce AFIRE (Agnostic Framework for Multimodal fMRI Response Encoding), an agnostic interface that standardizes time-aligned post-fusion tokens from varied encoders, and MIND, a plug-and-play Mixture-of-Experts decoder with a subject-aware dynamic gating. Trained end-to-end for whole-brain prediction, AFIRE decouples the decoder from upstream fusion, while MIND combines token-dependent Top-K sparse routing with a subject prior to personalize expert usage without sacrificing generality. Experiments across multiple multimodal backbones and subjects show consistent improvements over strong baselines, enhanced cross-subject generalization, and interpretable expert patterns that correlate with content type. The framework offers a simple attachment point for new encoders and datasets, enabling robust, plug-and-improve performance for naturalistic neuroimaging studies. △ Less Submitted 10 October, 2025; v1 submitted 6 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 7 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2510.04670 [ pdf , ps , other ] Improving Multimodal Brain Encoding Model with Dynamic Subject-awareness Routing Authors: Xuanhua Yin , Runkai Zhao , Weidong Cai Abstract : Naturalistic fMRI encoding must handle multimodal inputs, shifting fusion styles, and pronounced inter-subject variability. We introduce AFIRE (Agnostic Framework for Multimodal fMRI Response Encoding), an agnostic interface that standardizes time-aligned post-fusion tokens from varied encoders, and MIND, a plug-and-play Mixture-of-Experts decoder with a subject-aware dynamic gating. Trained end-t… ▽ More Naturalistic fMRI encoding must handle multimodal inputs, shifting fusion styles, and pronounced inter-subject variability. We introduce AFIRE (Agnostic Framework for Multimodal fMRI Response Encoding), an agnostic interface that standardizes time-aligned post-fusion tokens from varied encoders, and MIND, a plug-and-play Mixture-of-Experts decoder with a subject-aware dynamic gating. Trained end-to-end for whole-brain prediction, AFIRE decouples the decoder from upstream fusion, while MIND combines token-dependent Top-K sparse routing with a subject prior to personalize expert usage without sacrificing generality. Experiments across multiple multimodal backbones and subjects show consistent improvements over strong baselines, enhanced cross-subject generalization, and interpretable expert patterns that correlate with content type. The framework offers a simple attachment point for new encoders and datasets, enabling robust, plug-and-improve performance for naturalistic neuroimaging studies. △ Less Submitted 10 October, 2025; v1 submitted 6 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 7 pages, 4 figures arXiv:2509.23796 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.MM cs.NE doi 10.1609/aiide.v21i1.36831 From Frustration to Fun: An Adaptive Problem-Solving Puzzle Game Powered by Genetic Algorithm Authors: Matthew McConnell , Richard Zhao Abstract : This paper explores adaptive problem solving with a game designed to support the development of problem-solving skills. Using an adaptive, AI-powered puzzle game, our adaptive problem-solving system dynamically generates pathfinding-based puzzles using a genetic algorithm, tailoring the difficulty of each puzzle to individual players in an online real-time approach. A player-modeling system record… ▽ More This paper explores adaptive problem solving with a game designed to support the development of problem-solving skills. Using an adaptive, AI-powered puzzle game, our adaptive problem-solving system dynamically generates pathfinding-based puzzles using a genetic algorithm, tailoring the difficulty of each puzzle to individual players in an online real-time approach. A player-modeling system records user interactions and informs the generation of puzzles to approximate a target difficulty level based on various metrics of the player. By combining procedural content generation with online adaptive difficulty adjustment, the system aims to maintain engagement, mitigate frustration, and maintain an optimal level of challenge. A pilot user study investigates the effectiveness of this approach, comparing different types of adaptive difficulty systems and interpreting players' responses. This work lays the foundation for further research into emotionally informed player models, advanced AI techniques for adaptivity, and broader applications beyond gaming in educational settings. △ Less Submitted 28 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Accepted at the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment (AIIDE-25) Journal ref: Proceedings of the Twenty-First AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment (AIIDE-25), Edmonton, Canada, November, 2025 arXiv:2509.23796 [ pdf , ps , other ] From Frustration to Fun: An Adaptive Problem-Solving Puzzle Game Powered by Genetic Algorithm Authors: Matthew McConnell , Richard Zhao Abstract : This paper explores adaptive problem solving with a game designed to support the development of problem-solving skills. Using an adaptive, AI-powered puzzle game, our adaptive problem-solving system dynamically generates pathfinding-based puzzles using a genetic algorithm, tailoring the difficulty of each puzzle to individual players in an online real-time approach. A player-modeling system record… ▽ More This paper explores adaptive problem solving with a game designed to support the development of problem-solving skills. Using an adaptive, AI-powered puzzle game, our adaptive problem-solving system dynamically generates pathfinding-based puzzles using a genetic algorithm, tailoring the difficulty of each puzzle to individual players in an online real-time approach. A player-modeling system records user interactions and informs the generation of puzzles to approximate a target difficulty level based on various metrics of the player. By combining procedural content generation with online adaptive difficulty adjustment, the system aims to maintain engagement, mitigate frustration, and maintain an optimal level of challenge. A pilot user study investigates the effectiveness of this approach, comparing different types of adaptive difficulty systems and interpreting players' responses. This work lays the foundation for further research into emotionally informed player models, advanced AI techniques for adaptivity, and broader applications beyond gaming in educational settings. △ Less Submitted 28 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Accepted at the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment (AIIDE-25) Journal ref: Proceedings of the Twenty-First AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment (AIIDE-25), Edmonton, Canada, November, 2025 arXiv:2509.23787 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI doi 10.1609/aiide.v21i1.36826 From Unstable to Playable: Stabilizing Angry Birds Levels via Object Segmentation Authors: Mahdi Farrokhimaleki , Parsa Rahmati , Richard Zhao Abstract : Procedural Content Generation (PCG) techniques enable automatic creation of diverse and complex environments. While PCG facilitates more efficient content creation, ensuring consistently high-quality, industry-standard content remains a significant challenge. In this research, we propose a method to identify and repair unstable levels generated by existing PCG models. We use Angry Birds as a case… ▽ More Procedural Content Generation (PCG) techniques enable automatic creation of diverse and complex environments. While PCG facilitates more efficient content creation, ensuring consistently high-quality, industry-standard content remains a significant challenge. In this research, we propose a method to identify and repair unstable levels generated by existing PCG models. We use Angry Birds as a case study, demonstrating our method on game levels produced by established PCG approaches. Our method leverages object segmentation and visual analysis of level images to detect structural gaps and perform targeted repairs. We evaluate multiple object segmentation models and select the most effective one as the basis for our repair pipeline. Experimental results show that our method improves the stability and playability of AI-generated levels. Although our evaluation is specific to Angry Birds, our image-based approach is designed to be applicable to a wide range of 2D games with similar level structures. △ Less Submitted 28 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Accepted at the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment (AIIDE-25) Journal ref: Proceedings of the Twenty-First AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment (AIIDE-25), Edmonton, Canada, November, 2025 arXiv:2509.23787 [ pdf , ps , other ] From Unstable to Playable: Stabilizing Angry Birds Levels via Object Segmentation Authors: Mahdi Farrokhimaleki , Parsa Rahmati , Richard Zhao Abstract : Procedural Content Generation (PCG) techniques enable automatic creation of diverse and complex environments. While PCG facilitates more efficient content creation, ensuring consistently high-quality, industry-standard content remains a significant challenge. In this research, we propose a method to identify and repair unstable levels generated by existing PCG models. We use Angry Birds as a case… ▽ More Procedural Content Generation (PCG) techniques enable automatic creation of diverse and complex environments. While PCG facilitates more efficient content creation, ensuring consistently high-quality, industry-standard content remains a significant challenge. In this research, we propose a method to identify and repair unstable levels generated by existing PCG models. We use Angry Birds as a case study, demonstrating our method on game levels produced by established PCG approaches. Our method leverages object segmentation and visual analysis of level images to detect structural gaps and perform targeted repairs. We evaluate multiple object segmentation models and select the most effective one as the basis for our repair pipeline. Experimental results show that our method improves the stability and playability of AI-generated levels. Although our evaluation is specific to Angry Birds, our image-based approach is designed to be applicable to a wide range of 2D games with similar level structures. △ Less Submitted 28 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Accepted at the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment (AIIDE-25) Journal ref: Proceedings of the Twenty-First AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment (AIIDE-25), Edmonton, Canada, November, 2025 arXiv:2509.22746 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CV Mixture-of-Visual-Thoughts: Exploring Context-Adaptive Reasoning Mode Selection for General Visual Reasoning Authors: Zejun Li , Yingxiu Zhao , Jiwen Zhang , Siyuan Wang , Yang Yao , Runzhou Zhao , Jun Song , Bo Zheng , Zhongyu Wei Abstract : Current visual reasoning methods mainly focus on exploring specific reasoning modes. Although improvements can be achieved in particular domains, they struggle to develop general reasoning capabilities. Inspired by this, we propose a novel adaptive reasoning paradigm, Mixture-of-Visual-Thoughts (MoVT), which unifies different reasoning modes within a single model and guides it to select the approp… ▽ More Current visual reasoning methods mainly focus on exploring specific reasoning modes. Although improvements can be achieved in particular domains, they struggle to develop general reasoning capabilities. Inspired by this, we propose a novel adaptive reasoning paradigm, Mixture-of-Visual-Thoughts (MoVT), which unifies different reasoning modes within a single model and guides it to select the appropriate mode based on context. To achieve this, we introduce AdaVaR, a two-stage Adaptive Visual Reasoning learning framework: different modes are unified and learned during the supervised cold-start stage, and the mode selection capability is induced via an RL process with a carefully designed AdaGRPO algorithm. Extensive experiments show that AdaVaR effectively guides the model to learn and differentiate multiple modes and perform context-adaptive mode selection, achieving consistent improvement across various scenarios, highlighting MoVT as an effective solution for building general visual reasoning models. △ Less Submitted 26 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 27 pages, 11 figures, 5 tables arXiv:2509.22746 [ pdf , ps , other ] Mixture-of-Visual-Thoughts: Exploring Context-Adaptive Reasoning Mode Selection for General Visual Reasoning Authors: Zejun Li , Yingxiu Zhao , Jiwen Zhang , Siyuan Wang , Yang Yao , Runzhou Zhao , Jun Song , Bo Zheng , Zhongyu Wei Abstract : Current visual reasoning methods mainly focus on exploring specific reasoning modes. Although improvements can be achieved in particular domains, they struggle to develop general reasoning capabilities. Inspired by this, we propose a novel adaptive reasoning paradigm, Mixture-of-Visual-Thoughts (MoVT), which unifies different reasoning modes within a single model and guides it to select the approp… ▽ More Current visual reasoning methods mainly focus on exploring specific reasoning modes. Although improvements can be achieved in particular domains, they struggle to develop general reasoning capabilities. Inspired by this, we propose a novel adaptive reasoning paradigm, Mixture-of-Visual-Thoughts (MoVT), which unifies different reasoning modes within a single model and guides it to select the appropriate mode based on context. To achieve this, we introduce AdaVaR, a two-stage Adaptive Visual Reasoning learning framework: different modes are unified and learned during the supervised cold-start stage, and the mode selection capability is induced via an RL process with a carefully designed AdaGRPO algorithm. Extensive experiments show that AdaVaR effectively guides the model to learn and differentiate multiple modes and perform context-adaptive mode selection, achieving consistent improvement across various scenarios, highlighting MoVT as an effective solution for building general visual reasoning models. △ Less Submitted 26 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 27 pages, 11 figures, 5 tables arXiv:2509.18713 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI MemOrb: A Plug-and-Play Verbal-Reinforcement Memory Layer for E-Commerce Customer Service Authors: Yizhe Huang , Yang Liu , Ruiyu Zhao , Xiaolong Zhong , Xingming Yue , Ling Jiang Abstract : Large Language Model-based agents(LLM-based agents) are increasingly deployed in customer service, yet they often forget across sessions, repeat errors, and lack mechanisms for continual self-improvement. This makes them unreliable in dynamic settings where stability and consistency are critical. To better evaluate these properties, we emphasize two indicators: task success rate as a measure of ov… ▽ More Large Language Model-based agents(LLM-based agents) are increasingly deployed in customer service, yet they often forget across sessions, repeat errors, and lack mechanisms for continual self-improvement. This makes them unreliable in dynamic settings where stability and consistency are critical. To better evaluate these properties, we emphasize two indicators: task success rate as a measure of overall effectiveness, and consistency metrics such as Pass$^k$ to capture reliability across multiple trials. To address the limitations of existing approaches, we propose MemOrb, a lightweight and plug-and-play verbal reinforcement memory layer that distills multi-turn interactions into compact strategy reflections. These reflections are stored in a shared memory bank and retrieved to guide decision-making, without requiring any fine-tuning. Experiments show that MemOrb significantly improves both success rate and stability, achieving up to a 63 percentage-point gain in multi-turn success rate and delivering more consistent performance across repeated trials. Our results demonstrate that structured reflection is a powerful mechanism for enhancing long-term reliability of frozen LLM agents in customer service scenarios. △ Less Submitted 23 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.18713 [ pdf , ps , other ] MemOrb: A Plug-and-Play Verbal-Reinforcement Memory Layer for E-Commerce Customer Service Authors: Yizhe Huang , Yang Liu , Ruiyu Zhao , Xiaolong Zhong , Xingming Yue , Ling Jiang Abstract : Large Language Model-based agents(LLM-based agents) are increasingly deployed in customer service, yet they often forget across sessions, repeat errors, and lack mechanisms for continual self-improvement. This makes them unreliable in dynamic settings where stability and consistency are critical. To better evaluate these properties, we emphasize two indicators: task success rate as a measure of ov… ▽ More Large Language Model-based agents(LLM-based agents) are increasingly deployed in customer service, yet they often forget across sessions, repeat errors, and lack mechanisms for continual self-improvement. This makes them unreliable in dynamic settings where stability and consistency are critical. To better evaluate these properties, we emphasize two indicators: task success rate as a measure of overall effectiveness, and consistency metrics such as Pass$^k$ to capture reliability across multiple trials. To address the limitations of existing approaches, we propose MemOrb, a lightweight and plug-and-play verbal reinforcement memory layer that distills multi-turn interactions into compact strategy reflections. These reflections are stored in a shared memory bank and retrieved to guide decision-making, without requiring any fine-tuning. Experiments show that MemOrb significantly improves both success rate and stability, achieving up to a 63 percentage-point gain in multi-turn success rate and delivering more consistent performance across repeated trials. Our results demonstrate that structured reflection is a powerful mechanism for enhancing long-term reliability of frozen LLM agents in customer service scenarios. △ Less Submitted 23 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.18584 [ pdf ] cs.LG DS-Diffusion: Data Style-Guided Diffusion Model for Time-Series Generation Authors: Mingchun Sun , Rongqiang Zhao , Hengrui Hu , Songyu Ding , Jie Liu Abstract : Diffusion models are the mainstream approach for time series generation tasks. However, existing diffusion models for time series generation require retraining the entire framework to introduce specific conditional guidance. There also exists a certain degree of distributional bias between the generated data and the real data, which leads to potential model biases in downstream tasks. Additionally… ▽ More Diffusion models are the mainstream approach for time series generation tasks. However, existing diffusion models for time series generation require retraining the entire framework to introduce specific conditional guidance. There also exists a certain degree of distributional bias between the generated data and the real data, which leads to potential model biases in downstream tasks. Additionally, the complexity of diffusion models and the latent spaces leads to an uninterpretable inference process. To address these issues, we propose the data style-guided diffusion model (DS-Diffusion). In the DS-Diffusion, a diffusion framework based on style-guided kernels is developed to avoid retraining for specific conditions. The time-information based hierarchical denoising mechanism (THD) is developed to reduce the distributional bias between the generated data and the real data. Furthermore, the generated samples can clearly indicate the data style from which they originate. We conduct comprehensive evaluations using multiple public datasets to validate our approach. Experimental results show that, compared to the state-of-the-art model such as ImagenTime, the predictive score and the discriminative score decrease by 5.56% and 61.55%, respectively. The distributional bias between the generated data and the real data is further reduced, the inference process is also more interpretable. Moreover, by eliminating the need to retrain the diffusion model, the flexibility and adaptability of the model to specific conditions are also enhanced. △ Less Submitted 24 September, 2025; v1 submitted 22 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.18584 [ pdf ] DS-Diffusion: Data Style-Guided Diffusion Model for Time-Series Generation Authors: Mingchun Sun , Rongqiang Zhao , Hengrui Hu , Songyu Ding , Jie Liu Abstract : Diffusion models are the mainstream approach for time series generation tasks. However, existing diffusion models for time series generation require retraining the entire framework to introduce specific conditional guidance. There also exists a certain degree of distributional bias between the generated data and the real data, which leads to potential model biases in downstream tasks. Additionally… ▽ More Diffusion models are the mainstream approach for time series generation tasks. However, existing diffusion models for time series generation require retraining the entire framework to introduce specific conditional guidance. There also exists a certain degree of distributional bias between the generated data and the real data, which leads to potential model biases in downstream tasks. Additionally, the complexity of diffusion models and the latent spaces leads to an uninterpretable inference process. To address these issues, we propose the data style-guided diffusion model (DS-Diffusion). In the DS-Diffusion, a diffusion framework based on style-guided kernels is developed to avoid retraining for specific conditions. The time-information based hierarchical denoising mechanism (THD) is developed to reduce the distributional bias between the generated data and the real data. Furthermore, the generated samples can clearly indicate the data style from which they originate. We conduct comprehensive evaluations using multiple public datasets to validate our approach. Experimental results show that, compared to the state-of-the-art model such as ImagenTime, the predictive score and the discriminative score decrease by 5.56% and 61.55%, respectively. The distributional bias between the generated data and the real data is further reduced, the inference process is also more interpretable. Moreover, by eliminating the need to retrain the diffusion model, the flexibility and adaptability of the model to specific conditions are also enhanced. △ Less Submitted 24 September, 2025; v1 submitted 22 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.18514 [ pdf ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG doi 10.18653/v1/2025.arabicnlp-main.15 A Rhythm-Aware Phrase Insertion for Classical Arabic Poetry Composition Authors: Mohamad Elzohbi , Richard Zhao Abstract : This paper presents a methodology for inserting phrases in Arabic poems to conform to a specific rhythm using ByT5, a byte-level multilingual transformer-based model. Our work discusses a rule-based grapheme-to-beat transformation tailored for extracting the rhythm from fully diacritized Arabic script. Our approach employs a conditional denoising objective to fine-tune ByT5, where the model recons… ▽ More This paper presents a methodology for inserting phrases in Arabic poems to conform to a specific rhythm using ByT5, a byte-level multilingual transformer-based model. Our work discusses a rule-based grapheme-to-beat transformation tailored for extracting the rhythm from fully diacritized Arabic script. Our approach employs a conditional denoising objective to fine-tune ByT5, where the model reconstructs masked words to match a target rhythm. We adopt a curriculum learning strategy, pre-training on a general Arabic dataset before fine-tuning on poetic dataset, and explore cross-lingual transfer from English to Arabic. Experimental results demonstrate that our models achieve high rhythmic alignment while maintaining semantic coherence. The proposed model has the potential to be used in co-creative applications in the process of composing classical Arabic poems. △ Less Submitted 22 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Accepted for the Third Arabic Natural Language Processing Conference (ArabicNLP 2025) Journal ref: Proceedings of The Third Arabic Natural Language Processing Conference, Suzhou, China, 2025 arXiv:2509.18514 [ pdf ] A Rhythm-Aware Phrase Insertion for Classical Arabic Poetry Composition Authors: Mohamad Elzohbi , Richard Zhao Abstract : This paper presents a methodology for inserting phrases in Arabic poems to conform to a specific rhythm using ByT5, a byte-level multilingual transformer-based model. Our work discusses a rule-based grapheme-to-beat transformation tailored for extracting the rhythm from fully diacritized Arabic script. Our approach employs a conditional denoising objective to fine-tune ByT5, where the model recons… ▽ More This paper presents a methodology for inserting phrases in Arabic poems to conform to a specific rhythm using ByT5, a byte-level multilingual transformer-based model. Our work discusses a rule-based grapheme-to-beat transformation tailored for extracting the rhythm from fully diacritized Arabic script. Our approach employs a conditional denoising objective to fine-tune ByT5, where the model reconstructs masked words to match a target rhythm. We adopt a curriculum learning strategy, pre-training on a general Arabic dataset before fine-tuning on poetic dataset, and explore cross-lingual transfer from English to Arabic. Experimental results demonstrate that our models achieve high rhythmic alignment while maintaining semantic coherence. The proposed model has the potential to be used in co-creative applications in the process of composing classical Arabic poems. △ Less Submitted 22 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Accepted for the Third Arabic Natural Language Processing Conference (ArabicNLP 2025) Journal ref: Proceedings of The Third Arabic Natural Language Processing Conference, Suzhou, China, 2025 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Zhao,+R
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Rationale 2 Prohibited actions 3 Bare URLs 4 See also 5 References Wikipedia : Duty to comply Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version This is an essay on Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines and the Wikipedia:Edit filter guideline. It contains the advice or opinions of one or more Wikipedia contributors. This page is not an encyclopedia article or a Wikipedia policy , as it has not been reviewed by the community and may reflect various opinions. .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:COMPLY WP:COMPLY WP:DTC WP:DTC WP:DUTYTOCOMPLY WP:DUTYTOCOMPLY WP:COMPLY WP:COMPLY WP:DTC WP:DTC WP:DUTYTOCOMPLY WP:DUTYTOCOMPLY This page in a nutshell: Editors have duties to comply with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. Although Wikipedia is not a bureaucracy , editing is a privilege, not a right . Therefore, editors have a duty to comply with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines , unless the policies and guidelines would not allow an action, where Wikipedia:Ignore all rules would apply. Policies and guidelines that have strong consensus are often the most strongly enforced . Edit filters are in place to enforce these duties. Prohibited behaviors, such as vandalism , sockpuppetry , and edit warring , are usually driven by emotion. Users who commit these behaviors may be blocked , banned , or both. Rationale Wikipedia's policies and guidelines govern how users must edit. Policies tell users what they must do, and guidelines tell them how to handle situations. Editors have duties to comply with these policies and guidelines, except in unusual circumstances, where Wikipedia:Ignore all rules would apply. Edit filters are in place to enforce these duties and to find patterns in harmful behavior. Kantian ethics dictate that duties come from deontological ethics , and following duties results in good behavior. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Duties also come from reason . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] If a user were to apply Kantian ethics, the policies and guidelines exist to facilitate building an encyclopedia , and the edit filters exist because of the policies and guidelines. In a legal sense, willfulness is "the voluntary, intentional violation of a known legal duty", [ 5 ] and it is "intentional, or knowing " instead of unintentional. [ 6 ] Wikipedia's policies, such as those involving vandalism and sockpuppetry , show that these violations involve intent. In addition, the principle of Ignorantia juris non excusat holds that nobody is excused from not knowing policies, and that policies guide behavior. [ 7 ] Policies and guidelines are available for people to read. This supports the principle of constructive knowledge , even if a user cannot prove that another user actually knew the policies and guidelines at hand. If a user makes a disruptive edit , another user typically reverts that edit and uses a warning template, such as Template:Uw-disruptive1 , telling the user to look at the policies and guidelines, and to ask for help from the user who posted that message. The fact that this template and similar templates have these notes and links supports the maxim that users are presumed to know the policies and guidelines, and users who reasonably believe that other users posted disruptively can prove that those other users should have known the policies and guidelines, but chose not to search for them or read them. For citing reliable sources , editors should try to cite academic journals first, as they have the most rigorous review processes and cite many sources. [ 8 ] Template:Talk header lists examples of sites editors can look for academic journals on, such as Google Scholar and JSTOR . Extended confirmed users may have access to the Wikipedia Library , provided their accounts are older than six months. Other reliable sources include academic books, trade sources, and periodical articles, such as those from magazines and newspapers. [ 9 ] Prohibited actions Actions Wikipedia prohibits include, but are not limited to, the following. Vandalism . Censoring Wikipedia . Disruptive editing . Spam , because the intent would be to advertise or promote oneself . Edit warring instead of using the talk pages to discuss controversial edits, because the intent would be to win . Wikipedia is not a battleground . Sockpuppetry , because the intent would often be to influence votes, win edit wars, and circumvent policies and guidelines . Failing to cite reliable sources when adding new content that could be challenged or where a citation is expected. If an editor is not sure if a source is reliable, that editor should review Wikipedia:Reliable sources/Perennial sources and any other applicable guides, such as WikiProject -specific reliable source guides. Original research . Using talk pages as forums. Writing about oneself . Conflict of interest editing . If that happens, an editor with the conflict of interest should ask another editor to write or edit the topic instead. Copyright violations , as Wikimedia takes them seriously. Personal attacks . Harassment . Willfully triggering edit filters . Willfully not adhering to the Manual of Style , as this manual aims to standardize article format and appearance. Choosing defamatory, impersonating, profane, libelious, offensive, or otherwise harmful usernames . Not adhering to neutral point of view . Not being here to build an encyclopedia . Consistently performing poorly in certain subjects instead of letting more knowledgeable people handle those subjects . Willfully providing false information . Attempting to own pages . Threatening legal action , because the intent is to avoid civility and treat Wikipedia as a professional service rather than a volunteer one . These behaviors are usually driven by emotion , such as pride , selfishness , ambition , or deception . [ 10 ] Any editor who persistently engages in these behaviors may be blocked , banned , or both. That editor is consequently blocked or banned because of what that editor did, and that editor cannot blame other users . Other users can incite that editor to act, but ultimately, that editor chooses to act. Bare URLs Users should not cite bare URLs . Instead, they should take the time to fill out the citation templates and insert as much information as they know. Doing so adds credibility to articles and allows readers to examine sources more thoroughly. They have basic templates available in the editing screen, or they can use tools such as ProveIt or reFill , to add citation information. A list of citation tools is available at Help:Citation tools . See also Obligation Reactance (psychology) Wikipedia:Avoiding talk-page disruption Wikipedia:Cleaning up vandalism Wikipedia:Consequences of sockpuppetry Wikipedia:Dealing with sockpuppets Wikipedia:Deny recognition Wikipedia:Disruption not considered cool Wikipedia:Disruptive sanctions Wikipedia:Don't be quick to assume that someone is a sockpuppet Wikipedia:Don't ignore community consensus Wikipedia:Duty Wikipedia:Griefing Wikipedia:Hate is disruptive Wikipedia:Just drop it Wikipedia:Lurkers Wikipedia:No attacks on Wikipedia Wikipedia:On privacy, confidentiality and discretion Wikipedia:Questions Wikipedia:Self-limiting sanctions Wikipedia:Single-purpose account Wikipedia:Tag team Wikipedia:Talk Wikipedia:The duck test Wikipedia:The rules are principles Wikipedia:Vandalism does not matter Wikipedia:WikiBullying Wikipedia:Wikipedia is a volunteer service WikiProject Vandalism studies Studies on Wikipedia vandalism Studies on Wikipedia vandalism Wikipedia:You don't own Wikipedia References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Misselbrook, David (April 2013). "Duty, Kant, and Deontology" . British Journal of General Practice . 63 (609): 211. doi : 10.3399/bjgp13X665422 . ISSN 0960-1643 . PMC 3609464 . PMID 23540473 . ^ "BBC - Ethics - Introduction to ethics: Duty-based ethics" . BBC . Retrieved February 12, 2025 . ^ Kant, Immanuel (1788). Critique of Practical Reason . Translated by Abbott, Thomas Kingsmill – via Wikisource . ^ Kant, Immanuel . Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals . Translated by Abbott, Thomas Kingsmill – via Wikisource . ^ Cheek v. United States , 498 U.S. 192 ( Supreme Court of the United States 1991). ^ United States v. Murdock , 290 U.S. 389 ( Supreme Court of the United States 1933). ^ Rowell, Arden (2019). "Legal Knowledge, Belief, and Aspiration" (PDF) . Arizona State Law Journal . 51 (1): 225– 291 – via Academic Search Complete. ^ Library, A. C. Buehler. "A.C. Buehler Library: Source Evaluation and Credibility: Journals and Magazines" . library.elmhurst.edu . Retrieved February 12, 2025 . ^ "How to Identify Reliable Information" . Stevenson University . Retrieved February 12, 2025 . ^ Yip, Jeremy A.; Lee, Kelly Kiyeon (December 2022). "Emotions and ethics: How emotions sensitize perceptions of the consequences for self and others to motivate unethical behavior" . Current Opinion in Psychology . 48 101464. doi : 10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101464 . PMID 36244308 . Principles, policies, guidelines, style, and referencing .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia essays (?) Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? 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Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists About essays About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard v t e Wikipedia principles Five pillars Statement of our principles Jimbo's statement Historic principles Simplified ruleset Synopsis of our conventions Wikimedia principles Common to all projects (in Meta-Wiki) Principles Other essays on Wikipedia's principles .mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help} v t e Wikipedia key policies and guidelines (?) 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P Deletion policy Proposed deletion Biographies Speedy deletion Attack page Oversight Revision deletion Enforcement (?) P Administrators Banning Blocking Page protection Editing (?) P Editing policy G Article size Summary style Be bold Disambiguation Hatnotes Broad-concept article Understandability Style Manual of Style Contents Accessibility Dates and numbers Images Layout Lead section Linking Lists Classification Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Template namespace Project content (?) G Project namespace WikiProjects User pages User boxes Shortcuts Subpages WMF (?) 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Anniversaries Today Sovereign states and dependent territories Deaths this year Timelines Decades, centuries, and millennia Indexes A–Z index Categories Dewey Decimal classes Library of Congress Classification Spoken articles Searching .mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column} v t e Writing guides Starting an article Getting started Layout Visual structure of articles The perfect article A checklist of components Article development Suggested stages of an article Manual of Style Comprehensive style guide Writing better articles A collection of advice v t e Manual of Style Overview Contents Tips Content Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages 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General technical help Bypass cache Keyboard shortcuts Editing CharInsert Edit conflict Edit toolbar Reverting How to create a page IRC Tutorial Mobile access Multilingual support Page history Page information Page name Help Printing Software notices Editnotice Special characters Entering User access levels VisualEditor Help Special page -related Special page help AllPages Edit filter Emailing users Logging in Reset passwords Logs Moving a page History merging Non-admin and admin-only page moves Notifications/Echo FAQ Page Curation Page import Pending changes Random pages Recent changes Related changes Searching Linksearch Tags User contributions Watchlist What links here Wikitext Wikitext Cheatsheet Columns Line-break handling Lists Magic words For beginners Conditional expressions Switch parser function Time function Redirects Sections and TOCs Tables Introduction Basics Advanced table formatting Collapsing Conditional tables Sortable tables Using colours Links and diffs Links Interlanguage Interwiki Permanent Diffs Simplest diff guide Simple diff and link guide Complete diff and link guide Colon trick Link color Pipe trick URLs Media files: images, videos and sounds Media help Files Creation and usage Moving files to Commons Images Introduction to images Picture tutorial Preparing images for upload Uploading images Options to hide an image Extended image syntax SVG help Gallery tag Graphics tutorials Basic bitmap image editing How to improve image quality Graphics Lab resources Sound file markup Visual file markup Other graphics Family trees Graphs and charts How to create Barcharts To scale charts Math formulas Math symbols Musical scores Musical symbols Timeline EasyTimeline syntax WikiHiero syntax Templates and Lua modules Templates Advanced template coding Template documentation Template index Template limits Template sandbox and test cases Citation templates Lua help Lua project Resources To do Substitution Purge Job queue Transclusion Labeled section Costs and benefits Guide to Scribbling Data structure Namespaces Main/Article Category Draft File File description page Help Portal Project/Wikipedia Talk Archiving Simple Template User User page design MediaWiki Bug reports and feature requests TimedMediaHandler extension Module Special HTML and CSS Cascading Style Sheets HTML in wikitext Catalogue of CSS classes Common.js and common.css Classes in microformats Markup validation Span tags Useful styles Customisation and tools Preferences Gadgets Skins Citation tools Cleaning up vandalism tools Customizing watchlists Hide pages IRC Scripts User scripts Guide List Techniques Safe mode User style Tools Alternative browsing Browser tools Editing tools Navigation shortcuts Optimum tool set Wikimedia Cloud Services Beta Features at MediaWiki Automated editing AfC helper script AntiVandal AutoWikiBrowser Bots Creating history HotCat Huggle Navigation popups RedWarn Twinkle Ultraviolet WPCleaner Inactive igloo STiki See also: Category:Wikipedia how-to Category:Wikipedia information pages Further navigation at: Help pages Administrators Accessibility Accounts Bots Referencing Citation metadata Templates User scripts v t e Wikipedia accounts and governance Unregistered users Why create an account? 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Editorial oversight and control Quality control Wikimedia Foundation Board Founder's seat Meta-Wiki Proposals WikiProjects Elections Policies and guidelines Petitions Noticeboards Consensus Dispute resolution Reforms .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia essays (?) v t e Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists About essays About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About essays About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard v t e Wikipedia principles v t e Five pillars Statement of our principles Jimbo's statement Historic principles Simplified ruleset Synopsis of our conventions Wikimedia principles Common to all projects (in Meta-Wiki) Principles Other essays on Wikipedia's principles Five pillars Statement of our principles Five pillars Statement of our principles Jimbo's statement Historic principles Jimbo's statement Historic principles Simplified ruleset Synopsis of our conventions Simplified ruleset Synopsis of our conventions Wikimedia principles Common to all projects (in Meta-Wiki) Wikimedia principles Common to all projects (in Meta-Wiki) Principles Other essays on Wikipedia's principles Principles Other essays on Wikipedia's principles v t e Wikipedia key policies and guidelines (?) v t e Five pillars Ignore all rules Five pillars Ignore all rules Ignore all rules Content (?) P Verifiability No original research Neutral point of view What Wikipedia is not Biographies of living persons Copyright ( Copyright violations ) Image use Article titles G Notability Autobiography Citing sources Reliable sources Medicine Do not include copies of lengthy primary sources Plagiarism Do not create hoaxes Fringe theories Patent nonsense External links Writing articles with large language models LLMs P Verifiability No original research Neutral point of view What Wikipedia is not Biographies of living persons Copyright ( Copyright violations ) Image use Article titles Verifiability No original research Neutral point of view What Wikipedia is not Biographies of living persons Copyright ( Copyright violations ) Image use Article titles G Notability Autobiography Citing sources Reliable sources Medicine Do not include copies of lengthy primary sources Plagiarism Do not create hoaxes Fringe theories Patent nonsense External links Writing articles with large language models LLMs Notability Autobiography Citing sources Reliable sources Medicine Medicine Do not include copies of lengthy primary sources Plagiarism Do not create hoaxes Fringe theories Patent nonsense External links Writing articles with large language models LLMs LLMs Conduct (?) P Civility Consensus Harassment Vandalism Ignore all rules No personal attacks Ownership of content Edit warring Dispute resolution Sockpuppetry No legal threats Child protection Paid-contribution disclosure G Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Do not disrupt Wikipedia to illustrate a point Etiquette Gaming the system Please do not bite the newcomers Courtesy vanishing Responding to threats of harm Talk page guidelines Signatures P Civility Consensus Harassment Vandalism Ignore all rules No personal attacks Ownership of content Edit warring Dispute resolution Sockpuppetry No legal threats Child protection Paid-contribution disclosure Civility Consensus Harassment Vandalism Ignore all rules No personal attacks Ownership of content Edit warring Dispute resolution Sockpuppetry No legal threats Child protection Paid-contribution disclosure G Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Do not disrupt Wikipedia to illustrate a point Etiquette Gaming the system Please do not bite the newcomers Courtesy vanishing Responding to threats of harm Talk page guidelines Signatures Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Do not disrupt Wikipedia to illustrate a point Etiquette Gaming the system Please do not bite the newcomers Courtesy vanishing Responding to threats of harm Talk page guidelines Signatures Signatures Deletion (?) P Deletion policy Proposed deletion Biographies Speedy deletion Attack page Oversight Revision deletion P Deletion policy Proposed deletion Biographies Speedy deletion Attack page Oversight Revision deletion Deletion policy Proposed deletion Biographies Biographies Speedy deletion Attack page Oversight Revision deletion Enforcement (?) P Administrators Banning Blocking Page protection P Administrators Banning Blocking Page protection Administrators Banning Blocking Page protection Editing (?) P Editing policy G Article size Summary style Be bold Disambiguation Hatnotes Broad-concept article Understandability Style Manual of Style Contents Accessibility Dates and numbers Images Layout Lead section Linking Lists Classification Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Template namespace P Editing policy Editing policy G Article size Summary style Be bold Disambiguation Hatnotes Broad-concept article Understandability Style Manual of Style Contents Accessibility Dates and numbers Images Layout Lead section Linking Lists Classification Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Template namespace Article size Summary style Be bold Disambiguation Hatnotes Broad-concept article Understandability Article size Summary style Summary style Be bold Disambiguation Hatnotes Broad-concept article Understandability Style Manual of Style Contents Accessibility Dates and numbers Images Layout Lead section Linking Lists Manual of Style Contents Contents Accessibility Dates and numbers Images Layout Lead section Linking Lists Classification Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Template namespace Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Template namespace Project content (?) 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territories Deaths this year Timelines Decades, centuries, and millennia Academic disciplines Anniversaries Today Today Sovereign states and dependent territories Deaths this year Deaths this year Timelines Decades, centuries, and millennia Decades, centuries, and millennia Indexes A–Z index Categories Dewey Decimal classes Library of Congress Classification Spoken articles A–Z index Categories Dewey Decimal classes Library of Congress Classification Spoken articles Searching v t e Writing guides v t e Starting an article Getting started Layout Visual structure of articles The perfect article A checklist of components Article development Suggested stages of an article Manual of Style Comprehensive style guide Writing better articles A collection of advice v t e Manual of Style v t e Overview Contents Tips Overview Contents Tips Content Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject area Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch 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Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice History Blazons Military history See also: WikiProject style advice Blazons Military history See also: WikiProject style advice Legal and cultural Legal Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice Legal Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Specific naming conventions Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: WikiProject style advice Specific naming conventions Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: WikiProject style advice Religion and education Islam Latter Day Saints See also: WikiProject 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . 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Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 The Judge Advocate General 2 Mission 3 Legal Center and School 4 Army judge advocate, legal administrator and paralegal qualifications 5 Insignia 6 See also 7 References 8 External links United States Army Judge Advocate General's Corps Norsk bokmål Svenska Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item United States Army Judge Advocate General's Corps Shoulder Sleeve Insignia Active 29 July 1775 – 1 June 1802 2 March 1849 – present [ 1 ] Country United States of America Branch United States Army Role Military law Mottos "Soldier first, lawyer always" Colors Dark Blue and White Engagements Revolutionary War American Civil War Spanish–American War World War I World War II Korean War Vietnam War Gulf War War in Afghanistan Iraq War Website Official Website Commanders TJAG MG Bobby Christine DJAG MG Robert A. Borcherding Notable commanders LTC William Tudor BG Joseph Holt MG Enoch H. Crowder MG Blanton C. Winship MG Kenneth J. Hodson MG John L. Fugh LTG Scott C. Black LTG Charles N. Pede Insignia Branch Insignia JAG DUI The Judge Advocate General's Corps of the United States Army , also known as the U.S. Army JAG Corps , is the legal arm of the United States Army. It is composed of Army officers who are also lawyers ("judge advocates"), who provide legal services to the Army at all levels of command, and also includes legal administrator warrant officers , paralegal noncommissioned officers and junior enlisted personnel , and civilian employees. The Judge Advocate General of the United States Army (TJAG)—the commanding general of the Army JAG Corps—is a lieutenant general . All military officers are appointed by the U.S. president subject to the advice and consent of the Senate, but the Judge Advocate General is one of the few positions in the Army explicitly provided for by law in Title 10 of the United States Code , and requiring a distinct appointment. When officers who have already been appointed to another branch of the Army join the JAG Corps, rather than merely transferring branches, they are administratively dismissed and simultaneously recommissioned anew as judge advocates. The Judge Advocate General The U.S. Army JAG Corps was founded by General George Washington with the appointment of William Tudor as the Judge Advocate General on 29 July 1775. [ 2 ] The Army JAG Corps is the oldest of the judge advocate communities in the U.S. armed forces – as well as the oldest law firm in the United States. The Judge Advocate General, who is referred to as TJAG (pronounced "tea-jag"), serves a term of four years. The position was a 2-star ( major general ) billet until December 2008, when the promotion of Scott C. Black to the grade of lieutenant general brought it into parity with the Army's Surgeon General and Chief of Engineers . The current Judge Advocate General is Major General Bobby L. Christine . Mission Judge advocates occupying the position of staff judge advocate (SJA) serve on the special and personal staff of general officers in command and who are general court-martial convening authorities (in other words, who have the authority to convene a general court-martial ). Staff judge advocates advise commanders on the full range of legal matters encountered in government legal practice and provide advice on courts-martial as required by the Uniform Code of Military Justice . Subordinate judge advocates prosecute courts-martial, and others, assigned to the independent United States Army Trial Defense Service and United States Army Trial Judiciary, serve as defense counsel and judges. The almost 2,000 full-time judge advocates and civilian attorneys who serve The Judge Advocate General's Corps comprise the largest group of attorneys who serve the U.S. Army. Several hundred other attorneys practice under the Chief Counsel of the United States Army Corps of Engineers and the Command Counsel of the United States Army Materiel Command . Judge advocates, legal administrators and military paralegals are deployed throughout the United States and around the world, including Japan , South Korea , Germany , Kosovo , Iraq , Afghanistan , Kuwait , and Qatar . They provide legal assistance to soldiers, adjudicate claims against the Army, advise commands on targeting decisions and other aspects of operational law, and assist the command in administering military justice by preparing non-judicial punishment actions, administrative separation actions, and trying criminal cases at court-martial. In addition to the active component judge advocates, there are approximately 5,000 attorneys who serve in the US Army Reserve and the Army National Guard . Several hundred Reserve and National Guard attorneys were called to active duty to serve in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom . Legal Center and School The Judge Advocate General's School began in World War II at the University of Michigan to train new judge advocates as the Judge Advocate General's Department rapidly expanded. It was disestablished for a time after the war but, after a short stay at Fort Myer in Arlington, Virginia , was reestablished at the University of Virginia in 1951. The Judge Advocate General's Legal Center and School (TJAGLCS) is located on the North Grounds at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, Virginia , adjoining, but distinct from, the University of Virginia School of Law . The Commandant of the Judge Advocate General's School is authorized by Congress to award a Master of Laws degree. The school is the only federal institution to have American Bar Association accreditation as one of America's law schools. Judge advocates from all five armed forces of the United States and international students attend the annual Judge Advocate Officer Graduate Course in which the master's degree is awarded. The Legal Center and School also trains the Army's new judge advocates, provides continuing legal education for judge advocates and lawyers from throughout the United States government. In addition to lawyers, TJAGLCS also trains newly selected legal administrator warrant officers, paralegal noncommissioned officers and court reporters (new judge advocate enlisted soldiers attend AIT at Fort Gregg-Adams, Virginia). The school also trains those officers appointed as military judges, irrespective of service. TJAGLCS is not a member of the Association of American Law Schools (AALS), but has paid a fee to receive AALS services. [ 3 ] In many military branches, there is a program that will send officers to law school to eventually serve as Judge Advocates upon completion of the program and law school. In the United States Army, the program is called the Funded Legal Education Program (FLEP). The Army Regulation that explains the program in all its terms is AR 27-1, Chapter 14. Every year, the United States Army will send a combination of up to 25 commissioned officers and non-commissioned officers to law school and will pay all tuition costs along with paying the Soldier their usual pay entitlements throughout the duration of law school to include base pay, special pay, Basic Allowance for Housing, and Overseas Cost of Living Allowances (if applicable). In return, the service member is required to serve as a judge advocate officer in the United States Army for six years. While the Army does not release official figures, the general agreed upon numbers on various discussion boards and forums is that around 80-90 people apply each year and 20-25 are selected. The package to apply to the program includes: a memorandum that explains why one is interested in the program, college transcripts, list of law schools, LSAT score, statement of years of service, statement of secret security clearance, interview with a Senior Judge Advocate, Personnel Records Brief and evaluation Reports, and optional Letters of Recommendation. Army judge advocate, legal administrator and paralegal qualifications Prior to entry into the JAG Corps, all Army judge advocates must have graduated from an ABA-accredited law school and be admitted to practice law by the highest court of a state or federal district. While some judge advocates have prior enlisted or commissioned experience, most are direct commissioned and have no prior military training or experience. Acceptance into the Army JAG Corps is highly selective with an acceptance rate between 4-7%. In 2017, the Army JAG Corps accepted 200 out of 4,000 applicants. [ 4 ] Initial entry training into the JAG Corps is composed of two phases: 6-week Direct Commission Course (DCC) at Fort Benning, Georgia 11-week Judge Advocate Officer Basic Course (JAOBC) at The Judge Advocate General's Legal Center and School (TJAGLCS) As of the summer of 2013, JAOBC Phase I, formerly conducted at Fort Gregg-Adams, Virginia (previously known as Fort Lee) is no longer a requirement for JAOBC students. Students now report directly to DCC in Fort Benning, Georgia, and upon completion of DCC travel to Charlottesville for JAOBC. From 2006 until the end of 2009, students attended the JAOBC Phase I at Fort Lee, Virginia, followed by the JAOBC in Charlottesville. Students then attended a 4-week DCC at Fort Benning, Georgia or Fort Sill, Oklahoma , followed immediately by the 6 1/2-week Basic Officer Leaders Course , or BOLC II. BOLC II was discontinued at the end of 2009. JAG Corps warrant officer legal administrators are accessed from the enlisted population through a competitive accession board of officers. That board of officers make a recommendation to The Judge Advocate General using an order of merit list of recommended selections, The Judge Advocate General has final authority on the process. To be considered by the board, they must have at least an associate degree; five years experience as a paralegal (MOS 27D); recommendations from their staff judge advocate, legal administrator and their senior/chief paralegal; and completion of several correspondence courses. Once accessed, the warrant officer candidate will complete 4–6 weeks of warrant officer candidate school at the Warrant Officer Career College located at Fort Rucker, Alabama. Their follow-on schooling will be at The Judge Advocate General's Legal Center and School, Charlottesville, VA for 6 weeks. JAG Corps enlisted paralegals must earn qualifying scores on the ASVAB, and be able to maintain a SECRET security clearance. Insignia The branch insignia consists of a gold quill crossed above a gold sword, superimposed over a laurel wreath. The pen signifies the recording of testimony, the sword represents the military character of the JAG Corps, and the wreath indicates honor. The insignia was created in May 1890 in silver and changed to gold in 1899. The regimental distinctive insignia (commonly but erroneously referred to as a "crest") contains the branch insignia on a shield of azure (dark blue), bordered argent (silver), the regimental colors. The "1775" on the ribbon below the shields refers to the year of the Corps' establishment. See also United States Army Reserve Legal Command United States Army Trial Defense Service United States Army Legal Services Agency U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Command Army Court of Criminal Appeals U.S. Navy Judge Advocate General's Corps U.S. Marine Corps Judge Advocate Division U.S. Air Force Judge Advocate General's Corps U.S. Coast Guard Legal Division Judge Advocate General Military law Judge Advocate of the Fleet Judge Advocate General (United Kingdom) Judge Advocate General (Canada) References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "History" . goarmy.com . Archived from the original on 20 June 2015 . Retrieved 4 June 2013 . ^ "History" . goarmy.com . Retrieved 1 August 2018 . ^ "Member Schools" . Association of American Law Schools . Archived from the original on 17 July 2012 . Retrieved 1 May 2011 . ^ "Law Students Accepted into the Military JAG Corps Program" . uwyo.edu . University of Wyoming. The Army of the United States: Historical Sketches of Staff and Line with Portraits of Generals-In-Chief , 1896. The Institute of Heraldry Borch III, Frederic L. Judge Advocates in Vietnam: Army Lawyers in Southeast Asia 1959-1975 (PDF) . Fort Leavenworth , KS : Combat Studies Institute ( CGSC Press ). (via the Library of Congress ) External links Army JAG Corps Works by United States Army Judge Advocate General's Corps at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.1 January 2 Scheduled events 3 See also 4 References 5 External links 2026 in science Беларуская Français 日本語 Română Русский Українська Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item List of years in science ( table ) … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The following scientific events occurred, or are scheduled to occur in 2026 . Events January 1 January – Researchers operating China’s Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) report the first experimental verification of a theorised density-free plasma operating regime, achieving stable electron densities approximately 1.3–1.65 times the Greenwald limit . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] 2 January – Researchers at the Vienna University of Technology and the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology demonstrate self-sustained superradiant microwave emission, produced by interacting spins in diamond , offering potential applications in quantum communication and sensing. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] 4–8 January – 247th Meeting of the American Astronomical Society [ 5 ] 5 January – NASA announces that it has awarded contracts to seven companies to study technologies for the Habitable Worlds Observatory , a next-generation telescope that could launch in the 2040s. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] 7 January – Astronomers using data from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory report that 2025 MN 45 has the fastest spin of any known asteroid larger than 0.5 km (0.31 mi) in diameter, completing one rotation every 1.88 minutes. [ 8 ] 13 January – The European Copernicus Climate Change Service reports that 2025 was the world's third hottest year on record (2024 was the hottest and 2023 the second hottest). In Antarctica, the average annual temperature was the warmest since measurements began and in the Arctic, it was the second highest. [ 9 ] 14 January Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Scheduled events NASA's first crewed lunar‑orbit mission in decades is slated for early 2026. [ 19 ] See also 2026 in spaceflight 2026 in Antarctica 2026 in climate change References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Liu, Jiaxing; Zhu, Ping; Escande, Dominique Franck; Liu, Wenbin; Xue, Shiwei; Lin, Xin; Tang, Panjun; Wang, Liang; Yan, Ning; Yang, Jinju; Duan, Yanmin; Jia, Kai; Wu, Zhenwei; Cheng, Yunxin; Zhang, Ling (2 January 2026). "Accessing the density-free regime with ECRH-assisted ohmic start-up on EAST" . Science Advances . 12 (1). doi : 10.1126/sciadv.adz3040 . ISSN 2375-2548 . PMC 12757026 . PMID 41477826 . ^ Mishra, Prabhat Ranjan (1 January 2026). "China's EAST Tokamak achieves stable operation at densities beyond limits" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ Kersten, Wenzel; de Zordo, Nikolaus; Diekmann, Oliver; Redchenko, Elena S.; Kanagin, Andrew N.; Angerer, Andreas; Munro, William J.; Nemoto, Kae; Mazets, Igor E.; Rotter, Stefan; Pohl, Thomas; Schmiedmayer, Jörg (2 January 2026). "Self-induced superradiant masing" . Nature Physics . doi : 10.1038/s41567-025-03123-0 . ISSN 1745-2473 . ^ Paleja, Ameya (2 January 2026). "First self-powered quantum microwave signal achieved in experiment" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 4 January 2026 . ^ "Calendar" . Secretary-General’s Scientific Advisory Board . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . ^ "NASA Selects Tech Proposals to Advance Search-for-Life Mission" . NASA . 5 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NASA seeks to accelerate development of Habitable Worlds Observatory" . Space News . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory Spots Record-Breaking Asteroid in Pre-Survey Observations" . Vera C. Rubin Observatory . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 11 January 2026 . ^ "Global Climate Highlights 2025" . copernicus.eu. 14 January 2025 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Yi, Difan; Liu, Qian; Chen, Shi; Dong, Chunlai; Feng, Huanbo; Gao, Chaosong; Huang, Wenqian; Jing, Xinmei; Kong, Lingquan; Li, Jin; Li, Peirong; Liang, Enwei; Ma, Ruiting; Su, Chenguang; Su, Liangliang (15 January 2026). "Direct observation of the Migdal effect induced by neutron bombardment" . Nature . 649 (8097): 580– 583. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09918-8 . ISSN 0028-0836 . ^ Nuo, Xu (16 January 2026). "New finding to help probe dark matter" . global.chinadaily.com.cn . Retrieved 16 January 2026 . ^ Communication, N. B. I. (15 January 2026). "Copenhagen researchers make the front page of Nature: Solving the mystery of the universe's 'little red dots' " . nbi.ku.dk . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Rusakov, V.; Watson, D.; Nikopoulos, G. P.; Brammer, G.; Gottumukkala, R.; Harvey, T.; Heintz, K. E.; Damgaard, R.; Sim, S. A.; Sneppen, A.; Vijayan, A. P.; Adams, N.; Austin, D.; Conselice, C. J.; Goolsby, C. M. (2026). "Little red dots as young supermassive black holes in dense ionized cocoons" . Nature . 649 (8097): 574– 579. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09900-4 . ISSN 1476-4687 . ^ "Ice from Swiss glacier is safely stored in Antarctica" . blue News . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antarctica ice sanctuary launched to preserve the cores of dying glaciers" . Yahoo News . 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Schneehöhle als Klima-Archiv der Erde: Erste Eisbohrkerne in Antarktis-Lagerstätte" . stern.de (in German). 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Stocker, Thomas (14 January 2026). "La première bibliothèque de carottes glaciaires en Antarctique pour protéger la mémoire climatique de l'humanité" . The Conversation . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antartide: nasce archivio mondiale ghiaccio con primi campioni da Alpi - Borsa Italiana" . www.borsaitaliana.it . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Artemis II 2026: NASA prepares first crewed mission to circle around the moon in 50 years, scheduled for February" . The Times of India . 25 September 2025. ISSN 0971-8257 . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) 1.2 Philippine–American War (1898–1902) 1.3 American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) 1.4 Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.5 Contemporary history (1986–present) 1.1 Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) 1.2 Philippine–American War (1898–1902) 1.3 American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) 1.4 Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.5 Contemporary history (1986–present) 2 Geography Toggle Geography subsection 2.1 Flora and fauna 2.1 Flora and fauna 3 Demographics 4 Administrative divisions and politics 5 Economy Toggle Economy subsection 5.1 Tourism 5.1 Tourism 6 Infrastructure Toggle Infrastructure subsection 6.1 Transportation 6.2 Power and telecommunication 6.3 Education 6.4 Healthcare 6.1 Transportation 6.2 Power and telecommunication 6.3 Education 6.4 Healthcare 7 See also 8 References Toggle References subsection 8.1 Bibliography 8.1 Bibliography 9 External links Samar Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Bikol Central Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Кырык мары Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Wikidata item Location within the Philippines Geography Coordinates .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 12°00′N 125°00′E / 12.000°N 125.000°E / 12.000; 125.000 Archipelago Visayas Adjacent to .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Leyte Gulf Philippine Sea Samar Sea San Bernardino Strait San Juanico Strait Leyte Gulf Philippine Sea Samar Sea San Bernardino Strait San Juanico Strait Area 13,428.8 km 2 (5,184.9 sq mi) [ 1 ] Area rank 63rd Coastline 800.6 km (497.47 mi) [ 2 ] Highest elevation 890 m (2920 ft) Highest point Mount Huraw Administration Philippines Region Eastern Visayas Provinces Eastern Samar Northern Samar (Western) Samar Eastern Samar Northern Samar (Western) Samar Largest settlement Calbayog (pop. 187,848) Demographics Population 1,924,651 (2024) [ 3 ] Pop. density 140/km 2 (360/sq mi) Ethnic groups Visayans ( Waray-Waray ) Samar ( / ˈ s ɑː m ɑːr / SAH -mar ) is the third largest island in the Philippines . It has a population of 1,924,651 as of the 2024 census. It is located in the Eastern Visayas region of the Visayas islands. Since 1965, the island is divided into three provinces : Western Samar , Northern Samar , and Eastern Samar . The capitals of these provinces are, respectively, Catarman , Catbalogan , and Borongan . In commemoration of the establishment of these provinces, June 19 is celebrated as an annual holiday. Its main language and ethnicity is Waray and its main religion is Roman Catholic . The island was first sighted by Ferdinand Magellan on March 16, 1521. Although he did not land, other expeditions were made. Many names, such as Samal , Ibabao , and Tandaya , were given to the island prior to the arrival of the Spaniards in 1596. During the early days of Spanish occupation , Samar was under the jurisdiction of Cebu . In the Philippine–American War , Eugenio Daza led a successful attack against the United States Army, later called the Balangiga massacre . This attack led to the Pacification of Samar and deaths of 2,000 people. During the American colonization of the Philippines, two uprisings occurred, including the Pulajan movement which caused massacres in the country. The Battle off Samar was held off the island during World War II. During martial law under Ferdinand Marcos , the Sag-od massacre happened in 1981. The New People's Army rebellion is ongoing. Samar is the easternmost island in the Visayas archipelago, lying to the northeast of Leyte and southeast of the Bicol Peninsula on Luzon . To the west is the Samar Sea , and to the north and east of Samar lies the Philippine Sea . The island has the Samar Island Natural Park and numerous biological discoveries and forests. The island has major copra and fishery industries and also produces rice, corn, vegetables, and abaca . The island also has a major tourism industry. The island has numerous major highways and has a portion of the Pan-Philippine Highway . The island has four major ports and three airports servicing flights to Cebu City and Metro Manila . The island has six Department of Education divisions and numerous universities with satellite campuses. History Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) Samar was the first island of the Philippines as a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan revealed the island, originally transcribed Zamal in the journal of Antonio Pigafetta . He sighted it on March 16, 1521, traveling from the Mariana Islands . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Having found an archipelago , Pigafetta named the islands San Lazaro ( transl. Saint Lazarus ) due to their sightings on Lazarus Saturday . Eventually, Filipinas was the perceived name for the archipelago. Although Samar was the first island of the Philippines seen by Magellan, he did not land there. He traversed south and laid anchor at Suluan Island, then landed on Homonhon Island on March 17, 1521. [ 6 ] Later in the 1700s, Samar was recorded to have about 103 Spanish Filipino families and 3,042 native families. [ 7 ] Other Spaniards eventually landed in the island. William Henry Scott, a historian, recognized that a "Samar datu by the name of Iberein was rowed out to a Spanish vessel anchored in his harbor in 1543 by oarsmen collared in gold; while wearing on his own person earrings and chains." He recounted a Samarnon saga, which was called siday , about Bingi of Lawan, a settlement in Samar. [ 8 ] Samar had names which are recorded in early Spanish sources, including Ibabao (or Cibabao ), Achan , Camlaya , and Taridola . The Spanish captain Miguel Lopez de Legaspi also called the island Tandaya , after mistaking the name of a lord with the name of the island. This was spelled by Miguel de Loarca as Candaya . [ 5 ] During the early years of the Spanish colonialization, the province was placed in the jurisdiction of Cebu but was eventually separated into its own province. A rebellion was sparked in 1649 which was centered in Palapag , causing an uprising in Visayas and parts of Mindanao . The uprising was not suppressed until the next year. This caused rebels to migrate to the mountains and create a new settlement. In 1735, the province and Leyte merged into a singular province; Carigara was declared as the capital. In 1768, Samar was separated from Leyte. In 1860, the government structure was reorganized and was maintained until the end of the regime. [ 4 ] Philippine–American War (1898–1902) On September 28, 1901, Eugenio Daza–Area Commander of Southeastern Samar–and Valeriano Abanador, the town's police chief, [ 9 ] attacked the U.S. Army Company 9th Infantry Regiment who were occupying Balangiga. This action, commonly known as the Balangiga massacre, was a rare Filipino win and a bad loss for American soldiers. [ 10 ] In 1989, "Balangiga Encounter Day" was made a provincial holiday in Eastern Samar in lieu of the victory. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] In retaliation for the massacre, General Jacob H. Smith ordered his men to "kill and burn", further stating that "the more you kill and burn, the better it will please me". [ 13 ] [ 14 ] This command led to the deaths of 2,000 Filipino insurgents and civilians while sparking outrage in the United States. [ 13 ] [ 15 ] In his historical account of the war, Brian McAllister Linn asserts "Samar cast a pall on the army's achievement and, for generations, has been associated in the public mind as typifying the Philippine War." [ 16 ] American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) After the war, the archipelago was peaceful except the island of Samar, which was a "dark and bloody" isle according to James Henderson Blount . [ 17 ] In 1904, the Pulajans in Samar caused powerful massacres to the extent of Governor-General Luke Edward Wright 's concern. [ 18 ] Numerous civilians joined the uprising due to the feeling of "unprotection". [ 19 ] The rebellion was discussed by many American politicians and military officers and caused court cases just before the 1904 United States presidential election . [ 20 ] Four days after the election, Wright visited Samar, where troops increased to 2,000 from 700. [ 21 ] After battles and negotiations, the uprising eventually ended in 1906. [ 22 ] When the rebellion ended, the island, according to Blount, started becoming "peaceful". [ 23 ] More revolts were made by religious associations in the 1920s to 1930s. [ 24 ] In World War II , the ocean east of the island hosted the Battle off Samar in October 1944 wherein an unarmored force of United States Navy escorts defended attacks from the main force of the Imperial Japanese Navy , including the Japanese battleship Yamato . [ 25 ] When Japan colonized the Philippines, the Pulajan uprising became active again. Japan left the Philippines in 1945. [ 26 ] Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) The beginning months of the 1970s [ 27 ] marked a period of turmoil and change in the Philippines as well as in Samar, as unprecedented number of foreign debt-funded public works projects during Ferdinand Marcos' 1969 reelection campaign led to the 1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis [ 28 ] [ 29 ] and resulting inflation triggered the First Quarter Storm protests. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] : "43" Three years later and with only a year left in his last constitutionally allowed term as president, Ferdinand Marcos placed the Philippines under Martial Law in September 1972 and thus retained the Presidency for fourteen more years. [ 34 ] This period in Philippine history is remembered for the Marcos administration's record of human rights abuses , [ 35 ] [ 36 ] particularly targeting political opponents, student activists, journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought against the Marcos dictatorship. [ 37 ] Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre The Marcos era was a time of significant deforestation in Samar and throughout the Philippines, with the forest cover of the Philippines shrinking until only 8% remained. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] On the island of Samar, whose forest cover had been at 86% of the island in 1972, forest cover went down to 45% in 1978, and then a mere 10% by 1987. Twelve companies were given Timber License Agreements (TLAs) on the island, including Dolores Timber in the Province of Samar and San Jose Timber in the province of Northern Samar, which were both owned by Juan Ponce Enrile , [ 40 ] [ 41 ] the government official Ferdinand Marcos had put in place to approve Timber License Agreements during Martial Law. [ 40 ] One of the infamous incidents of the Marcos dictatorship era was the Sag-od massacre in Las Navas, Northern Samar , which took place on September 15, 1981. [ 42 ] Numerous security personnel of Juan Ponce Enrile 's San Jose Timber Corporation allied with a paramilitary group called "the Lost Command" and ordered residents of Barrio Sag-od out of their homes, then opened fire on them. Forty-five people were killed, leaving only 13 inhabitants of Barrio Sag-od alive. [ 42 ] Construction of the San Juanico Bridge This era also saw the construction of the San Juanico Bridge between Samar and Leyte, which began as one of the high-visibility foreign-loan funded projects of Ferdinand Marcos' 1969 reelection campaign , and finished four years later in time to be inaugurated on then- First Lady Imelda Marcos ' birthday on July 2, 1973. [ 43 ] The project was initially criticised as a white elephant by officials at the National Economic and Development Authority , noting that it was "useless and expensive to maintain", [ 44 ] because its average daily traffic was too low to justify the cost of its construction. [ 44 ] As a result, its construction has been associated with what has been called the Marcoses' " edifice complex " [ 45 ] [ 46 ] although economic activity in Samar and Leyte has since finally caught up with the bridge's intended function. [ 46 ] At the time, its name was used as a slang term for one of the torture methods used by the Marcos dictatorship , in which a person is being beaten while the victim's head and feet lay on separate beds and the body is suspended as though to form a bridge. [ 47 ] [ 48 ] The New People's Army conflict Although the Communist Party of the Philippines and its armed wing, the New People's Army, was newly-formed and relatively still very small throughout Marcos' second term, the Marcos administration hyped up its formation, [ 49 ] : "43" supposedly because this would help build up political and monetary support from the US, [ 49 ] : "43" [ 50 ] which was caught up in red scare paranoia at the time. [ 51 ] When Marcos declared Martial Law, however, the CPP grew rapidly. [ 49 ] On the island of Samar, Marcos' military forces were assigned to protect the logging concessions, and there were frequent encounters between the military and the New People's Army. As a result the towns of Taft , Dolores , Can-avid , and Oras in Eastern Samar were declared by the Military as "no-man's-land" areas from 1978 to 1982. [ 41 ] Since then, the island had numerous human rights cases due to the New People's Army rebellion. [ 52 ] [ failed verification ] In May 2024, the Department of the Interior and Local Government announced that the three provinces on the island of Samar were "free of NPA influence" with no single village in three Samar provinces is under the influence of NPA [that] year. [ 53 ] Contemporary history (1986–present) In 2013, the provinces of Samar, Eastern Samar, and the City of Tacloban were among the localities most severely impacted by Typhoon Haiyan . [ 54 ] In 2020, Samar was also heavily impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in Eastern Visayas , with the first case in the region reported on March 23, 2020. [ 55 ] Geography Samar is the third-largest island in the Philippines by area, after the islands of Luzon and Mindanao . [ 56 ] Mount Huraw is Samar's highest point, with an elevation of 2,920 ft (890 m). [ 57 ] Samar is the easternmost island in the Visayas. It lies to the northeast of Leyte, separated from it by the San Juanico Strait . The island lies to the southeast of the Bicol Peninsula on Luzon , separated from it by the San Bernardino Strait . To the west is the Samar Sea, and to the north and east of Samar lies the Philippine Sea. The island is hilly yet has lower altitude than the mountainous terrain in the rest of the Visayas. Lowlands are mostly found near the coast and along rivers; the rivers themselves are small and flow in a radial pattern. [ 56 ] The island, along with the region of Eastern Visayas, is rainy most of the year, ranging from seven to ten months of rain. [ 58 ] Numerous typhoons are formed in the area. Eastern Samar, specifically, has a Type II climate without a dry season with an increase in rainfall. [ 56 ] A portion of the Philippine Trench rests near Samar, capable of generating a magnitude 8.1 earthquake. [ 59 ] The island, particularly parts of Paranas , contains many volcanic rocks, including karst bauxite , common throughout the island. [ 60 ] Flora and fauna The Samar Island Natural Park is a 300,000-hectare (740,000-acre) forest on the island, encompassing all three provinces. It contains the largest tract of intact lowland forest in the Philippines. The park has a population of Dipterocarpaceae species, six of them are endangered, and contains the rare Philippine eagle . The park contains six ecological forest types and has numerous waterfalls. Species in the island itself include the Philippine sailfin lizard , the Draco mindanensis , the Philippine hawk-eagle , the Giant golden-crowned flying fox , the Red-vented cockatoo , and the Philippine crocodile . [ 61 ] The municipality of Basey contains Karst forests with a total of 67 vascular plant species. In these forests, Dipterocarpaceae is the most prominent plant family. [ 62 ] Out of 2,400 flower species throughout the Philippines, 40 are only found in the island. In 2018, three new species of Begonia were found in the isle. [ 63 ] The province of Northern Samar was described by Tiffany Neri of SunStar as one of the Philippines' "best-kept secrets" with numerous rock formations and wildlife sanctuaries. [ 64 ] On June 9, 2025, the Biri Rock Formations in Northern Samar were declared to be a National Geological Monument according to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources . [ 65 ] Demographics Population of Samar Year Pop. ±% 1903 266,237 — 1918 379,575 +42.6% 1939 546,306 +43.9% 1948 757,212 +38.6% 1960 867,994 +14.6% 1970 1,019,358 +17.4% 1975 1,120,192 +9.9% 1980 1,200,592 +7.2% Year Pop. ±% 1903 266,237 — 1918 379,575 +42.6% 1939 546,306 +43.9% 1948 757,212 +38.6% 1960 867,994 +14.6% 1970 1,019,358 +17.4% 1975 1,120,192 +9.9% 1980 1,200,592 +7.2% Year Pop. ±% 1990 1,246,722 +3.8% 1995 1,405,892 +12.8% 2000 1,517,585 +7.9% 2007 1,650,022 +8.7% 2010 1,751,267 +6.1% 2015 1,880,020 +7.4% 2020 1,909,537 +1.6% 2024 1,924,651 +0.8% Year Pop. ±% 1990 1,246,722 +3.8% 1995 1,405,892 +12.8% 2000 1,517,585 +7.9% 2007 1,650,022 +8.7% 2010 1,751,267 +6.1% 2015 1,880,020 +7.4% 2020 1,909,537 +1.6% 2024 1,924,651 +0.8% Source: Philippine Statistics Authority [ 66 ] As of the 2024 census, the population of the island's three provinces was 1,924,651. [ 66 ] The main language in all three provinces of Samar Island is Waray . The second most popular language in Samar province is Bisaya, while the second most popular in Eastern Samar and Northern Samar is Cebuano . Samar province and Northern Samar both have a scale of 0.13 in the Linguistic diversity index while Eastern Samar has a scale of 0.02. [ 67 ] Many people in the island are part of the Waray people: in Eastern Samar, 97.78 percent of people were Waray while in Samar, 91.45 classified themselves as Waray. Other ethnic groups include Bisaya , Cebuano , and Tagalog . Males were more populated in both provinces than women. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] As of the 2020 census, 1790014 people in the island are Roman Catholic, 1573 are Islam , and 14643 are part of the Iglesia ni Cristo church. In all three provinces, more than 90% of the population are followers of the Roman Catholic Church. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Administrative divisions and politics The island originally used to be a single province. On June 19, 1965, a law passed splitting the province into three: Western Samar, Eastern Samar, and Northern Samar. [ 72 ] Since there are three provinces, there are three provincial governments each with a governor. [ 73 ] For the House of Representatives , Eastern Samar has one congressional district while Western and Northern Samar has two each, causing the island to have five districts. [ 74 ] The Philippines's 9th senatorial district encompassed Samar and Leyte which had two senators representing in the Senate of the Philippines with 24 representatives. The system was abolished in the early 1940s when the country was the Commonwealth of the Philippines . [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Name Capital Area (ha) [ 77 ] (ha) [ 77 ] Population (2024) [ 66 ] (2024) [ 66 ] Western Samar Catbalogan 604,803 806,179 Eastern Samar Borongan 466,047 472,683 Northern Samar Catarman 369,293 645,789 Economy The island has a major copra industry: of the six provinces in Eastern Visayas, all three of the Samar provinces were placed in the top four based on copra production, just behind Leyte. [ 78 ] Western Samar's industry recorded a 6.1 percent increase from 2018 to 2023. The top three industries in the province are food service activities, transportation, and electricity, steam, water, and waste management. As of 2023, the gross domestic product of the province is PHP 61.35 billion. [ 79 ] The island has rice and root crops, including sweet potatoes and cassava . Abacá and dairy from native carabaos are found in the island. [ 56 ] [ 80 ] In Eastern Samar, two house bills were filed to establish two separate coconut oil refineries. [ 81 ] Palay and banana crops are also made in the province; agro-industries are actively promoted. Fishery is a major livelihood in Eastern Samar's coastal communities, but it is experiencing a decline. [ 82 ] Northern Samar, meanwhile, has rice, corn, vegetables, and abaca. Municipal fisheries and tuna operations are also present in the province. [ 83 ] A commercial complex owned by Metro Retail Stores Group was planned to be created in 2019 in Catbalogan from a contract and was opened on August 30, 2024. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Samar is separated from the main island shipping routes. Iron ore , made from the southeast portion of the isle, is shipped from General MacArthur . There are also coal , phosphate , and chromite industries. Since Samar has many forests, logging and sawmill operations are also done in the eastern coastal towns. Catbalogan is a major commercial center in the island, serving as an important coastal port with fishing centers. [ 56 ] Tourism In 2015, the Samar Tourism Council encouraged tourists to visit attractions in Catbalogan as Governor Sharee Ann Tan held meetings with agency partners and the private sector to further boost tourism in Western Samar. [ 86 ] A One Town One Product (OTOP) center from the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) was launched in Calbayog on June 12, 2024. [ 87 ] During the "Benchmarking Tour" held by Eastern Samar officials in Cebu on February 9, 2023, the two provincial governments made a deal to organize a "tourism circuit" to increase tourism in the two provinces. [ 88 ] A DTI "Heritage Month Trade Fair" was held by the DTI provincial office of Northern Samar in Robinsons North Tacloban . [ 89 ] Infrastructure Transportation A segment of the Pan-Philippine Highway is present in Samar, stretching from Northern Samar to Leyte in the western coast of the isle. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] The N670 highway traverses through the northern and eastern coasts in the island, stretching through all three provinces, starting and ending from the Pan-Philippine Highway. Two other highways connect from the Pan-Philippine Highway to the N670 highway: the Catarman-Calbayog Road, which originates in Catarman and ends in Calbayog, and the Wright–Taft Road , stretching from Paranas to Taft . Another highway extends from the N670 highway to Guiuan . [ 91 ] Four major ports are in the island, namely the Port of Calbayog, the Port of Borongan, the Port of Guiuan, and the Port of San Isidro . [ 92 ] A flight route from Cebu to Catarman National Airport was launched on March 4, 2025, serviced by the Philippine Airlines . [ 93 ] Two weekly flight routes from Cebu to Borongan Airport were also launched in December 2022, also serviced by the Philippine Airlines. [ 94 ] Two airlines service at the Calbayog Airport , namely Philippine Airlines and Cebu Pacific ; the former flies to Manila three times a week while the latter flies to Cebu two times a week. [ 95 ] Power and telecommunication Eastern Samar's electric distribution utility is the Eastern Samar Electric Cooperative (ESAMELCO). [ 96 ] Two electric cooperatives serve Western Samar, namely: the Samar I and Samar II Electric Cooperative (SAMELCO). [ 97 ] Northern Samar's electric cooperative is the Northern Samar Electric Cooperative (NORSAMELCO). [ 98 ] The Philippines' first tidal plant is planned to be built in Catarman, Northern Samar by a private electricity firm, harnessing currents from the San Benardino Strait. [ 99 ] A Singaporean firm invested in a planned wind farm in the borders of the Western and Northern Samar provinces. [ 100 ] Solar power projects were planned in two towns in Western Samar. [ 101 ] In Taft, Eastern Samar, a hydropower plant is operated, with possibilities of it being a tourist site. [ 102 ] The main telecommunication companies serviced in the island are Smart Communications and Globe Telecom . New cell sites from both of the telecommunication operations were planned to be built in Northern Samar. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Over 100 cell sites were planned to be built in Northern Samar following a deal with Governor Edwin Ongchuan and PhilTower Consortium, an infrastructure provider. [ 105 ] Education Six Department of Education divisions are present in the island: three for each of the provinces, and one each for Borongan, Calbayog, and Catbalogan. [ 106 ] Major universities in Eastern Samar include the Eastern Samar State University and four other satellite campuses. In Northern Samar, the University of Eastern Philippines and two other satellite campuses are in the province. For Western Samar, two major universities are placed: the Samar State University with three satellite campuses, and the Northwest Samar State University with one satellite campus. Other local colleges are also in the three provinces. [ 107 ] For the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority , three provincial training centers and five schools are placed in the island. [ 108 ] Healthcare Eastern Samar has 18 hospitals, most significantly the Eastern Samar Provincial Hospital, a hospital with two levels and 100 beds. Northern Samar has 11 hospitals including their provincial hospital with 100 beds too. Western Samar has 11 hospitals also, with the Samar Provincial Hospital and the Catbalogan Doctors Hospital both with 100 beds. [ 109 ] A Senate bill created by Juan Miguel Zubiri was introduced in the 18th Congress of the Philippines , establishing a teritiary level hospital to be known as the Samar Island Medical Center due to the lack of teritiary level hospitals in the island, the nearest being the Eastern Visayas Medical Center . [ 110 ] The law was signed on April 19, 2022, and construction started in 2024. [ 111 ] [ 112 ] See also Negros Bohol References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "2010 Philippine Yearbook" (PDF) . 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University of Hull . {{ cite journal }} : CS1 maint: ref duplicates default ( link ) Villanueva, Elaine Loreen C.; Fernandez, Desamarie Antoinette P.; Tolentino, Paul John S.; Obeña, Ren Divien R.; Buot, Inocencio E. Jr. (December 31, 2021). "Checklist of the Flora and Fauna of the Karst Forests in Basey, Samar, Philippines" (PDF) . The Thailand Natural History Museum Journal . 15 (2) – via National Research Council of Thailand . United States Congressional Serial Set . U.S. Government Printing Office. 1918. Platts International Directory of Electric Power Producers and Distributors . McGraw Hill Companies . 2005. Provincial Profile: Samar . Republic of the Philippines . 1990. Arenque, L. A.; Gabo-Ratio, J. A.; Payot, B. D.; Guzman, J. T.; Yonezu, K. (2025). "Mineralogy and geochemistry of the Paranas karst bauxite deposit of Samar Island, Philippines" . IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science . 1517 (1) 012040. Bibcode : 2025E&ES.1517a2040A . doi : 10.1088/1755-1315/1517/1/012040 . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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ISSN 2573-0142 . ^ Petroni, Fabio; Broscheit, Samuel; Piktus, Aleksandra; Lewis, Patrick; Izacard, Gautier; Hosseini, Lucas; Dwivedi-Yu, Jane; Lomeli, Maria; Schick, Timo; Bevilacqua, Michele; Mazaré, Pierre-Emmanuel; Joulin, Armand; Grave, Edouard; Riedel, Sebastian (2023). "Improving Wikipedia verifiability with AI" . Nature Machine Intelligence . 5 (10): 1142– 1148. arXiv : 2207.06220 . doi : 10.1038/s42256-023-00726-1 . ^ Heart Internet. "Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface" . Archived from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 21, 2000). "The next generation of online encyclopedias" . CNN . Archived from the original on August 14, 2004 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rubin, Harriet (May 31, 1998). "The Hitchhikers Guide to the New Economy" . Fast Company . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedia of Life" . National Museum of Natural History . Smithsonian . 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Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . 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Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. 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Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource 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NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 4 Nobel Prizes 5 References 6 Further reading 1945 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century 20th century 21st century 19th century 20th century 21st century Decades 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s Years 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1945 by topic Subject Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American British Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American American British British By country Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Lists of leaders Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Birth and death categories Births Deaths Births Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments Disestablishments Establishments Disestablishments Works category Works Introductions Works Introductions v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1945 MCMXLV Ab urbe condita 2698 Armenian calendar 1394 ԹՎ ՌՅՂԴ Assyrian calendar 6695 Baháʼí calendar 101–102 Balinese saka calendar 1866–1867 Bengali calendar 1351–1352 Berber calendar 2895 British Regnal year 9 Geo. 6 – 10 Geo. 6 Buddhist calendar 2489 Burmese calendar 1307 Byzantine calendar 7453–7454 Chinese calendar 甲申 年 (Wood Monkey ) 4642 or 4435 — to — 乙酉年 (Wood Rooster ) 4643 or 4436 Coptic calendar 1661–1662 Discordian calendar 3111 Ethiopian calendar 1937–1938 Hebrew calendar 5705–5706 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 2001–2002 - Shaka Samvat 1866–1867 - Kali Yuga 5045–5046 Holocene calendar 11945 Igbo calendar 945–946 Iranian calendar 1323–1324 Islamic calendar 1364–1365 Japanese calendar Shōwa 20 (昭和２０年) Javanese calendar 1875–1876 Juche calendar 34 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days Korean calendar 4278 Minguo calendar ROC 34 民國34年 Nanakshahi calendar 477 Thai solar calendar 2488 Tibetan calendar ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood- Monkey ) 2071 or 1690 or 918 — to — ཤིང་མོ་བྱ་ལོ་ (female Wood- Bird ) 2072 or 1691 or 919 1945 ( MCMXLV ) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar , the 1945th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 945th year of the 2nd millennium , the 45th year of the 20th century , and the 6th year of the 1940s decade. A turning point [ 1 ] in human history , 1945 marked the end of World War II , ending with the defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan by the United States and the Soviet Union in the world of two superpowers which has led the beginning of the Cold War (1945–1991). It is also the year the Nazi concentration camps were liberated and the only year in which atomic weapons have been used in warfare . Events World War II will be abbreviated as "WWII" January January 1 – WWII: Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. January 6 – WWII: A German offensive recaptures Esztergom , Hungary from the Soviets. January 9 – WWII: American and Australian troops land at Lingayen Gulf on western coast of the largest Philippine island of Luzon , occupied by Japan since 1942. January 12 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German Army . [ 3 ] January 13 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive , to eliminate German forces in East Prussia . January 16 – WWII: Adolf Hitler takes residence in the Führerbunker in Berlin. [ 4 ] January 17 WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] January 18 – The Holocaust : The SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp . Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributed. January 19 – The Holocaust : Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto ; only 877 Jews of the initial population of 164,000 remain at this time. [ 6 ] January 20 – Germany begins the Evacuation of East Prussia . January 21 – 22 (night) – At the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing , collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing between 140 and 150 people. January 23 – WWII: Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . January 24 – WWII: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton , nine OSS men, and four SOE agents are executed by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp under Hitler's Commando Order of 1942, which stipulates the immediate execution of all captured Allied commandos or saboteurs without trial, even those in proper uniforms. Morton is the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during the war. January 25 – WWII: Hitler appoints Heinrich Himmler as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania , despite Himmler's lack of military experience. [ 7 ] January 26 – WWII: 19-year-old U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Audie Murphy sees action at Holtzwihr , France, for which is awarded the Medal of Honor . January 27 The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] January 30 – WWII: MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. January 31 – WWII: The Battle of Hill 170 in the Burma Campaign ends with the British 3rd Commando Brigade defeating the Imperial Japanese Army 54th Division , causing the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army to withdraw from the Arakan Peninsula. February February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid 's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut , announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin . [ 9 ] February 3 – WWII: Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. February 4 – 11 – WWII: President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta Conference . February 7 – WWII: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila . February 8 – The Alaska Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945, championed by charismatic native leader Elizabeth Peratrovich , is passed by the territorial Senate, after the legislature defeated a previous bill in 1943. February 9 Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. February 10 – WWII: German troopship SS General von Steuben is sunk by the Soviet submarine S-13 ; 3,608 drown. [ 10 ] February 10 – 20 – WWII: Operation Kita : The Imperial Japanese Navy returns "Completion Force", containing both its Ise -class battleships , safely from Singapore to Kure in Japan despite Allied attacks. February 12 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others. [ 11 ] February 13 – WWII: The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. February 16 – WWII: The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. February 18 – March 5 – WWII: American and Brazilian troops kick off Operation Encore in Northern Italy, a successful limited action in the Northern Apennines that prepares for the western portion of the Allied Spring offensive . [ 12 ] February 19 – 20 – 980 (actual figure is disputed) [ 13 ] Japanese soldiers die as a result of being attacked by long saltwater crocodiles in Ramree, Burma . [ 14 ] February 19 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima – About 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo Jima . February 21 – The last V-2 rocket is launched from Peenemünde . February 22 – WWII: Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. February 23 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . February 24 – Egyptian premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is assassinated in Parliament after declaring war on Germany and Japan. February 27 – The Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyed. February 28 – In Bucharest , a violent demonstration takes place, during which the Bolşevic group opens fire on the army and protesters. In response, Andrei Y. Vishinsky , USSR vice commissioner of foreign affairs and president of the Allied Control Commission for Romania , travels to Bucharest to compel Nicolae Rădescu to resign as premier. March March 1 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives what will be his last address to a joint session of the United States Congress , reporting on the Yalta Conference . March 2 Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] March 3 – WWII: Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. March 4 In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] March 5 – WWII: Brazilian troops take Castelnuovo ( Vergato ), in the last operations of the Allied Operation Encore . March 6 A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. March 7 WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] March 8 Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . March 9 – 10 – WWII: Bombing of Tokyo : USAAF B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan, with incendiary bombs , killing 100,000 citizens in the firebombing. It is the single most destructive conventional air attack of the war. March 11 The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] March 12 – WWII: Swinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation Hannibal . March 15 – 31 – WWII: The Soviet Red Army carries out the Upper Silesian Offensive . March 15 – The 17th Academy Awards ceremony is held, broadcast via radio in the United States for the first time. Best Picture goes to Going My Way . March 16 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. March 17 – WWII: Kobe , Japan is fire-bombed by 331 B-29 bombers, killing over 8,000 people. March 18 – WWII: The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] March 19 – WWII: Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. March 20 – WWII: Hitler dismisses Heinrich Himmler from his military command. [ 3 ] March 21 – WWII: British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. March 22 The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . March 24 WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . March 26 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistance, although there are Japanese holdouts here until 1949. March 27 – WWII: The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . March 29 WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . March 30 – WWII: The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . April April 1 – WWII: Battle of Okinawa : The Tenth United States Army lands on Okinawa . April 4 – WWII: American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. April 6 – WWII: Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. April 7 – WWII: The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . April 8 – The SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp ; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guards. April 9 WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . April 10 – WWII: Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] April 11 – Buchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army . April 12 Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . April 14 – WWII: The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam April 15 – WWII: The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . April 16 – WWII: The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. April 17 – WWII: Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. April 18 – American war correspondent Ernie Pyle is killed by Japanese machine gun fire on the island of Ie Shima off Okinawa . April 19 – Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Carousel , a musical play based on Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom , opens on Broadway , and becomes their second long-running stage classic. It includes the standard " You'll Never Walk Alone ". April 20 – WWII: On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] April 22 – WWII: Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. April 23 – WWII: Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. April 24 – WWII: Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . April 25 Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. April 25 – 26 – WWII: The last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command , the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro Lancasters . April 26 – WWII: Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . April 27 The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] April 28 The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . April 29 At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . April 30 – WWII: Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . May May – Interpol (being headquartered in Berlin) effectively ceases to exist (it is recreated on June 3 , 1946 ). May 1 – WWII: Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. May 2 – WWII: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. May 3 – WWII: The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] May 4 – WWII: German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] May 5 – WWII: Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. May 6 WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] May 6 – 7 – The government of the Independent State of Croatia , the Nazi-affiliated fascist puppet state established in occupied Yugoslavia , flees Zagreb for a location near Klagenfurt in Austria, but is captured in the Bleiburg repatriations that then leads to mass executions. [ 45 ] May 7 – WWII: At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. May 8 – WWII: Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] May 8 – 29 – Sétif and Guelma massacre : in Algeria , thousands die as French troops and released Italian POWs kill an estimated 6,000 to 40,000 Algerian citizens. May 9 – WWII: The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . May 10 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Sark ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops and leaving them under the orders of Dame Sibyl Hathaway . May 12 Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. May 14 – 15 – WWII: Battle of Poljana : The last battle of the War in Europe is fought at Poljana near Slovenj Gradec , Slovenia . May 15 – WWII: Surrender at Bleiburg – Retreating troops of the Croatian Armed Forces of the former puppet Independent State of Croatia (intermingled with fleeing civilians) attempt to surrender to the British Army at Bleiburg , but are directed to surrender to Yugoslav Partisans , who open fire on them. The remainder, after orders are given by Tito , are force-marched through Croatia and Serbia , interned or massacred, with thousands dying. [ 49 ] May 16 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Alderney ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops, the civilian population having been evacuated. May 18 – WWII: Operation Unthinkable – British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly requests his military chiefs of staff to consider a plan for British, American and reactivated German forces to attack the Soviet Red Army on July 1 to preserve the independence of Poland. The operation is ruled militarily unfeasible. [ 50 ] May 23 The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. May 28 – U.S.-born Irish-raised William Joyce (" Lord Haw-Haw ") is captured on the German border. He is later charged in London with high treason for his earlier English-language wartime broadcasts from German radio, convicted, and then hanged in January 1946. May 29 German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. May 30 – The Iranian government demands that all Soviet and British troops leave the country. June June 1 – The British take over Lebanon and Syria . June 5 – The Allied Control Council , the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes power. June 7 – King Haakon VII of Norway returns to Norway five years to the day after leaving for exile in Britain. June 11 William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] June 12 – The Yugoslav Army leaves Trieste , leaving the New Zealand Army in control. June 21 – WWII: The Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972 . June 24 – WWII: A victory parade is held in Red Square in Moscow. June 25 – Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second president of Ireland . June 26 – The United Nations Charter is signed in San Francisco. June 29 – Czechoslovakia cedes Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union . June 30 – John von Neumann 's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC is distributed, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer, with stored-program and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory ( von Neumann architecture ). July July 1 WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . July 2 – The 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion breaks out in Burao and Erigavo in British Somaliland , led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader. [ 52 ] July 4 – Brazilian cruiser Bahia is sunk by an accidentally induced explosion, killing more than 300 and stranding the survivors in shark-infested waters. July 5 The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. July 6 – 7 – Schio massacre : 54 prisoners, mostly fascist sympathisers, are killed by members of the Italian resistance movement in Schio . July 8 – WWII: Harry S. Truman is informed that Japan will talk peace if it can retain the reign of the Emperor. [ 51 ] July 12 – Ben Chifley is elected leader of the Labor Party , and consequently becomes the 16th Prime Minister of Australia , defeating Frank Forde as well as Norman Makin and H.V. Evatt . As a result, Forde becomes the shortest-serving prime minister in Australian history; nevertheless, he retains his post as deputy leader. July 14 – WWII: Italy declares war on Japan. July 16 The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. July 17 – August 2 – WWII: Potsdam Conference – At Potsdam , the three main Allied leaders hold their final summit of the war. President Truman officially informs Stalin that the U.S. has a powerful new weapon. July 21 – WWII: President Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against Japan. [ 51 ] July 23 – WWII: French marshal Philippe Pétain , who headed the Vichy government during WWII, goes on trial for treason. July 26 Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] July 27 – WWII: Bombing of Aomori – Two USAAF B-29s drop a total of 60,000 leaflets on the city of Aomori , Japan, warning civilians of an air raid and urging them to leave immediately. The city was firebombed the next day, killing more than 1,700 people. July 28 WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] July 29 The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. July 30 – WWII: Heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis is hit and sunk by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-58 in the Philippine Sea . Some 900 survivors jump into the sea and are adrift for up to four days. Nearly 600 die before help arrives. Captain Charles B. McVay III of the cruiser is later court-martialed and convicted; in 2000, he is posthumously exonerated. [ 55 ] August August 6 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Hiroshima : United States Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay drops a uranium-235 atomic bomb , codenamed " Little Boy ", on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. local time, resulting in between 90,000 and 146,000 deaths. August 7 – U.S. President Harry Truman announces the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, while he is returning from the Potsdam Conference aboard the U.S. Navy heavy cruiser USS Augusta (CA-31) , in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. August 8 The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. August 9 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] August 10 – WWII: Japan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the Emperor". August 11 WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. August 11 – 25 – Soviet troops complete the occupation of Sakhalin . August 13 – The Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to discuss the founding of the country of Israel . August 14 – WWII: Emperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace . At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT ), U.S. president Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrender. August 15 WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . August 17 Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . August 18 – WWII: Death of Subhas Chandra Bose : Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose is killed as a result of his overloaded Japanese plane crashing in Japanese Taiwan . August 19 – Chinese Civil War : Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the Nationalists . August 22 – Kim Il Sung as the guerilla fighter returned to the Soviet-occupied capital Pyongyang after the Red Army entered the northern peninsula of Korea . August 23 – Soviet–Japanese War : Joseph Stalin orders the detention of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union . August 25 – Bảo Đại abdicates as Emperor of Vietnam , ending 2,000 years of dynastic and monarchic rule in the country and 143 years of the Nguyễn dynasty , Paris marked the first anniversary of liberation from Nazi rule by the French Resistance as a momentous event at the Battle of Normandy against Dietrich von Choltitz . August 30 – WWII: Vietnam 's capital Hanoi is taken by the Viet Minh , which ends the French occupation in what becomes North Vietnam , and thus the southern provinces become South Vietnam . This ends the August Revolution . August 31 WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] September September 2 – World War II ends: Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] September 4 – WWII: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island , after hearing word of their country's surrender. September 5 Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. September 8 U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] September 9 Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] September 10 – Vidkun Quisling is sentenced to death for being a Nazi collaborator in Norway. [ 59 ] September 11 Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. September 12 Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. September 18 Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . September 20 – Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru demand that all British troops depart India. September 24 – Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia : The Topoľčany pogrom is carried out in Czechoslovakia. October October – Arthur C. Clarke puts forward the idea of a geosynchronous communications satellite , in a Wireless World magazine article. October 1 – 15 – Operation Backfire : Three A4 rockets are launched near Cuxhaven , in a demonstration to Allied forces. October 2 – George Albert Smith becomes president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . October 4 – The Partizan Belgrade sports club is founded in Belgrade , Serbia . October 5 – Hollywood Black Friday : A strike by the Set Decorator's Union in Hollywood results in a riot. October 8 – 15 – Hadamar Trial: Personnel of the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre , now in the American zone of Allied-occupied Germany , are the first to be tried for systematic extermination in Nazi Germany . October 9 – Former prime minister Pierre Laval is sentenced to death, for collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France . [ 59 ] October 10 – The Nazi Party is dissolved by the Allied Powers. October 14 – Czechoslovakia : A new provisional national assembly is elected, Kim Il Sung made his first major public appearance in Pyongyang as the celebration of liberation where he was officially introduced to the public by the Soviet authorities as a national hero, a legendary guerrilla fighter and leader. [ 59 ] October 15 – 21 – The Fifth Pan-African Congress is held in Manchester . October 16 – The Food and Agriculture Organization is established at a meeting in Quebec City , as a specialized agency of the United Nations , Syngman Rhee returned to the southern peninsula of Korea as he arrived in Seoul by becoming a prominent figure under the U.S. occupation. October 17 – A massive number of people, headed for the General Confederation of Labour (Argentina) , gather in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires to demand Juan Perón 's release. This is known to the Peronists as the Día de la lealtad ( Loyalty Day ) and considered the founding day of Peronism . October 18 – Isaías Medina Angarita , president of Venezuela , is overthrown by a military coup . [ 59 ] October 19 – Members of the Indonesian People's Army attack Anglo-Dutch forces in Indonesia . [ 59 ] October 20 – Mongolians vote for independence from China. [ 59 ] October 21 – Women's suffrage : Women are allowed to vote in the French Legislative Election for the first time. October 22 – Rómulo Betancourt is named provisional president of Venezuela . [ 59 ] October 24 The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] October 25 WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. October 27 – November 20 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia fight British and British Indian troops in Surabaya . October 29 Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. October 30 – The undivided country of India joins the United Nations . November November 1 International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . November 5 – Colombia joins the United Nations . November 6 – Indonesians reject an offer of autonomy from the Dutch . [ 59 ] November 7 – South Africa and Mexico both joined the United Nations . November 9 – Soo Bahk Do and Moo Duk Kwan martial arts are founded in Korea . November 10 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Following the killing of British officer Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby on October 30, the British Indian Army (in support of its allied Dutch colonial administration) begins an advance on Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies against Indonesian nationalists; although most of the city is retaken in 3 days of heavy fighting, the strength of the resistance leads to today being celebrated as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) in Indonesia. November 11 – 1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election : Marshal Josip Broz Tito and the People's Front win a decisive majority (90%) in the Yugoslavian Assembly. [ 59 ] November 15 Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] November 16 Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. November 18 – The Tudeh party starts a bloodless coup, and will form Azerbaijan within days. Soviet troops prevent Iranian troops from getting involved. November 20 – The Nuremberg trials begin: Trials against 22 Nazis for war crimes of World War II start at the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg . [ 59 ] November 26 – U.S. ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigns after he is unable to broker a deal between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Tse-tung . [ 59 ] November 28 The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] November 29 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. December December 1 – German general Anton Dostler is executed by firing squad in Italy for the war crime of ordering the summary execution of captured U.S. commandos. The U.S. military tribunal which has tried him has not accepted his plea of " superior orders ", setting a precedent for future Allied war crimes trials . [ 63 ] December 2 General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. December 3 – Communist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil War . December 4 – The United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7. December 5 – Flight 19 of United States Navy Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers disappears on a training exercise from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale . December 9 – American General George S. Patton is involved in a car accident in Germany, resulting in his death on December 21. December 21 – Iraq joins the United Nations . December 27 – Twenty-one nations ratify the articles creating the World Bank . [ 64 ] Date unknown A team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (led by Charles D. Coryell ) discovers chemical element 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the periodic table , which they will name promethium . [ 65 ] Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947. The Australian government introduces an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to encourage the immigration of British subjects, at a fare of £ 10, hence they become known as " Ten Pound Poms ". [ 66 ] The first geothermal milk pasteurization is done in Klamath Falls, Oregon , United States. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January January 1 Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver January 3 – Stephen Stills , American rock singer-songwriter ( Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young ) January 4 Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate January 5 Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist January 7 Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) January 10 – Sir Rod Stewart , British rock singer January 12 – André Bicaba , Burkinabé sprinter January 14 – Einar Hákonarson , Icelandic painter January 15 Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family January 17 – Javed Akhtar , Indian political activist, poet, lyricist and screenwriter January 20 – Robert Olen Butler , American writer January 21 Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor January 24 – Subhash Ghai , Indian film director, producer and screenwriter January 25 – Leigh Taylor-Young , American actress January 26 Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) January 27 – Harold Cardinal , Cree political leader, writer and lawyer (d. 2005 ) January 28 Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) January 29 Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) January 31 – Joseph Kosuth , American artist February February 1 – Yasuhiro Takai , Japanese professional baseball player (d. 2019 ) February 3 Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer February 4 – John P. Jumper , United States Air Force general February 5 – Sarah Weddington , American attorney (d. 2021 ) February 6 – Bob Marley , Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981 ) February 7 – Gerald Davies , Welsh rugby player February 9 Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] February 10 – Koo Bon-moo , South Korean business executive (d. 2018 ) February 12 Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist February 13 – Simon Schama , English historian [ 68 ] February 14 Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein February 15 – Douglas Hofstadter , American cognitive scientist February 17 – Brenda Fricker , Irish actress [ 69 ] February 18 – Hashem Mahameed , Israeli politician (d. 2018 ) February 22 – Oliver , American singer ( Good Morning Starshine ) (d. 2000 ) February 24 – Barry Bostwick , American actor February 25 – Roy Saari , American swimmer (d. 2008 ) February 26 – Marta Kristen , Norwegian actress ( Lost In Space ) February 27 – Carl Anderson , American singer, actor ( Jesus Christ Superstar ) (d. 2004 ) February 28 Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) March March 1 – Dirk Benedict , American actor March 3 – George Miller , Australian film director March 4 Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player March 7 – Arthur Lee , American musician (d. 2006 ) March 8 Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter March 9 Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer March 10 – Nobuhiko Higashikuni , Japanese Imperial prince (d. 2019 ) March 13 Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician March 14 – Michael Martin Murphey , American country singer-songwriter March 16 – Douglas Ahlstedt , American tenor March 17 Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) March 18 Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist March 20 Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach March 21 – Charles Greene , American Olympic athlete (d. 2022 ) March 26 – Mikhail Voronin , Russian gymnast (d. 2004 ) March 27 – Władysław Stachurski , Polish football player, manager (d. 2013 ) March 28 Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress March 29 Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) March 30 – Eric Clapton , English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter [ 71 ] March 31 Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] April April 2 – Linda Hunt , American actress [ 74 ] April 4 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit , French political activist [ 75 ] April 5 Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) April 12 – Lee Jong-wook , South Korean Director-General of the World Health Organization (d. 2006 ) April 13 Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) April 14 Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa April 20 – Naftali Temu , Kenyan Olympic long-distance runner (d. 2003 ) April 21 – Ana Lúcia Torre , Brazilian actress April 24 – Larry Tesler , American computer scientist (cut, copy, paste) (d. 2020 ) April 25 – Björn Ulvaeus , Swedish rock songwriter ( ABBA ) April 29 – Tammi Terrell , African-American soul singer (d. 1970 ) April 30 – Lara Saint Paul , Eritrean-born Italian singer (d. 2018 ) May May 1 – Rita Coolidge , American pop singer May 2 – Bianca Jagger , Nicaraguan social activist [ 76 ] May 3 – Jeffrey C. Hall , American geneticist and chronobiologist, Nobel Prize laureate May 4 David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist May 6 – Bob Seger , American rock singer May 7 – Robin Strasser , American actress May 8 – Keith Jarrett , American musician [ 77 ] May 9 – Jupp Heynckes , German footballer and manager May 11 Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist May 13 – Tammam Salam , 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon May 14 – Yochanan Vollach , Israeli footballer and president of Maccabi Haifa, CEO May 15 – Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza , heir to the Portuguese crown May 17 – Tony Roche , Australian tennis player May 19 – Pete Townshend , English rock guitarist, lyricist ( The Who ) May 20 – Anton Zeilinger , Austrian quantum physicist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 78 ] May 21 Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut May 22 – Victoria Wyndham , American actress ( Another World ) May 23 Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer May 24 – Priscilla Presley , American actress, businesswoman May 28 Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) May 29 Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) May 30 Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) May 31 Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire June June 1 – Frederica von Stade , American mezzo-soprano June 2 – Jon Peters , American film producer June 3 – Hale Irwin , American professional golfer June 4 – Anthony Braxton , American composer and musical instrumentalist June 5 John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) June 6 – David Dukes , American actor (d. 2000 ) June 7 – Wolfgang Schüssel , Chancellor of Austria June 9 – Nike Wagner , German woman of the theater June 10 – Benny Gallagher , Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist, half of duo Gallagher and Lyle June 11 – Adrienne Barbeau , American actress, television personality and author ( Maude ) June 12 – Pat Jennings , Northern Irish footballer June 14 – Jörg Immendorff , German painter June 15 Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) June 16 Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician June 17 P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist June 19 Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient June 20 – Anne Murray , Canadian singer June 21 Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter June 22 Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) June 23 Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer June 24 George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician June 25 Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army June 26 – Paul Chun , Hong Kong actor June 27 Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School June 28 Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) June 29 – Chandrika Kumaratunga , 5th President of Sri Lanka June 30 Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician July July 1 Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) July 2 – Linda Warren , American author July 3 – Thomas Mapfumo , Zimbabwean musician July 4 Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist July 5 Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor July 6 – Burt Ward , American actor ( Batman ) July 7 Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer July 8 – Micheline Calmy-Rey , Swiss Federal Councilor July 9 Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer July 10 Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) July 11 – Richard Wesley , American playwright, screenwriter July 12 Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player July 14 – Antun Vujić , Croatian politician, philosopher, political analyst, lexicographer and author July 15 Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) July 16 Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter July 17 Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia July 19 Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician July 20 Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat July 21 John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman July 23 – Edie McClurg , American actress July 24 – Azim Premji , Indian businessman July 26 Helen Mirren , British actress Helen Mirren , British actress July 28 – Jim Davis , American cartoonist ( Garfield ) July 30 Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) August August 1 – Douglas Osheroff , American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate August 4 – Alan Mulally , American businessman, CEO of the Ford Motor Company August 5 – Loni Anderson , American actress ( WKRP in Cincinnati ) (d. 2025 ) August 8 – Julie Anne Robinson , British theatre, television, film director and producer August 9 – Posy Simmonds , English cartoonist August 12 Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) August 14 Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer August 15 Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] August 17 – Katri Helena , Finnish singer August 19 – Ian Gillan , English rock singer ( Deep Purple ) August 22 David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) August 24 – Vincent K. "Vince" McMahon , American professional wrestling promoter, chairman and CEO of WWE August 25 – Daniel Hulet , Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011 ) August 26 – Tom Ridge , American politician August 27 – Marianne Sägebrecht , German film actress August 29 Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete August 31 Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor September September 1 – Mustafa Balel , Turkish writer September 5 K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) September 6 – Victor Ramahatra , 5th Prime Minister of Madagascar September 7 – Jacques Lemaire , Canadian ice hockey coach September 8 Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player September 10 – José Feliciano , Puerto Rican-American singer (" Feliz Navidad ") September 11 – Franz Beckenbauer , German footballer and manager (d. 2024 ) September 12 – Richard Thaler , American economist September 14 – Benjamin Harjo Jr. , Native American artist September 15 – Jessye Norman , American soprano (d. 2019 ) September 16 – Pat Stevens , American voice actress (d. 2010 ) September 17 Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor September 18 John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) September 19 - Randolph Mantooth , American actor September 21 Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet September 22 – Gonzaguinha , Brazilian singer, composer (d. 1991 ) September 24 – John Rutter , English choral composer, conductor September 26 – Bryan Ferry , English singer-songwriter and musician ( Roxy Music ) September 27 – Jack Goldstein , Canadian artist (d. 2003 ) September 29 – Nadezhda Chizhova , Russian athlete September 30 Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter October October 1 Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India October 2 Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") October 3 – Viktor Saneyev , Soviet athlete and Olympic champion (d. 2022 ) October 6 – Ivan Graziani , Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1997 ) October 9 Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) October 12 Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) October 18 Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer October 19 Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) October 22 – Yvan Ponton , Canadian actor, sportscaster October 23 – Kim Larsen , Danish rock musician (d. 2018 ) October 24 Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science October 25 Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor October 26 Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) October 27 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) October 29 Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress October 30 – Henry Winkler , American actor, producer and director ( Happy Days ) November November 3 – Gerd Müller , German footballer (d. 2021 ) November 5 – Jacques Lanctôt , Canadian terrorist November 7 Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer November 8 – Joseph James DeAngelo , American serial killer and serial rapist November 9 – Charlie Robinson , African-American actor (d. 2021 ) November 10 – Madeleine Juneau , Canadian museologist November 11 – Daniel Ortega , 58th and 62nd President of Nicaragua November 12 – Neil Young , Canadian singer-songwriter, musician November 15 – Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Norwegian-born rock singer ( ABBA ) November 17 Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria November 18 Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka November 21 – Goldie Hawn , American actress Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician November 22 – Kari Tapio , Finnish singer (d. 2010 ) November 23 – Dennis Nilsen , Scottish serial killer (d. 2018 ) [ 87 ] November 24 – Nuruddin Farah , Somali novelist November 25 – Mary Jo Deschanel , American actress November 26 – John McVie , English rock musician ( Fleetwood Mac ) November 27 Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) November 30 Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) December December 1 Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer December 2 – Tex Watson , American multiple murderer, 'Manson Family' member December 3 – Bozhidar Dimitrov , Bulgarian historian, politician and polemicist (d. 2018 ) December 4 – Geoff Emerick , English recording engineer (d. 2018 ) December 7 – Clive Russell , English actor December 8 – Julie Heldman , American tennis player [ 89 ] December 10 – John Ankerberg , American Christian television host, author and speaker December 11 – Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor December 12 René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) December 15 Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor December 16 – Patti Deutsch , American voice actress (d. 2017 ) December 17 – Ernie Hudson , African-American actor December 18 – Carolyn Wood , American professional swimmer December 19 – Elaine Joyce , American actress, game show panelist December 20 Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) December 21 – Mari Lill , Estonian actress December 22 – Diane Sawyer , American news journalist December 23 – Donald A. Ritchie , American historian December 24 Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer December 25 – Noel Redding , English musician (d. 2003 ) [ 91 ] December 29 – Birendra of Nepal , King of Nepal (d. 2001 ) December 30 – Davy Jones , English-born pop singer, actor ( The Monkees ) (d. 2012 ) December 31 Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Deaths January January 2 – Sir Bertram Ramsay , British admiral (b. 1883 ) January 3 – Edgar Cayce , American mystic (b. 1877 ) January 4 – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno , 3-time President of Costa Rica (b. 1859 ) January 6 Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) January 7 Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) January 9 – Jüri Uluots , 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1890 ) January 10 – Pēteris Juraševskis , 8th Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1872 ) January 12 – Teresio Olivelli , Italian Roman Catholic soldier and venerable (b. 1916 ) January 15 – Pedro Abad Santos , Filipino politician, brother of José Abad Santos (b. 1876 ) January 16 – José Fabella , Filipino physician (b. 1888 ) January 19 Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) January 20 – Federico Pedrocchi , Italian artist, writer (killed on active service) (b. 1907 ) January 21 Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) January 22 – Else Lasker-Schüler , German poet, author (b. 1869 ) January 23 Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) January 29 – Hans Conrad Leipelt , Austrian member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany (executed) (b. 1921 ) January 30 Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) January 31 – Eddie Slovik , American soldier (executed for desertion) (b. 1920 ) [ 96 ] February February (or March) – Anne Frank , German-born Jewish diarist, writer (typhus in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp ) (b. 1929 ) [ 97 ] February 1 Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) February 2 Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) February 3 – Roland Freisler , Nazi German judge (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 5 Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) February 6 – Robert Brasillach , French writer (executed) (b. 1909 ) [ 98 ] February 8 – Robert Mallet-Stevens , French architect, designer (b. 1886 ) February 11 – Al Dubin , Swiss-born American songwriter (b. 1891 ) February 13 – Maria Orosa , Filipino technologist, chemist, humanitarian and WWII heroine (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 16 – Otto Kittel , German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1917 ) [ 99 ] February 18 – Ivan Chernyakhovsky , Soviet general (died of wounds) (b. 1906 ) February 19 – John Basilone , American war hero (killed in action) (b. 1916 ) February 21 – Eric Liddell , British Olympic athlete (in internment camp) (b. 1902 ) February 22 – Sara Josephine Baker , American physician (b. 1873 ) February 23 José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] February 24 – Josef Mayr-Nusser , Italian Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1910 ) February 25 – Mário de Andrade , Brazilian writer, photographer (b. 1893 ) February 26 – Millard Harmon , American general (b. 1888 ) [ 101 ] March March 2 – Emily Carr , Canadian painter (b. 1871 ) March 3 Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) March 4 Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) March 5 – George Alan Vasey , Australian general (killed in military aircraft accident) (b. 1895 ) March 12 – Friedrich Fromm , German Nazi official (executed) (b. 1888 ) March 14 – Francisco Braga , Brazilian composer (b. 1868 ) March 15 – Sava Caracaș , Romanian general (b. 1890 ) March 18 – William Grover-Williams , British/French racing driver, war hero (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 104 ] March 19 – Marcel Callo , French Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (in concentration camp) (b. 1921 ) March 20 – Lord Alfred Douglas , English poet (b. 1870 ) March 22 Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) March 23 – Élisabeth de Rothschild , French WWII heroine (b. 1902 ) March 26 David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) March 27 – Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil , Turkish author (b. 1867 ) March 29 – Ferenc Csik , Hungarian swimmer (air raid victim) (b. 1913 ) March 30 – Maurice Rose , American general (killed in action) (b. 1899 ) [ 105 ] March 31 Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) April April 7 Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) April 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] April 10 Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] April 11 – Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard , British colonial administrator (b. 1858 ) April 12 – Franklin D. Roosevelt , American political leader and statesman, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882 ) April 13 – Ernst Cassirer , German philosopher (b. 1874 ) April 15 – Joachim Albrecht Eggeling , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1884 ) April 18 Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) April 21 Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) April 22 – Käthe Kollwitz , German artist (b. 1867 ) April 23 – Klaus Bonhoeffer , German resistance fighter, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1901 ) April 24 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz , German SS Reichsphysician (suicide) (b. 1899 ) April 28 Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) April 29 – Achille Starace , Italian Fascist politician (executed) (b. 1889 ) April 30 Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) May May 1 Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) May 2 Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) May 3 – Mario Blasich , Italian physician, politician (b. 1878 ) May 4 – Fedor von Bock , German field marshal (killed in action) (b. 1880 ) [ 108 ] May 6 – Xhem Hasa , Albanian nationalist (assassinated) (b. 1908 ) May 7 – Vladimir Boyarsky , Soviet army officer (executed) (b. 1901 ) May 8 Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 9 – Gustav Becking , German musicologist (b. 1894 ) May 10 – Konrad Henlein , Sudeten German Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 11 Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] May 14 Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) May 15 Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) May 16 – Kaju Sugiura , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1896 ) May 18 – William Joseph Simmons , American founder of the second Ku Klux Klan (b. 1880 ) May 19 – Philipp Bouhler , German Nazi leader and general (suicide) (b. 1899 ) May 21 – Prince Kan'in Kotohito , Japanese prince, member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (b. 1865 ) May 23 – Heinrich Himmler , German politician, Reichsführer-SS (suicide) (b. 1900 ) May 24 – Robert Ritter von Greim , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1892 ) May 25 Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] May 31 Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) June June 4 – Georg Kaiser , German dramatist (b. 1878 ) June 7 – Kitaro Nishida , Japanese philosopher (b. 1870 ) June 8 Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) June 11 – Lurana W. Sheldon , American author and editor (b. 1862 ) June 13 – Minoru Ōta , Japanese admiral (suicide) (b. 1891 ) June 15 Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) June 16 Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) June 18 Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) June 20 Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) June 22 Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) June 24 – José Gutiérrez Solana , Spanish painter (b. 1886 ) June 27 – Emil Hácha , 3rd President of Czechoslovakia , State President of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1872 ) June 30 Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) July July 1 – Félix Evaristo Mejía , Dominican diplomat, educator and writer (b. 1866 ) July 2 – Óscar R. Benavides , Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, politician and President of Peru (b. 1876 ) July 5 – John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885 ) July 7 – Peter To Rot , Papuan Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1912 ) July 9 – Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti , Italian politician, diplomat (b. 1876 ) July 12 Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) July 13 – Alla Nazimova , Russian-born American actress (b. 1879 ) July 17 – Ernst Busch , German field marshal, as prisoner of war (b. 1885 ) July 20 – Paul Valéry , French poet (b. 1871 ) July 24 – Arnold von Winckler , German general (b. 1856 ) July 25 – Malin Craig , United States Army general (b. 1875 ) July 28 – Margot Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith (b. 1864 ) July 29 – Maria Pierina De Micheli , Italian Roman Catholic religious sister, mystic and blessed (b. 1890 ) July 31 – Artemio Ricarte , Filipino general (b. 1866 ) August August 1 – Blas Cabrera Felipe , Spanish physicist (b. 1878 ) August 2 – Pietro Mascagni , Italian composer (b. 1863 ) August 3 – Roman Kochanowski , Polish painter, illustrator (b. 1857 ) August 4 – Gerhard Gentzen , German mathematician and logician (starvation in prison camp) (b. 1909 ) August 5 – Nat Jaffe , American swing jazz pianist (b. 1918 ) August 7 – Jacques Vaillant de Guélis , British/French WWII hero (injuries received in automobile accident) (b. 1907 ) August 8 – Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane , French flatulist (b. 1857 ) August 9 Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) August 10 – Robert H. Goddard , American rocket scientist (b. 1882 ) August 12 – Karl Leisner , German Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1915 ) August 15 Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) August 16 – Takijirō Ōnishi , Japanese admiral (ritual suicide) (b. 1891 ) August 18 Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) August 24 – Shizuichi Tanaka , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1887 ) August 25 – Willis Augustus Lee , American admiral, Olympic shooter (b. 1888 ) August 26 Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) August 27 – Blessed María Pilar Izquierdo Albero , Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed (b. 1906 ) August 29 – Fritz Pfleumer , German engineer, inventor (b. 1881 ) August 30 – Florencio Harmodio Arosemena , 6th President of Panama (b. 1872 ) August 31 Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) September September 6 Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) September 9 – Aage Bertelsen , Danish painter (b. 1873 ) September 12 – Hajime Sugiyama , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1880 ) September 15 Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) September 16 – John McCormack , Irish tenor (b. 1884 ) September 18 José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) September 20 Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) September 24 – Hans Geiger , German physicist, inventor (b. 1882 ) September 26 Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) October October 1 – Walter Bradford Cannon , American physiologist (b. 1871 ) [ 119 ] October 6 – Leonardo Conti , German physician, Nazi officer (suicide) (b. 1900 ) October 8 – Felix Salten , Austrian author (b. 1869 ) [ 120 ] October 10 – Joseph Darnand , Vichy French politician (executed) (b. 1897 ) October 12 – Dmytro Antonovych , Soviet politician (b. 1877 ) October 13 – Milton S. Hershey , American chocolate tycoon (b. 1857 ) October 15 – Pierre Laval , French politician, 2-time Prime Minister of France (executed) (b. 1883 ) [ 59 ] October 18 – Frederick Hovey , American tennis player (b. 1868 ) October 19 Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) October 21 Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] October 24 Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) October 25 – Robert Ley , German Nazi politician (suicide) (b. 1890 ) October 26 Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) October 30 – Xian Xinghai , Chinese composer (b. 1905 ) October 31 Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) November November 8 – August von Mackensen , German field marshal (b. 1849 ) November 11 – Jerome Kern , American composer (b. 1885 ) [ 123 ] November 13 – Sir Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair , British admiral (b. 1865 ) [ 124 ] November 16 – Sigurður Eggerz , Minister for Iceland during World War I and 2nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1875 ) November 17 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1882 ) November 20 – Francis William Aston , British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877 ) November 21 Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] November 23 – Charles Coborn , British singer (b. 1852 ) November 27 – Josep Maria Sert , Spanish Catalan muralist (b. 1874 ) November 28 – Dwight F. Davis , American tennis player (b. 1879 ) November 30 – Shigeru Honjō , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1876 ) December December 1 – Anton Dostler , German general (executed) (b. 1891 ) December 4 Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] December 5 – Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1864 ) December 8 – Gabriellino D'Annunzio , Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1886 ) December 12 – Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1868 ) December 13 Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) December 14 – Forrester Harvey , Irish actor (b. 1884 ) December 16 Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) December 19 – Leonard F. Wing , American general and politician (b. 1893 ) [ 129 ] December 21 – George S. Patton , American general (injuries from automobile accident) (b. 1885 ) [ 130 ] December 22 – Otto Neurath , Austrian philosopher, political economist (b. 1892 ) December 26 Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) December 28 – Theodore Dreiser , American novelist (b. 1871 ) [ 131 ] Nobel Prizes Physics – Wolfgang Pauli Chemistry – Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Physiology or Medicine – Sir Alexander Fleming , Ernst Chain , Howard Florey Literature – Gabriela Mistral Peace – Cordell Hull References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What Was 1945 a Turning Point - 1377 Words | Bartleby" . ^ Girbig, Werner (1975). 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January 6, 2024. ^ "LIEUTENANT GENERAL MILLARD F. HARMON" . Air Force . [ dead link ] ^ Hill, Alec (1979). " 'Chauvel, Sir Henry George (Harry) (1865–1945)' " . Australian Dictionary of Biography . National Centre of Biography, Australian National University . ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7 . ISSN 1833-7538 . OCLC 70677943 . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . ^ "Preview unavailable" . ProQuest . ProQuest 107039613 . ^ "Casualty Details | CWGC" . www.cwgc.org . Retrieved March 8, 2021 . ^ MG Maurice Rose ^ "Georg Elser" . www.gdw-berlin.de . Retrieved January 4, 2025 . ^ "Ontdek amateurschilder, drukker, fotograaf Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman" . rkd.nl . ^ Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945 . London: Allen Lane. p. 750. ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . ^ Wallace, Sam (January 25, 2020). "The imperishable story of Julius Hirsch: the great goalscorer murdered at Auschwitz who adorns Stamford Bridge mural" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. ^ Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (November 3, 2009). Danger's Hour: The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot Who Crippled Her . Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-6081-7 . ^ "AAFA Bio - Kenneth J. Alford" . ^ "Ishii Kikujiro | Biography & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . March 15, 2024. ^ "Boris Galerkin" . TheFreeDictionary.com . ^ Harry Hillman Taken by Death, Cumberland News , August 10, 1945 ^ Firoz Alam (October 1, 2009). Subhas Chandra Bose . Sahni Publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-7564-242-3 . ^ Fildes, P. (February 13, 1956). "Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer, 1858-1945" . Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 2 (2): 237– 247. doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1956.0016 . S2CID 73380545 . ^ .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} Stevens, Halsey. 2018. " Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer ". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018). ^ "Kaupisch, Leonhard" (in German). lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ "Dr. W.B. Cannon, 73, Neurologist, Dead. Harvard Psychology Professor for 36 Years Noted for His Work on Traumatic Shock Became Professor in 1906" . New York Times . October 2, 1945 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 . ^ "Felix Salten | Austrian novelist | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . September 2, 2023. ^ "Felicija Bortkevičienė" . www.vle.lt . ^ Franklin Carmichael ^ Hugh Fordin, Stephen Sondheim (1995). Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II . Da Capo Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-306-80668-1 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ [Sinclair, Sir Edwyn Sinclair Alexander-, of Freswick (1865–1945)] ^ Billy Altman, Laughter's Gentle Soul: The Life of Robert Benchley . (New York City: W. W. Norton , 1997. ISBN 0-393-03833-5 ) Pages 352–362 ^ Inge, Tonette Bond. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture , ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William R. Ferris. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 884. ^ FC, Celtic. "Jimmy Quinn" . Celtic FC . ^ Siegman, Joseph (2020). Jewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496222121 . ^ Wing, Leonard Fish ^ Axelrod, Alan (2006), Patton: A Biography , London : Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 168– 9, ISBN 978-1-4039-7139-5 ^ Theodore Dreiser Recalled . Clemson University Press. 2017. p. 311. ISBN 9781942954446 . Further reading Ian Buruma . Year Zero: A History of 1945 (Penguin Press; 2013) 368 pages; covers liberation, revenge, decolonization, and the rise of the United Nations. excerpt International News Service, It Happened In 1945 The Essential Year Book (1946) Keith Lowe. Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (2012) excerpt and text search McDannald, A. H. ed. The Americana Annual 1946 (1946) events of 1945 online ; encyclopedia yearbook global coverage in 950pp Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, 4 vol., encyclopedia yearbook online v t e Events by month v t e 1949 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1948 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1947 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1946 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1945 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1944 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1943 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1942 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1941 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1940 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1945 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2022 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with dead external links from February 2023 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with dead external links from March 2025 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from August 2019 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 01:14 (UTC) . 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Houpsigk Poozsigge Saachjroppe En zohfälleje Sigg Neu Sigge Neuste Änderonge Et Neuste Wat es dat hee? Hölp Pooz för Medmaacher Klaaf över de Wikipedia Hölp Jiff de Wikipedia Jeld! Ene neue Zohjang aanmälde Enlogge Jiff de Wikipedia Jeld! 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Quelltext anzeigen Väsjohne zeije! Lässe! Quelltext anzeigen Väsjohne zeije! Wat noh heh link Änderonge aan Sigge, wo heh drop jelenk es Permalengk noh heh Övver heh di Sigg Gekürzte URL abrufen QR-Code runterladen Zum Legacy-Parser wechseln E Booch zesamme_ställe Als PDF eronger lahde För ze Dröcke Wikkimehdija Commons MediaWiki Mehrsprachige Wikisource Wikispecies Dahtewikki Wikifunctions Wikimania Em Dahtewikki Nöj op dä Wikipedia? Heä finkgs do Hülp unn kiss verzallt wi et heä all jäijt. Om Spillplaz kannß De eröm probiere. Medmaache Aanmellde Waadung : Uns Boustell Koote Aatikkel Lange Aatikkel Pooz-Sigge Landkaate Aatikkel schrieve : Aatikkel di mer noh brouche Aatikkel di mer noh wolle Sigge di en alle Sproche drin sin sullte Aatikkel besser maache: Sigge en Ärrbëijdt Aatikkel die mieh Jerääschtishkejt bruuche Aatikkel di jet mieh Fläjsch draan bruuche Aatikkel di n Övversäzzer bruuche Wahle : Köbes-Wahle ( Watt ess en Köbes? ) Köbes-Avwahle Affshtemmunge : Watt weed beklaaf? Schablone Klaaf:Lemma Wrede Wikipedia:Schrievwies vunn dä Navvijazion unn dän Lemmas Wikipedia:Bejriffs-Ungerscheidunge Wikipedia:Dialäkk-Ußßdröck Wikipedia:languageKsh.php Wikipedia:Naame för Wochedaare un Moohnde Wikipedia:Hėnwieß op de Shprooch un de Shriifwieß vun Attikkele, Affsätz, un anndere Beijdräch Lück med mieh wi ëijnem Name Saachjroppe Klaaf Äklieronge Wat eß … Wat sinn … ? Aanmëllde Appachtemeng Attikkele Commons Dateije Klaaf-Sigge Pooz-Sigge Saachjroppe Schabloone Shtümmpshenß-Sigge Sigge Söndersigge Wiggerlejdunge Ömlëijdunge „(Watt ėßß datt?)“-Sigge Commons MediaWiki Wikimedija de Wikkipedija Affköözunge Bildscher Less met Bildscher di mer noh brouche Ärledischte Klaaf Arschiiv med de aale Biidrääch Nötzlische Kroom Wööterböcher op Platt - Wi schriev mer an Städtaatikkel - All Medmaacher - Aalste Aatikkel - jeblokkte IPs unn Medmaacher - nöjje Billeder Nöj op dä Wikipedia? Heä finkgs do Hülp unn kiss verzallt wi et heä all jäijt. Om Spillplaz kannß De eröm probiere. Heä finkgs do Hülp unn kiss verzallt wi et heä all jäijt. Om Spillplaz kannß De eröm probiere. Medmaache Aanmellde Waadung : Uns Boustell Koote Aatikkel Lange Aatikkel Pooz-Sigge Landkaate Aatikkel schrieve : Aatikkel di mer noh brouche Aatikkel di mer noh wolle Sigge di en alle Sproche drin sin sullte Aatikkel besser maache: Sigge en Ärrbëijdt Aatikkel die mieh Jerääschtishkejt bruuche Aatikkel di jet mieh Fläjsch draan bruuche Aatikkel di n Övversäzzer bruuche Wahle : Köbes-Wahle ( Watt ess en Köbes? ) Köbes-Avwahle Affshtemmunge : Aanmellde Waadung : Uns Boustell Koote Aatikkel Lange Aatikkel Pooz-Sigge Landkaate Aatikkel schrieve : Aatikkel di mer noh brouche Aatikkel di mer noh wolle Sigge di en alle Sproche drin sin sullte Aatikkel besser maache: Sigge en Ärrbëijdt Aatikkel die mieh Jerääschtishkejt bruuche Aatikkel di jet mieh Fläjsch draan bruuche Aatikkel di n Övversäzzer bruuche Wahle : Köbes-Wahle ( Watt ess en Köbes? ) Köbes-Avwahle Affshtemmunge : Watt weed beklaaf? Schablone Klaaf:Lemma Wrede Wikipedia:Schrievwies vunn dä Navvijazion unn dän Lemmas Wikipedia:Bejriffs-Ungerscheidunge Wikipedia:Dialäkk-Ußßdröck Wikipedia:languageKsh.php Wikipedia:Naame för Wochedaare un Moohnde Wikipedia:Hėnwieß op de Shprooch un de Shriifwieß vun Attikkele, Affsätz, un anndere Beijdräch Lück med mieh wi ëijnem Name Saachjroppe Klaaf Schablone Klaaf:Lemma Wrede Wikipedia:Schrievwies vunn dä Navvijazion unn dän Lemmas Wikipedia:Bejriffs-Ungerscheidunge Wikipedia:Dialäkk-Ußßdröck Wikipedia:languageKsh.php Wikipedia:Naame för Wochedaare un Moohnde Wikipedia:Hėnwieß op de Shprooch un de Shriifwieß vun Attikkele, Affsätz, un anndere Beijdräch Lück med mieh wi ëijnem Name Saachjroppe Klaaf Äklieronge Wat eß … Wat sinn … ? Aanmëllde Appachtemeng Attikkele Commons Dateije Klaaf-Sigge Pooz-Sigge Saachjroppe Schabloone Shtümmpshenß-Sigge Sigge Söndersigge Wiggerlejdunge Ömlëijdunge „(Watt ėßß datt?)“-Sigge Commons MediaWiki Wikimedija de Wikkipedija Affköözunge Wat eß … Wat sinn … ? Aanmëllde Appachtemeng Attikkele Commons Dateije Klaaf-Sigge Pooz-Sigge Saachjroppe Schabloone Shtümmpshenß-Sigge Sigge Söndersigge Wiggerlejdunge Ömlëijdunge „(Watt ėßß datt?)“-Sigge Commons MediaWiki Wikimedija de Wikkipedija Affköözunge Bildscher Less met Bildscher di mer noh brouche Less met Bildscher di mer noh brouche Ärledischte Klaaf Arschiiv med de aale Biidrääch Arschiiv med de aale Biidrääch Nötzlische Kroom Wööterböcher op Platt - Wi schriev mer an Städtaatikkel - All Medmaacher - Aalste Aatikkel - jeblokkte IPs unn Medmaacher - nöjje Billeder Wööterböcher op Platt - Wi schriev mer an Städtaatikkel - All Medmaacher - Aalste Aatikkel - jeblokkte IPs unn Medmaacher - nöjje Billeder Wikipedia Heh di Sigg es et letz aam 10. Febrewar 2022 öm 17:46 Uhr jeändert woode. Die Seite wurde mit Parsoid gerendert. Dä Tex heh kann jebruch wääde unger dä , der Name moß jenannt wääde . Zohsäzlejje Beshtemmunge künne jälte. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Definition 2 History Toggle History subsection 2.1 Before explosives 2.2 Gunpowder 2.2.1 East Asia 2.2.2 Western world 2.3 High explosives 2.3.1 Between the American Civil War and the First World War 2.3.2 First World War 2.3.3 Second World War 2.3.4 Cold War 2.3.5 Middle eastern conflicts 2.3.6 Invasion of Ukraine 2.4 Chemical and nuclear 2.1 Before explosives 2.2 Gunpowder 2.2.1 East Asia 2.2.2 Western world 2.2.1 East Asia 2.2.2 Western world 2.3 High explosives 2.3.1 Between the American Civil War and the First World War 2.3.2 First World War 2.3.3 Second World War 2.3.4 Cold War 2.3.5 Middle eastern conflicts 2.3.6 Invasion of Ukraine 2.3.1 Between the American Civil War and the First World War 2.3.2 First World War 2.3.3 Second World War 2.3.4 Cold War 2.3.5 Middle eastern conflicts 2.3.6 Invasion of Ukraine 2.4 Chemical and nuclear 3 Characteristics and function Toggle Characteristics and function subsection 3.1 Firing mechanisms and initiating actions 3.2 Anti-handling devices 3.3 Smart mines 3.1 Firing mechanisms and initiating actions 3.2 Anti-handling devices 3.3 Smart mines 4 Anti-tank mines 5 Anti-personnel mines 6 Warfare Toggle Warfare subsection 6.1 Guerrilla warfare 6.2 Laying mines 6.1 Guerrilla warfare 6.2 Laying mines 7 Demining 8 International treaties 9 Manufacturers 10 Impacts Toggle Impacts subsection 10.1 Casualties 10.2 Environmental 10.3 Land degradation 10.3.1 Access denial 10.3.2 Loss of biodiversity 10.3.3 Chemical contamination 10.4 Economic 10.1 Casualties 10.2 Environmental 10.3 Land degradation 10.3.1 Access denial 10.3.2 Loss of biodiversity 10.3.3 Chemical contamination 10.3.1 Access denial 10.3.2 Loss of biodiversity 10.3.3 Chemical contamination 10.4 Economic 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 External links Land mine Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 文言 吴语 粵語 中文 Betawi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Part of a series on War ( outline ) History Prehistoric Ancient Thermal Gunpowder Timeline Post-classical Castles Early modern Military revolution Pike and shot Napoleonic warfare Late modern Industrial warfare Fourth-gen warfare AI warfare Prehistoric Ancient Thermal Gunpowder Timeline Thermal Gunpowder Timeline Timeline Post-classical Castles Castles Early modern Military revolution Pike and shot Napoleonic warfare Military revolution Pike and shot Napoleonic warfare Late modern Industrial warfare Fourth-gen warfare AI warfare Industrial warfare Fourth-gen warfare AI warfare Military Organization Command and control Defense ministry Reserves Ranks Branches: Army Navy Air force Marines Coast guard Border guard Special forces Cyber force Space force Specialties: Staff Engineers Intel Recon Medical Police Diving Pilot Land units: Infantry Armor Cavalry Artillery Special forces Signal corps Naval units: Warships Submarines Aircraft carriers Landing craft Auxiliary ships Air units: Fighters Bombers Command Close air support Electronic-warfare Reconnaissance Combat systems: Fire-control system Fire-control radar Director (military) Combat information center Sonar Radar Historical: Ship gun fire-control Gun data computer Torpedo data computer Development: Basic training Military maneuvers Combat training Organization Command and control Defense ministry Reserves Ranks Branches: Army Navy Air force Marines Coast guard Border guard Special forces Cyber force Space force Specialties: Staff Engineers Intel Recon Medical Police Diving Pilot Land units: Infantry Armor Cavalry Cavalry Artillery Special forces Signal corps Naval units: Warships Submarines Aircraft carriers Landing craft Auxiliary ships Air units: Fighters Bombers Command Close air support Electronic-warfare Reconnaissance Combat systems: Fire-control system Fire-control radar Director (military) Combat information center Sonar Radar Historical: Ship gun fire-control Gun data computer Torpedo data computer Development: Basic training Military maneuvers Combat training Battlespace Aerospace Aerial Airborne Space Land Cold-region Desert Fortification Jungle Mountain Urban Subterranean Tunnel Sea Amphibious Blue Brown Green Surface Underwater Seabed Cyber Information Night Aerospace Aerial Airborne Space Aerial Airborne Space Land Cold-region Desert Fortification Jungle Mountain Urban Subterranean Tunnel Cold-region Desert Fortification Jungle Mountain Urban Subterranean Tunnel Tunnel Sea Amphibious Blue Brown Green Surface Underwater Seabed Amphibious Blue Brown Green Surface Underwater Seabed Seabed Cyber Information Night Weapons Air defense Armor Artillery Barrage Biological Camouflage Cavalry Horses Air cavalry Chemical Combined arms Conventional Cyber Denial Disinformation Drone / Robot Electromagnetic Firearms Infantry Loitering Missile Music Nuclear Psychological Radiological Submarine Unconventional Air defense Armor Artillery Barrage Biological Camouflage Cavalry Horses Air cavalry Horses Air cavalry Chemical Combined arms Conventional Cyber Denial Disinformation Drone / Robot Electromagnetic Firearms Infantry Loitering Missile Music Nuclear Psychological Radiological Submarine Unconventional Tactics List of military tactics Aerial Airlift Air assault Airbridge Airdrop Anti-aircraft Anti-sub Anti-tank Battle Cavalry Charge CQC Counterattack Counterinsurgency Counter-battery Convoy Defeat in detail Foxhole Drone Envelopment Formation Guerrilla Naval Shock Rapid dominance Encirclement Investment Siege Swarm Screen Tactical objective Target saturation Trench Withdrawal Aerial Airlift Air assault Airbridge Airdrop Air assault Airbridge Airdrop Anti-aircraft Anti-sub Anti-tank Battle Cavalry Charge CQC Counterattack Counterinsurgency Counter-battery Convoy Defeat in detail Foxhole Drone Envelopment Formation Guerrilla Naval Shock Rapid dominance Rapid dominance Encirclement Investment Siege Siege Swarm Screen Tactical objective Target saturation Trench Withdrawal Operational Military operation Special Operations research Blitzkrieg Expeditionary Deep operation Maneuver Operational maneuver group Raid Covert Stay-behind Military operation Special Special Operations research Blitzkrieg Expeditionary Deep operation Maneuver Operational maneuver group Raid Covert Stay-behind Strategy List of military strategies and concepts Military campaign Anti-access Attrition Commerce raiding Counter-offensive Culminating Defense in depth Fabian Empty fort Mosaic Deception Defensive Depth Goal Nuclear Naval Offensive Scorched earth Military campaign Anti-access Attrition Commerce raiding Counter-offensive Culminating Defense in depth Fabian Empty fort Mosaic Deception Defensive Depth Goal Nuclear Naval Offensive Scorched earth Grand strategy Alliance Asymmetric Blockade Broken-backed Class Cold war Colonial Conquest Containment Divide and conquer Economic Endemic Fleet in being Irregular Liberation Limited Network-centric New generation Perpetual Political Princely Proxy Religious Resource Strategic Succession Technology Theater Total war World war Alliance Asymmetric Blockade Broken-backed Class Cold war Colonial Conquest Containment Divide and conquer Economic Endemic Fleet in being Irregular Liberation Limited Network-centric New generation Perpetual Political Princely Proxy Religious Resource Strategic Succession Technology Theater Total war World war Administrative Branch Policy Staff Training Service Sociology Branch Policy Staff Training Service Sociology Organization Area of responsibility Chain of command Command and control Doctrine Order of battle Principles of war Economy of force Medicine Engineers Intelligence Ranks Technology and equipment Area of responsibility Chain of command Command and control Doctrine Order of battle Principles of war Economy of force Medicine Engineers Intelligence Ranks Technology and equipment Personnel Recruitment Conscription Draft evasion Mobilization Training Specialism Soldier Morale Volunteer Women Children Transgender Harassment Conscientious objector Conscription and sexism Counter-recruitment Recruitment Conscription Draft evasion Mobilization Training Specialism Soldier Morale Volunteer Women Children Transgender Harassment Conscientious objector Conscription and sexism Counter-recruitment Logistics History War economy Arms industry Materiel Train Supply-chain management Defense industrial base Base MOB FOB Outpost History War economy Arms industry Materiel Train Supply-chain management Defense industrial base Base MOB FOB Outpost MOB FOB Outpost Science Power projection Loss-of-strength gradient Lanchester's laws Force multiplication Morale Power projection Loss-of-strength gradient Lanchester's laws Force multiplication Force multiplication Morale Law Belligerent Occupation Armistice Ceasefire Court-martial Desertion Geneva Conventions Geneva Protocol Islamic rules Justice Lawful / Unlawful combatant Perfidy Regular / Irregular Jewish laws on war Right of conquest Right of self-defense Rules of engagement Self-determination Martial law War crime War and genocide War treason Warlord Belligerent Occupation Armistice Ceasefire Court-martial Desertion Geneva Conventions Geneva Protocol Islamic rules Justice Lawful / Unlawful combatant Perfidy Regular / Irregular Jewish laws on war Right of conquest Right of self-defense Rules of engagement Self-determination Martial law War crime War and genocide War treason Warlord Theory Air supremacy Appeasement Command of the sea Deterrence theory Full-spectrum dominance Overmatch Just war theory Principles of war Philosophy of war Security dilemma Tripwire force Wargaming Simulation Exercises Combat effectiveness Center of gravity Air supremacy Appeasement Command of the sea Deterrence theory Full-spectrum dominance Overmatch Just war theory Principles of war Philosophy of war Security dilemma Tripwire force Tripwire force Wargaming Simulation Exercises Simulation Exercises Combat effectiveness Center of gravity Non-warfare Arms control Counter-insurgency Deterrence Disaster response Gray-zone Gunboat diplomacy Humanitarian aid 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War Summary of the Art of War Related Women in war War resister War studies Horses in warfare Wartime sexual violence Fifth column Mercenary Pacifism Privateer Private military company Soldiers are murderers Women in war War resister War studies Horses in warfare Wartime sexual violence Fifth column Mercenary Pacifism Privateer Private military company Soldiers are murderers Lists Battles Military occupations Military terms Operations Sieges War crimes Wars by death toll Weapons Writers Battles Military occupations Military terms Operations Sieges War crimes Wars by death toll by death toll Weapons Writers .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e A land mine , or landmine , is an explosive weapon often concealed under or camouflaged on the ground, and designed to destroy or disable enemy targets as they pass over or near it. [ 1 ] Land mines are divided into two types: anti-tank mines , which are designed to disable tanks or other vehicles; and anti-personnel mines , designed to injure or kill people. [ 2 ] Land mines are typically pressure activated, exploding automatically when stepped on by a person or driven over by a vehicle, though alternative detonation mechanisms are sometimes used. [ 3 ] A land mine may cause damage by direct blast effect, by fragments that are thrown by the blast, or by both. Land mines are typically laid throughout an area, creating a minefield [ 4 ] which is dangerous to cross. The use of land mines is controversial because of their indiscriminate nature and their potential to remain dangerous many years after a conflict has ended, harming civilians and the economy. With pressure from a number of campaign groups organised through the International Campaign to Ban Landmines , a global movement to prohibit their use led to the 1997 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction, also known as the Ottawa Treaty . To date, 164 nations have signed the treaty. However, China, Russia, and the United States are not signatories. [ 5 ] Definition The Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention (also known as the Ottawa Treaty ) and the Protocol on Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices define a mine as a "munition designed to be placed under, on or near the ground or other surface area and to be exploded by the presence, proximity or contact of a person or vehicle". [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Similar in function is the booby-trap , which the protocol defines as "any device or material which is designed, constructed or adapted to kill or injure and which functions unexpectedly when a person disturbs or approaches an apparently harmless object or performs an apparently safe act". [ 7 ] Such actions might include opening a door or picking up an object. Normally, mines are mass-produced and placed in groups, while booby traps are improvised and deployed one at a time. [ 8 ] Booby traps can also be non-explosive devices such as punji sticks . [ 9 ] Overlapping both categories is the improvised explosive device (IED), which is "a device placed or fabricated in an improvised manner incorporating explosive material, destructive, lethal, noxious, incendiary, pyrotechnic materials or chemicals designed to destroy, disfigure, distract or harass. They may incorporate military stores, but are normally devised from non-military components." [ 10 ] Some meet the definition of mines or booby traps and are also referred to as "improvised", "artisanal" or "locally manufactured" mines. [ 2 ] Other types of IED are remotely activated, so are not considered mines. [ 9 ] Remotely delivered mines are dropped from aircraft or carried by devices such as artillery shells or rockets. [ 7 ] Another type of remotely delivered explosive is the cluster munition , a device that releases several submunitions ("bomblets") over a large area. [ 11 ] The use, transfer, production, and stockpiling of cluster munitions is prohibited by the international CCM treaty . If bomblets do not explode, they are referred to as unexploded ordnance (UXO) , along with unexploded artillery shells and other explosive devices that were not manually placed (that is, mines and booby traps are not UXOs). Explosive remnants of war (ERW) include UXOs and abandoned explosive ordnance (AXO), devices that were never used and were left behind after a conflict. [ 7 ] [ 12 ] History The history of land mines can be divided into three main phases: In the ancient world, buried spikes provided many of the same functions as modern mines. Mines using gunpowder as the explosive were used from the Ming dynasty to the American Civil War . Subsequently, high explosives were developed for use in land mines. [ 13 ] Before explosives Some fortifications in the Roman Empire were surrounded by a series of hazards buried in the ground. These included goads , 30-centimetre-long (1 ft) pieces of wood with iron hooks on their ends; lilia (lilies, so named after their appearance), which were pits in which sharpened logs were arranged in a five-point pattern; and abatis , fallen trees with sharpened branches facing outwards. As with modern land mines, they were "victim-operated", often concealed, and complicated attempts by the enemy to remove the obstacles by making them vulnerable to projectiles such as spears. A notable use of these defenses was by Julius Caesar in the Battle of Alesia . His forces were besieging Vercingetorix , the leader of the Gauls, but Vercingetorix managed to send for reinforcements. To maintain the siege and defend against the reinforcements, Caesar formed a line of fortifications on both sides, and they played an important role in his victory. Lilies were also used by Scots against the English at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, and by Germans at the Battle of Passchendaele in the First World War . [ 14 ] A more easily deployed defense used by the Romans was the caltrop , a weapon 12 to 15 cm (5 to 6 in) across with four sharp spikes that are oriented so that when it is thrown on the ground, one spike always points up. As with modern antipersonnel mines, caltrops are designed to disable soldiers rather than kill them; they are also more effective in stopping mounted forces, who lack the advantage of being able to carefully scrutinize each step they take (though forcing foot-mounted forces to take the time to do so has benefits in and of itself). They were used by the Jin dynasty in China at the Battle of Zhongdu to slow down the advance of Genghis Khan 's army; Joan of Arc was wounded by one in the Siege of Orléans ; in Japan they are known as tetsu-bishi and were used by ninjas from the fourteenth century onward. Caltrops are still strung together and used as roadblocks in some modern conflicts. [ 14 ] Gunpowder East Asia Gunpowder , an explosive mixture of sulfur , charcoal and potassium nitrate was invented in China by the 10th century and was used in warfare soon after. An "enormous bomb", credited to Lou Qianxia, was used in 1277 by the Chinese at the Battle of Zhongdu. [ 15 ] A 14th-century military treatise, the Huolongjing ( Fire Dragon Manual ), describes hollow cast iron cannonball shells filled with gunpowder. [ 16 ] The wad of the mine was made of hard wood, carrying three different fuses in case of defective connection to the touch hole. These fuses were long and lit by hand, so they required carefully timed calculations of enemy movements. [ 15 ] The Huolongjing also describes land mines that were set off by enemy movement. A 3-metre (9 ft) length of bamboo was waterproofed by wrapping it in cowhide and covering it with oil. It was filled with compressed gunpowder and lead or iron pellets, sealed with wax and concealed in a trench. [ 15 ] The triggering mechanism was not fully described until the early 17th century. When the enemy stepped onto hidden boards, they dislodged a pin, causing a weight to fall. A cord attached to the weight was wrapped around a drum attached to two steel wheels; when the weight fell, the wheels struck sparks against flint , igniting a set of fuses leading to multiple mines. A similar mechanism was used in the first wheellock musket in Europe as sketched by Leonardo da Vinci around 1500 AD. [ 17 ] Another victim-operated device was the "underground sky-soaring thunder", which lured bounty hunters with halberds , pikes , and lances planted in the ground. If they pulled on one of these weapons, the butt end disturbed a bowl underneath and a slow-burning incandescent material in the bowl ignited the fuses. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Western world At Augsburg in 1573, three centuries after the Chinese invented the first pressure-operated mine, a German military engineer by the name of Samuel Zimmermann invented the Fladdermine (flying mine). It consisted of around a kilogram (a few pounds) of black powder buried near the surface and was activated by stepping on it or tripping a wire that made a flintlock fire. Such mines were deployed on the slope in front of a fort. They were used during the Franco-Prussian War , but were probably not very effective because a flintlock does not work for long when left untended. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] The fougasse , was a precursor of modern fragmentation mines and the claymore mine . It consisted of a cone-shape hole with gunpowder at the bottom, covered either by rocks and scrap iron ( stone fougasse ) or mortar shells, similar to large black powder hand grenades ( shell fougasse ). It was triggered by a flintlock connected to a tripwire on the surface. It could sometimes cause heavy casualties but required high maintenance due to the susceptibility of black powder to dampness. Consequently, it was mainly employed in the defenses of major fortifications, in which role it used in several European wars of the eighteenth century and the American Revolution . [ 21 ] Early land mines suffered from unreliable fuses which were vulnerable to damp. This changed with the invention of the safety fuse . Later, command initiation , the ability to detonate a charge immediately instead of waiting several minutes for a fuse to burn, became possible after electricity was developed. An electric current sent down a wire could ignite the charge with a spark. The Russians claim first use of this technology in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 , and with it the fougasse remained useful until it was superseded by the Claymore mine in the 1960s. [ 20 ] Victim-activated mines were also unreliable because they relied on a flintlock to ignite the explosive. The percussion cap , developed in the early 19th century, made them much more reliable, and pressure-operated mines were deployed on land and sea in the Crimean War (1853–1856). [ 20 ] During the American Civil War , the Confederate brigadier general Gabriel J. Rains deployed thousands of "torpedoes" consisting of artillery shells with pressure caps, beginning with the Battle of Yorktown in 1862. As a captain, Rains had earlier employed explosive booby traps during the Seminole Wars in Florida in 1840. [ 22 ] [ 21 ] Over the course of the war, mines only caused a few hundred casualties, but they had a large effect on morale and slowed down the advance of Union troops. [ 23 ] Many on both sides considered the use of mines barbaric, and in response, generals in the Union Army forced Confederate prisoners to remove the mines. [ 20 ] High explosives Starting in the 19th century, more powerful explosives than gunpowder were developed, often for non-military reasons such as blasting train tunnels in the Alps and Rockies. Guncotton , up to four times more powerful than gunpowder, was invented by Christian Schonbein in 1846. It was dangerous to make until Frederick Augustus Abel developed a safe method in 1865. From the 1870s to the First World War, it was the standard explosive used by the British military. [ 8 ] In 1847, Ascanio Sobrero invented nitroglycerine to treat angina pectoris and it turned out to be a much more powerful explosive than guncotton. It was very dangerous to use until Alfred Nobel formulated a solid mixture he called dynamite and paired it with a safe detonator he developed. Even then, dynamite needed to be stored carefully or it could form crystals that detonated easily. Thus, the military still preferred guncotton. [ 8 ] In 1863, the German chemical industry developed trinitrotoluene ( TNT ). This had the advantage that it was difficult to detonate, so it could withstand the shock of firing by artillery pieces. It was also advantageous for land mines for several reasons: it was not detonated by the shock of shells landing nearby; it was lightweight, unaffected by damp, and stable under a wide range of conditions; it could be melted to fill a container of any shape, and it was cheap to make. Thus, it became the standard explosive in mines after the First World War. [ 8 ] Between the American Civil War and the First World War The British used mines in the Siege of Khartoum . A Sudanese Mahdist force much larger than British strength was held off for ten months, but the town was ultimately taken and the British massacred. In the Boer War (1899–1903), they succeeded in holding Mafeking against Boer forces with the help of a mixture of real and fake minefields; and they laid mines alongside railroad tracks to discourage sabotage. [ 8 ] In the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, both sides used land and sea mines, although the effect on land mainly affected morale. The naval mines were far more effective, destroying several battleships. [ 8 ] First World War One sign of the increasing power of explosives used in land mines was that, by the First World War, they burst into about 1,000 high-velocity fragments; in the Franco-Prussian War (1870), it had only been 20 to 30 fragments. [ 21 ] Nevertheless, anti-personnel mines were not a big factor in the war because machine guns, barbed wire and rapid-fire artillery were far more effective defenses. An exception was in Africa (now Tanzania and Namibia ) where the warfare was much more mobile. [ 8 ] Towards the end of the war, the British started to use tanks to break through trench defenses. The Germans responded with anti-tank guns and mines. Improvised mines gave way to mass-produced mines consisting of wooden boxes filled with guncotton, and minefields were standardized to stop masses of tanks from advancing. [ 8 ] Between world wars, the future Allies did little work on land mines, but the Germans developed a series of anti-tank mines, the Tellermines (plate mines). They also developed the Schrapnell mine (also known as the S-mine ), the first bounding mine . When triggered, this jumped up to about waist height and exploded, sending thousands of steel balls in all directions. [ 8 ] [ 21 ] Triggered by pressure, trip wires or electronics, [ 8 ] it could harm soldiers within an area of about 260 square metres (2,800 ft 2 ). [ 24 ] Second World War Tens of millions of mines were laid in the Second World War , particularly in the deserts of North Africa and the steppes of Eastern Europe , where the open ground favored tanks. However, the first country to use them was Finland. They were defending against a much larger Soviet force with over 6,000 tanks, twenty times the number the Finns had; but they had terrain that was broken up by lakes and forests, so tank movement was restricted to roads and tracks. Their defensive line, the Mannerheim Line , integrated these natural defenses with mines, including simple fragmentation mines mounted on stakes. [ 21 ] While the Germans were advancing rapidly using blitzkrieg tactics, they did not make much use of mines. After 1942, however, they were on the defensive and became the most inventive and systematic users of mines. Their production shot up and they began inventing new types of mines as the Allies found ways to counter the existing ones. To make it more difficult to remove antitank mines, they surrounded them with S-mines and added anti-handling devices that would explode when soldiers tried to lift them. They also took a formal approach to laying mines and they kept detailed records of the locations of mines. [ 25 ] [ 21 ] In the Second Battle of El Alamein in 1942, the Germans prepared for an Allied attack by laying about half a million mines in two fields running across the entire battlefield and five miles deep. Nicknamed the " Devil's gardens ", they were covered by 88 mm anti-tank guns and small-arms fire. The Allies prevailed, but at the cost of over half their tanks; 20 percent of the losses were caused by mines. [ 26 ] The Soviets learned the value of mines from their war with Finland, and when Germany invaded they made heavy use of them, manufacturing over 67 million. At the Battle of Kursk , which put an end to the German advance, they laid over a million mines in eight belts with an overall depth of 35 kilometres (22 mi). [ 25 ] Mines forced tanks to slow down and wait for soldiers to go ahead and remove the mines. The main method of breaching minefields involved prodding the dirt with a bayonet or stick at an angle of 30 degrees to avoid pressuring the top of the mine. Since all mines at the beginning of the war had metal casings, metal detectors could be used to speed up the locating of mines. A Polish officer, Józef Kosacki , developed a portable mine detector known as the Polish mine detector . To counter the detector, Germans developed mines with wooden casings, the Schü-mine 42 (anti-personnel) and Holzmine 42 (anti-tank). Effective, cheap and easy to make, the Schü-mine became the most common mine in the war. Mine casings were also made of glass, concrete and clay. The Russians developed a mine with a pressed-cardboard casing, the PMK40, and the Italians made an anti-tank mine out of bakelite . In 1944, the Germans created the Topfmine , an entirely non-metallic mine. They ensured that they could detect their own mines by covering them with radioactive sand; the Allies did not find this out until after the war. [ 25 ] Several mechanical methods for clearing mines were tried. Heavy rollers were attached to tanks or cargo trucks, but they did not last long and their weight made the tanks considerably slower. Tanks and bulldozers pushed ploughs that pushed aside any mines to a depth of 30 cm (12 in). The Bangalore torpedo , a long thin tube filled with explosives, was invented in 1912 and used to clear barbed wire; larger versions such as the Snake and the Conger were developed for clearing mines, but were not very effective [ citation needed ] . One of the best options was the flail , which had weights attached by chains to rotating drums. The first version, the Scorpion, was attached to the Matilda tank and used in the Second Battle of El Alamein. The Crab, attached to the Sherman tank , was faster, at 2 kilometres per hour (1.2 mph); it was used during D-Day and the aftermath. [ 25 ] Cold War During the Cold War , the members of NATO were concerned about massive armored attacks by the Soviet Union. They planned for a minefield stretching across the entire West German border, and developed new types of mines. The British designed an anti-tank mine, the Mark 7 , to defeat rollers by detonating the second time it was pressed. It also had a 0.7-second delay so the tank would be directly over the mine. They also developed the first scatterable mine, the No. 7 Dingbat. The Americans used the M6 anti-tank mine and tripwire-operated bounding anti-personnel mines such as the M2 and M16 . [ 27 ] In the Korean War , land mine use was dictated by the steep terrain, narrow valleys, forest cover and lack of developed roads. This made tanks less effective and more easily stopped by mines. However, mines laid near roads were often easy to spot. In response to this problem, the US developed the M24 , a mine that was placed off to the side of the road. When triggered by a tripwire, it fired a rocket. However, the mine was not available until after the war. [ 27 ] The Chinese had success with massed infantry attacks. The extensive forest cover limited the range of machine guns, but anti-personnel mines were effective. However, mines were poorly recorded and marked, often becoming as much a hazard to allies as enemies. Tripwire-operated mines were not defended by pressure mines; the Chinese were often able to disable them and reuse them against UN forces. [ 27 ] Looking for more destructive mines, the Americans developed the Claymore , a directional fragmentation mine that hurls steel balls in a 60-degree arc at a speed of 1,200 m/s (3,900 ft/s). They also developed a pressure-operated mine, the M14 "toe-popper". These, too, were ready too late for the Korean War. [ 27 ] In 1948, the British developed the No. 6 anti-personnel mine , a minimum-metal mine with a narrow diameter, making it difficult to detect with metal detectors or prodding. Its three-pronged pressure piece inspired the nickname "carrot mine". However, it was unreliable in wet conditions. In the 1960s the Canadians developed a similar, but more reliable mine, the C3A1 "Elsie" and the British army adopted it. The British also developed the L9 bar mine, a wide anti-tank mine with a rectangular shape, which covered more area, allowing a minefield to be laid four times as fast as previous mines. They also upgraded the Dingbat to the Ranger , a plastic mine that was fired from a truck-mounted discharger that could fire 72 mines at a time. [ 27 ] In the 1950s, the US Operation Doan Brook studied the feasibility of delivering mines by air. This led to three types of air-delivered mine. Wide Area Anti-Personnel Mines (WAAPMs) were small steel spheres that discharged tripwires when they hit the ground; each dispenser held 540 mines. The BLU-43 Dragontooth was small and had a flattened "W" shape to slow its descent, while the gravel mine was larger. Both were packed by the thousand into bombs. All three were designed to inactivate after a period of time, but any that failed to activate presented a safety challenge. Over 37 million gravel mines were produced between 1967 and 1968, and when they were dropped in places like Vietnam their locations were unmarked and unrecorded. A similar problem was presented by unexploded cluster munitions. [ 27 ] The next generation of scatterable mines arose in response to the increasing mobility of war. The Germans developed the Skorpion system, which scattered AT2 mines from a tracked vehicle. The Italians developed a helicopter delivery system that could rapidly switch between SB-33 anti-personnel mines and SB-81 anti-tank mines . The US developed a range of systems called the Family of Scatterable Mines (FASCAM) that could deliver mines by fast jet, artillery, helicopter and ground launcher. [ 27 ] Middle eastern conflicts The Iraq-Iran War , the Gulf War , and the Islamic State have all contributed to land mine saturation in Iraq from the 1980s through 2020. In 2019, Iraq was the most saturated country in the world with land mines. [ 28 ] Countries that provided land mines during the Iran-Iraq War included Belgium, Canada, Chile, China, Egypt, France, Italy, Romania, Singapore, the former Soviet Union and the US, and were concentrated in the Kurdish areas in the northern area of Iraq. During the Gulf War, the US deployed 117,634 mines, with 27,967 being anti-personnel mines and 89,667 being anti-vehicle mines. [ 29 ] The US did not use land mines during the Iraq War . [ 30 ] Landmines and other unexploded battlefield ordnance contaminate at least 724 million square metres (280 mi 2 ) of land in Afghanistan . Only two of Afghanistan's twenty-nine provinces are believed to be free of landmines. The most heavily mined provinces are Herat and Kandahar. [ 31 ] Since 1989, nearly 44,000 Afghan civilians have been recorded to have been killed or injured by landmines and explosive remnants of war (ERW) averaging to around 110 people per month. Improvised mines and ERW from armed clashes caused nearly 99 percent of the casualties recorded in 2021. [ 32 ] Invasion of Ukraine During the 2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine , both Russian and Ukrainian forces have used land mines. Ukrainian officials claim Russian forces planted thousands of land mines or other explosive devices during their withdrawal from Ukrainian cities, including in civilian areas. [ 33 ] Russian forces have also used remotely delivered anti-personnel mines such as the POM-3 . [ 34 ] Chemical and nuclear In the First World War, the Germans developed a device, nicknamed the "Yperite Mine" by the British, that they left behind in abandoned trenches and bunkers. It was detonated by a delayed charge, spreading mustard gas ("Yperite"). In the Second World War they developed a modern chemical mine, the Sprüh-Büchse 37 (Bounding Gas Mine 37), but never used it. [ 21 ] The United States developed the M1 chemical mine , which used mustard gas, in 1939; and the M23 chemical mine , which used the VX nerve agent , in 1960. [ 35 ] The Soviets developed the KhF, a "bounding chemical mine". [ 36 ] The French had chemical mines and the Iraqis were believed to have them before the invasion of Kuwait. [ 37 ] In 1997, the Chemical Weapons Convention came into force, prohibiting the use of chemical weapons and mandating their destruction. By July 2023 all declared stockpiles of chemical weapons were destroyed. [ 38 ] For a few decades during the Cold War , the US developed atomic demolition munitions , often referred to as nuclear land mines. These were portable nuclear bombs that could be placed by hand, and could be detonated remotely or with a timer. Some of these were deployed in Europe. Governments in West Germany , Turkey and Greece wanted to have nuclear minefields as a defense against attack from the Warsaw Pact . However, such weapons were politically and tactically infeasible, and by 1989 the last of these munitions was retired. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] The British also had a project, codenamed Blue Peacock , to develop nuclear mines to be buried in Germany; the project was cancelled in 1958. [ 41 ] [ 42 ] Characteristics and function A conventional land mine consists of a casing that is mostly filled with the main charge. It has a firing mechanism such as a pressure plate; this triggers a detonator or igniter, which in turn sets off a booster charge. There may be additional firing mechanisms in anti-handling devices. [ 43 ] Firing mechanisms and initiating actions A land mine can be triggered by a number of things including pressure , movement, sound, magnetism and vibration . [ 43 ] Anti-personnel mines commonly use the pressure of a person's foot as a trigger, but tripwires are also frequently employed. Because modern anti-vehicle mines usually employ magnetic triggers, they can detonate even if the victim's tires or tracks do not directly impact it. Advanced mines are able to sense the difference between friendly and enemy types of vehicles by way of a built-in signature catalog (an identification friend or foe system). This theoretically enables friendly forces to use the mined area while denying the enemy access. Many mines combine the main trigger with a touch or tilt trigger to prevent enemy engineers from defusing the mine. Land mine designs tend to use as little metal as possible to make searching with a metal detector more difficult; land mines made mostly of plastic have the added advantage of being very inexpensive. Some types of modern mines are designed to self-destruct , or chemically render themselves inert after a period of weeks or months to reduce the likelihood of civilian casualties at the conflict's end. These self-destruct mechanisms are not absolutely reliable, and most land mines laid historically are not equipped in this manner. There is a common myth that mines will become inert and harmless after a few years in the ground, but in fact they can remain dangerous for many decades. [ 44 ] There is a common misconception that a landmine is armed by stepping on it and only triggered by stepping off. [ 44 ] In all cases the initial pressure trigger detonates the mine, since mines are designed to kill or maim the victims rather than having them standing still until the mine can be disarmed. This misperception originated with the fictional portrayal of mines, often in movies in which the disarming of a mine is a source of narrative tension. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Anti-handling devices Anti-handling devices detonate the mine if someone attempts to lift, shift or disarm it. The intention is to hinder deminers by discouraging any attempts to clear minefields. There is a degree of overlap between the function of a boobytrap and an anti-handling device insofar as some mines have optional fuze pockets into which standard pull or pressure-release boobytrap firing devices can be screwed. Alternatively, some mines may mimic a standard design, but actually be specifically intended to kill deminers, such as the MC-3 and PMN-3 variants of the PMN mine. Anti-handling devices can be found on both anti-personnel mines and anti-tank mines, either as an integral part of their design or as improvised add-ons. For this reason, the standard render safe procedure for mines is often to destroy them on site without attempting to lift them. Smart mines "Smart mines" use a number of advanced technologies developed in the late 20th and early 21st century. Most commonly, this includes mechanisms to deactivate or self-destruct the mine after a preset period of time. This is intended to reduce civilian casualties and simplify demining. Other innovations include "self-healing" minefields, which detect gaps in the field and can direct the mines to rearrange their positions, eliminating the gaps. [ 47 ] Anti-tank mines Anti-tank mines were created in response to the invention of the tank in the First World War . Though improvised at first, purpose-built designs were soon developed. Set off when a tank passes, they attack the tank at one of its weaker areas – the tracks. They are designed to immobilize or destroy vehicles and their occupants. In US military terminology destroying the vehicles is referred to as a catastrophic kill while only disabling its movement is referred to as a mobility kill . Anti-tank mines are typically larger than anti-personnel mines and require more pressure to detonate. The high trigger pressure, normally requiring 100 kilograms (220 lb) prevents them from being set off by infantry or smaller vehicles of lesser importance. More modern anti-tank mines use shaped charges to focus and increase the armor penetration of the explosives. Anti-personnel mines Anti-personnel mines are designed primarily to kill or injure people, as opposed to vehicles. They are often designed to injure rather than kill to increase the logistical support (evacuation, medical) burden on the opposing force. Some types of anti-personnel mines can also damage the tracks or wheels of armored vehicles. In the asymmetric warfare conflicts and civil wars of the 21st century, improvised explosives, known as IEDs , have partially supplanted conventional land mines as the source of injury to dismounted (pedestrian) soldiers and civilians. IEDs are used mainly by insurgents and terrorists against regular armed forces and civilians. The injuries from the anti-personnel IED were recently reported in BMJ Open to be far worse than with landmines resulting in multiple limb amputations and lower body mutilation. [ 48 ] Warfare Land mines were designed for two main uses: To create defensive tactical barriers, channelling attacking forces into predetermined fire zones or slowing an invading force's progress to allow reinforcements to arrive. To act as passive area denial weapons (to deny the enemy use of valuable terrain, resources or facilities when active defense of the area is not desirable or possible). Land mines are currently used in large quantities mostly for this first purpose, thus their widespread use in the demilitarized zones (DMZs) of likely flashpoints such as Cyprus , Afghanistan and Korea. Syria has used land mines in its civil war . [ 49 ] Since 2021, land mine use has risen in Myanmar [ 50 ] during its internal conflict . As of 2023, both Russia and Ukraine have deployed land mines. [ 51 ] In military science , minefields are considered a defensive or harassing weapon, used to slow the enemy down, to deny certain terrain to the enemy, to focus enemy movement into kill zones , or to reduce morale by randomly attacking materiel and personnel. In some engagements during World War II, anti-tank mines accounted for half of all vehicles disabled. Since combat engineers with mine-clearing equipment can clear a path through a minefield relatively quickly, mines are usually considered effective only if covered by fire. The extents of minefields are often marked with warning signs and cloth tape, to prevent friendly troops and non-combatants from entering them. Of course, sometimes terrain can be denied using dummy minefields. Most forces carefully record the location and disposition of their own minefields, because warning signs can be destroyed or removed, and minefields should eventually be cleared. Minefields may also have marked or unmarked safe routes to allow friendly movement through them. Placing minefields without marking and recording them for later removal is considered a war crime under Protocol II of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons , which is itself an annex to the Geneva Conventions . Artillery and aircraft-scatterable mines allow minefields to be placed in front of moving formations of enemy units, including the reinforcement of minefields or other obstacles that have been breached by enemy engineers. They can also be used to cover the retreat of forces disengaging from the enemy, or for interdiction of supporting units to isolate front line units from resupply. In most cases these minefields consist of a combination of anti-tank and anti-personnel mines, with the anti-personnel mines making removal of the anti-tank mines more difficult. Mines of this type used by the United States are [ citation needed ] designed to self-destruct after a preset period of time, reducing the requirement for mine clearing to only those mines whose self-destruct system did not function. Some designs of these scatterable mines require an electrical charge (capacitor or battery) to detonate. After a certain period of time, either the charge dissipates, leaving them effectively inert or the circuitry is designed such that upon reaching a low level, the device is triggered, destroying the mine. Guerrilla warfare None of the conventional tactics and norms of mine warfare applies when they are employed in a guerrilla role: [ citation needed ] The mines are not used in defensive roles (for specific position or area). Mined areas are not marked. Mines are usually placed singly and not in groups covering an area. Mines are often left unattended (not covered by fire). Land mines were commonly deployed by insurgents during the South African Border War , leading directly to the development of the first dedicated mine-protected armoured vehicles in South Africa. [ 52 ] Namibian insurgents used anti-tank mines to throw South African military convoys into disarray before attacking them. [ 52 ] To discourage detection and removal efforts, they also laid anti-personnel mines directly parallel to the anti-tank mines. [ 53 ] This initially resulted in heavy South African military and police casualties, as the vast distances of road network vulnerable to insurgent sappers every day made comprehensive detection and clearance efforts impractical. [ 52 ] The only other viable option was the adoption of mine-protected vehicles which could remain mobile on the roads with little risk to their passengers even if a mine was detonated. [ 52 ] South Africa is widely credited with inventing the v-hull , a vee-shaped hull for armoured vehicles which deflects mine blasts away from the passenger compartment. [ 52 ] During the Syrian Civil War (2011-2025) , [ 54 ] [ 55 ] Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017) [ 56 ] and Yemeni Civil War (2015–present) [ 57 ] land mines have been used for both defensive and guerrilla purposes. Laying mines Minefields may be laid by several means. The preferred, but most labour-intensive, way is to have engineers bury the mines, since this will make the mines practically invisible and reduce the number of mines needed to deny the enemy an area. Mines can be laid by specialized mine-laying vehicles. Mine-scattering shells may be fired by artillery from a distance of several tens of kilometers. Mines may be dropped from helicopters or airplanes, or ejected from cluster bombs or cruise missiles . Anti-tank minefields can be scattered with anti-personnel mines to make clearing them manually more time-consuming; and anti-personnel minefields are scattered with anti-tank mines to prevent the use of armored vehicles to clear them quickly. Some anti-tank mine types are also able to be triggered by infantry, giving them a dual purpose even though their main and official intention is to work as anti-tank weapons. Some minefields are specifically booby-trapped to make clearing them more dangerous. Mixed anti-personnel and anti-tank minefields, anti-personnel mines under anti-tank mines, and fuses separated from mines have all been used for this purpose. Often, single mines are backed by a secondary device, designed to kill or maim personnel tasked with clearing the mine. Multiple anti-tank mines have been buried in stacks of two or three with the bottom mine fuzed, to multiply the penetrating power. Since the mines are buried, the ground directs the energy of the blast in a single direction—through the bottom of the target vehicle or on the track. Another specific use is to mine an aircraft runway immediately after it has been bombed to delay or discourage repair. Some cluster bombs combine these functions. One example was the British JP233 cluster bomb which includes munitions to damage (crater) the runway as well as anti-personnel mines in the same cluster bomb. As a result of the anti-personnel mine ban it was withdrawn from British Royal Air Force service, and the last stockpiles of the mine were destroyed on October 19, 1999. [ 58 ] Demining Metal detectors were first used for demining, after their invention by the Polish officer Józef Kosacki . [ 59 ] His invention, known as the Polish mine detector , was used by the Allies alongside mechanical methods , to clear the German mine fields during the Second Battle of El Alamein when 500 units were shipped to Field Marshal Montgomery 's Eighth Army. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] The Nazis used captured civilians who were chased across minefields to detonate the explosives. According to Laurence Rees " Curt von Gottberg , the SS-Obergruppenführer who, during 1943, conducted another huge anti-partisan action called Operation Kottbus on the eastern border of Belarus , reported that 'approximately two to three thousand local people were blown up in the clearing of the minefields'." [ 62 ] Whereas the placing and arming of mines is relatively inexpensive and simple, the process of detecting and removing them is typically expensive, slow, and dangerous. This is especially true of irregular warfare where mines were used on an ad hoc basis in unmarked and undocumented areas. Anti-personnel mines are most difficult to find, due to their small size and many being made almost entirely of non-metallic materials specifically to evade metal detectors . Manual clearing remains the most effective technique for clearing mine fields, although hybrid techniques involving the use of animals and robots are being developed. Many animals are desirable due to having a strong sense of smell capable of detecting a land mine. [ 63 ] Animals such as rats and dogs can be trained to detect the explosive agent. [ 64 ] Other techniques involve the use of geolocation technologies. As of 2008 [update] a joint team of researchers at the University of New South Wales and Ohio State University was working to develop a system based on multi-sensor integration. [ 65 ] Furthermore, defence firms have been increasingly competing on the creation of unmanned demining systems. In addition to conventional remote control mine defusing robots that operate either through precise mechanical dismantling, electronic destabilization and kinetic triggering methods, fully autonomous methods are in development. Notably, these autonomous methods use unmanned ground systems, or more recently subterranean systems such as the EMC Operations Termite, using either outward pressure differentials along system bodies, or corkscrew mechanisms. The laying of land mines has inadvertently led to a positive development in the Falkland Islands . Minefields laid near the sea during the Falklands War have become favorite places for penguins, which do not weigh enough to detonate the mines. Therefore, they can breed safely, free of human intrusion. These odd sanctuaries have proven so popular and lucrative for ecotourism that efforts existed to prevent removal of the mines, [ 66 ] but the area has since been demined. [ 67 ] [ 68 ] International treaties The use of land mines is controversial because they are indiscriminate weapons, harming soldier and civilian alike. They remain dangerous after the conflict in which they were deployed has ended, killing and injuring civilians and rendering land impassable and unusable for decades. To make matters worse, many factions have not kept accurate records (or any at all) of the exact locations of their minefields, making removal efforts painstakingly slow. These facts pose serious difficulties in many developing nations where the presence of mines hampers resettlement, agriculture, and tourism. The International Campaign to Ban Landmines campaigned successfully to prohibit their use, culminating in the 1997 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction, known informally as the Ottawa Treaty . The Treaty came into force on March 1, 1999. The treaty was the result of the leadership of the Governments of Canada, Norway , South Africa and Mozambique working with the International Campaign to Ban Landmines , launched in 1992. The campaign and its leader, Jody Williams , won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1997 for its efforts. The treaty does not include anti-tank mines , cluster bombs or Claymore-type mines operated in command mode and focuses specifically on anti-personnel mines, because these pose the greatest long term (post-conflict) risk to humans and animals since they are typically designed to be triggered by any movement or pressure of only a few kilograms, whereas anti-tank mines require much more weight (or a combination of factors that would exclude humans). Existing stocks must be destroyed within four years of signing the treaty. Signatories of the Ottawa Treaty agree that they will not use, produce, stockpile or trade in anti-personnel land mines. In 1997, there were 122 signatories; as of early 2016, 162 countries have joined the Treaty. Thirty-six countries, including the People's Republic of China, the Russian Federation and the United States, which together may hold tens of millions of stockpiled anti-personnel mines, are not party to the Convention. [ 69 ] Another 34 have yet to sign on. The United States did not sign because the treaty lacks an exception for the Korean Demilitarized Zone . Article 3 of the Treaty permits countries to retain land mines for use in training or development of countermeasures. Sixty-four countries have taken this option. As an alternative to an outright ban, 10 countries follow regulations that are contained in a 1996 amendment of Protocol II of the Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW). The countries are China, Finland , India, Israel, Morocco , Pakistan , South Korea and the United States. Sri Lanka , which had adhered to this regulation, announced in 2016 that it would join the Ottawa Treaty . [ 70 ] Submunitions and unexploded ordnance from cluster munitions can also function as land mines, in that they continue to kill and maim indiscriminately long after conflicts have ended. The Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM) is an international treaty that prohibits the use, distribution, or manufacture of cluster munitions. The CCM entered into force in 2010, and has been ratified by over 100 countries. Manufacturers Before the Ottawa Treaty was adopted, the Arms Project of Human Rights Watch identified "almost 100 companies and government agencies in 48 countries" that had manufactured "more than 340 types of anti-personnel land mines in recent decades". Five to ten million mines were produced per year with a value of $50 to $200 million. The largest producers were probably China, Italy and the Soviet Union . The companies involved included giants such as Daimler-Benz , the Fiat Group , the Daewoo Group, RCA and General Electric . [ 71 ] [ 72 ] As of 2017, the Landmine & Cluster Munition Monitor identified four countries that were "likely to be actively producing" land mines: India, Myanmar , Pakistan and South Korea . Another seven states reserved the right to make them but were probably not doing so: China, Cuba , Iran , North Korea , Russia, Singapore, and Vietnam . [ 73 ] In recent years, arms industry manufacturers have been using non-static mines that can be specifically targeted in order to remove the imprecision of anti-personnel devices, promoting the use of movable underground systems, movable above ground systems and systems that can be expired (automatically or manually via strategic operators.) Development of systems such as Termite, by arms firm EMC Operations has led to criticism from proponents of past multilateral agreements against the placement of land mines and submunitions due to expectations of similar long-dormancy period issues after systems break or fail after it was announced that vehicles would likely be armed to destroy static targets, rather than focus purely on demining efforts. Impacts Throughout the world there are millions of hectares that are contaminated with land mines. [ 74 ] Casualties From 1999 to 2017, the Landmine Monitor has recorded over 120,000 casualties from mines, IEDs and ERW; it estimates that another 1,000 per year go unrecorded. The estimate for all time is over half a million. In 2017, at least 2,793 were killed and 4,431 injured. 87% of the casualties were civilians and 47% were children (less than 18 years old). The largest numbers of casualties were in Afghanistan (2,300), Syria (1,906), and Ukraine (429). [ 75 ] Environmental Natural disasters can have a significant impact on efforts to demine areas of land. For example, the floods that occurred in Mozambique in 1999 and 2000 may have displaced hundreds of thousands of land mines left from the war. Uncertainty about their locations delayed recovery efforts. [ 74 ] Land degradation From a study by Asmeret Asefaw Berhe , land degradation caused by land mines "can be classified into five groups: access denial, loss of biodiversity , micro-relief disruption, chemical composition, and loss of productivity". The effects of an explosion depend on: "(i) the objectives and methodological approaches of the investigation; (ii) concentration of mines in a unit area; (iii) chemical composition and toxicity of the mines; (iv) previous uses of the land and (v) alternatives that are available for the affected populations". [ 76 ] Access denial The most prominent ecological issue associated with land mines (or fear of them) is denial of access to vital resources (where "access" refers to the ability to use resources, in contrast to "property", the right to use them). [ 77 ] The presence and fear of presence of even a single land mine can discourage access for agriculture, water supplies and possibly conservation measures. [ 76 ] Reconstruction and development of important structures such as schools and hospitals are likely to be delayed, and populations may shift to urban areas, increasing overcrowding and the risk of spreading diseases. [ 78 ] Access denial can have positive effects on the environment. When a mined area becomes a "no-man's land", plants and vegetation have a chance to grow and recover. For example, formerly arable lands in Nicaragua returned to forests and remained undisturbed after the establishment of land mines. Similarly, the penguins of the Falkland Islands have benefited because they are not heavy enough to trigger the mines present. [ 79 ] However, these benefits can only last as long as animals, tree limbs, etc. do not detonate the mines. In addition, long idle periods could "potentially end up creating or exacerbating loss of productivity", particularly within land of low quality. [ 76 ] Loss of biodiversity Land mines can threaten biodiversity by wiping out vegetation and wildlife during explosions or demining. This extra burden can push threatened and endangered species to extinction. They have also been used by poachers to target endangered species. Displaced refugees hunt animals for food and destroy habitat by making shelters. [ 76 ] Shrapnel, or abrasions of bark or roots caused by detonated mines, can cause the slow death of trees and provide entry sites for wood-rotting fungi. When land mines make land unavailable for farming, residents resort to the forests to meet all of their survival needs. This exploitation furthers the loss of biodiversity. [ 76 ] Chemical contamination Near mines that have exploded or decayed, soils tend to be contaminated, particularly with heavy metals. Products produced from the explosives, both organic and inorganic substances, are most likely to be "long lasting, water-soluble and toxic even in small amounts". [ 76 ] They can be implemented either "directly or indirectly into soil, water bodies, microorganisms and plants with drinking water, food products or during respiration". [ 76 ] Toxic compounds can also find their way into bodies of water and accumulate in land animals, fish and plants. They can act "as a nerve poison to hamper growth", with deadly effect. [ 76 ] Economic A 2025 study in Econometrica, which examined landmine removal in Mozambique, found substantial economic benefits from landmine removal, in particular in areas where the mines affected roads and railroads. [ 80 ] See also Convention on Cluster Munitions Countermine System Demolition belt List of global issues Mine Protected Vehicle Unexploded ordnance (UXO) Improvised explosive device TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook Mines Anti-personnel mine ARGES mine Blast resistant mine Intelligent Munitions System List of land mines LPZ mine Minimum metal mine PFM-1 Smart mine Wooden box mine Bulgarian anti-helicopter mines Convention on Cluster Munitions Countermine System Demolition belt List of global issues Mine Protected Vehicle Unexploded ordnance (UXO) Improvised explosive device TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook Anti-personnel mine ARGES mine Blast resistant mine Intelligent Munitions System List of land mines LPZ mine Minimum metal mine PFM-1 Smart mine Wooden box mine Bulgarian anti-helicopter mines Bomb disposal Advanced Bomb Suit Places Land mines in Latin America and the Caribbean Land mines in Cambodia Landmines in Israel Land mines in North Africa Uzbek-Tajikistan border minefields Organisations Mines Advisory Group (MAG) Mine clearance agencies Land mines in Latin America and the Caribbean Land mines in Cambodia Landmines in Israel Land mines in North Africa Uzbek-Tajikistan border minefields Mines Advisory Group (MAG) Mine clearance agencies Notes ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Types of landmines" . 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Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-30358-3 . Roy, Roger L.; Friesen, Shaye K. (October 1999). Historical Uses Of Anti-Personnel Landmines: Impact On Land Force Operations (PDF) (Report). Department of National Defence (Canada) . Research Note 9906. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 26, 2008. Schneck, William C. (November 1998). "The origins of military mines: part II" . Engineer : 44– 50. Archived from the original on August 3, 2020 . Retrieved May 19, 2019 . External links ICBL: International Campaign to Ban Landmines Landmines and international humanitarian law Archived October 18, 2010, at the Wayback Machine , ICRC Detector Spots Buried Mines 1943, Popular Science article on the "Polish" mine detector. "How Axis Land Mines Work", April 1944 detailed article on types of land mines E-Mine Electronic Mine Information Network by United Nations Mine Action Services Detecting Land Mines: New Technology , by Paul Grad. Published by Asian Surveying and Mapping Ken Rutherford , "Landmines: A Survivor's Tale" – Journal of Mine Action v t e Fortifications v t e Ancient Abatis Acropolis Agger Broch Burgus Caltrop Castellum Castra Castros Chengqiang Circular rampart City gate Crannog Ditch Defensive wall Dun Elevated entrance Faussebraye Gatehouse Gord Hillfort Landwehr Limes Nuraghe Oppidum Palisade Pincer gate Promontory fort Rampart Ringfort (Rath) Refuge castle Schwedenschanze Stockade Sudis Trou de loup Vallum Wagon fort ( Laager ) Vitrified fort Abatis Acropolis Agger Broch Burgus Caltrop Castellum Castra Castros Chengqiang Circular rampart City gate Crannog Ditch Defensive wall Dun Elevated entrance Faussebraye Gatehouse Gord Hillfort Landwehr Limes Nuraghe Oppidum Palisade Pincer gate Promontory fort Rampart Ringfort (Rath) Refuge castle Schwedenschanze Stockade Sudis Trou de loup Vallum Wagon fort ( Laager ) Vitrified fort Post-classical Advanced work Albarrana tower Alcazaba Alcázar Amba Arrowslit Barmkin Barbican Bartizan Bastion Battery tower Battlement Bawn Bent entrance Bergfried Berm Boom Bretèche Bridge castle Bridge tower Burh Butter-churn tower Caer Castle Chamber gate Chartaque Chashi Chemin de ronde Chemise Cheval de frise Citadel Coercion castle Concentric castle Corner tower Counter-castle Curtain Drawbridge Enceinte Embrasure Flanking tower Fortified buildings ( church , house , Dzong ) Fujian tulou Ganerbenburg Gate tower Gabion Glacis Guard tower Gulyay-gorod Gusuku Half tower Hoarding Inner bailey Kasbah Keep Kremlin ( Detinets ) Ksar Landesburg Loophole L-plan castle Machicolation Merlon Moat Motte-and-bailey Murder hole Neck ditch Outer bailey Outwork Parapet Peel tower Portcullis Postern Powder tower Qalat Reduit Ribat Ricetto Ringwork Roundel Quadrangular castle Shell keep Shield wall Shiro Toll castle Tower castle Tower house Turret Viking ring fortress Wall tower Bailey (or ward) Watchtower Witch tower Yagura Yett Zwinger Advanced work Albarrana tower Alcazaba Alcázar Amba Arrowslit Barmkin Barbican Bartizan Bastion Battery tower Battlement Bawn Bent entrance Bergfried Berm Boom Bretèche Bridge castle Bridge tower Burh Butter-churn tower Caer Castle Chamber gate Chartaque Chashi Chemin de ronde Chemise Cheval de frise Citadel Coercion castle Concentric castle Corner tower Counter-castle Curtain Drawbridge Enceinte Embrasure Flanking tower Fortified buildings ( church , house , Dzong ) Fujian tulou Ganerbenburg Gate tower Gabion Glacis Guard tower Gulyay-gorod Gusuku Half tower Hoarding Inner bailey Kasbah Keep Kremlin ( Detinets ) Ksar Landesburg Loophole L-plan castle Machicolation Merlon Moat Motte-and-bailey Murder hole Neck ditch Outer bailey Outwork Parapet Peel tower Portcullis Postern Powder tower Qalat Reduit Ribat Ricetto Ringwork Roundel Quadrangular castle Shell keep Shield wall Shiro Toll castle Tower castle Tower house Turret Viking ring fortress Wall tower Bailey (or ward) Watchtower Witch tower Yagura Yett Zwinger Modern Early modern Abwurfdach Arsenal Barricade Bastion Blockhouse Breastwork Canal Caponier Casemate Cavalier Counterguard Couvreface Coupure Covertway Crownwork Device Forts Entrenchment Flèche Gorge Gunpowder magazine Hornwork Kotta mara Lunette Magazine Orillon Ostrog Palanka Place-of-arms Polygonal fort Presidio (Spanish America) Punji sticks Ravelin Redan Redoubt Retrenchment Sally port Sandbag Scarp and Counterscarp Sconce Schanze Sea fort Station Star fort Tenaille 19th century Barbed wire Barbette Border outpost Bunker Coastal artillery Disappearing gun Fire control tower Gun turret Land mine Martello tower Outpost Polygonal fort Sangar Wire obstacles 20th century Admiralty scaffolding Air raid shelter Anti-tank obstacles Trench Czech hedgehog Dragon's teeth Barbed tape Belgian gate Blast shelter Blast wall Border security Bomb shelter Buoy Bremer wall Concertina wire Defensive fighting position British "hedgehog" road block Entry control point (ECP) Electric fence Fallout shelter Fire support base Flak tower Hardened aircraft shelter Hesco bastion Jersey barrier Kabal Loophole Main line of resistance Missile launch facility Pillbox Revetment Sentry gun Spider hole Spike strip Submarine pen Underground hangar Weapon storage area Weapons Storage and Security System Early modern Abwurfdach Arsenal Barricade Bastion Blockhouse Breastwork Canal Caponier Casemate Cavalier Counterguard Couvreface Coupure Covertway Crownwork Device Forts Entrenchment Flèche Gorge Gunpowder magazine Hornwork Kotta mara Lunette Magazine Orillon Ostrog Palanka Place-of-arms Polygonal fort Presidio (Spanish America) Punji sticks Ravelin Redan Redoubt Retrenchment Sally port Sandbag Scarp and Counterscarp Sconce Schanze Sea fort Station Star fort Tenaille Abwurfdach Arsenal Barricade Bastion Blockhouse Breastwork Canal Caponier Casemate Cavalier Counterguard Couvreface Coupure Covertway Crownwork Device Forts Entrenchment Flèche Gorge Gunpowder magazine Hornwork Kotta mara Lunette Magazine Orillon Ostrog Palanka Place-of-arms Polygonal fort Presidio (Spanish America) Punji sticks Ravelin Redan Redoubt Retrenchment Sally port Sandbag Scarp and Counterscarp Sconce Schanze Sea fort Station Star fort Tenaille 19th century Barbed wire Barbette Border outpost Bunker Coastal artillery Disappearing gun Fire control tower Gun turret Land mine Martello tower Outpost Polygonal fort Sangar Wire obstacles Barbed wire Barbette Border outpost Bunker Coastal artillery Disappearing gun Fire control tower Gun turret Land mine Martello tower Outpost Polygonal fort Sangar Wire obstacles 20th century Admiralty scaffolding Air raid shelter Anti-tank obstacles Trench Czech hedgehog Dragon's teeth Barbed tape Belgian gate Blast shelter Blast wall Border security Bomb shelter Buoy Bremer wall Concertina wire Defensive fighting position British "hedgehog" road block Entry control point (ECP) Electric fence Fallout shelter Fire support base Flak tower Hardened aircraft shelter Hesco bastion Jersey barrier Kabal Loophole Main line of resistance Missile launch facility Pillbox Revetment Sentry gun Spider hole Spike strip Submarine pen Underground hangar Weapon storage area Weapons Storage and Security System Admiralty scaffolding Air raid shelter Anti-tank obstacles Trench Czech hedgehog Dragon's teeth Trench Czech hedgehog Dragon's teeth Barbed tape Belgian gate Blast shelter Blast wall Border security Bomb shelter Buoy Bremer wall Concertina wire Defensive fighting position British "hedgehog" road block Entry control point (ECP) Electric fence Fallout shelter Fire support base Flak tower Hardened aircraft shelter Hesco bastion Jersey barrier Kabal Loophole Main line of resistance Missile launch facility Pillbox Revetment Sentry gun Spider hole Spike strip Submarine pen Underground hangar Weapon storage area Weapons Storage and Security System By topography Cave castle Hill castle Hillfort Hillside castle Hilltop castle Island castle Lowland castle Marsh castle Moated castle Promontory fort Ridge castle Rocca Rock castle Spur castle Water castle Floating water castle Cave castle Hill castle Hillfort Hillside castle Hilltop castle Island castle Lowland castle Marsh castle Moated castle Promontory fort Ridge castle Rocca Rock castle Spur castle Water castle Floating water castle By role Border barrier Coastal defence Coercion castle Counter-castle Fence Ganerbenburg Hunting lodge Imperial castle Kaiserpfalz Landesburg Lustschloss Military base Obstacle Ordensburg Refuge castle Toll castle Urban castle Border barrier Coastal defence Coercion castle Counter-castle Fence Ganerbenburg Hunting lodge Imperial castle Kaiserpfalz Landesburg Lustschloss Military base Obstacle Ordensburg Refuge castle Toll castle Urban castle By design Bastion fort Bridge castle Circular rampart Concentric castle L-plan castle Motte-and-bailey castle Quadrangular castle Ringfort Ringwork Tower castle Z-plan castle Bastion fort Bridge castle Circular rampart Concentric castle L-plan castle Motte-and-bailey castle Quadrangular castle Ringfort Ringwork Tower castle Z-plan castle Lists Bastion forts Castles Cities with defensive walls Defense line Fortified estate Fortifications Forts Military installations Walls Bastion forts Castles Cities with defensive walls Defense line Fortified estate Fortifications Forts Military installations Walls Related word Castle town Château Dungeon Festung Fortified gateway Gatekeeper Loophole National redoubt Palas Picket Schloss Trench Vedette Castle town Château Dungeon Festung Fortified gateway Gatekeeper Loophole National redoubt Palas Picket Schloss Trench Vedette Other topics Civil defense Continuity of government Military urbanism Subterranean warfare Siege Siege engine list Tunnel warfare Trench warfare Urban warfare Guerrilla Civil defense Continuity of government Military urbanism Subterranean warfare Siege Siege engine list list Tunnel warfare Trench warfare Urban warfare Guerrilla Guerrilla See also : Category See also : Category Authority control databases International GND GND National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Israel Other NARA Yale LUX NARA Yale LUX 13th-century inventions Chinese inventions Explosive weapons Land mines Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use mdy dates from August 2021 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2022 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2012 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2019 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2008 All articles containing potentially dated statements Commons link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 25 November 2025, at 19:19 (UTC) . 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Hoofdpagina Vind een artikel Vandaag Etalage Categorieën Recente wijzigingen Nieuwe artikelen Willekeurige pagina Speciale pagina's Gebruikersportaal Snelcursus Hulp en contact Doneren Account aanmaken Aanmelden Doneren Account aanmaken Aanmelden Inhoud Top 1 Stichting 2 Behoud troon Behoud troon-subkopje inklappen 2.1 Karolingische Huis (751 tot 987) 2.1 Karolingische Huis (751 tot 987) 3 Karolingische dynastie - tijdlijn en gevolgen Karolingische dynastie - tijdlijn en gevolgen-subkopje inklappen 3.1 De overname van het Merovingische rijk 3.2 Gevolgen van het verbond tussen Pepijn de Korte en de paus 3.1 De overname van het Merovingische rijk 3.2 Gevolgen van het verbond tussen Pepijn de Korte en de paus 4 Karel de Grote Karel de Grote-subkopje inklappen 4.1 Het politiek beleid van Karel de Grote 4.2 De feodaliteit 4.3 Het cultureel beleid van Karel De Grote 4.1 Het politiek beleid van Karel de Grote 4.2 De feodaliteit 4.3 Het cultureel beleid van Karel De Grote 5 Noten 6 Referenties & verder lezen Karolingen Afrikaans Alemannisch Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული 한국어 Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Limburgs Lietuvių Latviešu Македонски Bahasa Melayu Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Picard Polski پښتو Português Română Русский Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Tiếng Việt West-Vlams 吴语 中文 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Artikel Overleg Lezen Bewerken Brontekst bewerken Geschiedenis Lezen Bewerken Brontekst bewerken Geschiedenis Links naar deze pagina Gerelateerde wijzigingen Bestand uploaden Permanente koppeling Paginagegevens Deze pagina citeren Verkorte URL verkrijgen QR-code downloaden Naar de oude parser overschakelen Boek aanmaken Downloaden als PDF Afdrukversie Wikimedia Commons Wikidata-item Geschiedenis van Frankrijk Prehistorie Kelten (vanaf 7e eeuw v.Chr.) Romeinse tijd Romeinen (51 v. Chr.-486) Franken (vanaf 287) Middeleeuwen Frankische Rijk : (481-887/8) Merovingen (481-751) Karolingen (751-987) West-Francië (843-987) Koninkrijk Frankrijk : (987-1791) Capetingen (987-1328) Valois (1328-1589) Vroegmoderne Tijd Ancien régime Bourbon (1589-1792) Franse Revolutie (1789) Koninkrijk Frankrijk (1791-1792) Eerste Republiek (1792-1804) Eerste Keizerrijk (1804-1815) Restauratie (1815-1830) Moderne Tijd Julimonarchie (1830-1848) Tweede Republiek (1848-1852) Tweede Keizerrijk (1852-1870) Derde Republiek (1870-1940/'46) Vichy-regime (1940-1944) Voorlopige Regering (1944-1946/47) Vierde Republiek (1946-1958) Vijfde Republiek (1958-heden) Franse koloniale rijk Portaal Frankrijk Portaal Geschiedenis De drie grote rijken rond 800, het Byzantijnse Rijk , het Arabische Rijk en het Karolingische Rijk . De Karolingen (Frans: Carolingiens , Duits: Karolinger ) waren een dynastie , die het Frankische Rijk regeerde van de 8e tot de 10e eeuw . De karolingische dynastie nam, in de persoon van Pepijn de Korte , in 751 het Frankische rijk over van de Merovingen . De naam Karolingen is afgeleid van de voornaam van Karel Martel , een telg die, als bastaardzoon , destijds niet als volwaardig lid van de Pepiniden werd aanvaard. [ 1 ] Lodewijk IV van Chiny (1173-1226) was de laatste nakomeling in de mannelijke lijn van de Karolingen. Geschiedenis van Frankrijk Prehistorie Kelten (vanaf 7e eeuw v.Chr.) Romeinse tijd Romeinen (51 v. Chr.-486) Franken (vanaf 287) Middeleeuwen Frankische Rijk : (481-887/8) Merovingen (481-751) Karolingen (751-987) West-Francië (843-987) Koninkrijk Frankrijk : (987-1791) Capetingen (987-1328) Valois (1328-1589) Vroegmoderne Tijd Ancien régime Bourbon (1589-1792) Franse Revolutie (1789) Koninkrijk Frankrijk (1791-1792) Eerste Republiek (1792-1804) Eerste Keizerrijk (1804-1815) Restauratie (1815-1830) Moderne Tijd Julimonarchie (1830-1848) Tweede Republiek (1848-1852) Tweede Keizerrijk (1852-1870) Derde Republiek (1870-1940/'46) Vichy-regime (1940-1944) Voorlopige Regering (1944-1946/47) Vierde Republiek (1946-1958) Vijfde Republiek (1958-heden) Franse koloniale rijk Prehistorie Kelten (vanaf 7e eeuw v.Chr.) Romeinse tijd Romeinen (51 v. Chr.-486) Franken (vanaf 287) Middeleeuwen Frankische Rijk : (481-887/8) West-Francië (843-987) Koninkrijk Frankrijk : (987-1791) Vroegmoderne Tijd Koninkrijk Frankrijk (1791-1792) Eerste Republiek (1792-1804) Eerste Keizerrijk (1804-1815) Restauratie (1815-1830) Moderne Tijd Julimonarchie (1830-1848) Tweede Republiek (1848-1852) Tweede Keizerrijk (1852-1870) Derde Republiek (1870-1940/'46) Vichy-regime (1940-1944) Voorlopige Regering (1944-1946/47) Vierde Republiek (1946-1958) Vijfde Republiek (1958-heden) Franse koloniale rijk Portaal Frankrijk Portaal Geschiedenis De Karolingen (Frans: Carolingiens , Duits: Karolinger ) waren een dynastie , die het Frankische Rijk regeerde van de 8e tot de 10e eeuw . De karolingische dynastie nam, in de persoon van Pepijn de Korte , in 751 het Frankische rijk over van de Merovingen . De naam Karolingen is afgeleid van de voornaam van Karel Martel , een telg die, als bastaardzoon , destijds niet als volwaardig lid van de Pepiniden werd aanvaard. [ 1 ] Lodewijk IV van Chiny (1173-1226) was de laatste nakomeling in de mannelijke lijn van de Karolingen. Stichting [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] Er wordt aangenomen dat de dynastie van de Arnulfingen en Pepiniden gesticht werd door Arnulf van Metz , bisschop van Metz aan het einde van de 7e eeuw , die een grote macht had in de Merovingische koninkrijken. Pepijn van Herstal , hofmeier van het koninkrijk Austrasië , had de feitelijke macht in handen. Pepijn werd, na de Frankische Burgeroorlog met de wettige erfgenamen van de Pepiniden, opgevolgd door zijn bastaardzoon, Karel Martel . Hiermee won de partij van de Karolingen (de geslachtsnaam begon dus als een partijnaam) het van de Pepiniden. Karel Martel was de vader van Pepijn de Korte, de eerste Frankische koning van de dynastie, die de laatste Merovingische koning Childeric III afzette. Karel Martel wist in 732 een Moors leger tussen Tours en Poitiers te verslaan, tijdens een van de talrijke Arabische strooptochten vanuit Spanje naar Frankrijk . Het Moorse leger werd in deze Slag bij Poitiers verslagen. In de Angelsaksische historiografische vakliteratuur wordt deze meestal de Slag bij Tours genoemd. De Karolingen stonden aan de wieg van de Pauselijke Staat , doordat Pepijn het vroegere Byzantijnse exarchaat Ravenna , het gebied tussen Ravenna en Rome, aan de paus schonk. Karel de Grote vergrootte het aanzien van de Karolingen verder, doordat hij het gebied van zijn rijk uitbreidde, en door zijn goede politiek , waarmee hij eenheid in het rijk creëerde. Stichting Er wordt aangenomen dat de dynastie van de Arnulfingen en Pepiniden gesticht werd door Arnulf van Metz , bisschop van Metz aan het einde van de 7e eeuw , die een grote macht had in de Merovingische koninkrijken. Pepijn van Herstal , hofmeier van het koninkrijk Austrasië , had de feitelijke macht in handen. Pepijn werd, na de Frankische Burgeroorlog met de wettige erfgenamen van de Pepiniden, opgevolgd door zijn bastaardzoon, Karel Martel . Hiermee won de partij van de Karolingen (de geslachtsnaam begon dus als een partijnaam) het van de Pepiniden. Karel Martel was de vader van Pepijn de Korte, de eerste Frankische koning van de dynastie, die de laatste Merovingische koning Childeric III afzette. Karel Martel wist in 732 een Moors leger tussen Tours en Poitiers te verslaan, tijdens een van de talrijke Arabische strooptochten vanuit Spanje naar Frankrijk . Het Moorse leger werd in deze Slag bij Poitiers verslagen. In de Angelsaksische historiografische vakliteratuur wordt deze meestal de Slag bij Tours genoemd. De Karolingen stonden aan de wieg van de Pauselijke Staat , doordat Pepijn het vroegere Byzantijnse exarchaat Ravenna , het gebied tussen Ravenna en Rome, aan de paus schonk. Karel de Grote vergrootte het aanzien van de Karolingen verder, doordat hij het gebied van zijn rijk uitbreidde, en door zijn goede politiek , waarmee hij eenheid in het rijk creëerde. Behoud troon [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] Na de deling van het Frankische Rijk , die werd vastgelegd in het Verdrag van Verdun in 843 , bleven de Karolingen de troon behouden. In het westen, het latere Frankrijk , bleef de dynastie regeren, tot in 987 het Huis Capet , een verwante tak van de familie, de troon overnam. In het midden, Noord- Italië en in Lotharingen bleef de hoofdtak van de familie regeren tot 887 . In het oosten, wat later het Heilige Roomse Rijk werd, bleven de Karolingen regeren tot 911 , toen ze werden opgevolgd door de Konradijnen en de Saksische Liudolfingen . In het hertogdom Neder-Lotharingen regeerden Karel van Neder-Lotharingen (953 - 992) en Otto II van Neder-Lotharingen (970 - 1012) tot 1012 als laatste van de rechtstreekse Karolingen. In tegenstelling tot zijn vader Karel eiste Otto de Franse koningskroon niet op. Zijn jongere broer Lodewijk die evenmin interesse naar de koningskroon had stierf in 1023 als monnik. Er wordt aangenomen dat Lodewijk IV van Chiny die in 1226 stierf en in de abdij van Orval werd begraven de laatste in rechte lijn mannelijke Karolinger was. Zijn afstamming verloopt via de Karolingische graven van Vermandois en Chiny . Karolingische Huis (751 tot 987) [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] NAAM PERIODE Opmerkingen: Childerik III 743 - 751 HUIS MEROVINGEN Pepijn de Korte 751 - 768 Carloman I 768 - 771 Karel de Grote 768 - 814 Lodewijk de Vrome 814 - 840 Karel de Kale 840 - 877 Lodewijk de Stamelaar 877 - 879 Lodewijk III 879 - 882 Karloman van Frankrijk 882 - 884 Karel de Dikke 884 - 887 Odo I 887 - 898 HUIS ROBERTIJNEN Karel de Eenvoudige 898 - 922 Robert I 922 - 923 HUIS ROBERTIJNEN Rudolf I 923 - 936 HUIS BOSONIDEN Lodewijk IV 936 - 954 Lotharius 954 - 986 Lodewijk V 986 - 987 Hugo Capet 987 - 996 HUIS CAPETINGEN Behoud troon Na de deling van het Frankische Rijk , die werd vastgelegd in het Verdrag van Verdun in 843 , bleven de Karolingen de troon behouden. In het westen, het latere Frankrijk , bleef de dynastie regeren, tot in 987 het Huis Capet , een verwante tak van de familie, de troon overnam. In het midden, Noord- Italië en in Lotharingen bleef de hoofdtak van de familie regeren tot 887 . In het oosten, wat later het Heilige Roomse Rijk werd, bleven de Karolingen regeren tot 911 , toen ze werden opgevolgd door de Konradijnen en de Saksische Liudolfingen . In het hertogdom Neder-Lotharingen regeerden Karel van Neder-Lotharingen (953 - 992) en Otto II van Neder-Lotharingen (970 - 1012) tot 1012 als laatste van de rechtstreekse Karolingen. In tegenstelling tot zijn vader Karel eiste Otto de Franse koningskroon niet op. Zijn jongere broer Lodewijk die evenmin interesse naar de koningskroon had stierf in 1023 als monnik. Er wordt aangenomen dat Lodewijk IV van Chiny die in 1226 stierf en in de abdij van Orval werd begraven de laatste in rechte lijn mannelijke Karolinger was. Zijn afstamming verloopt via de Karolingische graven van Vermandois en Chiny . Karolingische Huis (751 tot 987) [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] NAAM PERIODE Opmerkingen: Childerik III 743 - 751 HUIS MEROVINGEN Pepijn de Korte 751 - 768 Carloman I 768 - 771 Karel de Grote 768 - 814 Lodewijk de Vrome 814 - 840 Karel de Kale 840 - 877 Lodewijk de Stamelaar 877 - 879 Lodewijk III 879 - 882 Karloman van Frankrijk 882 - 884 Karel de Dikke 884 - 887 Odo I 887 - 898 HUIS ROBERTIJNEN Karel de Eenvoudige 898 - 922 Robert I 922 - 923 HUIS ROBERTIJNEN Rudolf I 923 - 936 HUIS BOSONIDEN Lodewijk IV 936 - 954 Lotharius 954 - 986 Lodewijk V 986 - 987 Hugo Capet 987 - 996 HUIS CAPETINGEN Karolingische Huis (751 tot 987) NAAM PERIODE Opmerkingen: Childerik III 743 - 751 HUIS MEROVINGEN Pepijn de Korte 751 - 768 Carloman I 768 - 771 Karel de Grote 768 - 814 Lodewijk de Vrome 814 - 840 Karel de Kale 840 - 877 Lodewijk de Stamelaar 877 - 879 Lodewijk III 879 - 882 Karloman van Frankrijk 882 - 884 Karel de Dikke 884 - 887 Odo I 887 - 898 HUIS ROBERTIJNEN Karel de Eenvoudige 898 - 922 Robert I 922 - 923 HUIS ROBERTIJNEN Rudolf I 923 - 936 HUIS BOSONIDEN Lodewijk IV 936 - 954 Lotharius 954 - 986 Lodewijk V 986 - 987 Hugo Capet 987 - 996 HUIS CAPETINGEN Karolingische dynastie - tijdlijn en gevolgen [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] De overname van het Merovingische rijk [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] Het begon allemaal met Pepijn III De Korte die de macht overnam in Austrasië , doordat hij zich liet erkennen als enige hofmeier van het land. Zijn vader Karel Martel , de stichter van de Karolingen (omdat hij als bastaardzoon niet als lid van de Pepiniden werd aanvaard), verwierf nog meer aanzien doordat hij in 732 een Moors leger tussen Tours en Poitiers versloeg: de islamitische ruiterij reed zich te pletter tegen de zwaarbewapende Frankische infanterie. Daarmee maakte hij verleden van een van de talrijke Arabische strooptochten vanuit Spanje naar Frankrijk. Pepijn de Korte , de zoon van Karel Martel, stootte de laatste Merovingische koning, Childerik III , van de troon en nam de macht over, mede door de steun van de toenmalige paus. Gevolgen van het verbond tussen Pepijn de Korte en de paus [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] De Karolingische dynastie kwam aan de macht De Pauselijke Staat ontstond doordat Pepijns vader, Karel Martel, het vroegere exarchaat Ravenna (gebied tussen Ravenna en Rome) aan de paus schonk. De goede betrekkingen tussen Kerk en Staat werden hersteld. Karolingische dynastie - tijdlijn en gevolgen De overname van het Merovingische rijk [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] Het begon allemaal met Pepijn III De Korte die de macht overnam in Austrasië , doordat hij zich liet erkennen als enige hofmeier van het land. Zijn vader Karel Martel , de stichter van de Karolingen (omdat hij als bastaardzoon niet als lid van de Pepiniden werd aanvaard), verwierf nog meer aanzien doordat hij in 732 een Moors leger tussen Tours en Poitiers versloeg: de islamitische ruiterij reed zich te pletter tegen de zwaarbewapende Frankische infanterie. Daarmee maakte hij verleden van een van de talrijke Arabische strooptochten vanuit Spanje naar Frankrijk. Pepijn de Korte , de zoon van Karel Martel, stootte de laatste Merovingische koning, Childerik III , van de troon en nam de macht over, mede door de steun van de toenmalige paus. De overname van het Merovingische rijk Het begon allemaal met Pepijn III De Korte die de macht overnam in Austrasië , doordat hij zich liet erkennen als enige hofmeier van het land. Zijn vader Karel Martel , de stichter van de Karolingen (omdat hij als bastaardzoon niet als lid van de Pepiniden werd aanvaard), verwierf nog meer aanzien doordat hij in 732 een Moors leger tussen Tours en Poitiers versloeg: de islamitische ruiterij reed zich te pletter tegen de zwaarbewapende Frankische infanterie. Daarmee maakte hij verleden van een van de talrijke Arabische strooptochten vanuit Spanje naar Frankrijk. Pepijn de Korte , de zoon van Karel Martel, stootte de laatste Merovingische koning, Childerik III , van de troon en nam de macht over, mede door de steun van de toenmalige paus. Gevolgen van het verbond tussen Pepijn de Korte en de paus [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] De Karolingische dynastie kwam aan de macht De Pauselijke Staat ontstond doordat Pepijns vader, Karel Martel, het vroegere exarchaat Ravenna (gebied tussen Ravenna en Rome) aan de paus schonk. De goede betrekkingen tussen Kerk en Staat werden hersteld. Gevolgen van het verbond tussen Pepijn de Korte en de paus De Karolingische dynastie kwam aan de macht De Pauselijke Staat ontstond doordat Pepijns vader, Karel Martel, het vroegere exarchaat Ravenna (gebied tussen Ravenna en Rome) aan de paus schonk. De goede betrekkingen tussen Kerk en Staat werden hersteld. Karel de Grote [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] Het politiek beleid van Karel de Grote [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] Op het toppunt van zijn macht regeerde Karel over een rijk dat zich uitstrekte van Elbe/Oder tot aan de Pyreneeën. Zo veroverde hij: Lombardije Het gebied van de Saksen De Spaanse mark Beieren Het rijk der Avaren (Kroatië, Tsjechië, Slowakije en Hongarije) Om zijn rijk makkelijker te kunnen besturen voerde Karel de Grote een centralisatiepolitiek die tot uiting kwam in: het aanstellen van twee rondreizende ambtenaren per gouw , missi dominici of zendgraven , om de controle uit te oefenen op het grafelijk bestuur het uitvaardigen van algemene wetten, de capitularia , voor alle onderdanen van het Frankische rijk het aannemen van de keizerstitel in 800 , in usurpatie op keizerin Irene van Byzantium de veralgemening van de vazalliteit , waarbij een vazal zijn diensten aanbood in ruil voor het recht op de pacht van grond de ontwikkeling, via missionering , van een christelijke eenheidscultuur om zo de banden tussen zijn onderdanen te vestigen het ontwikkelen van een hofcultuur : zie het lemma Karolingische renaissance De feodaliteit [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] Karel maakte in zijn militaire - politiek en bestuurssysteem gebruik van het leenstelsel of feodalisme . Daarbij geeft een koning of andere grootgrondbezitter stukken grond die hij in bezit heeft, in gebruik aan anderen en sluit daarbij overeenkomsten af over militaire bijstand, onderhoud en opbrengst van de grond, en bescherming aan de gebruiker. De gebruiknemers worden leenheer of ook kroonvazallen genoemd, die op hun beurt kleinere stukken van de grond die ze in leen hadden gekregen in gebruik konden geven aan achtervazallen enzovoorts. Feodaal komt van feodum wat leengoed betekent. De leeneed is een eed van trouw tussen leenheer (koning) en leenman (vazal). Een vazal is een trouwe dienaar of gwas in het Germaans . Op deze manier kon de koning de vazallen aan zich binden, indien hij hulp nodig had tijdens het voeren van een oorlog. Het cultureel beleid van Karel De Grote [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] Karel de Grote wilde de cultuur van zijn Rijk verbeteren en wilde zelf ook geleerder worden. Karel was bedreven in de rekenkunde, talen, sterrenkunde. Hij stond aan de basis van de schoolcultuur, doordat hij de kloosters verplichtte kloosterscholen op te richten, en iedereen verplichtte hun zonen naar school te sturen, zodat ze konden worden opgeleid voor de staatsdienst. Een vereenvoudigde vorm van het Merovingisch schrift werd de basis van het schrift van zowel de Germaanse als de Romaanse talen . De Codex Aureus was een godsdienstig boek dat hij in de kloosters liet maken Karel de Grote Het politiek beleid van Karel de Grote [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] Op het toppunt van zijn macht regeerde Karel over een rijk dat zich uitstrekte van Elbe/Oder tot aan de Pyreneeën. Zo veroverde hij: Lombardije Het gebied van de Saksen De Spaanse mark Beieren Het rijk der Avaren (Kroatië, Tsjechië, Slowakije en Hongarije) Om zijn rijk makkelijker te kunnen besturen voerde Karel de Grote een centralisatiepolitiek die tot uiting kwam in: het aanstellen van twee rondreizende ambtenaren per gouw , missi dominici of zendgraven , om de controle uit te oefenen op het grafelijk bestuur het uitvaardigen van algemene wetten, de capitularia , voor alle onderdanen van het Frankische rijk het aannemen van de keizerstitel in 800 , in usurpatie op keizerin Irene van Byzantium de veralgemening van de vazalliteit , waarbij een vazal zijn diensten aanbood in ruil voor het recht op de pacht van grond de ontwikkeling, via missionering , van een christelijke eenheidscultuur om zo de banden tussen zijn onderdanen te vestigen het ontwikkelen van een hofcultuur : zie het lemma Karolingische renaissance Het politiek beleid van Karel de Grote Op het toppunt van zijn macht regeerde Karel over een rijk dat zich uitstrekte van Elbe/Oder tot aan de Pyreneeën. Zo veroverde hij: Lombardije Het gebied van de Saksen De Spaanse mark Beieren Het rijk der Avaren (Kroatië, Tsjechië, Slowakije en Hongarije) Om zijn rijk makkelijker te kunnen besturen voerde Karel de Grote een centralisatiepolitiek die tot uiting kwam in: het aanstellen van twee rondreizende ambtenaren per gouw , missi dominici of zendgraven , om de controle uit te oefenen op het grafelijk bestuur het uitvaardigen van algemene wetten, de capitularia , voor alle onderdanen van het Frankische rijk het aannemen van de keizerstitel in 800 , in usurpatie op keizerin Irene van Byzantium de veralgemening van de vazalliteit , waarbij een vazal zijn diensten aanbood in ruil voor het recht op de pacht van grond de ontwikkeling, via missionering , van een christelijke eenheidscultuur om zo de banden tussen zijn onderdanen te vestigen het ontwikkelen van een hofcultuur : zie het lemma Karolingische renaissance De feodaliteit [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] Karel maakte in zijn militaire - politiek en bestuurssysteem gebruik van het leenstelsel of feodalisme . Daarbij geeft een koning of andere grootgrondbezitter stukken grond die hij in bezit heeft, in gebruik aan anderen en sluit daarbij overeenkomsten af over militaire bijstand, onderhoud en opbrengst van de grond, en bescherming aan de gebruiker. De gebruiknemers worden leenheer of ook kroonvazallen genoemd, die op hun beurt kleinere stukken van de grond die ze in leen hadden gekregen in gebruik konden geven aan achtervazallen enzovoorts. Feodaal komt van feodum wat leengoed betekent. De leeneed is een eed van trouw tussen leenheer (koning) en leenman (vazal). Een vazal is een trouwe dienaar of gwas in het Germaans . Op deze manier kon de koning de vazallen aan zich binden, indien hij hulp nodig had tijdens het voeren van een oorlog. De feodaliteit Karel maakte in zijn militaire - politiek en bestuurssysteem gebruik van het leenstelsel of feodalisme . Daarbij geeft een koning of andere grootgrondbezitter stukken grond die hij in bezit heeft, in gebruik aan anderen en sluit daarbij overeenkomsten af over militaire bijstand, onderhoud en opbrengst van de grond, en bescherming aan de gebruiker. De gebruiknemers worden leenheer of ook kroonvazallen genoemd, die op hun beurt kleinere stukken van de grond die ze in leen hadden gekregen in gebruik konden geven aan achtervazallen enzovoorts. Feodaal komt van feodum wat leengoed betekent. De leeneed is een eed van trouw tussen leenheer (koning) en leenman (vazal). Een vazal is een trouwe dienaar of gwas in het Germaans . Op deze manier kon de koning de vazallen aan zich binden, indien hij hulp nodig had tijdens het voeren van een oorlog. Het cultureel beleid van Karel De Grote [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] Karel de Grote wilde de cultuur van zijn Rijk verbeteren en wilde zelf ook geleerder worden. Karel was bedreven in de rekenkunde, talen, sterrenkunde. Hij stond aan de basis van de schoolcultuur, doordat hij de kloosters verplichtte kloosterscholen op te richten, en iedereen verplichtte hun zonen naar school te sturen, zodat ze konden worden opgeleid voor de staatsdienst. Een vereenvoudigde vorm van het Merovingisch schrift werd de basis van het schrift van zowel de Germaanse als de Romaanse talen . De Codex Aureus was een godsdienstig boek dat hij in de kloosters liet maken Het cultureel beleid van Karel De Grote Karel de Grote wilde de cultuur van zijn Rijk verbeteren en wilde zelf ook geleerder worden. Karel was bedreven in de rekenkunde, talen, sterrenkunde. Hij stond aan de basis van de schoolcultuur, doordat hij de kloosters verplichtte kloosterscholen op te richten, en iedereen verplichtte hun zonen naar school te sturen, zodat ze konden worden opgeleid voor de staatsdienst. Een vereenvoudigde vorm van het Merovingisch schrift werd de basis van het schrift van zowel de Germaanse als de Romaanse talen . De Codex Aureus was een godsdienstig boek dat hij in de kloosters liet maken Noten [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] ↑ R. McKitterick , Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity , Cambridge, 2008, p. 57 (voetnoot 1). Noten ↑ R. McKitterick , Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity , Cambridge, 2008, p. 57 (voetnoot 1). Referenties & verder lezen [ bewerken | brontekst bewerken ] T. Zotz , art. Karolinger, in Lexikon des Mittelalters 5 (1991), coll. 1008-1014. Mediabestanden Zie de categorie Carolingian dynasty van Wikimedia Commons voor mediabestanden over dit onderwerp. Referenties & verder lezen T. Zotz , art. Karolinger, in Lexikon des Mittelalters 5 (1991), coll. 1008-1014. Karolingisch Huis Deze pagina is voor het laatst bewerkt op 11 mrt 2025 om 14:33. Pagina is weergegeven met Parsoid . De tekst is beschikbaar onder de licentie Creative Commons Naamsvermelding/Gelijk delen , er kunnen aanvullende voorwaarden van toepassing zijn. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Family Toggle Family subsection 1.1 Parents and early life 1.2 Consort and children 1.1 Parents and early life 1.2 Consort and children 2 Reign Toggle Reign subsection 2.1 Reign length 2.2 Activities and situation in Egypt 2.2.1 Early reign: strife in the Theban region 2.2.2 Later reign 2.2.3 Economic decline 2.3 Dilution of power 2.3.1 High officials 2.3.2 The dynasty of Ramessesnakht 2.4 Situation in Egypt's empire abroad 2.4.1 Final decline in Canaan 2.4.2 Continuing presence in Nubia 2.1 Reign length 2.2 Activities and situation in Egypt 2.2.1 Early reign: strife in the Theban region 2.2.2 Later reign 2.2.3 Economic decline 2.2.1 Early reign: strife in the Theban region 2.2.2 Later reign 2.2.3 Economic decline 2.3 Dilution of power 2.3.1 High officials 2.3.2 The dynasty of Ramessesnakht 2.3.1 High officials 2.3.2 The dynasty of Ramessesnakht 2.4 Situation in Egypt's empire abroad 2.4.1 Final decline in Canaan 2.4.2 Continuing presence in Nubia 2.4.1 Final decline in Canaan 2.4.2 Continuing presence in Nubia 3 Funerary monuments Toggle Funerary monuments subsection 3.1 Tomb 3.2 Mortuary temple 3.1 Tomb 3.2 Mortuary temple 4 Notes and references Toggle Notes and references subsection 4.1 Notes 4.2 References 4.3 Sources 4.1 Notes 4.2 References 4.3 Sources 5 External links Ramesses VI العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Ramesses VI Ramses VI, Rameses VI, Ramesses VI Amunherkhepeshef C Fragment of Ramesses VI's stone sarcophagus from his tomb now on display at the British Museum . The sarcophagus was originally painted, its stone quarried in the Wadi Hammamat . Pharaoh Reign 8 regnal years c.1144-1136 BC mid 12th century BC Predecessor Ramesses V Successor Ramesses VII .mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Royal titulary Horus name Kanekhet Aanekhtu Sankhtawy K3-nḫt-ˁ3-nḫt.w-sˁnḫ-t3w.j Strong bull, whose victories are great, he who gives life to the two lands [ 1 ] Nebty name Weserkhepesh Hedhefenu Wsr-ḫpš-hd-ḥfn.w He whose blow is powerful, he whose attacks are countless [ 2 ] Alternative translation: Powerful of arms, [in] attacking the myriads [ 1 ] Golden Horus Weserrenput mi Tatenen Wsr-rnp.wt-mj-T3-ṯnn Rich in years like Tatenen [ 2 ] Prenomen Nebmaatre Meryamun Nb-m3ˁ.t-Rˁ-mr.j-Jmn Lord of the Maat like Ra , beloved of Amun [ 3 ] [ 2 ] Nomen Ramesisu Amunherkhepeshef Netjerheqaiunu Rˁ-mss Jmn ḥr ḫpš=f nṯr-ḥqȝ-Jwnw Ra fashioned him, Amun is his strength, divine ruler of Heliopolis [ 3 ] [ 2 ] Horus name Kanekhet Aanekhtu Sankhtawy K3-nḫt-ˁ3-nḫt.w-sˁnḫ-t3w.j Strong bull, whose victories are great, he who gives life to the two lands [ 1 ] Kanekhet Aanekhtu Sankhtawy K3-nḫt-ˁ3-nḫt.w-sˁnḫ-t3w.j Strong bull, whose victories are great, he who gives life to the two lands [ 1 ] Nebty name Weserkhepesh Hedhefenu Wsr-ḫpš-hd-ḥfn.w He whose blow is powerful, he whose attacks are countless [ 2 ] Alternative translation: Powerful of arms, [in] attacking the myriads [ 1 ] Weserkhepesh Hedhefenu Wsr-ḫpš-hd-ḥfn.w He whose blow is powerful, he whose attacks are countless [ 2 ] Alternative translation: Powerful of arms, [in] attacking the myriads [ 1 ] Golden Horus Weserrenput mi Tatenen Wsr-rnp.wt-mj-T3-ṯnn Rich in years like Tatenen [ 2 ] Weserrenput mi Tatenen Wsr-rnp.wt-mj-T3-ṯnn Rich in years like Tatenen [ 2 ] Prenomen Nebmaatre Meryamun Nb-m3ˁ.t-Rˁ-mr.j-Jmn Lord of the Maat like Ra , beloved of Amun [ 3 ] [ 2 ] Nebmaatre Meryamun Nb-m3ˁ.t-Rˁ-mr.j-Jmn Lord of the Maat like Ra , beloved of Amun [ 3 ] [ 2 ] Nomen Ramesisu Amunherkhepeshef Netjerheqaiunu Rˁ-mss Jmn ḥr ḫpš=f nṯr-ḥqȝ-Jwnw Ra fashioned him, Amun is his strength, divine ruler of Heliopolis [ 3 ] [ 2 ] Ramesisu Amunherkhepeshef Netjerheqaiunu Rˁ-mss Jmn ḥr ḫpš=f nṯr-ḥqȝ-Jwnw Ra fashioned him, Amun is his strength, divine ruler of Heliopolis [ 3 ] [ 2 ] Consort Nubkhesbed Children Iset ♀ , Ramesses VII ♂ , Amenherkhepshef ♂ , Panebenkemyt ♂ uncertain: Ramesses IX ♂ Father Ramesses III Mother Iset Ta-Hemdjert Died in his 40s Burial KV9 ; Mummy found in the KV35 royal cache (Theban Necropolis) Dynasty 20th Dynasty Ramesses VI Nebmaatre-Meryamun (sometimes written Ramses or Rameses , also known under his princely name of Amenherkhepshef C [ note 1 ] ) was the fifth ruler of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt . He reigned for about eight years in the mid-to-late 12th century BC and was a son of Ramesses III and queen Iset Ta-Hemdjert . As a prince, he was known as Ramesses Amunherkhepeshef and held the titles of royal scribe and cavalry general. He was succeeded by his son, Ramesses VII Itamun , whom he had fathered with queen Nubkhesbed . After the death of the ruling pharaoh, Ramesses V , who was the son of Ramesses VI's older brother, Ramesses IV , Ramesses VI ascended the throne. In the first two years after his coronation , Ramesses VI stopped frequent raids by Libyan or Egyptian marauders in Upper Egypt and buried his predecessor in what is now an unknown tomb of the Theban necropolis. Ramesses VI usurped KV9 , a tomb in the Valley of the Kings planned by and for Ramesses V, and had it enlarged and redecorated for himself. The craftsmen's huts near the entrance of KV9 covered up the entrance to Tutankhamun's tomb , saving it from a wave of tomb robberies that occurred within 20 years of Ramesses VI's death. Ramesses VI may have planned and made six more tombs in the Valley of the Queens , none which are known today. Egypt lost control of its last strongholds in Canaan around the time of Ramesses VI's reign. Though Egyptian occupation in Nubia continued, the loss of the Asiatic territories strained Egypt's weakening economy and increased prices. With construction projects increasingly hard to fund, Ramesses VI usurped the monuments of his forefathers by engraving his cartouches over theirs. Yet he boasted of having "[covered] all the land with great monuments in my name [...] built in honour of my fathers the gods". He was fond of cult statues of himself; more are known to portray him than any Twentieth-Dynasty king after Ramesses III. The Egyptologist Amin Amer characterises Ramesses VI as "a king who wished to pose as a great pharaoh in an age of unrest and decline". The pharaoh's power waned in Upper Egypt during Ramesses VI's rule. Though his daughter Iset was named God's Wife of Amun , the high-priest of Amun , Ramessesnakht , turned Thebes into Egypt's religious capital and a second center of power on par with Pi-Ramesses in Lower Egypt , where the pharaoh resided. In spite of these developments, there is no evidence that Ramessesnakht's dynasty worked against royal interests, which suggests that the Ramesside kings may have approved of these evolutions. Ramesses VI died in his forties, in his eighth or ninth year of rule. His mummy lay untouched in his tomb for fewer than 20 years before pillagers damaged it. The body was moved to KV35 during the reign of Pinedjem I , and was discovered in 1898 by Victor Loret. His mummy is currently kept in the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization . Family Parents and early life Ramesses VI was a son of Ramesses III , [ 4 ] the latter being considered the last great pharaoh of the New Kingdom period . [ 5 ] This filiation is established beyond doubt by a large relief found in the portico [ 4 ] of the Medinet Habu temple of Ramesses III known as the "Procession of the Princes". [ 6 ] [ 7 ] The relief shows ten princes including Ramesses VI, [ 8 ] worshipping their father. [ 9 ] Ramesses III's sculptors seem to have left the relief incomplete; only the figures of the king and princes appear and no names are written in the spaces next to them. [ note 2 ] [ 9 ] The relief seems to have originally been executed when Ramesses VI was still a young prince, as he is shown wearing the sidelock of youth used to denote childhood. When Ramesses VI became king, he added his princely names "Ramesses Amunherkhepeshef" [ note 3 ] inside royal cartouches as well as the titles he held before ascending the throne as "king's son of his body, his beloved, crown prince , royal scribe [and] cavalry general". [ 10 ] He altered his youthful figure on the "Procession of the Princes" with an uraeus underscoring his royal status and further completed the relief with the names of all his brothers and sons, with the exception of Ramesses IV, who had already written his royal name on the relief. [ 7 ] [ 11 ] Speculation in Egyptology during the 1960s and 1970s concerning the chronology and genealogy of the Twentieth Dynasty as well as uncertainties affecting the identity of the king shown on the "Procession of princes" relief led some scholars to propose that Ramesses VI was a grandson of Ramesses III and the son either of an unknown prince [ 12 ] or of the infamous Pentawer involved in the murder of Ramesses III . [ 13 ] Such hypotheses have now been conclusively rejected and the relief is understood to mean exactly what it shows: that Ramesses VI was the son of Ramesses III. [ note 4 ] [ 16 ] Ramesses VI's mother was probably Iset Ta-Hemdjert , Ramesses III's Great Royal Wife , as suggested by the presence of Ramesses VI's cartouches on a door-jamb of her tomb in the Valley of the Queens . [ 17 ] Consort and children Ramesses VI's Great Royal Wife was queen Nubkhesbed . [ 18 ] The Egyptologists Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton believe that she bore Ramesses VI a total of four children: the princes Amenherkhepshef , Panebenkemyt [ note 5 ] and Ramesses Itamun—the future pharaoh Ramesses VII who succeeded his father for a short while on the throne—and princess Iset who was appointed to the priestly role of " Divine Adoratrice of Amun ". [ 19 ] A stela recounting this appointment was discovered in Koptos and demonstrates that Nubkhesbed was indeed Iset's mother. [ 20 ] Prince Amenherkhepshef died before his father and was buried in tomb KV13 in the Valley of the Kings, originally built for Chancellor Bay , an important official of the late Nineteenth Dynasty . The tomb decoration was updated in consequence, some reliefs notably mentioning Nubkhesbed. [ 18 ] Amenherkhepshef's sarcophagus was usurped from queen Twosret . [ 18 ] The filiation of Ramesses VII is established by an inscription on a doorjamb from Deir el-Medinaeh which reads "the good god, lord of the two lands, Usimaare-meryamun-setepenre, Son of Re, lord of epiphanies, Ramesses [VII], (It)-Amun, god, ruler of Heliopolis—he has made as his monument for his father, (may) live the good god, lord of the two lands, Nebmaare-meryamun, Son of Re, [Ramesses VI]". [ 21 ] The Egyptologists James Harris, Edward F. Wente and Kenneth Kitchen have also proposed, based on circumstantial evidence, that Ramesses IX was a son of Ramesses VI and thus a brother to Ramesses VII. [ 22 ] They note that Ramesses IX honoured Ramesses VII on two offering stands, [ 23 ] suggesting that they were close kin. Ramesses IX named one of his sons Nebmaatre, which is Ramesses VI's prenomen, possibly as a means to honour his father. [ note 6 ] [ 24 ] This hypothesis is contested by other scholars including Dodson and Hilton, who believe that Ramesses IX was instead a son of prince Montuherkhopshef and thus a nephew to Ramesses VI. They base their conclusion on other circumstantial evidence: first is a depiction of Montuherkhopshef in KV19 on which Ramesses IX's prenomen had been added. [ 26 ] Second is the fact that Ramesses IX's mother was named Takhat and Montuherkhopshef's spouse might have been a lady of the same name, hence possibly the same person. [ 27 ] Reign Reign length Ramesses VI assumed the throne around the interval between Year 1 I Peret day 25 and Year 1 II Peret day 11 of his reign when his predecessor Ramesses V died. [ 28 ] The scholarly consensus is now that Ramesses VI reigned in the mid 12th century BC over a period of eight full years and lived for two months into his brief last regnal year. More precisely, the Egyptologist Steve Vinson proposed that he reigned between 1156 BC and 1149 BC, [ 29 ] while the Encyclopædia Britannica reports 1145–1137 BC, [ 30 ] Jürgen von Beckerath gives 1142–1134 BC, [ 31 ] Erik Hornung 1145–1139 BC, [ 32 ] Nicolas Grimal 1144–1136 BC making him a contemporary of Nebuchadrezzar I of Isin , [ 33 ] [ 34 ] Ian Shaw , Jacobus van Dijk and Michael Rice 1143–1136 BC, [ 35 ] [ 36 ] [ 37 ] and 1132–1125 BC in a 2017 study. [ 38 ] In 1977, the Egyptologists Edward F. Wente and Charles van Siclen were the first to propose, upon reviewing the chronology of the New Kingdom period, that Ramesses VI lived into his eighth year of reign. [ 39 ] This hypothesis was vindicated the next year by the Egyptologist Jac Janssen, who published an analysis of an ostracon [ note 7 ] which mentions the loan of an ox in the seventh and eighth years of an unnamed king who can only have been Ramesses VI. [ note 8 ] [ 40 ] Two years later, Lanny Bell reported further evidence that Ramesses VI not only reigned into his eighth regnal year but most likely completed it and lived into his ninth. [ 41 ] Ramesses VI's eighth year on the throne may also be mentioned in Theban graffito 1860a, which names the then serving High Priest of Amun , Ramessesnakht . This graffito has also been ascribed to Ramesses X, [ 42 ] but this interpretation has been contested and its ascription to Ramesses VI has been proposed as an alternative. [ 41 ] The subject remains debated. [ 43 ] An important piece of evidence first recognised by Jansen in 1978 but fully exploited only five years later by the Egyptologist Raphael Ventura is found on the Turin Papyrus 1907+1908, which covers the time period from Ramesses VI's fifth year until Ramesses VII's seventh year on the throne. [ 44 ] The reconstruction of the document proposed by Ventura shows that the simplest solution available to explain the chronology of the period covered by the papyrus is that Ramesses VI enjoyed a reign of eight full years and two months, dying shortly in his ninth regnal year, and was succeeded by Ramesses VII rather than Ramesses VIII , as had been debated until then. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Activities and situation in Egypt Early reign: strife in the Theban region Immediately after his accession to the throne, [ note 9 ] Ramesses VI and his court may have visited Thebes on the occasion of the Beautiful Festival of the Valley or the Opet Festival , concomitant with the preparations for Ramesses V's burial. [ 50 ] Ramesses VI visited the city on at least another occasion during his reign, when he installed his daughter as Divine Adoratrice of Amun. [ 50 ] The situation in the south of Egypt at the time of Ramesses VI's accession was not entirely stable, as attested by records showing that the workmen of Deir el-Bahari could not work on the king's tomb owing to the presence of "the enemy" in the vicinity, a situation which occurred over a period of at least fifteen days during Ramesses VI's first year on the throne. [ 1 ] This "enemy" was rumoured to have pillaged and burned the locality of Per-Nebyt [ note 10 ] and the chief of the Medjay of Thebes—essentially the police—ordered the workmen to remain idle and watch the king's tomb. [ 51 ] It is unclear who these enemies were, the term could designate parties of Libyan Meshwesh , [ 36 ] Libu and Egyptian bandits, or as the Egyptologist Jaroslav Černý conjectured, a full blown civil war between followers of Ramesses V and Ramesses VI, [ note 11 ] [ 51 ] a hypothesis supported by Rice [ 37 ] but which has been strongly rejected by Kitchen [ 52 ] and, to a lesser extent, by Grimal and van Dijk. [ 4 ] [ 36 ] A short military campaign might have ensued and from Ramesses VI's second year on the throne onwards these troubles seem to have stopped. This campaign could be connected with an unusual [ 1 ] statue of Ramesses VI showing him holding a bound Libyan captive, [ 53 ] as well as with a depiction of Ramesses VI triumphing over foreign soldiers on the second pylon of the Karnak temple . [ 1 ] This triumph scene was the last one to be made in Egypt until the later reigns of Siamun (986–967 BC) and Shoshenq I (943–922 BC). [ 1 ] Other indications in favour of strife and military activities early in Ramesses VI's reign are the names he adopted upon ascending the throne, his Horus name meaning "Strong bull, great of victories, keeping alive the two lands" as well as his Nebty name "Powerful of arms, attacking the myriads". [ 1 ] Later reign Following these events, on his second year of rule, Ramesses VI finally buried Ramesses V in a yet unidentified tomb in the Valley of the Kings, [ 54 ] having usurped the tomb originally prepared for his predecessor. [ 1 ] On the occasion of this visit to Thebes, Ramesses VI installed his daughter Iset as God's Wife of Amun and Divine Adoratice of Amun, in the presence of his mother, the acting vizier Nehy and other court officials. [ 1 ] That same year, he ordered the reduction of the gang of workmen working on the king's tomb from 120 members to its former number of 60, which had been changed under Ramesses IV. [ note 12 ] [ 51 ] [ 55 ] Following this, the community of workers at Deir el-Medina went into gradual decline, the settlement being finally abandoned in the subsequent Twenty-first Dynasty . [ 56 ] In spite of the reduction, the Turin papyrus indicates that Ramesses VI ordered the construction of six tombs in the Valley of the Queens, [ 57 ] a number which might include the hasty [ 58 ] completion of the tomb of Iset Ta-Hemdjert, Ramesses' mother. [ 59 ] It is unknown whether these tombs were finished and in any case, they are now unidentifiable. [ note 13 ] [ 60 ] [ 57 ] At some point in his reign, a cult statue of Ramesses VI was installed in a shrine of Ramesses II in the temple of Hathor of Deir el-Medina . [ 62 ] The statue was called "Lord of the Two Lands, Nebmaatre Meryamun, Son of Re, Lord of Crowns, Ramesses Amunherkhepeshef Divine Ruler of Iunu , Beloved like Amun". [ 63 ] A complete description of it is given on the verso of the Turin Papyrus Map , celebrated for being the oldest surviving topographical map. The papyrus indicates that the statue was made of two essences of painted wood and clay, showing pharaoh wearing a golden loincloth, a crown of lapis-lazuli and precious stones, a uraeus of gold and sandals of electrum . [ 63 ] The statue is said to receive three services of incense and libations every day. [ 63 ] The text of the papyrus is a letter directly addressed to Ramesses VI asking that a certain man be put in charge of the offerings. [ 64 ] The letter seems to have been received favourably by the king, as the author's grandson is known to have held the title of "High Priest of Nebmaatre [Ramesses VI], Beloved of Amun". [ 65 ] Ramesses VI was apparently fond of such cult statues [ 62 ] and no less than ten statues and a sphinx have been discovered in Tanis , Bubastis and Karnak, more than any other Ramesside king of the Twentieth Dynasty following the reign of Ramesses III. [ 66 ] The tomb of Penne, an Egyptian high-official in Nubia reports that Penne made a donation of lands to generate revenue towards the upkeep of yet another cult statue of Ramesses VI. [ 67 ] Ramesses VI was so satisfied with this deed that he commanded his Viceroy of Kush "Give the two silver vessels of ointment of gums, to the deputy [Penne]". [ 68 ] [ 69 ] While few of Ramesses VI's activities are known in details, he is well attested by numerous reliefs, inscriptions, statues and minor finds from Karnak, Koptos and Heliopolis . [ note 14 ] [ 29 ] [ 71 ] Economic decline Over the period spanning the reigns of Ramesses VI, VII and VIII, prices of basic commodities, in particular grain, rose sharply. [ 55 ] [ 72 ] With Egypt's economy getting weaker, Ramesses VI turned to usurping the statues and monuments of his forebears, frequently plastering and then carving his cartouches over theirs, [ 73 ] in particular those of Ramesses IV which figured prominently along the processional routes in Karnak and Luxor. [ 66 ] [ 74 ] In other examples, he usurped a statue of Ramesses IV, [ note 15 ] [ 75 ] columns of texts inscribed by Ramesses IV on an obelisk of Thutmose I in Karnak, and the tomb of Ramesses V. Kitchen warns not to over-interpret these usurpations as signs of antagonism on behalf of Ramesses VI with respect to his older brother and nephew. [ 76 ] The usurpations were not thorough but were rather targeted to the most prominent places, where Ramesses VI's cartouches would be most visible. [ 76 ] Besides, Ramesses VI did leave cartouches of Ramesses IV intact in many places, including in places where both his name and that of his brother feature close to one another such as in the Medinet Habu temple of Ramesses III, so that the hypothesis of a damnatio memoriae —whereby all references to someone are systematically eliminated so as to remove this person from memory and history—can be eliminated. [ 76 ] A possible evidence for genuine architectural works on Ramesses VI's behalf is found in Memphis , where an inscription on a granite gateway cornice of the temple of Ptah claims that he erected a great pylon of fine stone. Ramesses VI then boasts of "covering all the land with great monuments in my name [...] built in honour of my fathers the gods". [ 77 ] Overall, the Egyptologist Amin Amer characterises Ramesses VI as "a king who wished to pose as a great pharaoh in an age of unrest and decline". [ 78 ] Dilution of power High officials Some high officials of Ramesses VI are known, such as his finance minister and overseer of the treasury Montuemtawy [ note 16 ] who was in office since the end of Ramesses III's reign; the vizier Neferronpe in office since Ramesses IV's time on the throne; his son the vizier Nehy; Amenmose the mayor of Thebes and the king's butler Qedren. [ 79 ] To the south, the troop commander of Kush was Nebmarenakhte [ 80 ] and the administrator of Wawat—the land between the first and second cataracts of the Nile—mayor of Anîba and controller of the Temple of Horus at Derr [ 81 ] was Penne. [ 80 ] The dynasty of Ramessesnakht In Thebes, the high-priesthood came under the control of Ramessesnakht and his family at the time of Ramesses IV, possibly owing to Ramessesnakht's father Merybaste's high control over the country's financial institutions. [ 82 ] Ramessesnakht was officially Ramesses VI's Vizier of the South and his power grew at the expense of that of the pharaoh in spite of the fact that Iset was connected to the Amun priesthood as well "in her role as God's Wife of Amun or Divine Adoratice". [ 4 ] If fact, Ramessesnakht most likely oversaw the construction of the funerary building of Iset in the tomb complex K93.12, [ 83 ] and while, as the Egyptologist Daniel Polz puts it, "he and his relatives were the most powerful individuals in Egypt at the end of the Twentieth Dynasty", his activities were not directed against royal interests. [ 83 ] Ramessesnakht often attended the distribution of supplies to workmen and controlled much of the activity connected with the construction of the king's tomb, possibly because the treasury of the high-priest of Amun was now at least partially funding these works. Ramessesnakht's son Usermarenakhte was made into the Steward of Amun and became administrator of large swaths of land in Middle Egypt. He also inherited the role of Merybaste as controller of the country's taxes, ensuring that Ramessesnakht's family was in full control of both the royal treasury and the treasury of Amun. [ 84 ] Further high offices such as those of the second and third priests and of "god's father of Amun" were given to people who entered Ramesesnakht's family by marriage. [ 36 ] Ramessesnakht was powerful enough to build for himself one of the largest funerary establishments of the entire Theban necropolis at the end of the New Kingdom, when royal building projects including Ramesses VI's usurped mortuary temple had been abandoned. [ 85 ] Ramessesnakht's monument, in Dra' Abu el-Naga' , reused an earlier building dating back to the Seventeenth or Eighteenth Dynasty and was refurbished to show the political and economic standing of its owner. [ 83 ] Overall, Egyptologists now estimate that Ramessesnakht and his dynasty essentially established a second centre of power in Upper Egypt , seemingly on the behalf of the Twentieth Dynasty kings who ruled from Memphis and Pi-Ramesses in Lower Egypt . [ 83 ] This effectively made Thebes into the religious capital of Egypt as well as an administrative one on a par with its northern counterpart, [ 83 ] laying the foundations for the rise of the Twenty-first Dynasty under Herihor and Pinedjem I , 50 to 70 years later. [ 86 ] Situation in Egypt's empire abroad Final decline in Canaan Egypt's political and economic decline continued unabated during Ramesses VI's reign. He is the last king of the New Kingdom period whose name is attested on inscribed wall fragments as well as two pillars of the temple of Hathor [ 87 ] of the Serabit el-Khadim in Sinai , [ 88 ] [ 4 ] where he sent expeditions to mine copper ore. [ 29 ] Egypt may nonetheless still have wielded some sort of influence or at least still had some connections with the remnants of its empire in the Levant, [ 29 ] as suggested by the base of a fragmented bronze statue of Ramesses VI discovered in Megiddo in Canaan , [ 89 ] [ 90 ] [ 91 ] and a scarab of his from Alalakh on the coast in southern Anatolia . [ note 17 ] [ 79 ] Egyptian presence in Canaan was terminated during or soon after Ramesses VI's rule, [ 92 ] [ 93 ] with the last garrisons leaving southern and western Palestine around the time, [ 94 ] and the frontier between Egypt and abroad returning to a fortified line joining the Mediterranean to the Red Sea . [ 79 ] A 2017 archaeological study reached the same conclusion, namely that Ramesses VI's reign is the terminus post quem for the presence of the Egyptian military in Jaffa , which was twice destroyed around this time period. [ 95 ] Opponents of the Egyptian authority were of local extraction, probably originating in Canaanite cities of the Levantine coastal plain, [ 96 ] an opposition to Egyptian hegemony ultimately resulting from the arrival of the Sea People in the region during the reign of Ramesses III. [ 97 ] [ 98 ] The loss of all Asiatic territories further strained the redistributive economy of Egypt's New Kingdom society, depriving the subsequent kings of much of their legitimacy. [ 98 ] Continuing presence in Nubia The Egyptian control of Nubia seems to have been much firmer at the time, owing either to the advanced Egyptianisation of the local population [ 99 ] or to the economic importance of this region. [ 94 ] Ramesses VI's cartouches have been uncovered on Sehel Island near Aswan [ 100 ] and in Ramesses II's temple in Wadi es-Sebua . [ 80 ] Ramesses VI is mentioned in the tomb of Penne in Anîba, [ 99 ] not far from the Third Cataract of the Nile . [ 29 ] Penne also recounts punitive military raids further south, from which he claims to have brought back loot to pharaoh. [ 69 ] Funerary monuments Tomb Ramesses VI was buried in the Valley of the Kings , in a tomb now known as KV9 . [ 29 ] The tomb was first built for Ramesses V, who may have been buried in it for the short period of time necessary for another, likely undecorated tomb, to be cut for him somewhere else in the Valley of Kings [ 1 ] [ 52 ] and which remains to be discovered. [ 101 ] In any case, Ramesses VI commanded that KV9 be entirely refurbished for himself with no space left for Ramesses V's permanent burial, who was finally led to rest in Ramesses VI's second year on the throne, possibly because stability had returned to Thebes at the time. [ 1 ] [ 29 ] The usurpation of Ramesses V's tomb may be a sign that Ramesses VI did not hold his predecessor in high regard, which would explain why he had Ramesses V's name obliterated and replaced by his own on more than one occasion. [ 102 ] Alternatively it may reflect the king's pragmatic concern for economical measures. [ 66 ] The renewed works on KV9 are responsible for the preservation of the tomb of Tutankhamun , the entrance of which was buried beneath huts built for the craftsmen working on Ramesses VI's tomb. [ 103 ] These works seem to have been completed during Ramesses VI's sixth year of reign, at which point Ramessesnakht received 600 debens of blunted copper tools in the great forecourt of Amun in Karnak, probably indicating the end of the construction works on the tomb. [ 66 ] Furthermore, if the Theban ostracon 1860a does refer to Ramesses VI and not Ramesses X, then it indicates that the tomb was finally ready for the king in his eighth year on the throne, at which point he might have been ill and nearing death. [ 78 ] Once finished, the tomb was 104 m (341 ft)-long [ 104 ] and included one of only three complete renditions of the Book of Gates known from royal funerary context, [ note 18 ] [ 105 ] as well as a complete version of the Book of Caverns . [ 105 ] Within 20 years [ 106 ] of Ramesses VI's burial, the tomb was most probably desecrated and ransacked by grave robbers, who hacked away at the hands and feet of Ramesses' mummy to gain access to his jewelry. These events, occurring during the reign of Ramesses XI , [ 107 ] are described in the Papyrus Mayer B although the identification of the tomb mentioned in this source is not entirely certain. [ 29 ] Ramesses VI's mummy was subsequently moved to the tomb KV35 of Amenhotep II during the reign of Pinedjem of the early Twenty-First Dynasty, [ 108 ] where it was discovered in 1898 by Victor Loret . [ 109 ] A medical examination of the mummy revealed that Ramesses VI died aged around forty, [ 70 ] and showed severe damage to his body, the head and torso being broken into several pieces by an axe used by the tomb robbers. [ 46 ] An isolated female hand was found within the mummy's wrappings. [ 110 ] In 1898, Georges Émile Jules Daressy cleared KV9, which had remained opened since antiquity, uncovering fragments of a large granite box as well as numerous pieces of Ramesses VI's mummiform stone sarcophagus, the face of which is now in the British Museum . [ 104 ] The sarcophagus was restored in 2004 following two years of work on over 250 fragments recovered in the tomb, where it is now on display. Zahi Hawass , then head of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities , unsuccessfully requested the return of the sarcophagus' face from the British Museum to Egypt. [ 111 ] In 2020, the Egyptian Tourism Authority released a full 3D model of the tomb with detailed photographies, available online. [ 112 ] In April 2021 his mummy was moved from the Egyptian Museum to the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization along with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed the Pharaohs' Golden Parade . [ 113 ] Mortuary temple Ramesses VI seems to have usurped the large mortuary temple in El-Assasif from Ramesses V, who had himself likely taken it from his father Ramesses IV. [ 79 ] [ 114 ] The temple was planned to be nearly half the size of that of Medinet Habu and was only in its foundation stages at the death of Ramesses IV. [ 90 ] It is unclear whether it was ever completed, but the temple is mentioned as a land-owning institution in the Wilbour Papyrus dating to Ramesses V's reign. [ 70 ] Archaeological excavations show much of its surviving decoration was made under Ramesses VI. [ note 19 ] [ 115 ] Notes and references Notes ^ The "C" in this name is not part of Ramesses VI's original Egyptian name, rather it is a denomination added in modern Egyptology to distinguish him from other people of the same name: Amenherkhepshef A , a son of Ramesses II, Amenherkhepshef B , a son of Ramesses III, and Amenherkhepshef D , a son of Ramesses VI. ^ That the relief was left unfinished with no text during Ramesses III's reign is indicated by the fact that the text refers to various princes as pharaoh and coincides with modification of the princes' figures to add royal attributes. In addition, all of the princesses are still lacking their names, which were never added. [ 9 ] ^ Ramesses VI was the second prince to bear the name Amunherkhepeshef. Consequently, he is sometimes referred to as Amunherkhepeshef II in modern Egyptology. [ 4 ] ^ The publication which led to the modern consensus on Ramesses VI's filiation is due to the Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen, who offered a point by point rebuttal of the arguments hitherto advanced by Kurt Sethe and others to posit that Ramesses VI was a grandson of Ramesses III rather than his son. First, Kitchen rejects the initial interpretation of the titles borne by princes on the relief, in particular Sethe's reading of the title of "king's first born son" is provably wrong as several princes bore the title, which should be understood as "king's eldest surviving son". It follows that Sethe's rejection of princes Praherwonmefs as sons of Ramesses III is invalid and that the relief can present sons of this king. [ 14 ] Second Sethe rejected the filiation of Ramesses VI on the basis that it would be unlikely if not impossible that several sons of Ramesses III bore the same name, Amunherkhepeshef and therefore that the two mentions of this name on the relief refer to the same Ramesses VI, which would be suspect for a list of princes. Kitchen points out well-known examples, including princes Meryre I and II on a relief presenting sons of Ramesses II, showing that instead it was common for several sons of kings to bear the same name and thus that the two Amunherkhepeshef are distinct persons. [ 14 ] Third, Sethe thought it improbable that three sons of a ruler could have ascended the throne. Kitchen points out the short reigns of the rulers of the 20th Dynasty after Ramesses III, so that the proposed sons ruled within 20 years of their father's death, far from impossible. [ 15 ] Fourth, Kitchen points out the wrong argument that the cartouche next to Ramesses IV's figure simply reads Ramesses, which this ruler would have deemed insufficient to distinguish himself and thus that the figure is not Ramesses IV but someone else. As noted by Kitchen, the titles given to this figure are sufficient to identify Ramesses IV beyond doubt. [ 15 ] Fifth, Sethe and others believe that Ramesses VI implemented a damnatio memoriae against Ramesses IV and V, which they explain through complicated dynastic struggles. But this damnatio memoriae is, in the terms of Kitchen "wholly imaginary" and indeed archaeological evidence has since established that Ramesses VI only erased the cartouches of his predecessor to gain visibility for his, and not in any systematic manner. [ 15 ] Lastly, Sethe and Peet pointed out that in her tomb, Ramesses VI's mother is not given the title of king's wife and thus deduce that Ramesses VI was the son of a non-royal father. But Kitchen points out that this absence is no evidence, for example, Ramesses II's mother herself is never given the title of king's wife in her tomb, yet it is well established that she was Sethi I's queen. [ 16 ] ^ The filiation of Panebenkemyt is established by a depiction of him on a statue of his father, now in the Luxor Museum . [ 18 ] ^ If the hypothesis regarding Ramesses IX's filiation is correct, then Kitchen adds that queen Tyti might have been a daughter of Ramesses VI, the wife of Ramesses IX and mother of Ramesses X. [ 24 ] New evidence emerging from the publication of tomb-robbers accounts in 2010 established that Tyti was in fact the wife and sister of Ramesses III and possibly the mother of Ramesses IV. [ 25 ] ^ Known today as Ostracon IFAO 1425. [ 40 ] ^ That the king in question is Ramesses VI is established by the dates recorded on the ostracon. It is mentioned that the first loan occurred on Year 7, I Peret 18 (that is on the 18th day of the first month of the season of Peret in the king's 7th year of reign) while the second took place on Year 8, II Peret 11. Furthermore the short duration of the loans which amounted to 15 days strongly suggest that these dates occurred in immediate succession and thus that they belong to the same reign. This indicates that the king referred to had ascended the throne between the 18th day of the first month of Peret and the 11th day of the second month of the same season. But the only king of the 19th and 20th Dynasties who ascended the throne in such a time-frame is Ramesses VI. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] ^ While the exact date of Ramesses VI's coronation is unknown, ancient sources indicate that he must have started his reign in winter, between the 28th day of the first month of the Season of the Emergence and the 11th day the second month of the same season. [ 47 ] [ 48 ] Janssen has more specifically argued for an accession of the eighth day of the second month of this season. [ 49 ] ^ The location of Per-Nebyt is not known for certain. It may have been in north-Thebes. [ 1 ] ^ Černý's argument is that the term employed in the source to refer to the enemy is not the term that would be employed for foreign marauders such as Libyans. As a consequence, he sees the trouble-makers as Egyptians. Since furthermore the chief of the Medjay of Thebes seems not to have been involved in fighting the enemy, Černý believes that the troubles came from the North. Černý further conjectures that the civil war was a struggle between followers of Ramesses V and Ramesses VI, whom he sees as antagonists. [ 51 ] Against this hypothesis is the observation that several high-officials continued their careers without disturbances from the time of Ramesses III until that of Ramesses VI and beyond, suggesting that the state was in fact politically stable. [ 1 ] ^ This is indicated by a text on the verso of Ostracon Berlin P. 12654, which reads "So says the vizier: leave these sixty men here in the gang, whomsoever you choose, and send the rest away. Order that they should become conscript labour who carry [supplies] for you." [ 51 ] ^ Tombs dating to the Twentieth Dynasty but which cannot be securely attributed to any specific reign are QV 24, 41, 45, 50, 54, 84, 85, 86. This list may include those built by Ramesses VI. [ 59 ] ^ Small artefacts bearing Ramesses VI's cartouches are also known, including bronze and gold signet rings now in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Arts . [ 70 ] ^ The statue was found in the Karnak cache and is now in the Egyptian Museum, under the catalogue number 42153. [ 75 ] ^ Also called Mentemtowy in the modern literature. [ 79 ] ^ The finds of the statue and scarab in Megiddo and Alalakh do not necessarily denote any strong Egyptian presence there as these kinds of artefacts were widely traded throughout the Mediterranean at the time. [ 79 ] ^ The other renditions are found in the tomb of Seti I and in the Osireion . [ 105 ] ^ That is most of the decorations of the temple that have survived to this day have been made under Ramesses VI as shown by the presence of his cartouches on these decorations. [ 115 ] References ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Amer 1985 , p. 67. ^ a b c d Leprohon 2013 , p. 199. ^ a b Clayton 1994 , p. 167. ^ a b c d e f Grimal 1992 , p. 288. ^ Grandet 2014 , p. 1. ^ Seele 1960 , p. 184. ^ a b Kitchen 1982 , p. 120. ^ Seele 1960 , pp. 186–187, Plate I & 2. ^ a b c Murnane 1971 , p. 121. ^ Murnane 1971 , p. 125. ^ Murnane 1971 , p. 122. ^ Murnane 1971 , p. 131. ^ Seele 1960 , p. 204. ^ a b Kitchen 1982 , p. 121. ^ a b c Kitchen 1982 , p. 122. ^ a b Kitchen 1982 , p. 123. ^ Demas & Neville 2016b , p. 307. ^ a b c d Dodson & Hilton 2004 , p. 193. ^ Bács 1995 , pp. 7–11. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004 , p. 190. ^ Kitchen 1972 , p. 182. ^ Harris & Wente 1980 , p. 153. ^ von Beckerath 1971 , p. 7. ^ a b Kitchen 1982 , p. 125. ^ Collier, Dodson & Hamernik 2010 , pp. 242–247. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004 , p. 191. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004 , p. 194. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten. 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External links Ramesses VI Nebmaatre-meryamun on Digital Egypt Virtual tour of his tomb Virtual exploration of his tomb Archived 2020-06-13 at the Wayback Machine Preceded by Ramesses V Pharaoh of Egypt Twentieth Dynasty Succeeded by Ramesses VII .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Pharaohs v t e Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs male female ♀ uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju-Hor Ny-Hor Ni-Neith Hat-Hor Pu Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Mekh A Double Falcon Wash Upper A Finger Snail Fish Elephant Stork Taurus Scorpion I Crocodile Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkare I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Sedjes Qahedjet Huni IV Sneferu Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Meryre Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Neferkare Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Neferka 1 st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII / VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui Iytjenu IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Imhotep X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merikare Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs male female ♀ uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju-Hor Ny-Hor Ni-Neith Hat-Hor Pu Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Mekh A Double Falcon Wash Upper A Finger Snail Fish Elephant Stork Taurus Scorpion I Crocodile Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkare I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Sedjes Qahedjet Huni IV Sneferu Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Meryre Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Neferkare Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Neferka 1 st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII / VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui Iytjenu IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Imhotep X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merikare Period Dynasty Pharaohs male female ♀ uncertain Dynasty Pharaohs male female ♀ uncertain Pharaohs male female ♀ male female ♀ uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju-Hor Ny-Hor Ni-Neith Hat-Hor Pu Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Mekh A Double Falcon Wash Upper A Finger Snail Fish Elephant Stork Taurus Scorpion I Crocodile Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Hedju-Hor Ny-Hor Ni-Neith Hat-Hor Pu Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Mekh A Double Falcon Wash Hedju-Hor Ny-Hor Ni-Neith Hat-Hor Pu Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Mekh A Double Falcon Wash Upper A Finger Snail Fish Elephant Stork Taurus Scorpion I Crocodile Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes A Finger Snail Fish Elephant Stork Taurus Scorpion I Crocodile Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkare I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkare I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkare I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Sedjes Qahedjet Huni IV Sneferu Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Meryre Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Neferkare Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Neferka III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Sedjes Qahedjet Huni Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Sedjes Qahedjet Huni IV Sneferu Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Sneferu Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Meryre Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Neferkare Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Neferka Teti Userkare Pepi I Meryre Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Neferkare Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Neferka 1 st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII / VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui Iytjenu IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Imhotep X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merikare VII / VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui Iytjenu Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui Iytjenu IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Imhotep Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Imhotep X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merikare Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merikare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs male female ♀ uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu ♀ Seankhibtawy Seankhibra 2 nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep Sekhemkare Amenemhat Senebef Nerikare Sekhemkare Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Amenemhat VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Kay Amenemhat VII Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre Ammu Aahotepre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Nebsenre Sekheperenre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Sharek Semqen Aperanat Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Sekhemre Sementawy Djehuty Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Seankhenre Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiryraw II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwaset Dedumose I Dedumose II Djedankhre Montemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Seneferankhre Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Sekhemre Wahkhau Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs male female ♀ uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu ♀ Seankhibtawy Seankhibra 2 nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep Sekhemkare Amenemhat Senebef Nerikare Sekhemkare Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Amenemhat VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Kay Amenemhat VII Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre Ammu Aahotepre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Nebsenre Sekheperenre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Sharek Semqen Aperanat Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Sekhemre Sementawy Djehuty Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Seankhenre Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiryraw II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwaset Dedumose I Dedumose II Djedankhre Montemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Seneferankhre Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Sekhemre Wahkhau Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose Period Dynasty Pharaohs male female ♀ uncertain Dynasty Pharaohs male female ♀ uncertain Pharaohs male female ♀ male female ♀ uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu ♀ Seankhibtawy Seankhibra XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu ♀ Seankhibtawy Seankhibra Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu ♀ Seankhibtawy Seankhibra 2 nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep Sekhemkare Amenemhat Senebef Nerikare Sekhemkare Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Amenemhat VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Kay Amenemhat VII Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre Ammu Aahotepre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Nebsenre Sekheperenre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Sharek Semqen Aperanat Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Sekhemre Sementawy Djehuty Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Seankhenre Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiryraw II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwaset Dedumose I Dedumose II Djedankhre Montemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Seneferankhre Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Sekhemre Wahkhau Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose XIII Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep Sekhemkare Amenemhat Senebef Nerikare Sekhemkare Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Amenemhat VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Kay Amenemhat VII Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep Sekhemkare Amenemhat Senebef Nerikare Sekhemkare Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Amenemhat VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Kay Amenemhat VII Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre Ammu Aahotepre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Nebsenre Sekheperenre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre Ammu Aahotepre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Nebsenre Sekheperenre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Sharek Semqen Aperanat Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi Sharek Semqen Aperanat Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Sekhemre Sementawy Djehuty Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Seankhenre Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiryraw II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwaset Dedumose I Dedumose II Djedankhre Montemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Seneferankhre Sekhemre Sementawy Djehuty Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Seankhenre Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiryraw II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwaset Dedumose I Dedumose II Djedankhre Montemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Seneferankhre Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Sekhemre Wahkhau Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose Sekhemre Wahkhau Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs (male female ♀ ) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut ♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten ♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Tausret ♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Ramesses XII 3 rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II High Priest of Amun Herihor Pinedjem I Menkheperre XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Tutkheperre Shoshenq Maatkheperre Shoshenq Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Lines of XXII / XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Iuput I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Ini (pharaoh) Iuput II Peftjauawybast Nimlot of Hermopolis Djehutyemhat Nimlot II of Hermopolis Padinemti of Hermopolis XXIII Pedubast II Osorkon IV Pami II Gemenefkhonsbak Pedubast III XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tantamani New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs (male female ♀ ) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut ♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten ♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Tausret ♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Ramesses XII 3 rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II High Priest of Amun Herihor Pinedjem I Menkheperre XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Tutkheperre Shoshenq Maatkheperre Shoshenq Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Lines of XXII / XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Iuput I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Ini (pharaoh) Iuput II Peftjauawybast Nimlot of Hermopolis Djehutyemhat Nimlot II of Hermopolis Padinemti of Hermopolis XXIII Pedubast II Osorkon IV Pami II Gemenefkhonsbak Pedubast III XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tantamani Period Dynasty Pharaohs (male female ♀ ) uncertain Dynasty Pharaohs (male female ♀ ) uncertain Pharaohs (male female ♀ ) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut ♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten ♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Tausret ♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Ramesses XII XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut ♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten ♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut ♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten ♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Tausret ♀ Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Tausret ♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Ramesses XII Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Ramesses XII 3 rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II High Priest of Amun Herihor Pinedjem I Menkheperre XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Tutkheperre Shoshenq Maatkheperre Shoshenq Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Lines of XXII / XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Iuput I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Ini (pharaoh) Iuput II Peftjauawybast Nimlot of Hermopolis Djehutyemhat Nimlot II of Hermopolis Padinemti of Hermopolis XXIII Pedubast II Osorkon IV Pami II Gemenefkhonsbak Pedubast III XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tantamani XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II High Priest of Amun Herihor Pinedjem I Menkheperre Herihor Pinedjem I Menkheperre XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Tutkheperre Shoshenq Maatkheperre Shoshenq Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Tutkheperre Shoshenq Maatkheperre Shoshenq Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Lines of XXII / XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Iuput I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Ini (pharaoh) Iuput II Peftjauawybast Nimlot of Hermopolis Djehutyemhat Nimlot II of Hermopolis Padinemti of Hermopolis Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Iuput I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Ini (pharaoh) Iuput II Peftjauawybast Nimlot of Hermopolis Djehutyemhat Nimlot II of Hermopolis Padinemti of Hermopolis XXIII Pedubast II Osorkon IV Pami II Gemenefkhonsbak Pedubast III Pedubast II Osorkon IV Pami II Gemenefkhonsbak Pedubast III XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tantamani Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tantamani Late to Roman Period (664 BC–313 AD) Period Dynasty Pharaohs male female ♀ uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Ammeris Tefnakht II Nekauba Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Apries Amasis II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius the Great Psammetichus IV Xerxes I Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II Muthis XXX Nectanebo I Teos of Egypt Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses of Persia Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III of Macedon Alexander IV of Macedon Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II ♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III ♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III ♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V ♀ Berenice IV ♀ Cleopatra VI ♀ Cleopatra ♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV ♀ Ptolemy XIV Philopator Caesarion Roman (30 BC–313 AD) XXXIV Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Lucius Verus Marcus Aurelius Commodus Pertinax Pescennius Niger Septimius Severus Geta Caracalla Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Decius Trebonianus Gallus Aemilianus Valerian Macrianus Minor Quietus Lucius Mussius Aemilianus Gallienus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Diocletian Maximian Galerius Maximinus Daza Late to Roman Period (664 BC–313 AD) Period Dynasty Pharaohs male female ♀ uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Ammeris Tefnakht II Nekauba Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Apries Amasis II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius the Great Psammetichus IV Xerxes I Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II Muthis XXX Nectanebo I Teos of Egypt Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses of Persia Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III of Macedon Alexander IV of Macedon Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II ♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III ♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III ♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V ♀ Berenice IV ♀ Cleopatra VI ♀ Cleopatra ♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV ♀ Ptolemy XIV Philopator Caesarion Roman (30 BC–313 AD) XXXIV Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Lucius Verus Marcus Aurelius Commodus Pertinax Pescennius Niger Septimius Severus Geta Caracalla Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Decius Trebonianus Gallus Aemilianus Valerian Macrianus Minor Quietus Lucius Mussius Aemilianus Gallienus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Diocletian Maximian Galerius Maximinus Daza Period Dynasty Pharaohs male female ♀ uncertain Dynasty Pharaohs male female ♀ uncertain Pharaohs male female ♀ male female ♀ uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Ammeris Tefnakht II Nekauba Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Apries Amasis II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius the Great Psammetichus IV Xerxes I Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II Muthis XXX Nectanebo I Teos of Egypt Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses of Persia Darius III XXVI Ammeris Tefnakht II Nekauba Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Apries Amasis II Psamtik III Ammeris Tefnakht II Nekauba Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Apries Amasis II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius the Great Psammetichus IV Xerxes I Artaxerxes I Darius II Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius the Great Psammetichus IV Xerxes I Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II Muthis Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II Muthis XXX Nectanebo I Teos of Egypt Nectanebo II Nectanebo I Teos of Egypt Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses of Persia Darius III Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses of Persia Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III of Macedon Alexander IV of Macedon Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II ♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III ♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III ♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V ♀ Berenice IV ♀ Cleopatra VI ♀ Cleopatra ♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV ♀ Ptolemy XIV Philopator Caesarion Argead Alexander the Great Philip III of Macedon Alexander IV of Macedon Alexander the Great Philip III of Macedon Alexander IV of Macedon Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II ♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III ♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III ♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V ♀ Berenice IV ♀ Cleopatra VI ♀ Cleopatra ♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV ♀ Ptolemy XIV Philopator Caesarion Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II ♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III ♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III ♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V ♀ Berenice IV ♀ Cleopatra VI ♀ Cleopatra ♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV ♀ Ptolemy XIV Philopator Caesarion Roman (30 BC–313 AD) XXXIV Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Lucius Verus Marcus Aurelius Commodus Pertinax Pescennius Niger Septimius Severus Geta Caracalla Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Decius Trebonianus Gallus Aemilianus Valerian Macrianus Minor Quietus Lucius Mussius Aemilianus Gallienus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Diocletian Maximian Galerius Maximinus Daza XXXIV Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Lucius Verus Marcus Aurelius Commodus Pertinax Pescennius Niger Septimius Severus Geta Caracalla Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Decius Trebonianus Gallus Aemilianus Valerian Macrianus Minor Quietus Lucius Mussius Aemilianus Gallienus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Diocletian Maximian Galerius Maximinus Daza Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Lucius Verus Marcus Aurelius Commodus Pertinax Pescennius Niger Septimius Severus Geta Caracalla Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Decius Trebonianus Gallus Aemilianus Valerian Macrianus Minor Quietus Lucius Mussius Aemilianus Gallienus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Diocletian Maximian Galerius Maximinus Daza Dynastic genealogies 1 st 4 th 11 th 12 th 17 th 18 th 19 th 20 th 21 st , 22 nd and 23 rd 24 th 25 th 26 th 27 th 30 th 31 st Argead Ptolemaic Dynastic genealogies 1 st 4 th 11 th 12 th 17 th 18 th 19 th 20 th 21 st , 22 nd and 23 rd 24 th 25 th 26 th 27 th 30 th 31 st Argead Ptolemaic 1 st 4 th 11 th 12 th 17 th 18 th 19 th 20 th 21 st , 22 nd and 23 rd 24 th 25 th 26 th 27 th 30 th 31 st Argead Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST ISNI VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Israel United States France BnF data Israel People DDB DDB Other Yale LUX Yale LUX Ramesses VI 12th-century BC pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies Children of Ramesses III Pages using the WikiHiero extension Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Featured articles Wikipedia pages semi-protected from banned users CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 maint: location missing publisher CS1 German-language sources (de) Commons category link is on Wikidata Webarchive template wayback links Year of birth unknown This page was last edited on 10 January 2026, at 13:00 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Background 2 1948–1949: Arab–Israeli War Toggle 1948–1949: Arab–Israeli War subsection 2.1 1948 2.2 1949 2.1 1948 2.2 1949 3 1948–1966 Toggle 1948–1966 subsection 3.1 1951 3.2 1952 3.3 1953 3.4 1954 3.5 1955 3.6 1956 3.7 1957 3.8 1959 3.9 1963 3.10 1964 3.1 1951 3.2 1952 3.3 1953 3.4 1954 3.5 1955 3.6 1956 3.7 1957 3.8 1959 3.9 1963 3.10 1964 4 1967–1973 Toggle 1967–1973 subsection 4.1 1967 4.2 1968 4.3 1969 4.4 1970 4.5 1971 4.6 1972 4.7 1973 4.1 1967 4.2 1968 4.3 1969 4.4 1970 4.5 1971 4.6 1972 4.7 1973 5 1974–1980s: Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon Toggle 1974–1980s: Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon subsection 5.1 1974 5.2 1975 5.3 1976 5.4 1977 5.5 1978 5.6 1979 5.7 1980 5.8 1981 5.9 1982 5.1 1974 5.2 1975 5.3 1976 5.4 1977 5.5 1978 5.6 1979 5.7 1980 5.8 1981 5.9 1982 6 1980s Toggle 1980s subsection 6.1 1980 6.2 1982 6.3 1983 6.4 1985 6.5 1986 6.6 1987 (before the First Intifada) 6.1 1980 6.2 1982 6.3 1983 6.4 1985 6.5 1986 6.6 1987 (before the First Intifada) 7 1987–1991: First Intifada 8 1991–present: Peace process Toggle 1991–present: Peace process subsection 8.1 1991 8.2 1992 8.3 1993 8.4 1994 8.5 1995 8.6 1996 8.7 1997 8.8 1998 8.9 1999 8.10 2000 8.1 1991 8.2 1992 8.3 1993 8.4 1994 8.5 1995 8.6 1996 8.7 1997 8.8 1998 8.9 1999 8.10 2000 9 2000–2005: Al-Aqsa Intifada Toggle 2000–2005: Al-Aqsa Intifada subsection 9.1 2000 9.2 2001 9.3 2002 9.4 2003 9.5 2004 9.6 2005 9.1 2000 9.2 2001 9.3 2002 9.4 2003 9.5 2004 9.6 2005 10 2005–present: Post-Intifada, Gaza conflict Toggle 2005–present: Post-Intifada, Gaza conflict subsection 10.1 2005 10.2 2006 10.3 2007 10.4 2008 10.5 2009 10.6 2010 10.7 2011 10.8 2012 10.9 2013 10.10 2014 10.11 2015–2016 10.12 2017–2022 10.13 2023–present 10.14 Death timelines 10.1 2005 10.2 2006 10.3 2007 10.4 2008 10.5 2009 10.6 2010 10.7 2011 10.8 2012 10.9 2013 10.10 2014 10.11 2015–2016 10.12 2017–2022 10.13 2023–present 10.14 Death timelines 11 See also 12 References Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict العربية Deutsch Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article needs to be updated . Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( October 2024 ) This timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict lists events from 1948 to the present. The Israeli–Palestinian conflict emerged from intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine between Palestinian Jews and Arabs, often described as the background to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. The conflict in its modern phase evolved since the declaration of the State of Israel on May 14, 1948, and consequent intervention of Arab armies on behalf of the Palestinian Arabs. Background Israel gained independence on May 14, 1948, while a Palestinian attempt to establish a state in the Gaza Strip in September 1948 under an Egyptian protectorate failed, being de facto managed by Egyptian military and announced dissolved in 1959. 1948–1949: Arab–Israeli War Month, Day Event(s) 1948 1948 May 13 Haganah took control of Jaffa . The Irgun had been shelling Jaffa for three weeks. [ 1 ] After most of the Arab population fled the city, [ 2 ] [ 3 ] its 1947 population of 70,000 was reduced to 4,000. [ 4 ] May 14 The Jewish People's Council gathered at the Tel Aviv Museum, and approved a proclamation declaring "the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel , to be known as the State of Israel ". [ 5 ] At midnight the British Mandate over Palestine terminated. [ 6 ] May 15 Following a letter from the Agent of the new Provisional Government to President Truman that the state of Israel has been proclaimed as an independent republic within frontiers approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations , [ 7 ] the United States recognized the provisional government as the de facto authority of the new State of Israel. [ 8 ] Members of the Arab League – Syria, Iraq , Egypt, Transjordan , the Holy War Army and the Arab Liberation Army , marched their forces into what had the previous day ceased to be the British Mandate for Palestine. The League of Arab States sent a cablegram to the Secretary-General of the United Nations saying, "On the occasion of the intervention of Arab States in Palestine to restore law and order and to prevent disturbances prevailing in Palestine from spreading into their territories and to check further bloodshed". [ 9 ] May 23 Thomas C. Wasson , US Consul General, assassinated in Jerusalem. June Violent confrontation between the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) under the command of David Ben-Gurion , and the paramilitary Jewish group Irgun known as The Altalena Affair resulted in the dismantlement of the Irgun, Lehi, and all Israeli paramilitary organizations operating outside the IDF. Infiltration by Palestinian fedayeen began from Egypt, resulting in many minor skirmishes, raids and counter-raids, causing hundreds of casualties on both sides, including many civilians. One thousand three hundred Israelis were killed or wounded in paramilitary attacks. September 17 Folke Bernadotte , United Nations Peace Envoy, assassinated in Jerusalem. September 22 The All-Palestine Government assembled in the Egyptian-controlled Gaza Strip and was recognized by all members of the Arab League except Jordan. October 28 The Israeli army killed at least 70 villagers at Al-Dawayima . 1949 1949 February–July Israel concluded the Armistice Agreements with neighbouring countries. The territory of the Mandatory Palestine was divided between the State of Israel, the Transjordan and the All-Palestine Government in Gaza, under prefecture of Egypt . During and after the war about 711,000 Palestinian Arabs became displaced and refugees. 800,000–1,000,000 Jews living in Muslim countries left or were expelled during or after the war. February 24 Armistice signed with Egypt . February 148 infiltrators killed by the Israeli army during February in area around Majdal / Ashkelon . [ 10 ] March 23 Armistice signed with Lebanon . April 3 Armistice signed with Transjordan . June Israeli army killed 93 infiltrators along Southern Jordan and Gaza Strip borders. [ 11 ] July 30 Armistice signed with Syria . July 59 infiltrators killed by Israeli army. It is estimated that at least 1000 were killed during 1949, the vast majority of them unarmed. [ 12 ] 1948–1966 Between 1949 and 1953, there were 99 complaints made by Israel about the infiltration of armed groups or individuals and 30 complaints of armed Jordanian units crossing into Israeli territory. [ 13 ] Several hundred Israeli civilians were killed by infiltrators, and some were raped and mutilated. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Israel launched numerous reprisal raids in response. Between 1949 and 1956, 286 Israeli civilians were killed. During the same period, excluding the Suez War , 258 Israeli soldiers were killed. Between 2,700 and 5,000 Arab infiltrators were killed. It is unclear whether these Arabs were really infiltrators or were simply unauthorized crossers, as many Palestinians were crossing into Israel for economic reasons. [ 16 ] The Israeli forces necessarily treated anyone attempting unauthorized entry as a potential infiltrator, given the level of bloodshed. Month, Day Event(s) 1951 The State of Israel was confronted by a wave of Palestinian infiltrations (fedayeen). In 1951, 118 Israelis, including 48 civilians, were killed by such infiltrators. According to Israeli army records, an average of 36 infiltrators were killed each month during 1951. [ 17 ] Arabs were also being attacked by the Israelis, and the overall situation deteriorated. Israel began Retribution Operations as punishment and prevention measures. 1951 The State of Israel was confronted by a wave of Palestinian infiltrations (fedayeen). In 1951, 118 Israelis, including 48 civilians, were killed by such infiltrators. According to Israeli army records, an average of 36 infiltrators were killed each month during 1951. [ 17 ] Arabs were also being attacked by the Israelis, and the overall situation deteriorated. Israel began Retribution Operations as punishment and prevention measures. February 6–7 Sharafat , a village south-west of Jerusalem, attacked by Israeli army. Nine villagers killed. [ 18 ] 1952 68 Israelis, including 42 civilians, were killed by Palestinian infiltrators. The Israeli army killed a monthly average of 33 people crossing the armistice lines, including 78 in March and 57 in April. [ 17 ] 1952 68 Israelis, including 42 civilians, were killed by Palestinian infiltrators. The Israeli army killed a monthly average of 33 people crossing the armistice lines, including 78 in March and 57 in April. [ 17 ] January 6–7 Israeli army attacked Bayt Jala killing seven people. [ 19 ] 1953 71 Israelis, including 44 civilians, killed by Palestinian infiltrators. 1953 71 Israelis, including 44 civilians, killed by Palestinian infiltrators. April 22 At least six Jordanian soldiers killed by Israeli sniper fire from West Jerusalem. [ 20 ] May 17–23 Operation "Viper on the Track": seven West Bank villages and a Bedouin camp in Israel attacked by Israeli army. August 11–12 Operation "Vengeance and Reprisal": four West Bank villages attacked by Israeli army, including al-Khader and Surif . Six people killed. October 16 Qibya massacre . Unit 101 , commanded by Ariel Sharon , carried out a raid on the village of Qibya. Over 60 Arabs killed. 1954 57 Israelis killed, including 33 civilians. Israeli Border Police record between May and December they killed 51 infiltrators. [ 21 ] 1954 57 Israelis killed, including 33 civilians. Israeli Border Police record between May and December they killed 51 infiltrators. [ 21 ] March 16–17 Ma'ale Akrabim massacre : Arab gang attacked an Israeli civilian bus, killing 11. [ 22 ] April 28–29 Operation "Lion": Nahhalin village attacked by Israeli army. Nine people killed: four National Guardsmen, three Jordanian soldiers, the village mukhtar and a woman. [ 23 ] July 10–12 Operation "Eye for an Eye": An Israeli company led by Ariel Sharon attacked a post on the Gaza border near Kissufim , killing 9 or 10 Palestinian gendarmes. [ 24 ] July 23–24 Start of the Lavon Affair . 1955 74 Israelis killed, including 24 civilians. The Israeli army recorded 36 hostile infiltrators as killed. [ 21 ] 1955 74 Israelis killed, including 24 civilians. The Israeli army recorded 36 hostile infiltrators as killed. [ 21 ] February 28 – March 1 Operation "Black Arrow": Ariel Sharon led an Israeli attack on an Egyptian army base in the Gaza Strip, killing 38 soldiers and two civilians. [ 25 ] August 31 – September 1 Israeli army attacked outskirts of Khan Yunis . 72 Egyptians and Palestinians killed. [ 26 ] October 27–28 Ariel Sharon led a force of 200 Israeli paratroopers on an attack on Kuntilla . 12 Egyptian soldiers killed. [ 27 ] November 2–3 Operation "Volcano": the Israeli army attacked Egyptian army positions in al Sabha and Wadi Siram , killing 81 Egyptian soldiers. [ 28 ] December 11–12 Operation "Olive Leaves": a large Israeli force commanded by Ariel Sharon attacked Syrian positions east of Lake Tiberias . 48 Syrian soldiers and six civilians killed. [ 29 ] 1956 117 Israelis killed, including 54 civilians (excluding soldiers killed during the attack on the Suez Canal). [ 30 ] 1956 117 Israelis killed, including 54 civilians (excluding soldiers killed during the attack on the Suez Canal). [ 30 ] April 5 Moshe Dayan ordered the shelling of the centre of Gaza City with 120 mm mortars. 57 civilians and four Egyptian soldiers killed. [ 31 ] October 9 Qalqilya police station attacked by an Israeli battalion-sized force that included armour and artillery. Between 70 and 90 Jordanians killed. [ 29 ] October 29 – November Suez Crisis . Israel invaded Egypt 's Sinai Peninsula with covert assent from France and Britain. The European nations had economic and trading interests in the Suez Canal, while Israel wanted to reopen the canal for Israeli shipping and end Egyptian-supported fedayeen incursions and attacks. Israel completely withdrew six months later when Egypt assured Israel unimpeded navigation and safety. In the Kafr Qasim massacre , 48 or 49 Arab civilians were killed by the Israel Border Police as they returned to their village from work. 1957 1957 March Israel withdrew its forces from the Sinai Peninsula , ending the Suez Crisis . 1959 The Cairo-born Yasser Arafat formed Fatah to conduct guerrilla warfare operations against Israel. 1959 The Cairo-born Yasser Arafat formed Fatah to conduct guerrilla warfare operations against Israel. 1963 In a new wave of Arab socialism , the Ba'ath Party took power in Iraq and Syria. Among the key Ba'ath aims was the support of the Palestinian cause. [ citation needed ] 1963 In a new wave of Arab socialism , the Ba'ath Party took power in Iraq and Syria. Among the key Ba'ath aims was the support of the Palestinian cause. [ citation needed ] 1964 1964 February 3 The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was founded in Cairo by the Arab League . Ahmad Shuqeiri was its first leader, although the organization was de facto controlled by the Egyptian government. The PLO stated their goal as the destruction of the State of Israel through armed struggle and its replacement with an "independent Palestinian state" between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean. 1967–1973 Month, Day Event(s) 1967 1967 June The Six-Day War . Israel launched a defensive strike on Egyptian Air Force (June 5), following Egyptian naval blockade of the Straits of Tiran (May 22) and Egyptian military buildup in the Sinai Peninsula (May 16), interpreted as acts of war. Attack quickly turned into a regional war, in which Israel defeated the combined forces of Egypt , Syria, Jordan , Iraq and their supporters. It captured the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip from Egypt, East Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan , and the Golan Heights from Syria . The number of war casualties estimated between 15,000 and 25,000. September 1 The Khartoum Resolution issued at the Arab Summit with eight Arab countries adopted the "three "no"s": 1. No peace with Israel; 2. No recognition of Israel; 3. No negotiations with Israel. November 22 The UN Security Council adopts Resolution 242, the "land for peace" formula, which has been the starting point for further negotiations. 1968 Between 1968 and 1970, Egypt waged a War of Attrition against Israel. 1968 Between 1968 and 1970, Egypt waged a War of Attrition against Israel. March 21 Israel fought the Battle of Karameh against Fatah and Jordanian forces. December 27–28 Israeli army launched an attack on Beirut airport , destroying 13 aircraft valued at $43.8 million. [ citation needed ] 1969 1969 February 2 Yasser Arafat , head of the Fatah party, appointed chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization , replacing Ahmad Shukeiri, after Fatah became the dominant force in the PLO. August 21 Denis Michael Rohan , an Australian Christian working on an Israeli kibbutz , set fire to the Al Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, causing extensive damage and destroying the 12th century minbar . [ 32 ] September 22–25 King Faisal of Saudi Arabia convened a conference in Rabat , Morocco , to discuss the arson attack on the Al Aqsa Mosque . The leaders of 25 Muslim states attended and the conference called for Israel to give up territory conquered in 1967. The conference also set up the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and pledged its support for the Palestinians. [ 33 ] 1970 1970 May 8 Avivim school bus massacre : Palestinian militants from Lebanon attacked an Israeli school bus, killing 12 (mostly children) and wounding another 19. September The PLO was driven out of Jordan , decamping to south Lebanon . 1971 1971 January 2 Murder of the Aroyo children . A Palestinian teenager threw a hand grenade into the moving car of the Aroyo family. The children, aged 4 and 7, were killed and the parents injured. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] 1972 1972 May 8 A Sabena airplane flying from Vienna to Tel Aviv was hijacked by four members of Black September and held at Lod Airport . The hijackers demanded the release of 100 Palestinian prisoners. Israeli paratroopers disguised as mechanics entered the aircraft, killed two of the hijackers and released 90 passengers. May 30 Lod Airport massacre . Acting on behalf of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine , Japanese Red Army members entered Lod Airport's waiting area and fired indiscriminately at staff, passengers and visitors. 24 people were killed and 78 injured. July 9 PFLP spokesman and author Ghassan Kanafani and his 17-year-old niece killed by an Israeli car bomb in Beirut . July 11 A grenade thrown within Tel Aviv's bus terminal, claimed to be retaliation for Kanafani's killing, injures 11. July 19 Anis al-Sayigh , Director of the Beirut Center for Palestinian Affairs , injured by an Israeli letter bomb. July 25 Bassam Abu Sharif , chief assistant to George Habash , badly injured by Israeli letter bomb delivered to PFLP offices in Beirut. August 5 Ali Hasan Salameh , a Black September commander, led an attack on an American-owned oil-storage facility at Trieste in Italy. September 6 The Munich massacre of Israeli Olympic athletes by Palestinian militant group, Black September . The terrorists killed two of the athletes and took nine hostage, demanding the release of 250 Palestinian and Lebanese prisoners held in Israel. They called their operation " Ikrit and Biram " after two villages in northern Israel. In an airport shoot-out with the West German police, five terrorists were killed, but not before they shot and killed the remaining Israeli hostages. This led Israel to launch reprisal assassinations known as Operation Wrath of God . September 11 Zadock Ophir , a Mossad clerk at the Israeli embassy in Brussels shot and badly wounded by a Palestinian. September 19 Ami Shchori , agricultural attaché at the Israeli embassy in London, killed by an Arab letter bomb. October 17 Wa'el Zu'aiter , Fatah 's representative in Rome, shot dead by Israeli agents. December 8 Mahmoud Hamshari , PLO representative in Paris, badly wounded by an Israeli bomb. He died a month later. December 28 Black September gunmen entered the Israeli embassy in Bangkok and took six Israeli hostage. They demanded the release of 36 Palestinians. The hostages were released unharmed. 1973 1973 January 24 Hussein Abu-Khair, Fatah representative in Cyprus , killed by an Israeli bomb in Nicosia . January 26 Baruch Cohen , Mossad director of operations against Palestinians in Europe, killed in Madrid by a Fatah gunman. February 22 Israeli Air Force jets shot down Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114 over Sinai , killing 104 passengers and crew. March 6 Black September gunmen attacked the Saudi embassy in Khartoum demanding the release of Abu Dawud held in Jordan . They murdered the American ambassador, Cleo Noel , the retiring American chargé d'affaires, George Moore and a Belgian diplomat, Guy Eid . March 12 Simha Gilzer , a Mossad agent, shot dead in Nicosia by Palestinian gunmen. April 6 Basil Al Kubaisi , a PFLP official, killed by Israeli agents in Paris. [ 36 ] April 9 Operation "Spring of Youth" : Israeli commandos raided PLO targets in Beirut . After Muhammad Youssef al-Najjar , Kamal Adwan and Kamal Nasser were killed at home, the resulting demonstrations brought down the Lebanese government. April 27 An Israeli El Al employee was murdered in Rome by a Palestinian gunman. June 27 Muhammad Boudia , an Algerian member of Fatah , killed in Paris by an Israeli bomb. July 2 Yosef Alon , Israeli defense attaché, shot dead outside his home in Washington, D.C. July 21 Mossad gunmen mistook a Moroccan waiter in Lillehammer , Norway for a perpetrator of the Munich massacre and shot him dead. Six Israelis captured and put on trial. October Yom Kippur War . Syria and Egypt unleashed a surprise attack on Israeli forces in the Golan Heights and the Sinai Peninsula on the holiest day of the Hebrew calendar and last day of Ramadan . Jordan [ citation needed ] , Iraq, and other Arab nations joined in and/or supported the Arab war effort. Many Israeli prisoners of war were tortured and killed by Egypt and Syria while in captivity. [ 37 ] [ 38 ] [ 39 ] October 19 In a speech to the US Congress , US President Richard Nixon requested permission to deliver large amounts of weapons to Israel. In response, King Faisal announced that Saudi Arabia would stop all oil shipments to the United States. The Netherlands was also included in the embargo. [ clarification needed ] 1974–1980s: Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon Month, Day Event(s) 1974 1974 April 11 Kiryat Shmona massacre . The PFLP–GC militia crossed the border into Israel from Lebanon, entered an apartment building and killed all 18 residents. Half were children. May 15 Ma'alot massacre . The Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine attacked a van killing two Israeli Arab women, entered an apartment and killed a family, and took over a local school and held 115 students and teachers hostage. 25 Israelis were killed at the school, including 22 children, and 68 were wounded. October 14 The PLO was recognized by the UN General Assembly as the representative of the Palestinian people and was granted the right to participate in the deliberations on Palestine. October 26–29 The Arab League recognized the PLO as sole representative of the Palestinians. November 13 Yasser Arafat addressed the United Nations General Assembly. November 22 The United Nations General Assembly adopts Resolution 3236 , which recognizes Palestinians right to self-determination, officiates the U.N.'s contact with the Palestine Liberation Organization, and added the "Question of Palestine" to the U.N. agenda, on top of promoting PLO non-observer status at UN assemblies, allowing them to participate in all Assembly sessions. 1975 1975 March 4 Savoy Operation . Eight Palestinian terrorists in two teams landed by boat in Tel Aviv. Shooting and throwing grenades, they captured the Savoy Hotel and took the guests as hostages. Five hostages were freed and eight killed. Three Israeli soldiers were also killed. July 4 A "refrigerator bomb" in Jerusalem killed 15 Israelis and wounded 77. November 10 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379 , adopted by a vote of 72 to 35 with 32 abstentions, "determines that Zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination". The resolution was revoked by Resolution 46/86 on December 16, 1991. November 13 An explosive charge went off near Cafe Naveh on Jaffa Road, near the pedestrian mall. Seven Israeli civilians killed and 45 injured. 1976 1976 May 3 Ben Yehuda Street in Jerusalem bombed by Palestinian terrorists. 33 civilians injured. [ 40 ] July 4 Operation "Entebbe" . Air France Flight 139, originating in Tel Aviv , took off from Athens , Greece, heading for Paris. It was hijacked by four terrorists (two from the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine and two from the radical German militant group Revolutionary Cells ). Israel performed a rescue mission to free the 248 passengers and 12 crew members held hostage at Entebbe Airport in Uganda . 1977 1977 January 3 Mahmud Salih , PLO representative in Paris and manager of an Arab bookshop, killed by Israeli agents. 1978 1978 January 4 Sa'id Hammami , PLO representative in London and well-known dove , killed by an Abu Nidal gunman. March 11 Coastal Road massacre . Fatah Palestinians killed an American photographer, hijacked a load bus and killed 38 more Israelis, including 13 children, and wounded 76. March 14 Operation "Litani" . Israel, in alliance with the mostly Christian South Lebanon Army , launched a limited-scope invasion of Lebanon and attempted to push Palestinian militant groups away from the Israel border. The seven-day offensive resulted in 100,000 to 285,000 refugees created and between 300 and 1,200 Lebanese and Palestinian militants and civilians killed. June 15 Ali Yassin , PLO representative in Kuwait , killed by a member of the Abu Nidal group. August 5 Yizz al-Din Qalaq , PLO representative in Paris and well-known dove , killed by an Abu Nidal gunman. September 17 Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Anwar Sadat signed the Camp David Accord , in which Israel agreed to withdraw from the Sinai Peninsula in exchange for peace and a framework for future negotiation over the West Bank and Gaza Strip . 1979 1979 January 22 Ali Hassan Salameh , head of Yasser Arafat's security unit Force 17 , killed by an Israeli car bomb in Beirut. March 14 An Israeli was killed and 13 people injured when an explosive charge blew up in a trash can in Zion Square , Jerusalem. March 26 Egypt–Israel peace treaty . Egypt became the first Arab country to recognize Israel officially. April 22 Samir Kuntar , a PLO operative, killed four Israelis in Nahariya , including two girls aged four and two. 1980 1980 October 5 A parcel bomb blast in a postal office in Givatayim , Tel Aviv killing three people and wounding seven others, and left material damage. The authorities said that de PFLP-GC carried the attack. [ 41 ] [ 42 ] 1981 1981 June 1 Na'im Khudr , PLO representative in Brussels and well-known dove , killed by an Abu Nidal gunman. July 17 Israel bombed the PLO headquarters in a civilian area of Beirut , causing over 300 civilian deaths. The United States brokered a fragile cease-fire. August 29 Abu Nidal terrorists attacked Vienna's Stadttempel , the Austrian capital's principal synagogue. October 9 Majid Abu Sharar , a prominent member of Fatah , killed by an Israeli bomb in Rome. October 20 A truck bomb exploded in Antwerp, Belgium outside a Portuguese Jewish synagogue. 1982 1982 May 15 Israel, allied with Lebanese Christians, launched Operation "Peace for Galilee" , an invasion of southern Lebanon against PLO, Syrian and Muslim Lebanese forces, claiming its purpose was to remove PLO forces camped there after several PLO cease-fire violations. The most notable of these was the Abu Nidal Organization attempt to assassinate Shlomo Argov , Israel's ambassador to the United Kingdom. As a result, the PLO leadership relocated to Tunis . September Sabra and Shatila massacre . Lebanese Phalangists massacred between 762 and 3,500 civilians, mostly Palestinians and Lebanese Shiites , in Sabra and the Shatila refugee camp . While no Israeli soldiers were present in the fighting, Israeli Defense Minister , Ariel Sharon , was found to be indirectly responsible by negligence for the massacre by the Kahan Commission , and was asked to resign his position. The commission's conclusions were controversial and remain a subject of debate. [ 43 ] 9 October 1982 Great Synagogue of Rome attack .The 1982 Great Synagogue of Rome attack, which was carried out by armed Palestinian militants at the entrance to the Great Synagogue of Rome, took place on 9 October 1982 at 11:55 a.m. A 2-year-old toddler, Stefano Gaj Taché, was killed in the attack, while 37 civilians were injured. 1980s Month, Day Event(s) 1980 1980 June 2 Israeli settlers attempted to assassinate mayors of Nablus and Ramallah in a series of car bombings . 1982 1982 April 11 Israeli-American reservist Alan Harry Goodman killed two Palestinians and injured seven others at the Dome of the Rock . 1983 1983 April 10 Isam Sartawi , a close associate of Yasser Arafat and prominent dove , killed by an Abu Nidal gunman in Lisbon . July 26 Members from the Jewish Underground carried out an attack at Hebron University , killing three Palestinian students and injured more than thirty others. August The Israeli Army withdrew from most of Lebanon in August 1983, maintaining a self-proclaimed "Security Zone" in the south. December 8 Murder of Danny Katz : the body of a 14-year-old Israeli was found mutilated with evidence of strangulation , torture , and sexual assault . Five Arabs were convicted of the murder. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] 1985 1985 April 9 Sana'a Mouhadly of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party detonated herself in an explosive-laden vehicle in Lebanon, killing two Israeli soldiers and injuring two more, becoming the first reported female suicide bomber . October 1 After three Israeli civilians were killed on board a yacht off the coast of Cyprus by the PLO's Force 17 , the Israeli Air Force carried out Operation "Wooden Leg" , striking the PLO base in Tunis and killing 60 PLO members. October 7 The Palestinian Liberation Front hijacked the Achille Lauro , redirecting the cruise ship to Syria and holding its passengers and crew hostage, demanding the release of 50 Palestinians in Israeli prisons. One man was murdered; Leon Klinghoffer , a Jewish American, who was celebrating his 36th wedding anniversary with his wife. He was shot in the forehead and chest while sitting in his wheelchair. December 27 Intending to hijack El Al jets and blow them up over Tel Aviv , Fatah – Revolutionary Council gunmen opened fire with rifles and grenades at the international airports in Rome and Vienna , killing 18 civilians and wounding 138. Six of the seven terrorists were either killed or captured. 1986 1986 September 5 Pan Am Flight 73 Boeing 747-121, flying between Mumbai – Karachi – Frankfurt –New York City, was hijacked while on the ground at Karachi airport, Pakistan, by four armed Palestinian men of the Abu Nidal Organization . 360 passengers were on board. 19 passengers and 2 crew members were killed during the hijacking, including 12 Indians. 1 hijacker is serving prison sentence in the US, while 3 hijackers and 1 supporter escaped from prison in Pakistan in January 2008 and are still missing. December 4 Students of Birzeit University began to stage protests against Israel until December 16. Four Palestinians were killed by the Israeli military during the demonstrations. 1987 (before the First Intifada) 1987 (before the First Intifada) February 9 Civil unrest broke out across the Occupied Palestinian territories after Israeli soldiers used live ammunition to disperse a demonstration held at the Balata Camp , in the West Bank. March 25 Civil unrest broke out in the West Bank and lasted until 15 April. June 6 Israeli settlers attacked the Dheisheh refugee camp in the West Bank. June 24 1987 Arab citizens of Israel general strikes 1987–1991: First Intifada The First Intifada began with violence, riots, general strikes, and civil disobedience campaigns by Palestinians spread across the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Israeli forces responded with tear gas, plastic bullets, and live ammunition against the demonstrators. After the outbreak of the First Intifada, Shaikh Ahmed Yassin created Hamas from the Gaza wing of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood . Until that point the Muslim Brotherhood in Gaza had enjoyed the support of the Israeli authorities and had refrained from violent attacks. However, Hamas quickly began attacks on Israeli military targets, and subsequently, Israeli civilians. The Israeli army killed more than 1,000 Palestinians in the First Intifada whilst 164 Israelis were killed. Allegedly almost half (1,000) of the total Palestinian casualties were caused by internal fighting among Palestinian factions. Month, Day Event(s) 1987 July 22 Cartoonist Naji al-Ali shot in the head whilst walking a London street. He died of his injuries on 21 August 1987. It was later revealed that those believed to be responsible were being managed by Mossad agents. November 25 Six Israeli soldiers killed by infiltrators who flew over the Lebanese border on hang gliders December 8 Four Palestinian workers from Jabalya refugee camp were killed when an Israeli army tank transporter drove into their mini-bus at the Erez crossing . 1988 During 1988, 289 Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional 15 killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period six Israeli civilians and four members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] During 1988, 289 Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional 15 killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period six Israeli civilians and four members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] April 16 Abu Jihad (Khalil al-Wazir), head of PLO 's military operations, killed in his home in Tunis by a seaborne Israeli assassination squad. August 1 King Hussein of Jordan abandoned to the PLO its claim for the West Bank. [ 47 ] November 15 An independent State of Palestine was proclaimed by the Palestinian National Council meeting in Algiers , by a vote of 253 to 46. December 15 The UN General Assembly approves Resolution 43/177 , acknowledging the Palestinian Declaration of Independence and replacing the designating "Palestine" rather than "PLO" in the U.N.'s system. 1989 During 1989, 285 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional 17 killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period 19 Israeli civilians and six members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] 1989 During 1989, 285 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional 17 killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period 19 Israeli civilians and six members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] April 13 Israel Border Police raided the village of Nahalin in the West Bank, killing five Palestinian youths. July 16 The Tel Aviv Jerusalem bus 405 massacre : the first Palestinian suicide attack inside Israel's borders. 1990 During 1990, 125 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional nine killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period four Israeli civilians and three members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] 1990 During 1990, 125 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional nine killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period four Israeli civilians and three members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] May 20 Former IDF soldier Ami Popper killed seven Palestinian workers from Gaza at a bus stop in Rishon LeZion , Israel. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for his crimes, but later commuted to 40 years in prison. [ 48 ] 1991 During 1991, 91 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional six killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period seven Israeli civilians and one member of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] 1991 During 1991, 91 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional six killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period seven Israeli civilians and one member of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] January 14 Abu Iyad , second in command of Fatah and opposed to Yasser Arafat 's support of Saddam Hussein , was killed in Tunis by Abu Nidal recruit Hamza Abu Zaid . Gulf War When the U.S.-led coalition fought to get Saddam Hussein out of Kuwait , Hussein attempted to draw Israel into the war and fired 39 Scud missiles into Israel. To avoid disrupting the U.S.-led coalition, Israel did not retaliate. 1991–present: Peace process Part of a series on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict Israeli–Palestinian peace process History Peace discourse 1948–onwards Camp David Accords 1978 Madrid Conference 1991 Oslo Accords 1993 / 95 Hebron Protocol 1997 Wye River Memorandum 1998 Sharm El Sheikh Memorandum 1999 Camp David Summit 2000 The Clinton Parameters 2000 Taba Summit 2001 Road Map 2003 Agreement on Movement and Access 2005 Annapolis Conference 2007 Mitchell-led talks 2010–11 Kerry-led talks 2013–14 Peace discourse 1948–onwards Camp David Accords 1978 Madrid Conference 1991 Oslo Accords 1993 / 95 Hebron Protocol 1997 Wye River Memorandum 1998 Sharm El Sheikh Memorandum 1999 Camp David Summit 2000 The Clinton Parameters 2000 Taba Summit 2001 Road Map 2003 Agreement on Movement and Access 2005 Annapolis Conference 2007 Mitchell-led talks 2010–11 Kerry-led talks 2013–14 Primary concerns Final borders Israeli settlements Palestinian enclaves Jewish state Palestinian political violence Palestinian refugees Security concerns Status of Jerusalem Zionist political violence Final borders Israeli settlements Palestinian enclaves Jewish state Final borders Israeli settlements Palestinian enclaves Jewish state Palestinian political violence Palestinian refugees Security concerns Status of Jerusalem Zionist political violence Zionist political violence Secondary concerns Israeli West Bank barrier Places of worship Fatah–Hamas conflict Water Electricity Israeli West Bank barrier Places of worship Fatah–Hamas conflict Water Electricity International brokers The "Quartet" ( United Nations United States European Union Russia ) Arab League Egypt Jordan United Kingdom France The "Quartet" ( United Nations United States European Union Russia ) ( United Nations United States European Union Russia ) Arab League Egypt Jordan Egypt Jordan United Kingdom France United Kingdom France Proposals One-state solution : Isratin Elon Peace Plan Two-state solution : Fahd Plan Allon Plan Arab Peace Initiative Geneva Initiative Lieberman Plan Israeli Peace Initiative Palestinian Prisoners' Document Trump Peace Plan Three-state solution Israeli unilateral plans: Hafrada Disengagement Realignment Others Palestinian Emirates Plan One-state solution : Isratin Elon Peace Plan Isratin Elon Peace Plan Two-state solution : Fahd Plan Allon Plan Arab Peace Initiative Geneva Initiative Lieberman Plan Israeli Peace Initiative Palestinian Prisoners' Document Trump Peace Plan Fahd Plan Allon Plan Arab Peace Initiative Geneva Initiative Lieberman Plan Israeli Peace Initiative Palestinian Prisoners' Document Trump Peace Plan Three-state solution Israeli unilateral plans: Hafrada Disengagement Realignment Hafrada Disengagement Realignment Others Palestinian Emirates Plan Palestinian Emirates Plan Projects / groups / NGOs Peace-orientated projects Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts Valley of Peace Middle East economic integration Alliance for Middle East Peace Peres Center for Peace Peace-orientated projects Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts Valley of Peace Middle East economic integration Alliance for Middle East Peace Peres Center for Peace Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts Valley of Peace Middle East economic integration Alliance for Middle East Peace Peres Center for Peace .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Month, Day Event(s) 1991 1991 October 30 Madrid Conference . December 16 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 4686 revoked Resolution 3379 of November 10, 1975 (on Zionism and racism) by a vote of 111 to 25 and 13 abstentions. 1992 During 1992, 19 Israeli civilians and 15 members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. In the same period, 136 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli army. An additional two were killed by Israeli civilians. [ 46 ] 1992 During 1992, 19 Israeli civilians and 15 members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. In the same period, 136 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli army. An additional two were killed by Israeli civilians. [ 46 ] May 24 Murder of Helena Rapp : 15-year-old Israeli girl was stabbed to death on the way to school by a Palestinian. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] [ 51 ] June Labour Party leader Yitzhak Rabin elected Prime Minister of Israel . 1993 During 1993, 165 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli army. An additional 15 were killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period 36 Israeli civilians and 25 members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] 1993 During 1993, 165 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli army. An additional 15 were killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period 36 Israeli civilians and 25 members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] April Mehola Junction bombing , the first suicide attack by Hamas. One Palestinian bystander was killed by the blast, and eight Israeli soldiers were slightly injured. August 20 Yasser Arafat and Yitzhak Rabin signed the Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government in Oslo. This event is also seen by many people as the definitive end to the First Intifada [ 52 ] (although some argue it had effectively ended by 1991–1992). By 1993, the violence of the Intifada had claimed the lives of 1162 Palestinians and 160 Israelis. 1994 During 1994, 110 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional 38 killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period 58 Israeli civilians and 16 members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] 1994 During 1994, 110 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional 38 killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period 58 Israeli civilians and 16 members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] February 25 Cave of the Patriarchs massacre . Baruch Goldstein opened fire on Palestinian Muslims worshipping at the Ibrahimi Mosque , killing 29 and injuring 125. He was subsequently overpowered and beaten to death by survivors. April 6 Hamas carried out their first suicide bombing , in Afula , Israel, killing 5 people and the suicide bomber. April 13 Hadera bus station suicide bombing by Hamas , killing 8 people. May 18 Israeli forces withdrew from Jericho and Gaza City in compliance with the Oslo accords . July Yasser Arafat returned from exile to head the Palestinian National Authority . October 19 22 Israelis killed by a Hamas suicide attack on a bus in Tel Aviv . This was the first major suicide bombing in Tel Aviv. October 26 With mediation provided by the United States, the Israel–Jordan Treaty of Peace was signed by Yitzhak Rabin and King Hussein. November 30 Afula axe attack : A Palestinian killed a 19-year-old female Israeli soldier with an axe. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] December 10 Yitzhak Rabin , Shimon Peres and Yasser Arafat awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . 1995 During 1995, 42 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional three killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period 16 Israeli civilians and 30 members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] 1995 During 1995, 42 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional three killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period 16 Israeli civilians and 30 members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] January 22 Beit Lid massacre : a double suicide bombing by the Palestinian Islamic Jihad killed 21 in one of the biggest attacks which further divided the Israeli public over the peace process. April 9 Kfar Darom bus attack : eight Israelis were killed and 52 injured in an Islamic Jihad suicide bombing. [ 55 ] July 24 Ramat Gan bus bombing : six Israelis killed and 33 wounded in a Hamas suicide bombing. [ 56 ] August 21 Ramat Eshkol bus bombing : five Israelis killed in a Hamas suicide bombing and over 100 injured. [ 57 ] September 28 Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip , also known as Oslo II , signed in Washington, D.C. November 4 Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin assassinated in Tel Aviv by Jewish extremist Yigal Amir . Shimon Peres assumed the position of acting Prime Minister. 1996 During 1996, 69 Palestinians and 4 Lebanese militants were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional five killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period 41 Israeli civilians and 34 members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] 1996 During 1996, 69 Palestinians and 4 Lebanese militants were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional five killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period 41 Israeli civilians and 34 members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] January 5 Shin Bet kill Yahya Ayyash , commander of the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades , using a telephone bomb. February 25 – March 4 A series of suicide attacks in Jerusalem ( Jerusalem bus 18 suicide bombings and in the French Hill ), Tel Aviv and Ashkelon left more than 60 Israelis dead. These events were said to have had a major impact on the Israeli elections in May. April 11–27 Operation "Grapes of Wrath" and the shelling of Qana . Operation "Grapes of Wrath" (Hebrew: מבצע ענבי זעם) was the Israeli Defense Force's code-name (Hezbollah calls it April War) for a sixteen-day campaign against Lebanon in 1996. Israel conducted more than 1,100 air raids and extensive shelling (some 25,000 shells). 639 Hezbollah cross-border rocket attacks targeted northern Israel, particularly the town of Kiryat Shemona. The conflict escalated on April 18 when Israeli artillery killed 106 civilians in a technical error and Israeli warplanes killed nine other civilians in the city of Nabatiyeh while sleeping in their two-story building. The conflict was de-escalated on 27 April by a ceasefire agreement banning attacks on civilians. May Likud 's leader Benjamin Netanyahu elected Prime Minister of Israel . June 9 Murder of Yaron and Efrat Ungar : Married Israeli couple shot dead by Palestinian gunmen while driving with their one-year-old son. [ 58 ] [ 59 ] 1997 During 1997, 18 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional five killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period 31 Israeli civilians were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] 1997 During 1997, 18 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces, and an additional five killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period 31 Israeli civilians were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] January 15–17 Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron signed. The agreement called for an IDF withdrawal from 80% of Hebron, and initiation of withdrawal from rural areas in the West Bank, as well as remaining parts of the West Bank apart from settlements and military locations. Israel and the PA agreed to begin negotiations on the permanent status agreement to be completed by May 4, 1999. March 13 Island of Peace massacre : A Jordanian soldier opened fire on a large group of Israeli schoolgirls, killing 7 of them and injuring 6. [ 60 ] March 21 Cafe Apropo bombing : Palestinian suicide bomber killed 3 Israeli women and injured 48. [ 61 ] July 30 16 Israelis killed in a double suicide attack in the major market of Jerusalem. This was the worst killing during Netanyahu's time which is regarded as a relatively quiet period. Netanyahu attributed this to his tit-for-tat policy and his objection to the Palestinian revolving door policy . September 4 A Hamas suicide bombing at a pedestrian mall in Jerusalem killed five Israelis, including three 14-year-old girls, [ 62 ] and led to Chicago's Persian heritage crisis . September 25 Mossad agents failed in an attempt to kill Hamas member Khaled Mashal in Amman . 1998 During 1998, 21 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces, an additional seven killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period nine Israeli civilians and three members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] 1998 During 1998, 21 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces, an additional seven killed by Israeli civilians. In the same period nine Israeli civilians and three members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] October 23 Benjamin Netanyahu and Yasser Arafat signed the Wye River Memorandum at a summit in Maryland hosted by Bill Clinton . The sides agreed on steps to facilitate implementation of the Interim Agreement on the West Bank and Gaza Strip of September 28, 1995 and other related agreements including the Hebron Protocol of January 17, 1997 so that the Israeli and Palestinian sides could more effectively carry out their reciprocal responsibilities, including those relating to further redeployments and security. 1999 During 1999, eight Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces. In the same period two Israeli civilians and two members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] 1999 During 1999, eight Palestinians were killed by the Israeli security forces. In the same period two Israeli civilians and two members of the Israeli armed forces were killed by Palestinians. [ 46 ] May 17 Ehud Barak of the Labour Party elected Prime Minister under the One Israel banner. 2000 2000 May 24 The Israeli Army withdrew from southern Lebanon , in compliance with U.N. Resolution 425 . Syria and Lebanon insisted that the withdrawal was incomplete, claiming the Shebaa Farms as Lebanese and still under occupation. The UN certified full Israeli withdrawal. July The Camp David Summit between Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat aimed at reaching a "final status" agreement. The summit concluded without an agreement. 2000–2005: Al-Aqsa Intifada Month, Day Event(s) 2000 Main article: Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2000 2000 September 28–29 Right-wing Israeli opposition leader Ariel Sharon visited the Temple Mount , which is administered by a Waqf . (Under Israeli law, each religious group is granted administration of their holy sites.) The day after the visit, violent confrontations erupted between Muslims and Israeli Police. The uprising became known as the Al-Aqsa Intifada after Sharon's visit, for the Masjid Al-Aqsa also known as the Temple Mount compound (holy also to Jews and Christians). This event is considered by some to be one of the possible catalysts of the second intifada. Palestinian leaders (including the Palestinian Minister of Communication, Imhad Falouji ) later admitted publicly that the Intifada had been planned since the end of the Camp David negotiations. A campaign of suicide bombings and terrorist attacks began on September 29, 2000, and within five years left over 1,068 Israelis dead and over 7,000 injured—69 percent of them civilians. Approximately 3,000 Palestinians were also killed in this conflict. October 1–9 October 2000 events in Israel, solidarity demonstrations held by Palestinian citizens residing in Israel escalated into clashes with Israeli police and Israeli Jewish citizens. 13 Arab civilians (12 with Israeli citizenship) were shot and killed by Israeli police and one Jewish civilian killed by a Palestinian. In a Hezbollah cross-border raid , 3 Israeli soldiers were killed and their bodies kidnapped and Northern Israel was shelled in an attempt to ignite the Israeli–Lebanese border too, but Israelis decided on limited response. October 12 The lynching in Ramallah , two Israeli reservists accidentally entered Ramallah, to be arrested by Palestinian Security Forces , later to be publicly lynched and videotaped inside the police station. November 22 Two Israeli women killed and 60 civilians wounded in a car bomb attack in Hadera . December 10 Prime Minister of Israel Ehud Barak resigned. 2001 Main article: Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2001 See also: Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel In 2001, Hamas began firing rockets towards Israeli areas. The weapons used initially were home made with of limited range and destructive capability. These were later replaced with military grade rockets. [ 63 ] 2001 In 2001, Hamas began firing rockets towards Israeli areas. The weapons used initially were home made with of limited range and destructive capability. These were later replaced with military grade rockets. [ 63 ] January 21–27 Taba Summit . Peace talks between Israel and the Palestinian Authority aimed to reach the "final status" of negotiations. Ehud Barak temporarily withdrew from negotiations during the Israeli elections, and subsequently Ariel Sharon refused to continue negotiating in the face of the newly erupted violence. February 6 Ariel Sharon of Likud elected Prime Minister and refused to continue negotiations with Yasser Arafat at the Taba Summit . March 26 Murder of Shalhevet Pass , a 10-month-old Israeli baby was shot dead by a Palestinian sniper. [ 64 ] The Israeli public was shocked when the investigation concluded that the sniper deliberately aimed for the baby. [ 65 ] June 1 Dolphinarium massacre . A Hamas suicide bomber exploded himself at the entrance of a club. 21 Israelis killed, over 100 injured, all youth. Five months prior to the bombing, there was a failed terrorist attempt at the same spot. August 9 Sbarro restaurant massacre . A suicide bomber wearing an explosive belt weighing 5 to 10 kilograms, containing explosives, nails, nuts and bolts, detonated his bomb. In the blast 15 people (including 7 children and a pregnant woman) were killed, and 130 wounded. Both Hamas and the Islamic Jihad initially claimed responsibility. August 27 Abu Ali Mustafa , the General Secretary of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine , was assassinated by an Israeli missile shot by an Apache helicopter through his office window in Ramallah. [ 66 ] October 17 Israeli Tourism Minister Rehavam Zeevi assassinated in Jerusalem by members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine . December 1 11 Israeli civilians, nine of them teenagers, were killed and 188 injured in a Hamas suicide bombing attack. [ 67 ] 2002 Main article: Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2002 2002 March 13 The United States pushed through the passage of Resolution 1397 by the Security Council, demanding an "immediate cessation of all acts of violence" and "affirming a vision of a region where two states, Israel and Palestine, live side by side within secure and recognized borders". March 14 Israeli forces continued the raid on Ramallah and other West Bank towns. A helicopter attack near Tulkarm killed Mutasen Hammad and two bystanders. A bomb in Gaza City destroyed an Israeli tank which was escorting settlers, killing 3 soldiers and wounding 2. A car bomb in Tulkarm exploded, killing 4 Palestinians. Palestinians executed two accused collaborators in Bethlehem , planning to hang one of the corpses near the Church of the Nativity until Palestinian police stopped them. March 27 Passover massacre , the Park Hotel in Netanya held a big Passover dinner for its 250 guests. A Palestinian suicide bomber entered the hotel's dining room and detonated an explosive device, killing 30 people and injuring around 140, all civilians. Hamas claims responsibility. March 28 The Beirut Summit approved the Saudi peace proposal. March 29 Israeli forces began Operation "Defensive Shield" , Israel's largest military operation in the West Bank since the 1967 Six-Day War . March 30 A suicide bomber exploded in a Tel Aviv café at around 9:30 pm local time, wounding 32 people. President George W. Bush and Secretary of State Colin Powell (USA) called on Yasir Arafat to condemn the wave of suicide bombings in Arabic, to his own people. Israeli spokespeople made similar demands. Arafat went on television and swore in Arabic that he would "die a martyr, a martyr, a martyr". Members of Arafat's personal Al-Aqsa brigade stated that they would refuse any form of cease-fire, and that they would continue suicide bombings of civilians in Israel. March 31 Matza restaurant massacre , a Palestinian Hamas bomber blew himself up in an Arab-owned restaurant in Haifa, killing 15 and injuring over 40 people. April Israeli troops exchanged gunfire with guards of Yasir Arafat in Ramallah . April 2 Israeli troops occupied Bethlehem . Dozens of armed Palestinian gunmen occupied the Church of the Nativity and held the church and its clergy. April 12 Battle of Jenin (2002) (part of Operation "Defensive Shield" ). Israeli forces entered a Palestinian refugee camp in Jenin , where about a quarter of suicide bombings since 2000 had been launched from. The battle resulted in the deaths of 23 Israeli soldiers and 52 Palestinians, of which 30–47 were militants and 5–22 were civilians (sources vary). This particular event sparked a great deal of controversy. May 9 Muhammad al-Madani , governor of Bethlehem , left the Church of the Nativity . May 18 Israeli Shin Bet officials announced they had arrested six Israelis for conspiring to bomb Palestinian schools in April, including Noam Federman , a leader of the illegal Kach movement of Rabbi Meir Kahane , and Menashe Levinger , son of Rabbi Moshe Levinger . June Israel began construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier to prevent suicide bombers from entering Israel. June 18 Patt junction massacre , a Palestinian Suicide bomber, an Islamic law student and member of Hamas, detonated a belt filled with metal balls for shrapnel on a bus in Jerusalem. 19 Israelis were killed, and over 74 wounded. June 24 U.S. President George W. Bush called for an independent Palestinian state living in peace with Israel. Bush stated that Palestinian leaders must take steps to produce democratic reforms, and fiscal accountability, in order to improve the negotiations with Israel. He also stated that as Palestinians show control over terrorism, Israel must end operations in the West Bank, and in areas which it entered under Operation "Defensive Shield" . [ 68 ] July 16 2002 Immanuel bus attack . Palestinian militants ambushed a bus and killed 9 Israeli civilians, including infants. The youngest victim of the Second Intifada was among them. [ 69 ] [ 70 ] [ 71 ] July 22 An Israeli warplane fired a missile at an apartment in Gaza City, killing the top of their most-wanted list, Salah Shehadeh, chief commander of Hamas' military wing, the Izzadine el-Qassam . The apartment building was flattened and 14 civilians were killed, including eight children. [ 72 ] Writing in the Hebrew daily, Yediot Aharanot , the conservative Israeli military correspondent, Alex Fishman, explained that this bombing came 90 minutes after the Tanzim, Hamas, and Islamic Jihad had finalized the wording of a unilateral ceasefire, which was to be announced in the Washington Post the following morning. [ 73 ] July 31 Hebrew University massacre : nine students—four Israelis and five Americans—were killed by a suicide bomber at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem , and over 100 injured. [ 74 ] [ 75 ] August 14 Marwan Barghouti , captured April 15, was indicted by a civilian Israeli court for murdering civilians and membership in a terrorist organisation. October 21 Karkur junction suicide bombing , 14 Israelis, including seven civilians, killed in an Islamic Jihad suicide bombing in Wadi Ara. [ 76 ] November 21 Jerusalem bus 20 massacre , a Hamas suicide bomber detonated himself on a crowded bus in Jerusalem, killing 11 people, and wounding over 50. 2003 Main article: Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2003 2003 January 5 Tel Aviv central bus station massacre . 23 Israeli civilians killed by a Palestinian suicide bomber. [ 77 ] March 5 Haifa bus 37 suicide bombing . 17 Israelis, including 16 civilians and nine children, killed by a Hamas suicide bomber. [ 78 ] March 16 Rachel Corrie , an American member of the International Solidarity Movement was crushed by an IDF bulldozer , becoming the first ISM member to die in the conflict. Members of the group who witnessed her death alleged murder, while Israel called it a "regrettable accident". March 19 Mahmoud Abbas appointed Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority. March 24 Hilltop 26 , an illegal Israeli settlement near the city of Hebron , was peacefully dismantled by the IDF. April 30 The Quartet on the Middle East announced the Road map for peace . May 27 Ariel Sharon stated that the "occupation" of Palestinian territories "can't continue endlessly". June 2 A two-day summit was held in Egypt. Arab leaders announced their support for the road map and promised to work on cutting off funding to terrorist groups. June 11 Davidka Square bus bombing . A Palestinian suicide bomber killed 17 Israeli civilians. [ 79 ] [ 80 ] [ 81 ] June 29 Hamas , Islamic Jihad and Fatah agreed to a three-month cease-fire. July 9 The International Court of Justice ruled in a non-binding advisory opinion that the Israeli West Bank barrier was illegal under international law, [ 82 ] the United Nations had also condemned the construction of the wall as "an unlawful act of annexation". The United States and Australia defended the security fence saying the wall was a counter-terrorism protective measure and that the onus was on the Palestinian Authority to fight terrorism. The U.S., Canada, Israel and some 30 other democratic states objected to the ICJ consideration of the UN General Assembly request, finding the request loaded and prejudicial, and expressing concern of the ICJ's credibility. [ 83 ] [ 84 ] August 19 Jerusalem bus 2 massacre . A Hamas Palestinian disguised as a Haredi Jew detonated himself with a bomb spiked with ball-bearings on a bus crowded with children. 23 Israelis were killed and over 130 wounded, all civilians. September 6 Mahmoud Abbas resigned from the post of Prime Minister. October 4 Maxim restaurant suicide bombing . A 28-year-old Palestinian female suicide bomber , Hanadi Jaradat, exploded herself inside the Maxim restaurant in Haifa . 21 Israelis (Jewish and Arab) were killed, and 51 others wounded. The restaurant was co-owned by Jewish and Christian Arab Israelis, and was a symbol of co-existence. 2004 Main article: Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2004 2004 January 29 Gaza Street bus bombing . Ali Yusuf Jaara, a 24-year-old Palestinian policeman from Bethlehem , became a suicide bomber and killed 11 Israeli civilians in Jerusalem. [ 85 ] March 14 2004 Ashdod Port bombings . 10 Israeli civilians killed in a suicide bombing. Hamas and Fatah claimed responsibility. [ 86 ] March 22 An Israeli Air Force rocket killed Hamas leader Ahmed Yassin and eleven others in Gaza City . April 17 An Israeli Air Force rocket killed Hamas leader Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi and two others in Gaza City . May 2 Murder of Tali Hatuel and her four daughters . Eight-months pregnant woman and her four young daughters ambushed and killed by Palestinian militants. [ 87 ] August 31 Beersheba bus bombings . 16 Israeli civilians killed in a suicide bombing. [ 88 ] Hamas claims responsibility. [ 89 ] October 16 Israel officially ended a 17-day military operation, named Operation "Days of Penitence" , in the northern Gaza Strip . The operation was launched in response to a Qassam rocket that killed two children in Sderot . About 108–133 Palestinians were killed during the operation, of whom one third were civilians. November 11 Yasser Arafat died at the age of 75 in a hospital near Paris, after undergoing urgent medical treatment since October 29, 2004. 2005 For a more comprehensive list, see Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2005 . 2005 January 13 Karni border crossing attack . Palestinian terrorists killed 6 Israeli civilians with 200 pound Explosive device , hand grenades , and AK-47 rifles. [ 90 ] February 25 Stage Club bombing . Young Israelis arrived for a surprise birthday party at the Stage Club in Tel Aviv. A Palestinian teenage suicide bomber detonated himself at the entrance to the club. Five Israelis killed, and about 50 wounded. Islamic Jihad claims responsibility. [ 91 ] July 12 HaSharon Mall suicide bombing (July 12, 2005) . Five Israeli civilians killed and over 90 injured in a suicide bombing. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] [ 94 ] [ 95 ] [ 96 ] 2005–present: Post-Intifada, Gaza conflict After Israel completely withdrew from Gaza in 2005, Hamas and other militants unleashed a barrage of daily rocket attacks into Israel. The city of Sderot, for example, one mile away from Gaza, was hit by over 360 Qassam rockets within a six-month period after Israel's withdrawal. In June 2006, militants from Gaza tunneled into Israel, killing two soldiers and capturing one. Two weeks later, Hezbollah, supported by Iran and Syria, attacked Israel across the internationally recognized Israeli–Lebanese border, killing eight soldiers and kidnapping two, simultaneously launching a barrage of rockets against civilian towns in northern Israel. Israel responded with a military operation that lasted 34 days. After Hamas fired thousands of rockets at Israeli communities and refused to renew a six-month truce, Israel responded with a military operation against Hamas to protect Israeli citizens. The 22-day operation ended on January 18, 2009. In May 2010, Turkish activists with the Free Gaza flotilla tried to break Israel's naval blockade of Hamas-controlled Gaza. In August 2010, Lebanese soldiers shot and killed an Israeli soldier during routine IDF maintenance on the border. Three Lebanese soldiers and one Lebanese journalist were killed in the exchange of gunfire. Month, Day Event(s) 2005 For a more comprehensive list, see Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2005 . 2005 August 7 An IDF deserter and member of the banned Kach group in Israel, Eden Natan-Zada , opened fire on a crowded bus in the Arab town of Shfaram , killing four Palestinians and wounding 22. When he ran out of bullets, the bus was stormed by Arab bystanders and Zaada was beaten to death. PM Ariel Sharon and several Israeli leaders condemned the attack and offered condolences to the families. August 17 Asher Weissgan shot and killed four Palestinians in the West Bank as a protest against the Gaza disengagement plan . [ 97 ] September 12 Completion of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan . Israel removed all Jewish settlements, many Bedouin communities, and military equipment from the Gaza Strip. Although there was no permanent Israeli presence or jurisdiction in Gaza anymore, Israel retained control of certain elements (such as airspace, borders and ports), leading to an ongoing dispute as to whether Gaza is "occupied" or not. Since the disengagement, Palestinian militant groups have used the territory as a staging ground from which to launch rocket attacks and build tunnels into Israel. 2006 For a more comprehensive list, see Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2006 . 2006 January 25 Hamas won by landslide the majority of seats after the 2006 Palestinian legislative election . Israel, the United States, European Union , and several European and Western countries cut off their aid to the Palestinians; as they viewed the Islamist political party who rejected Israel's right to exist as being a terrorist group . June 9 Following the Gaza beach blast , in which seven members of one family and one other Palestinians were killed on a Gaza beach, the armed wing of Hamas called off its 16-month-old truce. Israel claimed it was shelling 250 m away from the family's location; Palestinians claimed that the explosion was Israeli responsibility. [ 98 ] [ 99 ] Some said Israel had not been responsible for the blast or doubted they were. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] [ 102 ] [ 103 ] [ 104 ] [ 105 ] An Israeli internal investigation report claimed the blast was most likely caused by an unexploded munition buried in the sand and not by shelling. This investigation was criticized by Human Rights Watch and The Guardian . June 13 Israel killed 11 Palestinians in a missile strike on a van carrying Palestinian militants and rockets driving through a densely civilian populated area in Gaza. [ 106 ] Nine among those killed are civilian bystanders. June 25 After crossing the border from the Gaza Strip into Israel, Palestinian militants attacked an Israeli army post. The militants captured Gilad Shalit , killed two IDF soldiers and wounded four others. Israel launched Operation "Summer Rains" . July 5 First Qassam rocket of increased range was fired into the school yard in the Southern Israeli coastal city of Ashkelon . This was the first instance of an increased distance Qassam rockets could reach and the first time a significantly large city had been attacked. No one was injured in this attack. [ 107 ] July 12 2006 Lebanon War : Hezbollah infiltrated Israel in a cross-border raid, captured two soldiers and killed three others. Israel attempted to rescue the captured, and five more soldiers were killed. Israel's military responded, and the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict began. The conflict resulted in the deaths of 1,191 Lebanese people and 165 Israelis. [ 108 ] Of the Israelis killed, 121 were soldiers and 44 were civilians. [ 109 ] It is unclear how many of the Lebanese fatalities were combatants, though Israeli officials reported that an estimated 800 were Hezbollah militants. [ 110 ] Approximately one million Lebanese [ 111 ] and 300,000–500,000 Israelis were displaced. [ 112 ] July 26 Israel launched a counter-offensive to deprive cover to militants firing rockets into Israel from Gaza. 23 Palestinians killed, at least 16 were identified militants, 76 wounded. August 14 2006 Fox journalists kidnapping . Palestinian militants kidnapped Fox journalists Olaf Wiig and Steve Centanni , demanding the U.S. to release all Muslims in prison. The two were eventually released on August 27, after stating they had converted to Islam. They both later said that they were forced to convert to Islam at gunpoint. September Violence and rivalry erupted between Fatah and Hamas in the Gaza Strip. Mahmoud Abbas tried to prevent civil war. [ 113 ] [ 114 ] President Mahmoud Abbas and his moderate party advocate a Palestinian state alongside Israel, while Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh and his Islamist party reject Israel's right to exist. [ 115 ] September 26 A UN study declared the humanitarian situation in the Gaza Strip "intolerable", with 75% of the population dependent on food aid, [ 116 ] and an estimated 80% of the population living below the poverty line. [ 117 ] The Palestinian economy had largely relied on Western aid and revenues, which had been frozen since Hamas's victory. The situation can also be attributed to Israeli closures, for which Israel and the EU cited security concerns, specifically smuggling, possible weapons transfers and uninhibited return of exiled extremist leaders and terrorists; as well as an extremely high birth rate. [ 118 ] [ 119 ] [ 120 ] [ 121 ] October 11–14 In the midst of an increase of rocket attacks against Israel, the Israeli Air Force fired into the Gaza Strip over a three-day period. 21 Palestinians were killed (17 Hamas militants, 1 al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades militant, and 3 civilians). The two dozen wounded included gunmen and passersby. [ 122 ] [ 123 ] Israel said the offensive was designed to track down the capture soldier and to stop militants firing rockets into Israel. Spokesman Abu Ubaida for Hamas's military wing issued a statement vowing "we will bombard and strike everywhere" in response to the attacks. Makeshift rockets were immediately shot into Israel. October 20 Brokered by Egyptian mediators, Fatah reached a deal to end fighting between the Hamas and Fatah factions, both groups agreeing to refrain from acts that raise tensions and committing themselves to dialogue to resolve differences. Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh of Hamas brushed off comments by President Mahmoud Abbas, head of Fatah, who indicated he could dismiss the Hamas-led cabinet. Abbas unsuccessfully urged Hamas to accept international calls to renounce violence and recognize Israel's right to exist. Palestinian gunmen (presumably of the Fatah faction) opened fire at the convoy of Prime Minister Haniyeh as it passed through a refugee camp in central Gaza. [ 124 ] November 8 Beit Hanoun November 2006 incident . Amidst ongoing rocket fire, Israel shelled Beit Hanoun, killing 19 Palestinian civilians (seven children, four women) during the Gaza operations. Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert apologised, saying the incident had been an accidental "technical failure" by the Israeli military. 2007 Main article: Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2007 2007 January 19 Israel releases $100 million in tax revenues they had withheld, to cover the humanitarian needs and other basic expenses of the Palestinians. Israel wanted to strengthen Abbas and "keep money out of the hands of the Hamas government". [ 125 ] February Negotiations in Mecca produced agreement on a Palestinian national unity government signed by Abbas on behalf of Fatah and Khaled Mashal on behalf of Hamas. [ clarification needed ] [ 126 ] March The Palestinian Legislative Council established a national unity government, with 83 representatives voting in favor and three against. Government ministers were sworn in by Abu Mazen , the chairman on the Palestinian Authority , at a ceremony held simultaneously in Gaza and Ramallah . May 4 The United States set a timetable for easing Palestinian travel and bolstering Israeli security, including steps like removing specific checkpoints in the West Bank and deploying better-trained Palestinian forces to try to halt the firing of rockets into Israel from Gaza and the smuggling of weapons, explosives and people into Gaza from Egypt. Israel was wary over certain proposals so long as Palestinian militants continued to fire rockets at Israel. [ 127 ] The Hamas-led Palestinian government rejected the initiative. [ 128 ] June 7 Battle of Gaza began, resulting in Hamas taking control of the Gaza Strip from Fatah. November 27 Annapolis Conference in the U.S., a peace conference marked the first time a two-state solution ("two states, Israel and Palestine, living side by side in peace and security") was articulated as the mutually agreed-upon outline for addressing the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . The conference ended with the issuing of a joint statement from all parties, including the U.S., Israel, the Palestinian National Authority , possibly also Arab League, Russia, China, etc.. 2008 Main article: Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2008 2008 February 27 Hamas, the Popular Resistance Committees and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad fired a rocket barrage at the Israeli city of Ashkelon and more places, killing one civilian. February 28 Operation "Hot Winter" was launched in response to rockets fired from the Gaza Strip into Israel. The operation resulted in 112 Palestinians and three Israelis being killed. May 14 Tony Blair announced new plan for peace and for Palestinian rights, [ clarification needed ] based heavily on the ideas of the Peace Valley plan . [ 129 ] November 4 Israeli troops made a raid on Gaza, in which they killed six members of Hamas. Hamas responded with rocket attacks on southern Israel. [ 130 ] December Israel launched Operation "Cast Lead" against the Hamas-controlled Gaza Strip, a full-scale invasion of the territory. 2009 Operation "Cast Lead" , launched near the end of the previous year by Israel, continued until January 18. After 22 days of fighting, Israel and Hamas each declared separate unilateral ceasefires. Casualties of the Gaza War are disputed. According to Hamas, they included as many as 1,417 Palestinians including as many as 926 civilians. According to the IDF, 1,166 Palestinians were killed, and 295 were non-combatants. [ 131 ] According to the testimonies of three Guardian films, 1,400 Palestinians dead, including more than 300 children [ 132 ] (431 Children [ 133 ] ). 2009 Operation "Cast Lead" , launched near the end of the previous year by Israel, continued until January 18. After 22 days of fighting, Israel and Hamas each declared separate unilateral ceasefires. Casualties of the Gaza War are disputed. According to Hamas, they included as many as 1,417 Palestinians including as many as 926 civilians. According to the IDF, 1,166 Palestinians were killed, and 295 were non-combatants. [ 131 ] According to the testimonies of three Guardian films, 1,400 Palestinians dead, including more than 300 children [ 132 ] (431 Children [ 133 ] ). January 13–14 Israeli forces attacked Khoza'a, a small rural community east of Khan Yunis in the south of the Gaza Strip. Missiles containing white phosphorus were deployed. [ 134 ] [ 135 ] January 15 Israeli artillery attack hit a UN compound in Gaza, the compound was set ablaze by white phosphorus shells. [ 136 ] March 15 Gunmen killed two Israeli policemen who were traveling in the Jordan Valley on Highway 90, in Masua in the West Bank . The attacks was claimed in an anonymous call said that the attack was behalf of the Imad Mughniyeh Group and Fatah. [ 137 ] [ 138 ] April 2 Bat Ayin axe attack . A Palestinian terrorist attacked a group of Israeli children with an axe and a knife, killing one and injuring three. [ 139 ] [ 140 ] December 24 Killing of Rabbi Meir Hai . Rabbi killed in a drive-by shooting. Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility. [ 141 ] 2010 2010 January Two airstrikes against weapons tunnels used to smuggle rockets and militants attempting to fire mortars into Israeli were carried out by the Israeli Air Force , killing 3 militants and wounding another 7. The militants were members of Hamas and the Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine . February 10 Tapuah junction stabbing . A Palestinian Authority police officer stabbed an Israeli soldier to death. [ 142 ] [ 143 ] February 24 Murder of Neta Sorek . Israeli woman stabbed to death by Palestinian terrorists. [ 144 ] [ 145 ] March 4 A suicide bombing in a motorcycle blast in the city of Haifa , leaving one civilian was killed, 12 others were wounded, as well as material damage to a vehicle. [ 146 ] May Gaza flotilla raid . Turkish activists with the Free Gaza flotilla tried to break Israel's naval blockade of Hamas-controlled Gaza, but were intercepted by the IDF. When the IDF boarded the ship, the activists attacked them with knives and metal rods. Nine Turks were shot dead by IDF gunfire. [ 147 ] August 31 Hamas terrorists shot dead four Israeli civilians near Kiryat Arba , including a pregnant woman. [ 148 ] [ 149 ] September 2 2010 direct talks : U.S. launched direct negotiations between Israel and The Palestinian Authority in Washington, D.C. [ 150 ] September 14 2010 direct talks : A second round of Middle East peace talks between Israel and the Palestinian Authority concluded in Sharm El Sheikh , Egypt. [ 151 ] December 18 Murder of Kristine Luken . American woman stabbed to death by Palestinian terrorists. Another woman was severely injured. [ 152 ] [ 153 ] 2011 Main article: Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2011 In 2011, Israel deployed the Iron Dome air defence system to shoot down rockets fired by Palestinian militant organizations, such as Hamas, in Gaza. [ 63 ] 2011 In 2011, Israel deployed the Iron Dome air defence system to shoot down rockets fired by Palestinian militant organizations, such as Hamas, in Gaza. [ 63 ] March 11 Itamar massacre . [ 154 ] Two Palestinians infiltrated the town of Itamar and murdered five members of the Fogel family in their beds. Among the victims were three young children, including an infant. [ 155 ] March 23 2011 Jerusalem bus stop bombing . Hamas bombed a bus station in Jerusalem and killed 1 civilian. 39 injured. [ 156 ] April 7 Hamas school bus attack . Hamas militants bombed an Israeli school bus and killed a teenager. [ 157 ] April 14–15 Kidnapping of Vittorio Arrigoni . Vittorio Arrigoni an Italian activist was kidnapped by "The Brigade of the Gallant Companion of the Prophet Mohammed bin Muslima", with the purpose of release of their leader Walid al-Maqdasi, imprisoned by the de facto government in Gaza a month earlier. Arrigoni was found dead in an operation carried out by Hamas authorities in an apartment in Mareh Amer area in northern Gaza. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] August 18 2011 southern Israel cross-border attacks . Egyptian and Palestinian militants attacked southern Israel and killed 8 Israelis, including six civilians. 40 injured. Five Egyptian soldiers are also killed. [ 160 ] September Palestine Authority moved a resolution in UN for recognition of Palestine statehood, calling it a 'Palestine Spring'. [ 161 ] November Palestine won membership of UNESCO while UN vote on statehood was put off amid no support from France and UK while US had threatened to veto it. [ 162 ] 2012 Main article: Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2012 An annual survey by Shin Bet (AKA the Israel Security Agency (ISA)) concluded that in 2012, the number of terrorist attacks in the West Bank had risen from 320 in 2011 to 578 in 2012, but it was accompanied by a decrease in the number of fatalities. During that same year, 282 attacks were carried out in Jerusalem , compared to 191 in 2011. The increase in attacks was due in part to a 68% rise of attacks using molotov cocktails . However, the number of attacks involving firearms and explosives also grew by 42%—37 compared to 26 in 2011. [ 163 ] 2012 An annual survey by Shin Bet (AKA the Israel Security Agency (ISA)) concluded that in 2012, the number of terrorist attacks in the West Bank had risen from 320 in 2011 to 578 in 2012, but it was accompanied by a decrease in the number of fatalities. During that same year, 282 attacks were carried out in Jerusalem , compared to 191 in 2011. The increase in attacks was due in part to a 68% rise of attacks using molotov cocktails . However, the number of attacks involving firearms and explosives also grew by 42%—37 compared to 26 in 2011. [ 163 ] January 1 Gaza fired two white-phosphorus-containing mortars into the area governed by the Eshkol Regional Council . The shells landed in an open field and caused no injuries or damage. A complaint about the white phosphorus was subsequently sent to the UN by Israel. [ 164 ] March 9–15 March 2012 Gaza–Israel clashes . Gaza militants launched over 300 rockets, Grad missiles, and mortar shells into southern Israel, wounding 23 Israeli civilians. Israel retaliated with air strikes on Gazan weapons storage facilities, rocket launching sites, weapon manufacturing facilities, training bases, posts, tunnels and terror operatives, killing 22 militants. 4 Palestinian civilians died during the clashes, though some of their deaths were found to be unrelated to Israeli actions. [ 165 ] [ 166 ] [ 167 ] [ 168 ] [ 169 ] March 30 It was revealed that the Civil Administration , a unit of the IDF , had over the years covertly earmarked 10% of the West Bank for further settlement. [ 170 ] September 21 September 2012 Egypt-Israel border attack . Militants opened fire on Israeli soldiers and civilian workers. 1 soldier was killed. [ 171 ] November 14–21 Operation "Pillar of Defense" . The Israeli Air Force killed Ahmed Jabari , second-in-command of the military wing of Hamas . [ 172 ] Israel strikes 1500 sites in Gaza, [ 173 ] including rocket launchpads, weapon depots, government facilities and apartment blocks. [ 174 ] Gaza officials said 133 Palestinians had been killed in the conflict of whom 79 were militants, 53 civilians and 1 was a policeman [ 175 ] and estimated that 840 Palestinians were wounded. Hamas fired over 1,456 rockets at southern Israel, killing 6, including a pregnant woman, and injuring hundreds. Rockets were fired at Jerusalem for the first time and at Tel Aviv for the first time since the first Gulf War . A bus was bombed in Tel Aviv on November 21, wounding 28 civilians. Israel retaliated by bombing hundreds of military sites in the Gaza Strip. [ 176 ] [ 177 ] [ 178 ] [ 179 ] [ 180 ] November 29 United Nations General Assembly resolution 67/19 , [ 181 ] upgrading Palestine to non-member observer state status in the United Nations, was adopted by the 67th session of the UN General Assembly, the date of the International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People and the 65th anniversary of the adoption by the General Assembly of resolution 181(II) on the Future Government of Palestine. Vote: For: 138; Abs.: 41 Against: 9. November 30 In response to the UN approving the Palestinian UN bid for non-member observer state status, the Israeli government inner cabinet announced that it approved the building of housing units in the E1 area , connecting Jerusalem and Ma'aleh Adumim. [ 182 ] December 17 The UN decides that the designation of 'State of Palestine' will be used in all official United Nations documents. 2013 2013 January 15 Four Palestinians were killed by IDF within a week. [ 183 ] January 23 A Palestinian woman was shot dead by an IDF soldier, another wounded. [ 184 ] April 30 An Israeli civilian was killed by a Palestinian; the attacker was wounded. [ 185 ] August 26 Three Palestinian civilians killed during clashes in Kalandia, West Bank. [ 186 ] September 21 An Israeli soldier was abducted and killed by Palestinian in Beit Amin. [ 187 ] September 22 An Israeli soldier was killed by Palestinian sniper in Hebron. [ 188 ] [ 189 ] October 1 A Palestinian was killed on Israel–Gaza border by IDF in unclear circumstances. [ 190 ] October 6 A nine-year-old Israeli girl was wounded (condition: "light") in a terror attack in Psagot. [ 191 ] 2014 Further information: 2014 Gaza War For a more comprehensive list, see Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2014 . 2014 June 12 Eyal Yifrah, 19, Gilad Shaar, 16, and Naftali Frenkel, 16, who also had US citizenship, were killed while hitchhiking home from their religious schools in settlements on the West Bank. For the detailed story: 2014 kidnapping and murder of Israeli teenagers . [ 192 ] June 16 Ahmed Sabarin, 21, got shot and killed by Israeli forces in al-Jalazon refugee camp, during house searches in the West Bank for three missing teens. Israel accused Hamas of being behind the kidnapping of the three Israeli teens in the West Bank. Israeli forces have so far rounded up more than 150 Palestinians, including parliament speaker Abdel Aziz Dweik. [ 193 ] June 20 Israeli forces shot and killed two Palestinians, including a teenager, in clashes that accompanied Israel's search for three students who have been missing for more than a week in the occupied West Bank. Israeli soldiers fired live rounds that killed Mahmoud Jihad Muhammad Dudeen (age 14 or 15). Thousands attended his funeral. An Israeli round also struck Mustafa Hosni Aslan, 22, in the head during a clash near the Qalandiya checkpoint in Ramallah. [ 194 ] June 30 Israeli jets and helicopters launched dozens of air strikes across the Gaza Strip overnight, just hours after the bodies of three abducted Israeli teenagers were found in a shallow grave near the southern West Bank city of Hebron. Following the discovery of the bodies, Netanyahu issued a statement once again blaming Hamas. Hamas denied involvement. Spokesman Sami Abu Zuhri said "Only the Israeli version of the events has been published ... Israel is attempting to make way for aggression against us, against the Hamas ... No Palestinian group, Hamas or any other group, has taken responsibility for the action, and thus the Israeli version can't be trusted." [ 192 ] July 1 In retaliation, to the news about the three abducted Israeli teenagers, 16-year-old Mohammed Abu Khdeir was grabbed off the street after leaving his home in Jerusalem's Arab neighbourhood of Shuafat to go to morning prayers with friends. He was beaten and burned alive. On July 7 it was reported that three Jewish detainees confessed to the crime. [ 195 ] [ 196 ] July 17 Thousands of Israeli soldiers backed by tanks initiated an invasion on the Gaza Strip. All border areas under fire. Tank shelling every minute. Northern Gaza town, Beit Lahiya, came under heavy Israeli shelling. "There is the sound of tank shells all the time", said Jamal Abu Samra, 42, a farmer in the area. He said his wife, six children, four brothers and their families were huddling on the ground floor of the family home. [ 197 ] August 3 Shelling by Israel of a United Nations school sheltering some 3,300 displaced people in southern Gaza violating international law according to the United Nations . The school had been designated a protected location and the Israel Defense Forces had been informed 17 times of the precise coordinates of the school's location. 10 people were killed and many injured. [ 198 ] [ 199 ] [ 200 ] November 14 During a religious prayer service, two terrorists armed with axe and gun burst through the doors of the synagogue Kehilat B'nei Torah in Har Nof, Jerusalem. [ 201 ] Several rabbis heroically gave up their lives by striking the radical Islamic terrorists with tables and chairs to allow others to escape. A resident near the synagogue said of the attack, "I would hate to think of what would have happened if my father had not missed prayer time that day." December 4 Mohammad Hossam Abdel Latif Habali was a 22-year-old mentally disabled Palestinian who was shot and killed by Israeli soldiers on 4 December 2018 in Tulkarm , a city in the West Bank , [ 202 ] [ 203 ] [ 204 ] near the 1967 boundary between Israel and the Israeli-occupied West Bank . [ 205 ] Witnesses report that Habali was killed by Israeli forces, and the IDF has not disputed the cause of death. [ 202 ] Main article: Death of Mohammad Habali 2015–2016 Further information: 2015–2016 wave of violence in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict For a more comprehensive list, see Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in January–June 2015 , Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in July–December 2015 , and Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2016 . 2015–2016 2017–2022 For a more comprehensive list, see Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2017 , Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2018 , Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2019 , Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2020 , Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2021 , and Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2022 . 2017–2022 2023–present In 2023, heavy warfare between Palestinians (dominated by Hamas ) and Israel again erupted, which has been described as the deadliest war in the history of the conflict. Death timelines Data is from the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs . [ 206 ] See also History portal Israel portal Palestine portal History of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict Military operations of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict Timeline of the Arab–Israeli conflict Outline of the Gaza war References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} John B. Quigley (2005). The Case for Palestine . Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-3539-9 . he panic flight was caused both by "the repute which propaganda had bestowed" on the Irgun, and by the scale of the bombardment, accord-ing to Irgun leader Begin.54 Shmuel Toledano, a Haganah intelligence officer who would later be a member of Israel's parliament (Knesset), recited the same two reasons for the Arab flight from Jaffa. "First, because the Etzel [Irgun] had been shelling Jaffa for three weeks before the Haganah entered, making the Arabs very much afraid; some already began to leave as a result of that shelling by Etzel!' Second, "there were rumours, based on the Etzel's reputation", that "the minute the Jews entered the town, the inhabitants would all be slaughtered!, The Irgun fired at fleeing residents. 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Retrieved 12 October 2023 . v t e Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict v t e 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 January–June July–December 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 January–June July–December January–June July–December 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Military operations Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel Military operations Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel v t e Israeli–Palestinian conflict v t e History Participants Israelis Israel Defense Forces Israel Police Mossad Shabak (Shin Bet) Palestinians Principals All-Palestine Protectorate Palestine Liberation Organization Fatah Hamas Palestinian Authority Other groups al-Aqsa Brigades Children DFLP Jenin Brigades Lions' Den PIJ PLF PPSF PFLP PFLP-GC PRC Sabireen Movement Sons of Zouari Tulkarm Brigade Third-party groups Arab League Hezbollah Participants Israelis Israel Defense Forces Israel Police Mossad Shabak (Shin Bet) Palestinians Principals All-Palestine Protectorate Palestine Liberation Organization Fatah Hamas Palestinian Authority Other groups al-Aqsa Brigades Children DFLP Jenin Brigades Lions' Den PIJ PLF PPSF PFLP PFLP-GC PRC Sabireen Movement Sons of Zouari Tulkarm Brigade Third-party groups Arab League Hezbollah Israelis Israel Defense Forces Israel Police Mossad Shabak (Shin Bet) Israel Defense Forces Israel Police Mossad Shabak (Shin Bet) Palestinians Principals All-Palestine Protectorate Palestine Liberation Organization Fatah Hamas Palestinian Authority Other groups al-Aqsa Brigades Children DFLP Jenin Brigades Lions' Den PIJ PLF PPSF PFLP PFLP-GC PRC Sabireen Movement Sons of Zouari Tulkarm Brigade Principals All-Palestine Protectorate Palestine Liberation Organization Fatah Hamas Palestinian Authority All-Palestine Protectorate Palestine Liberation Organization Fatah Hamas Palestinian Authority Other groups al-Aqsa Brigades Children DFLP Jenin Brigades Lions' Den PIJ PLF PPSF PFLP PFLP-GC PRC Sabireen Movement Sons of Zouari Tulkarm Brigade al-Aqsa Brigades Children DFLP Jenin Brigades Lions' Den PIJ PLF PPSF PFLP PFLP-GC PRC Sabireen Movement Sons of Zouari Tulkarm Brigade Third-party groups Arab League Hezbollah Arab League Hezbollah Individuals Israelis Moshe Arens Ami Ayalon Ehud Barak David Ben-Gurion Naftali Bennett Menachem Begin Meir Dagan Moshe Dayan Avi Dichter Yuval Diskin Benny Gantz Efraim Halevy Dan Halutz Tzipi Livni Golda Meir Shaul Mofaz Yitzhak Mordechai Benjamin Netanyahu Ehud Olmert Shimon Peres Yaakov Peri Yitzhak Rabin Amnon Lipkin-Shahak Yitzhak Shamir Ariel Sharon Shabtai Shavit Moshe Ya'alon Danny Yatom Zvi Zamir Palestinians Abu Abbas Mahmoud Abbas Moussa Arafat Yasser Arafat Yahya Ayyash Marwan Barghouti Mohammed Dahlan Mohammed Deif George Habash Wadie Haddad Ismail Haniyeh Nayef Hawatmeh Amin al-Husayni Ghazi Jabali Ahmed Jibril Abu Jihad Salah Khalaf Leila Khaled Sheikh Khalil Khaled Mashal Zuheir Mohsen Abu Ali Mustafa Abu Nidal Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Jibril Rajoub Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi Ali Hassan Salameh Salah Shehade Ramadan Shalah Fathi Shaqaqi Ahlam Tamimi Ahmed Yassin Individuals Israelis Moshe Arens Ami Ayalon Ehud Barak David Ben-Gurion Naftali Bennett Menachem Begin Meir Dagan Moshe Dayan Avi Dichter Yuval Diskin Benny Gantz Efraim Halevy Dan Halutz Tzipi Livni Golda Meir Shaul Mofaz Yitzhak Mordechai Benjamin Netanyahu Ehud Olmert Shimon Peres Yaakov Peri Yitzhak Rabin Amnon Lipkin-Shahak Yitzhak Shamir Ariel Sharon Shabtai Shavit Moshe Ya'alon Danny Yatom Zvi Zamir Palestinians Abu Abbas Mahmoud Abbas Moussa Arafat Yasser Arafat Yahya Ayyash Marwan Barghouti Mohammed Dahlan Mohammed Deif George Habash Wadie Haddad Ismail Haniyeh Nayef Hawatmeh Amin al-Husayni Ghazi Jabali Ahmed Jibril Abu Jihad Salah Khalaf Leila Khaled Sheikh Khalil Khaled Mashal Zuheir Mohsen Abu Ali Mustafa Abu Nidal Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Jibril Rajoub Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi Ali Hassan Salameh Salah Shehade Ramadan Shalah Fathi Shaqaqi Ahlam Tamimi Ahmed Yassin Israelis Moshe Arens Ami Ayalon Ehud Barak David Ben-Gurion Naftali Bennett Menachem Begin Meir Dagan Moshe Dayan Avi Dichter Yuval Diskin Benny Gantz Efraim Halevy Dan Halutz Tzipi Livni Golda Meir Shaul Mofaz Yitzhak Mordechai Benjamin Netanyahu Ehud Olmert Shimon Peres Yaakov Peri Yitzhak Rabin Amnon Lipkin-Shahak Yitzhak Shamir Ariel Sharon Shabtai Shavit Moshe Ya'alon Danny Yatom Zvi Zamir Moshe Arens Ami Ayalon Ehud Barak David Ben-Gurion Naftali Bennett Menachem Begin Meir Dagan Moshe Dayan Avi Dichter Yuval Diskin Benny Gantz Efraim Halevy Dan Halutz Tzipi Livni Golda Meir Shaul Mofaz Yitzhak Mordechai Benjamin Netanyahu Ehud Olmert Shimon Peres Yaakov Peri Yitzhak Rabin Amnon Lipkin-Shahak Yitzhak Shamir Ariel Sharon Shabtai Shavit Moshe Ya'alon Danny Yatom Zvi Zamir Palestinians Abu Abbas Mahmoud Abbas Moussa Arafat Yasser Arafat Yahya Ayyash Marwan Barghouti Mohammed Dahlan Mohammed Deif George Habash Wadie Haddad Ismail Haniyeh Nayef Hawatmeh Amin al-Husayni Ghazi Jabali Ahmed Jibril Abu Jihad Salah Khalaf Leila Khaled Sheikh Khalil Khaled Mashal Zuheir Mohsen Abu Ali Mustafa Abu Nidal Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Jibril Rajoub Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi Ali Hassan Salameh Salah Shehade Ramadan Shalah Fathi Shaqaqi Ahlam Tamimi Ahmed Yassin Abu Abbas Mahmoud Abbas Moussa Arafat Yasser Arafat Yahya Ayyash Marwan Barghouti Mohammed Dahlan Mohammed Deif George Habash Wadie Haddad Ismail Haniyeh Nayef Hawatmeh Amin al-Husayni Ghazi Jabali Ahmed Jibril Abu Jihad Salah Khalaf Leila Khaled Sheikh Khalil Khaled Mashal Zuheir Mohsen Abu Ali Mustafa Abu Nidal Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Jibril Rajoub Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi Ali Hassan Salameh Salah Shehade Ramadan Shalah Fathi Shaqaqi Ahlam Tamimi Ahmed Yassin Timeline military operations Background 1920–1948 1920 Nebi Musa riots Battle of Tel Hai 1921 Jaffa riots 1929 Palestine riots Hebron massacre 1936–1939 Arab revolt 1944–1947 Jewish insurgency 1947–1948 Civil War / Nakba 1948–1970 1948 Arab–Israeli War massacres 1948–present Fedayeen insurgency 1951–1967 Attacks against Israeli civilians 1950s–1960s Reprisal operations 1949–1956 Palestinian expulsions 1953 Qibya massacre 1956 Suez Crisis / Kafr Qasim / Khan Yunis / Rafah massacres 1967 Six-Day War / Naksa 1967–1970 War of Attrition 1968 Battle of Karameh Palestinian insurgency 1968–1982 1970 Avivim school bus bombing 1972 Sabena Flight 571 / Munich massacre / "Bayonet" (1973 Lillehammer affair ) 1974 Kiryat Shmona massacre / Ma'alot massacre 1975 Savoy Hotel attack 1976 Entebbe raid 1978 Coastal road massacre / South Lebanon conflict 1980 Misgav Am hostage crisis 1973–1987 1973 Yom Kippur War 1975 Zion Square bombing 1982 Lebanon War Siege of Beirut 1984 Bus 300 affair 1985 Achille Lauro hijacking / "Wooden Leg" 1987 Night of the Gliders First Intifada 1987–1991 1988 Tunis raid 1989 Bus 405 attack 1990 Temple Mount killings 1990s Palestinian suicide attacks list 1994 Cave of the Patriarchs massacre Second Intifada 2000–2005 Palestinian rocket attacks Palestinian suicide attacks list Israeli assassinations 2000 October events 2001 Santorini 2002 Karine A / "Defensive Shield" / Battle of Jenin / Battle of Nablus / "Determined Path" 2003 Ain es Saheb airstrike 2004 "Rainbow" / Beit Hanoun raid / "Days of Penitence" Palestinian dissident campaigns 2006–present 2006 "Bringing Home the Goods" 2008 Jerusalem yeshiva attack / Jerusalem bulldozer attack 2009 Al-Aqsa clashes 2010 Palestinian militancy campaign 2015–2016 violence 2017 Temple Mount crisis 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis 2022 Al-Aqsa clashes Gaza–Israel conflict 2006–present 2006 Gaza beach explosion / Gaza cross-border raid / "Summer Rains" / "Autumn Clouds" / Beit Hanoun shelling 2008 Egypt–Gaza border breach / "Hot Winter" 2008–2009 Gaza War 2010 Gaza flotilla raid 2012 "Returning Echo" / "Pillar of Defense" 2014 "Protective Edge" 2015 Freedom Flotilla III 2018 Gaza border protests / November clashes 2019 May clashes / "Black Belt" 2021 "Guardian of the Walls" 2022 "Breaking Dawn" 2023 "Shield and Arrow" / Gaza war Timeline military operations Timeline military operations military operations Background 1920–1948 1920 Nebi Musa riots Battle of Tel Hai 1921 Jaffa riots 1929 Palestine riots Hebron massacre 1936–1939 Arab revolt 1944–1947 Jewish insurgency 1947–1948 Civil War / Nakba 1948–1970 1948 Arab–Israeli War massacres 1948–present Fedayeen insurgency 1951–1967 Attacks against Israeli civilians 1950s–1960s Reprisal operations 1949–1956 Palestinian expulsions 1953 Qibya massacre 1956 Suez Crisis / Kafr Qasim / Khan Yunis / Rafah massacres 1967 Six-Day War / Naksa 1967–1970 War of Attrition 1968 Battle of Karameh Palestinian insurgency 1968–1982 1970 Avivim school bus bombing 1972 Sabena Flight 571 / Munich massacre / "Bayonet" (1973 Lillehammer affair ) 1974 Kiryat Shmona massacre / Ma'alot massacre 1975 Savoy Hotel attack 1976 Entebbe raid 1978 Coastal road massacre / South Lebanon conflict 1980 Misgav Am hostage crisis 1973–1987 1973 Yom Kippur War 1975 Zion Square bombing 1982 Lebanon War Siege of Beirut 1984 Bus 300 affair 1985 Achille Lauro hijacking / "Wooden Leg" 1987 Night of the Gliders First Intifada 1987–1991 1988 Tunis raid 1989 Bus 405 attack 1990 Temple Mount killings 1990s Palestinian suicide attacks list 1994 Cave of the Patriarchs massacre Second Intifada 2000–2005 Palestinian rocket attacks Palestinian suicide attacks list Israeli assassinations 2000 October events 2001 Santorini 2002 Karine A / "Defensive Shield" / Battle of Jenin / Battle of Nablus / "Determined Path" 2003 Ain es Saheb airstrike 2004 "Rainbow" / Beit Hanoun raid / "Days of Penitence" Palestinian dissident campaigns 2006–present 2006 "Bringing Home the Goods" 2008 Jerusalem yeshiva attack / Jerusalem bulldozer attack 2009 Al-Aqsa clashes 2010 Palestinian militancy campaign 2015–2016 violence 2017 Temple Mount crisis 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis 2022 Al-Aqsa clashes Gaza–Israel conflict 2006–present 2006 Gaza beach explosion / Gaza cross-border raid / "Summer Rains" / "Autumn Clouds" / Beit Hanoun shelling 2008 Egypt–Gaza border breach / "Hot Winter" 2008–2009 Gaza War 2010 Gaza flotilla raid 2012 "Returning Echo" / "Pillar of Defense" 2014 "Protective Edge" 2015 Freedom Flotilla III 2018 Gaza border protests / November clashes 2019 May clashes / "Black Belt" 2021 "Guardian of the Walls" 2022 "Breaking Dawn" 2023 "Shield and Arrow" / Gaza war Background 1920–1948 1920 Nebi Musa riots Battle of Tel Hai 1921 Jaffa riots 1929 Palestine riots Hebron massacre 1936–1939 Arab revolt 1944–1947 Jewish insurgency 1947–1948 Civil War / Nakba 1920–1948 1920 Nebi Musa riots Battle of Tel Hai 1921 Jaffa riots 1929 Palestine riots Hebron massacre 1936–1939 Arab revolt 1944–1947 Jewish insurgency 1947–1948 Civil War / Nakba 1920 Nebi Musa riots Battle of Tel Hai Nebi Musa riots Battle of Tel Hai 1921 Jaffa riots 1929 Palestine riots Hebron massacre Hebron massacre 1936–1939 Arab revolt 1944–1947 Jewish insurgency 1947–1948 Civil War / Nakba 1948–1970 1948 Arab–Israeli War massacres 1948–present Fedayeen insurgency 1951–1967 Attacks against Israeli civilians 1950s–1960s Reprisal operations 1949–1956 Palestinian expulsions 1953 Qibya massacre 1956 Suez Crisis / Kafr Qasim / Khan Yunis / Rafah massacres 1967 Six-Day War / Naksa 1967–1970 War of Attrition 1968 Battle of Karameh 1948–1970 1948 Arab–Israeli War massacres 1948–present Fedayeen insurgency 1951–1967 Attacks against Israeli civilians 1950s–1960s Reprisal operations 1949–1956 Palestinian expulsions 1953 Qibya massacre 1956 Suez Crisis / Kafr Qasim / Khan Yunis / Rafah massacres 1967 Six-Day War / Naksa 1967–1970 War of Attrition 1968 Battle of Karameh 1948 Arab–Israeli War massacres massacres 1948–present Fedayeen insurgency 1951–1967 Attacks against Israeli civilians 1950s–1960s Reprisal operations 1951–1967 Attacks against Israeli civilians 1950s–1960s Reprisal operations 1949–1956 Palestinian expulsions 1953 Qibya massacre 1956 Suez Crisis / Kafr Qasim / Khan Yunis / Rafah massacres 1967 Six-Day War / Naksa 1967–1970 War of Attrition 1968 Battle of Karameh 1968 Battle of Karameh Palestinian insurgency 1968–1982 1970 Avivim school bus bombing 1972 Sabena Flight 571 / Munich massacre / "Bayonet" (1973 Lillehammer affair ) 1974 Kiryat Shmona massacre / Ma'alot massacre 1975 Savoy Hotel attack 1976 Entebbe raid 1978 Coastal road massacre / South Lebanon conflict 1980 Misgav Am hostage crisis 1968–1982 1970 Avivim school bus bombing 1972 Sabena Flight 571 / Munich massacre / "Bayonet" (1973 Lillehammer affair ) 1974 Kiryat Shmona massacre / Ma'alot massacre 1975 Savoy Hotel attack 1976 Entebbe raid 1978 Coastal road massacre / South Lebanon conflict 1980 Misgav Am hostage crisis 1970 Avivim school bus bombing 1972 Sabena Flight 571 / Munich massacre / "Bayonet" (1973 Lillehammer affair ) 1974 Kiryat Shmona massacre / Ma'alot massacre 1975 Savoy Hotel attack 1976 Entebbe raid 1978 Coastal road massacre / South Lebanon conflict 1980 Misgav Am hostage crisis 1973–1987 1973 Yom Kippur War 1975 Zion Square bombing 1982 Lebanon War Siege of Beirut 1984 Bus 300 affair 1985 Achille Lauro hijacking / "Wooden Leg" 1987 Night of the Gliders 1973–1987 1973 Yom Kippur War 1975 Zion Square bombing 1982 Lebanon War Siege of Beirut 1984 Bus 300 affair 1985 Achille Lauro hijacking / "Wooden Leg" 1987 Night of the Gliders 1973 Yom Kippur War 1975 Zion Square bombing 1982 Lebanon War Siege of Beirut Siege of Beirut 1984 Bus 300 affair 1985 Achille Lauro hijacking / "Wooden Leg" 1987 Night of the Gliders First Intifada 1987–1991 1988 Tunis raid 1989 Bus 405 attack 1990 Temple Mount killings 1990s Palestinian suicide attacks list 1994 Cave of the Patriarchs massacre 1987–1991 1988 Tunis raid 1989 Bus 405 attack 1990 Temple Mount killings 1990s Palestinian suicide attacks list 1994 Cave of the Patriarchs massacre 1988 Tunis raid 1989 Bus 405 attack 1990 Temple Mount killings 1990s Palestinian suicide attacks list list 1994 Cave of the Patriarchs massacre Second Intifada 2000–2005 Palestinian rocket attacks Palestinian suicide attacks list Israeli assassinations 2000 October events 2001 Santorini 2002 Karine A / "Defensive Shield" / Battle of Jenin / Battle of Nablus / "Determined Path" 2003 Ain es Saheb airstrike 2004 "Rainbow" / Beit Hanoun raid / "Days of Penitence" 2000–2005 Palestinian rocket attacks Palestinian suicide attacks list Israeli assassinations 2000 October events 2001 Santorini 2002 Karine A / "Defensive Shield" / Battle of Jenin / Battle of Nablus / "Determined Path" 2003 Ain es Saheb airstrike 2004 "Rainbow" / Beit Hanoun raid / "Days of Penitence" Palestinian rocket attacks Palestinian suicide attacks list list Israeli assassinations 2000 October events 2001 Santorini 2002 Karine A / "Defensive Shield" / Battle of Jenin / Battle of Nablus / "Determined Path" 2003 Ain es Saheb airstrike 2004 "Rainbow" / Beit Hanoun raid / "Days of Penitence" Palestinian dissident campaigns 2006–present 2006 "Bringing Home the Goods" 2008 Jerusalem yeshiva attack / Jerusalem bulldozer attack 2009 Al-Aqsa clashes 2010 Palestinian militancy campaign 2015–2016 violence 2017 Temple Mount crisis 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis 2022 Al-Aqsa clashes 2006–present 2006 "Bringing Home the Goods" 2008 Jerusalem yeshiva attack / Jerusalem bulldozer attack 2009 Al-Aqsa clashes 2010 Palestinian militancy campaign 2015–2016 violence 2017 Temple Mount crisis 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis 2022 Al-Aqsa clashes 2006 "Bringing Home the Goods" 2008 Jerusalem yeshiva attack / Jerusalem bulldozer attack 2009 Al-Aqsa clashes 2010 Palestinian militancy campaign 2015–2016 violence 2017 Temple Mount crisis 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis 2022 Al-Aqsa clashes Gaza–Israel conflict 2006–present 2006 Gaza beach explosion / Gaza cross-border raid / "Summer Rains" / "Autumn Clouds" / Beit Hanoun shelling 2008 Egypt–Gaza border breach / "Hot Winter" 2008–2009 Gaza War 2010 Gaza flotilla raid 2012 "Returning Echo" / "Pillar of Defense" 2014 "Protective Edge" 2015 Freedom Flotilla III 2018 Gaza border protests / November clashes 2019 May clashes / "Black Belt" 2021 "Guardian of the Walls" 2022 "Breaking Dawn" 2023 "Shield and Arrow" / Gaza war 2006–present 2006 Gaza beach explosion / Gaza cross-border raid / "Summer Rains" / "Autumn Clouds" / Beit Hanoun shelling 2008 Egypt–Gaza border breach / "Hot Winter" 2008–2009 Gaza War 2010 Gaza flotilla raid 2012 "Returning Echo" / "Pillar of Defense" 2014 "Protective Edge" 2015 Freedom Flotilla III 2018 Gaza border protests / November clashes 2019 May clashes / "Black Belt" 2021 "Guardian of the Walls" 2022 "Breaking Dawn" 2023 "Shield and Arrow" / Gaza war 2006 Gaza beach explosion / Gaza cross-border raid / "Summer Rains" / "Autumn Clouds" / Beit Hanoun shelling 2008 Egypt–Gaza border breach / "Hot Winter" 2008–2009 Gaza War 2010 Gaza flotilla raid 2012 "Returning Echo" / "Pillar of Defense" 2014 "Protective Edge" 2015 Freedom Flotilla III 2018 Gaza border protests / November clashes 2019 May clashes / "Black Belt" 2021 "Guardian of the Walls" 2022 "Breaking Dawn" 2023 "Shield and Arrow" / Gaza war Diplomacy/law Timeline 1948–1991 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight depopulated towns and villages 1949 Lausanne Conference 1967–present Israeli settlement settler violence international law 1990s 1981–1982 Fahd Plan 1991 Madrid Conference 1993–1995 Oslo Accords 1994 Paris Protocol 1994 Gaza–Jericho Agreement 1994–present US security assistance to the PA 1997 Hebron Agreement 1998 Wye River Memorandum 1999 Sharm El Sheikh Memorandum 2000s 2000 Camp David Summit / Clinton Parameters 2001 Taba Summit 2002 Quartet established 2003 Road Map 2005 Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip 2005 Agreement on Movement and Access 2006 Valley of Peace initiative 2007 Annapolis Conference 2009 Aftonbladet Israel controversy 2010s 2010–11 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks 2011 Palestine Papers 2013–2014 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks 2023–present Gaza genocide United Nations General Israel and the UN Palestine and the UN UNRWA Resolutions List concerning Israel List concerning Palestine 1947 UNGA Resolution 181 1948 UNGA Resolution 194 1967 UNSC Resolution 242 1980 UNSC Resolution 478 2006 UNSC Resolution 1701 2012 UNGA Resolution 67/19 2023 UNSC Resolution 2720 Investigations 2009 Goldstone Report 2015 UNHRC Report ICJ cases 2004 Wall construction 2023–present South African allegation of genocide 2024 Nicaragua v. Germany 2023–2024 Israeli occupation 2024–2025 UNRWA ban ICC Palestine investigation arrest warrants Diplomacy/law Timeline 1948–1991 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight depopulated towns and villages 1949 Lausanne Conference 1967–present Israeli settlement settler violence international law 1990s 1981–1982 Fahd Plan 1991 Madrid Conference 1993–1995 Oslo Accords 1994 Paris Protocol 1994 Gaza–Jericho Agreement 1994–present US security assistance to the PA 1997 Hebron Agreement 1998 Wye River Memorandum 1999 Sharm El Sheikh Memorandum 2000s 2000 Camp David Summit / Clinton Parameters 2001 Taba Summit 2002 Quartet established 2003 Road Map 2005 Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip 2005 Agreement on Movement and Access 2006 Valley of Peace initiative 2007 Annapolis Conference 2009 Aftonbladet Israel controversy 2010s 2010–11 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks 2011 Palestine Papers 2013–2014 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks 2023–present Gaza genocide United Nations General Israel and the UN Palestine and the UN UNRWA Resolutions List concerning Israel List concerning Palestine 1947 UNGA Resolution 181 1948 UNGA Resolution 194 1967 UNSC Resolution 242 1980 UNSC Resolution 478 2006 UNSC Resolution 1701 2012 UNGA Resolution 67/19 2023 UNSC Resolution 2720 Investigations 2009 Goldstone Report 2015 UNHRC Report ICJ cases 2004 Wall construction 2023–present South African allegation of genocide 2024 Nicaragua v. Germany 2023–2024 Israeli occupation 2024–2025 UNRWA ban ICC Palestine investigation arrest warrants Timeline 1948–1991 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight depopulated towns and villages 1949 Lausanne Conference 1967–present Israeli settlement settler violence international law 1990s 1981–1982 Fahd Plan 1991 Madrid Conference 1993–1995 Oslo Accords 1994 Paris Protocol 1994 Gaza–Jericho Agreement 1994–present US security assistance to the PA 1997 Hebron Agreement 1998 Wye River Memorandum 1999 Sharm El Sheikh Memorandum 2000s 2000 Camp David Summit / Clinton Parameters 2001 Taba Summit 2002 Quartet established 2003 Road Map 2005 Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip 2005 Agreement on Movement and Access 2006 Valley of Peace initiative 2007 Annapolis Conference 2009 Aftonbladet Israel controversy 2010s 2010–11 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks 2011 Palestine Papers 2013–2014 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks 2023–present Gaza genocide 1948–1991 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight depopulated towns and villages 1949 Lausanne Conference 1967–present Israeli settlement settler violence international law 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight depopulated towns and villages depopulated towns and villages 1949 Lausanne Conference 1967–present Israeli settlement settler violence international law settler violence international law 1990s 1981–1982 Fahd Plan 1991 Madrid Conference 1993–1995 Oslo Accords 1994 Paris Protocol 1994 Gaza–Jericho Agreement 1994–present US security assistance to the PA 1997 Hebron Agreement 1998 Wye River Memorandum 1999 Sharm El Sheikh Memorandum 1981–1982 Fahd Plan 1991 Madrid Conference 1993–1995 Oslo Accords 1994 Paris Protocol 1994 Gaza–Jericho Agreement 1994–present US security assistance to the PA 1997 Hebron Agreement 1998 Wye River Memorandum 1999 Sharm El Sheikh Memorandum 2000s 2000 Camp David Summit / Clinton Parameters 2001 Taba Summit 2002 Quartet established 2003 Road Map 2005 Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip 2005 Agreement on Movement and Access 2006 Valley of Peace initiative 2007 Annapolis Conference 2009 Aftonbladet Israel controversy 2000 Camp David Summit / Clinton Parameters 2001 Taba Summit 2002 Quartet established 2003 Road Map 2005 Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip 2005 Agreement on Movement and Access 2006 Valley of Peace initiative 2007 Annapolis Conference 2009 Aftonbladet Israel controversy 2010s 2010–11 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks 2011 Palestine Papers 2013–2014 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks 2023–present Gaza genocide 2010–11 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks 2011 Palestine Papers 2013–2014 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks 2023–present Gaza genocide United Nations General Israel and the UN Palestine and the UN UNRWA Resolutions List concerning Israel List concerning Palestine 1947 UNGA Resolution 181 1948 UNGA Resolution 194 1967 UNSC Resolution 242 1980 UNSC Resolution 478 2006 UNSC Resolution 1701 2012 UNGA Resolution 67/19 2023 UNSC Resolution 2720 Investigations 2009 Goldstone Report 2015 UNHRC Report ICJ cases 2004 Wall construction 2023–present South African allegation of genocide 2024 Nicaragua v. Germany 2023–2024 Israeli occupation 2024–2025 UNRWA ban General Israel and the UN Palestine and the UN UNRWA Israel and the UN Palestine and the UN UNRWA Resolutions List concerning Israel List concerning Palestine 1947 UNGA Resolution 181 1948 UNGA Resolution 194 1967 UNSC Resolution 242 1980 UNSC Resolution 478 2006 UNSC Resolution 1701 2012 UNGA Resolution 67/19 2023 UNSC Resolution 2720 List concerning Israel List concerning Palestine 1947 UNGA Resolution 181 1948 UNGA Resolution 194 1967 UNSC Resolution 242 1980 UNSC Resolution 478 2006 UNSC Resolution 1701 2012 UNGA Resolution 67/19 2023 UNSC Resolution 2720 Investigations 2009 Goldstone Report 2015 UNHRC Report 2009 Goldstone Report 2015 UNHRC Report ICJ cases 2004 Wall construction 2023–present South African allegation of genocide 2024 Nicaragua v. Germany 2023–2024 Israeli occupation 2024–2025 UNRWA ban 2004 Wall construction 2023–present South African allegation of genocide 2024 Nicaragua v. Germany 2023–2024 Israeli occupation 2024–2025 UNRWA ban ICC Palestine investigation arrest warrants Palestine investigation arrest warrants arrest warrants Analysis Anti-Palestinianism Comparisons between Israel and Nazi Germany Criticism Criticism of Hamas Criticism of Israel Israeli criticism of the occupation Media coverage Racism in Israel Racism in Palestine Timeline of anti-Zionism There was no such thing as Palestinians Analysis Anti-Palestinianism Comparisons between Israel and Nazi Germany Criticism Criticism of Hamas Criticism of Israel Israeli criticism of the occupation Media coverage Racism in Israel Racism in Palestine Timeline of anti-Zionism There was no such thing as Palestinians Anti-Palestinianism Comparisons between Israel and Nazi Germany Criticism Criticism of Hamas Criticism of Israel Israeli criticism of the occupation Criticism of Hamas Criticism of Israel Israeli criticism of the occupation Media coverage Racism in Israel Racism in Palestine Timeline of anti-Zionism There was no such thing as Palestinians Timelines of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict Israeli–Palestinian conflict Palestinian history timelines Webarchive template wayback links CS1 errors: missing title CS1 errors: bare URL All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2021 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown Articles with dead external links from August 2025 Articles with dead external links from August 2016 Articles with dead external links from September 2016 Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with dead external links from June 2024 CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Wikipedia articles in need of updating from October 2024 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2014 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2013 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from January 2014 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2023 Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 14 January 2026, at 17:13 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Overview 2 History Toggle History subsection 2.1 18th century 2.2 19th century 2.3 20th century 2.4 21st century 2.1 18th century 2.2 19th century 2.3 20th century 2.4 21st century 3 Women in Congress 4 Role Toggle Role subsection 4.1 Powers 4.1.1 Overview 4.1.2 Enumeration 4.1.3 Implicit, commerce clause 4.1.4 Territorial government 4.2 Checks and balances 4.1 Powers 4.1.1 Overview 4.1.2 Enumeration 4.1.3 Implicit, commerce clause 4.1.4 Territorial government 4.1.1 Overview 4.1.2 Enumeration 4.1.3 Implicit, commerce clause 4.1.4 Territorial government 4.2 Checks and balances 5 Structure Toggle Structure subsection 5.1 Committees 5.1.1 Specializations 5.1.2 Power 5.1.3 Officer 5.2 Support services 5.2.1 Library of Congress 5.2.1.1 Congressional Research Service 5.2.2 Congressional Budget Office 5.2.3 Government Accountability Office 5.2.4 Architect of the Capitol 5.2.5 United States Capitol Police 5.2.6 Lobbying 5.3 Partisanship versus bipartisanship 5.1 Committees 5.1.1 Specializations 5.1.2 Power 5.1.3 Officer 5.1.1 Specializations 5.1.2 Power 5.1.3 Officer 5.2 Support services 5.2.1 Library of Congress 5.2.1.1 Congressional Research Service 5.2.2 Congressional Budget Office 5.2.3 Government Accountability Office 5.2.4 Architect of the Capitol 5.2.5 United States Capitol Police 5.2.6 Lobbying 5.2.1 Library of Congress 5.2.1.1 Congressional Research Service 5.2.1.1 Congressional Research Service 5.2.2 Congressional Budget Office 5.2.3 Government Accountability Office 5.2.4 Architect of the Capitol 5.2.5 United States Capitol Police 5.2.6 Lobbying 5.3 Partisanship versus bipartisanship 6 Procedures Toggle Procedures subsection 6.1 Sessions 6.2 Joint sessions 6.3 Bills and resolutions 6.1 Sessions 6.2 Joint sessions 6.3 Bills and resolutions 7 Public interaction Toggle Public interaction subsection 7.1 Advantage of incumbency 7.1.1 Citizens and representatives 7.1.2 Expensive campaigns 7.1.3 Television and negative advertising 7.1.4 Perceptions 7.2 Smaller states and bigger states 7.3 Members and constituents 7.4 Motivation 7.1 Advantage of incumbency 7.1.1 Citizens and representatives 7.1.2 Expensive campaigns 7.1.3 Television and negative advertising 7.1.4 Perceptions 7.1.1 Citizens and representatives 7.1.2 Expensive campaigns 7.1.3 Television and negative advertising 7.1.4 Perceptions 7.2 Smaller states and bigger states 7.3 Members and constituents 7.4 Motivation 8 Privileges Toggle Privileges subsection 8.1 Outside income and gifts 8.2 Pay 8.3 Postage 8.4 Protection 8.1 Outside income and gifts 8.2 Pay 8.3 Postage 8.4 Protection 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Citations 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links United States Congress Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Diné bizaad Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego Gĩkũyũ 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Lombard Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Shqip සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikibooks Wikinews Wikiquote Wikisource Wikiversity Wikidata item Page version status This is an accepted version of this page This article has multiple issues. 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Find sources: "United States Congress" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) United States Congress 119th Congress Coat of arms of the United States Type Type Bicameral Houses Senate House of Representatives Senate House of Representatives History Founded March 4, 1789 (236 years ago) ( 1789-03-04 ) Preceded by Congress of the Confederation Leadership President of the Senate JD Vance ( R ) since January 20, 2025 ( 2025-01-20 ) President pro tempore of the Senate Chuck Grassley ( R ) since January 3, 2025 ( 2025-01-03 ) Speaker of the House Mike Johnson ( R ) since October 25, 2023 ( 2023-10-25 ) Structure Seats .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} 535 voting members 100 senators 435 representatives 6 non-voting members 535 voting members 100 senators 435 representatives 100 senators 435 representatives 6 non-voting members Senate political groups Majority (53) .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Republican (53) Minority (47) Democratic (45) Independent (2) [ a ] .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Republican (53) Minority (47) Democratic (45) Independent (2) [ a ] House of Representatives political groups Majority (218) Republican (218) Minority (213) Democratic (213) Vacant (4) Vacant (4) Republican (218) Minority (213) Democratic (213) Vacant (4) Vacant (4) Elections Last Senate election November 5, 2024 Last House of Representatives election November 5, 2024 Next Senate election November 3, 2026 Next House of Representatives election November 3, 2026 Meeting place United States Capitol Washington, D.C. United States of America Website congress .gov Constitution United States Constitution , Article I The United States Congress is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States . It is a bicameral legislature, including a lower body , the U.S. House of Representatives , and an upper body , the U.S. Senate . They both meet in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Members of Congress are chosen through direct election , [ b ] though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a governor 's appointment. Congress has a total of 535 voting members, a figure which includes 100 senators and 435 representatives ; the House of Representatives has 6 additional non-voting members . The vice president of the United States , as president of the Senate, has a vote in the Senate only when there is a tie. [ 2 ] Congress [ c ] convenes for a two-year term (a Congress), commencing every other January. Each Congress is usually split into two sessions, one for each year. Elections are held every even-numbered year on Election Day . The members of the House of Representatives are elected for the two-year term of a Congress. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 established that there be 435 representatives, and the Uniform Congressional District Act requires that they be elected from single-member constituencies or districts . It is also required that the congressional districts be apportioned among states by population every ten years using the U.S. census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a six-year term, with terms staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, so currently, there are 100 senators for the 50 states. Article One of the U.S. Constitution requires that members of Congress be at least 25 years old for the House and at least 30 years old for the U.S. Senate, be a U.S. citizen for seven years for the House and nine years for the Senate, and be an inhabitant of the state which they represent. Members in both chambers may stand for re-election an unlimited number of times. Congress was created by the U.S. Constitution 's First Article and first met in 1789 , replacing the Congress of the Confederation in its legislative function. Although not legally mandated, in practice members of Congress since the late 19th century are typically affiliated with one of the two major parties , the Democratic Party or the Republican Party , and only rarely with a third party or independents affiliated with no party. Members can also switch parties at any time, though this is uncommon. Overview Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process – legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers. The Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue -raising bills. [ citation needed ] The House initiates and decides impeachment while the Senate votes on conviction and removal of office for impeachment cases. [ 4 ] A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be removed from office. [ 4 ] The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 119th Congress , began on January 3, 2025, and will end on January 3, 2027. Since the adoption of the Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution , the Congress has started and ended at noon on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, while members of the House of Representatives are commonly referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. [ citation needed ] Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom" and insisted it was a "driving force in American government" [ 5 ] and a "remarkably resilient institution". [ 6 ] Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy", according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices ; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America's historical imagination." One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. [ 7 ] Several academics described Congress: Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government's most representative body ... Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day. [ 5 ] Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government's most representative body ... Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day. [ 5 ] Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. [ 8 ] In recent times, the American South and West have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more women and minorities . [ 8 ] While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change, the internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so-called intermediary institutions such as political parties , civic associations , interest groups , and the mass media . [ 7 ] The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and a state's at-large representation to the federal government by senators . [ citation needed ] Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent. [ 9 ] The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration . [ 10 ] Congress is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia , the current seat of the federal government. [ citation needed ] History 18th century The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies . [ 11 ] On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence , referring to the new nation as the "United States of America". The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created the Congress of the Confederation , a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty [ 12 ] and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed a revised constitution with a two-chamber or bicameral Congress. [ 15 ] Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. [ 16 ] The two-chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. [ 17 ] A compromise plan, the Connecticut Compromise , was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). [ 8 ] [ 18 ] The ratified constitution created a federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual is subject to the powers of state government and national government. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government – executive, legislative, and judicial – had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers . [ 4 ] Furthermore, there were checks and balances within the legislature since there were two separate chambers. [ 22 ] The new government became active in 1789. [ 4 ] [ 23 ] Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s–1820s), the partisan era (1830s–1900s), the committee era (1910s–1960s), and the contemporary era (1970–present). [ 24 ] Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in the early years as political parties became pronounced. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights , the anti-federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790–1791 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton ; it soon became the Democratic-Republican Party or the Jeffersonian Republican Party [ 25 ] [ 26 ] and thus began the era of the First Party System . [ citation needed ] 19th century In 1800, Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties. John Marshall , 4th chief justice of the Supreme Court , empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving the Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] The Civil War , which lasted from 1861 to 1865, resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority but weakened the power of states' rights . The Gilded Age (1877–1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. [ 29 ] Immigration and high birth rates swelled the ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress and calls for reform; sometimes reformers said lobbyists corrupted politics. [ 30 ] The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon . [ citation needed ] 20th century By the beginning of the 20th century, party structures and leadership emerged as key organizers of Senate proceedings. [ 32 ] A system of seniority, in which long-time members of Congress gained more and more power, encouraged politicians of both parties to seek long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until the reforms of the 1970s. [ 33 ] Important structural changes included the direct popular election of senators according to the Seventeenth Amendment , [ 18 ] ratified on April 8, 1913. Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. [ 34 ] One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to the electorate. [ 35 ] Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment reduced the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability. [ 36 ] The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats [ 37 ] and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards the executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather initiated by Congress. [ 38 ] President Roosevelt pushed his agenda in Congress by detailing Executive Branch staff to friendly Senate committees, a practice that ended with the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946. [ 39 ] The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] [ 42 ] During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats [ 43 ] formed the Conservative Coalition . [ 42 ] [ 44 ] Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II . [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. [ 47 ] Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. [ 47 ] Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited the fear of communism during the Second Red Scare and conducted televised hearings. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both chambers of Congress from 1961 to 1980, and retained a consistent majority in the House from 1955 to 1994. [ 50 ] Congress enacted Johnson's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had a powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped" relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman . [ 51 ] Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as the Board of Education . [ 7 ] Congress began reasserting its authority. [ 38 ] [ 52 ] Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act . Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. [ 53 ] While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. [ 53 ] Reforms such as the 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. [ 54 ] One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs" instead "legitimized PACs" since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates". [ 55 ] From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $12.5 million to $120 million [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. [ 58 ] [ 59 ] In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special-interest PACs [ 60 ] including ones for lawyers , electricians , and real estate brokers . [ 61 ] From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash" from PACs. [ 60 ] [ 62 ] [ 63 ] From 1970 to 2009, the House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico's resident commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam . In 1978, an additional delegate for American Samoa were added. [ citation needed ] In the late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress's work. [ 64 ] Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions". [ 64 ] Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as the tabloidization of media coverage. [ 8 ] Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty-second soundbite. [ 65 ] A report characterized Congress in 2013 as unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility". [ 66 ] In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60% of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress" including their own representative. [ 67 ] One report suggested Congress posed the "biggest risk to the U.S. economy" because of its brinksmanship , "down-to-the-wire budget and debt crises" and "indiscriminate spending cuts", resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. [ 68 ] There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, [ 69 ] with extremely low approval ratings [ 70 ] [ 71 ] which dropped to 5% in October 2013. [ 72 ] 21st century In 2009, Congress authorized another delegate for the Northern Mariana Islands . These six members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent Congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of the Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they cannot vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. [ 74 ] [ 75 ] On January 6, 2021, Congress gathered to confirm the election of Joe Biden, when supporters of the outgoing president Donald Trump attacked the building . The session of Congress ended prematurely, and Congress representatives evacuated. Trump supporters occupied Congress until D.C. police evacuated the area. The event was the first time since the Burning of Washington by the British during the War of 1812 that the United States Congress was forcefully occupied. [ 76 ] Despite the importance of Congress outlined in Article One , Congress has [ when? ] lost power to the executive and judiciary both intentionally and unintentionally. [ 77 ] [ 78 ] [ 79 ] [ 80 ] [ 81 ] Women in Congress Various social and structural barriers have prevented women from gaining seats in Congress. In the early 20th century, women's domestic roles and the inability to vote forestalled opportunities to run for and hold public office. The two party system and the lack of term limits favored incumbent white men, making the widow's succession – in which a woman temporarily took over a seat vacated by the death of her husband – the most common path to Congress for white women. [ 82 ] Women candidates began making substantial inroads in the later 20th century, due in part to new political support mechanisms and public awareness of their underrepresentation in Congress. [ 83 ] Recruitment and financial support for women candidates were rare until the second-wave feminism movement , when activists moved into electoral politics. Beginning in the 1970s, donors and political action committees like EMILY's List began recruiting, training and funding women candidates. Watershed political moments like the confirmation of Clarence Thomas and the 2016 presidential election created momentum for women candidates, resulting in the Year of the Woman and the election of members of The Squad , respectively. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Women of color faced additional challenges that made their ascension to Congress even more difficult. Jim Crow laws , voter suppression and other forms of structural racism made it virtually impossible for women of color to reach Congress prior to 1965. The passage of the Voting Rights Act that year , and the elimination of race-based immigration laws in the 1960s opened the possibility for Black, Asian American, Latina and other non-white women candidates to run for Congress. [ 86 ] Racially polarized voting, racial stereotypes and lack of institutional support still prevent women of color from reaching Congress as easily as white people . Senate elections, which require victories in statewide electorates, have been particularly difficult for women of color. [ 87 ] Carol Moseley Braun became the first woman of color to reach the Senate in 1993. The second, Mazie Hirono , won in 2013. [ citation needed ] In 2021, Kamala Harris became the first female President of the Senate , which came with her role as the first female Vice President of the United States . [ citation needed ] Role Powers Overview Article One of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. [ 88 ] Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause . [ citation needed ] Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States". There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress's power to manage the budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm." [ 89 ] Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary. [ 89 ] The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. [ 90 ] The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress's primary checks on the executive branch. [ 90 ] Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. [ 91 ] Generally, the Senate and the House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills . [ 4 ] Congress has an important role in national defense , including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces , and to make rules for the military. [ 92 ] Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. [ 93 ] While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812 , the Mexican–American War , the Spanish–American War , World War I , and World War II , [ 94 ] although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. [ 94 ] In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950 , President Truman described the American response as a "police action". [ 95 ] According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents [had] ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times." [ 94 ] In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution," and that the "real erosion [of Congress's war power] began after World War II." [ 96 ] [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation's history. [ 99 ] Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights , fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court , and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union. [ citation needed ] One of Congress's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. [ 100 ] Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress's subpoena power. [ 101 ] Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Plame affair , critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. [ 102 ] There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping , although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. [ 103 ] Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has the exclusive power of removal , allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. [ 104 ] There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. [ 105 ] So-called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and the White House a little more in favor of the executive branch", according to one account. [ 106 ] Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush , [ 107 ] have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators, including the American Bar Association , have described this practice as against the spirit of the Constitution. [ 108 ] [ 109 ] There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. [ 110 ] In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters". [ 111 ] Enumeration The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights , due process , and equal protection under the law. [ 112 ] Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress. [ 113 ] Implicit, commerce clause Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". [ 114 ] Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause , the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v. Maryland , have effectively widened the scope of Congress's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section Eight. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] Territorial government Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C. , the federal district and national capital, and the U.S. territories of Guam , American Samoa , Puerto Rico , the U.S. Virgin Islands , and the Northern Mariana Islands rests with Congress. [ 117 ] The republican form of government in territories is devolved by congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the D.C. mayor and locally elective territorial legislatures. [ 118 ] Each territory and Washington, D.C., elects a non-voting delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives as they have throughout congressional history. They "possess the same powers as other members of the House, except that they may not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives". They are assigned offices and allowances for staff, participate in debate, and appoint constituents to the four military service academies for the Army, Navy, Air Force and Coast Guard. [ 119 ] Washington, D.C., citizens alone among U.S. territories have the right to directly vote for the President of the United States, although the Democratic and Republican political parties nominate their presidential candidates at national conventions which include delegates from the five major territories. [ 120 ] Checks and balances Representative Lee H. Hamilton explained how Congress functions within the federal government: To me the key to understanding it is balance. The founders went to great lengths to balance institutions against each other – balancing powers among the three branches: Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court; between the House of Representatives and the Senate; between the federal government and the states; among states of different sizes and regions with different interests; between the powers of government and the rights of citizens, as spelled out in the Bill of Rights ... No one part of government dominates the other. [ 5 ] : 6 To me the key to understanding it is balance. The founders went to great lengths to balance institutions against each other – balancing powers among the three branches: Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court; between the House of Representatives and the Senate; between the federal government and the states; among states of different sizes and regions with different interests; between the powers of government and the rights of citizens, as spelled out in the Bill of Rights ... No one part of government dominates the other. [ 5 ] : 6 The Constitution provides checks and balances among the three branches of the federal government. Its authors expected the greater power to lie with Congress as described in Article One. [ 5 ] [ 121 ] The influence of Congress on the presidency has varied from period to period depending on factors such as congressional leadership, presidential political influence, historical circumstances such as war, and individual initiative by members of Congress. The impeachment of Andrew Johnson made the presidency less powerful than Congress for a considerable period afterwards. [ 122 ] The 20th and 21st centuries have seen the rise of presidential power under politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt , Woodrow Wilson , Franklin D. Roosevelt , Richard Nixon , Ronald Reagan , and George W. Bush . [ 123 ] Congress restricted presidential power with laws such as the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 and the War Powers Resolution . The presidency remains considerably more powerful today than during the 19th century. [ 5 ] [ 123 ] Executive branch officials are often loath to reveal sensitive information to members of Congress because of concern that information could not be kept secret; in return, knowing they may be in the dark about executive branch activity, congressional officials are more likely to distrust their counterparts in executive agencies. [ 124 ] Many government actions require fast coordinated effort by many agencies, and this is a task that Congress is ill-suited for. Congress is slow, open, divided, and not well matched to handle more rapid executive action or do a good job of overseeing such activity, according to one analysis. [ 125 ] The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach executive or judicial officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors". Impeachment is a formal accusation of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; a two-thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future. Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this. A convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial. Only three presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Bill Clinton in 1999, Donald Trump in 2019 and 2021. The trials of Johnson, Clinton, and the 2019 trial of Trump all ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction . In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated his removal from office. [ citation needed ] The Senate has an important check on the executive power by confirming Cabinet officials, judges, and other high officers "by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate". It confirms most presidential nominees, but rejections are not uncommon. Furthermore, treaties negotiated by the President must be ratified by a two-thirds majority vote in the Senate to take effect. As a result, presidential arm-twisting of senators can happen before a key vote; for example, President Obama's secretary of state, Hillary Clinton , urged her former senate colleagues to approve a nuclear arms treaty with Russia in 2010. [ 126 ] The House of Representatives has no formal role in either the ratification of treaties or the appointment of federal officials, other than in filling a vacancy in the office of the vice president; in such a case, a majority vote in each House is required to confirm a president's nomination of a vice president. [ 4 ] In 1803, the Supreme Court established judicial review of federal legislation in Marbury v. Madison , holding that Congress could not grant unconstitutional power to the Court itself. The Constitution did not explicitly state that the courts may exercise judicial review. The notion that courts could declare laws unconstitutional was envisioned by the founding fathers . Alexander Hamilton , for example, mentioned and expounded upon the doctrine in Federalist No. 78 . Originalists on the Supreme Court have argued that if the constitution does not say something explicitly it is unconstitutional to infer what it should, might, or could have said. [ 127 ] Judicial review means that the Supreme Court can nullify a congressional law. It is a huge check by the courts on the legislative authority and limits congressional power substantially. In 1857, for example, the Supreme Court struck down provisions of a congressional act of 1820 in its Dred Scott decision. [ 128 ] At the same time, the Supreme Court can extend congressional power through its constitutional interpretations. [ citation needed ] The congressional inquiry into St. Clair's Defeat of 1791 was the first congressional investigation of the executive branch. [ 129 ] Investigations are conducted to gather information on the need for future legislation, to test the effectiveness of laws already passed, and to inquire into the qualifications and performance of members and officials of the other branches. Committees may hold hearings, and, if necessary, subpoena people to testify when investigating issues over which it has the power to legislate. [ 130 ] [ 131 ] Witnesses who refuse to testify may be cited for contempt of Congress , and those who testify falsely may be charged with perjury . Most committee hearings are open to the public (the House and Senate intelligence committees are the exception); important hearings are widely reported in the mass media and transcripts published a few months afterwards. [ 131 ] Congress, in the course of studying possible laws and investigating matters, generates an incredible amount of information in various forms, and can be described as a publisher. [ 132 ] Indeed, it publishes House and Senate reports [ 132 ] and maintains databases which are updated irregularly with publications in a variety of electronic formats. [ 132 ] Congress also plays a role in presidential elections. Both Houses meet in joint session on the sixth day of January following a presidential election to count the electoral votes, and there are procedures to follow if no candidate wins a majority. [ 4 ] The main result of congressional activity is the creation of laws, [ 133 ] most of which are contained in the United States Code, arranged by subject matter alphabetically under fifty title headings to present the laws "in a concise and usable form". [ 4 ] Structure Congress is split into two chambers – House and Senate – and manages the task of writing national legislation by dividing work into separate committees which specialize in different areas. Some members of Congress are elected by their peers to be officers of these committees. Further, Congress has ancillary organizations such as the Government Accountability Office and the Library of Congress to help provide it with information, and members of Congress have staff and offices to assist them as well. In addition, a vast industry of lobbyists helps members write legislation on behalf of diverse corporate and labor interests. Committees Specializations The committee structure permits members of Congress to study a particular subject intensely. It is neither expected nor possible that a member be an expert on all subject areas before Congress. [ 134 ] As time goes by, members develop expertise in particular subjects and their legal aspects. Committees investigate specialized subjects and advise the entire Congress about choices and trade-offs. The choice of specialty may be influenced by the member's constituency, important regional issues, prior background and experience. [ 135 ] Senators often choose a different specialty from that of the other senator from their state to prevent overlap. [ 136 ] Some committees specialize in running the business of other committees and exert a powerful influence over all legislation; for example, the House Ways and Means Committee has considerable influence over House affairs. [ 137 ] Power Committees write legislation. While procedures, such as the House discharge petition process, can introduce bills to the House floor and effectively bypass committee input, they are exceedingly difficult to implement without committee action. Committees have power and have been called independent fiefdoms . Legislative, oversight, and internal administrative tasks are divided among about two hundred committees and subcommittees which gather information, evaluate alternatives, and identify problems. [ 138 ] They propose solutions for consideration by the full chamber. [ 138 ] In addition, they perform the function of oversight by monitoring the executive branch and investigating wrongdoing. [ 138 ] Officer At the start of each two-year session, the House elects a speaker who does not normally preside over debates but serves as the majority party's leader. In the Senate, the vice president is the ex officio president of the Senate. In addition, the Senate elects an officer called the president pro tempore . Pro tempore means for the time being and this office is usually held by the most senior member of the Senate's majority party and customarily keeps this position until there is a change in party control. Accordingly, the Senate does not necessarily elect a new president pro tempore at the beginning of a new Congress. In the House and Senate, the actual presiding officer is generally a junior member of the majority party who is appointed so that new members become acquainted with the rules of the chamber. [ citation needed ] Support services Library of Congress The Library of Congress (LOC) was established by an act of Congress in 1800. It is primarily housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill , but also includes several other sites: the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in Washington, D.C.; the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center in Culpeper, Virginia ; a large book storage facility located in Fort Meade, Maryland ; and multiple overseas offices. The Library had mostly law books when it was burnt by British forces in 1814 during the War of 1812 , but the library's collections were restored and expanded when Congress authorized the purchase of Thomas Jefferson 's private library. One of the library's missions is to serve Congress and its staff as well as the American public. It is the largest library in the world with nearly 150 million items including books, films, maps, photographs, music, manuscripts, graphics, and materials in 470 languages. [ 139 ] Congressional Research Service The Congressional Research Service (CRS), part of the Library of Congress, provides detailed, up-to-date and non-partisan research for senators, representatives, and their staff to help them carry out their official duties. It provides ideas for legislation, helps members analyze a bill, facilitates public hearings, makes reports, consults on matters such as parliamentary procedure, and helps the two chambers resolve disagreements. It has been called the "House's think tank" and has a staff of about 900 employees. [ 140 ] Congressional Budget Office The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) is a federal agency which provides economic data to Congress. [ 141 ] It was created as an independent non-partisan agency by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 . It helps Congress estimate revenue inflows from taxes and helps the budgeting process. It makes projections about such matters as the national debt [ 142 ] as well as likely costs of legislation. It prepares an annual Economic and Budget Outlook with a mid-year update and writes An Analysis of the President's Budgetary Proposals for the Senate's Appropriations Committee . The speaker of the House and the Senate's president pro tempore jointly appoint the CBO director for a four-year term. [ citation needed ] Government Accountability Office The Government Accountability Office (GAO), is a federal agency within the legislative branch that provides auditing , evaluative , and investigative services for the United States Congress in an independent and nonpartisan capacity. [ 143 ] The GAO is the supreme audit institution of the federal government of the United States . It identifies its core "mission values" as: accountability, integrity, and reliability. [ 144 ] It is also known as the "congressional watchdog". [ 145 ] Architect of the Capitol The Architect of the Capitol (AOC) is a federal agency within the legislative branch that is responsible for the maintenance , operation, development, construction , building preservation , and property management of the United States Capitol Complex [ 146 ] and is accountable directly to the United States Congress and the Supreme Court of the United States . [ 147 ] United States Capitol Police Lobbying Lobbyists represent diverse interests and often seek to influence congressional decisions to reflect their clients' needs. Lobby groups and their members sometimes write legislation and whip bills. In 2007, there were approximately 17,000 federal lobbyists in Washington, D.C. [ 148 ] They explain to legislators the goals of their organizations. Some lobbyists represent non-profit organizations and work pro bono for issues in which they are personally interested. [ citation needed ] Partisanship versus bipartisanship Congress has alternated between periods of constructive cooperation and compromise between parties, known as bipartisanship , and periods of deep political polarization and fierce infighting, known as partisanship . The period after the Civil War was marked by partisanship, as is the case today. It is generally easier for committees to reach accord on issues when compromise is possible. Some political scientists speculate that a prolonged period marked by narrow majorities in both chambers of Congress has intensified partisanship in the last few decades, but that an alternation of control of Congress between Democrats and Republicans may lead to greater flexibility in policies, as well as pragmatism and civility within the institution. [ 149 ] Procedures Sessions A term of Congress is divided into two " sessions ", one for each year; Congress has occasionally been called into an extra or special session . A new session commences on January 3 each year unless Congress decides differently. The Constitution requires Congress to meet at least once each year and forbids either house from meeting outside the Capitol without the consent of the other house. Joint sessions Joint sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from House and Senate. These sessions include counting electoral votes after a presidential election and the president's State of the Union address. The constitutionally mandated report , normally given as an annual speech, is modeled on Britain's Speech from the Throne , was written by most presidents after Jefferson but personally delivered as a spoken oration beginning with Wilson in 1913. Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the speaker of the House, except when counting presidential electoral votes when the vice president (acting as the president of the Senate) presides. [ citation needed ] Bills and resolutions Ideas for legislation can come from members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, or executive agencies. Anyone can write a bill, but only members of Congress may introduce bills. Most bills are not written by Congress members, but originate from the Executive branch; interest groups often draft bills as well. The usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review. [ 4 ] A proposal is usually in one of these forms: Bills are laws in the making. A House-originated bill begins with the letters "H.R." for "House of Representatives", followed by a number kept as it progresses. [ 133 ] Joint resolutions. There is little difference between a bill and a joint resolution since both are treated similarly; a joint resolution originating from the House, for example, begins "H.J.Res." followed by its number. [ 133 ] Concurrent Resolutions affect only the House and Senate and accordingly are not presented to the president. In the House, they begin with "H.Con.Res." [ 133 ] Simple resolutions concern only the House or only the Senate and begin with "H.Res." or "S.Res." [ 133 ] Representatives introduce a bill while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk's desk. [ 133 ] It is assigned a number and referred to a committee which studies each bill intensely at this stage. [ 133 ] Drafting statutes requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience" and sometimes take a year or more. [ 4 ] Sometimes lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Joint resolutions are the normal way to propose a constitutional amendment or declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law but express the opinion of Congress or regulate procedure . Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. The Constitution states: "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives." While the Senate cannot originate revenue and appropriation bills , it has the power to amend or reject them. Congress has sought ways to establish appropriate spending levels. [ 4 ] Each chamber determines its own internal rules of operation unless specified in the Constitution or prescribed by law. In the House, a Rules Committee guides legislation; in the Senate, a Standing Rules committee is in charge. Each branch has its own traditions; for example, the Senate relies heavily on the practice of getting "unanimous consent" for noncontroversial matters. [ 4 ] House and Senate rules can be complex, sometimes requiring a hundred specific steps before a bill can become a law. [ 5 ] Members sometimes turn to outside experts to learn about proper congressional procedures. [ 150 ] Each bill goes through several stages in each house including consideration by a committee and advice from the Government Accountability Office . [ 4 ] Most legislation is considered by standing committees which have jurisdiction over a particular subject such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month. [ 4 ] Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting. [ 4 ] A committee might call for public hearings on important bills. [ 4 ] Each committee is led by a chair who belongs to the majority party and a ranking member of the minority party. Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill. [ 133 ] Then, a bill may go to what is called a mark-up session, where committee members debate the bill's merits and may offer amendments or revisions. [ 133 ] Committees may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After debate, the committee votes whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. If a bill is tabled then it is rejected. If amendments are extensive, sometimes a new bill with amendments built in will be submitted as a so-called clean bill with a new number. [ 133 ] Both houses have procedures under which committees can be bypassed or overruled but they are rarely used. Generally, members who have been in Congress longer have greater seniority and therefore greater power. [ 151 ] A bill which reaches the floor of the full house can be simple or complex [ 133 ] and begins with an enacting formula such as "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled ..." Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a rule which is a simple resolution specifying the particulars of debate – time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such. [ 133 ] Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak. [ 133 ] Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it. [ 133 ] Generally, discussion requires a quorum , usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions. [ 152 ] The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House and Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows. Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill. [ 133 ] If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee , an ad hoc committee that includes senators and representatives [ 133 ] sometimes by using a reconciliation process to limit budget bills. [ 4 ] Both houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay-as-you-go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts that increase budget deficits. [ 4 ] If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes, otherwise it fails. [ citation needed ] The Constitution specifies that a majority of members (a quorum ) be present before doing business in each house. The rules of each house assume that a quorum is present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary and debate often continues despite the lack of a majority. [ citation needed ] Voting within Congress can take many forms, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting. [ 4 ] Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters in which members shout "aye" or "no" and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution requires a recorded vote if demanded by one-fifth of the members present or when voting to override a presidential veto. If the voice vote is unclear or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually happens. The Senate uses roll-call voting , in which a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye" or "no" when their name is announced. In the Senate, the Vice President may cast the tie-breaking vote if present when the senators are equally divided. [ citation needed ] The House reserves roll-call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by using an electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. Most votes in the House are done electronically, allowing members to vote yea or nay or present or open . [ 4 ] Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used occasionally ( yea indicated by green and nay by red). [ 4 ] One member cannot cast a proxy vote for another. [ 4 ] Congressional votes are recorded on an online database. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] After passage by both houses, a bill is enrolled and sent to the president for approval. [ 133 ] The president may sign it making it law or veto it, perhaps returning it to Congress with the president's objections. A vetoed bill can still become law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two-thirds majority. Finally, the president may do nothing neither signing nor vetoing the bill and then the bill becomes law automatically after ten days (not counting Sundays) according to the Constitution. But if Congress is adjourned during this period, presidents may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto , and cannot be overridden by the adjourned Congress. [ citation needed ] Public interaction Advantage of incumbency Citizens and representatives Senators face reelection every six years, and representatives every two. Reelections encourage candidates to focus their publicity efforts at their home states or districts. [ 64 ] Running for reelection can be a grueling process of distant travel and fund-raising which distracts senators and representatives from paying attention to governing, according to some critics. [ 155 ] Although others respond that the process is necessary to keep members of Congress in touch with voters. [ citation needed ] Incumbent members of Congress running for reelection have strong advantages over challengers. [ 53 ] They raise more money [ 58 ] because donors fund incumbents over challengers, perceiving the former as more likely to win, [ 56 ] [ 156 ] and donations are vital for winning elections. [ 157 ] One critic compared election to Congress to receiving life tenure at a university. [ 156 ] Another advantage for representatives is the practice of gerrymandering . [ 158 ] [ 159 ] After each ten-year census, states are allocated representatives based on population, and officials in power can choose how to draw the congressional district boundaries to support candidates from their party. As a result, reelection rates of members of Congress hover around 90 percent, [ 9 ] causing some critics to call them a privileged class. [ 8 ] Academics such as Princeton's Stephen Macedo have proposed solutions to fix gerrymandering in the U.S. Senators and representatives enjoy free mailing privileges, called franking privileges ; while these are not intended for electioneering, this rule is often skirted by borderline election-related mailings during campaigns. [ citation needed ] Expensive campaigns In 1971, the cost of running for Congress in Utah was $70,000 [ 160 ] but costs have climbed. [ 161 ] The biggest expense is television advertisements. [ 57 ] [ 156 ] [ 160 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] Today's races cost more than a million dollars for a House seat, and six million or more for a Senate seat. [ 8 ] [ 57 ] [ 162 ] [ 164 ] [ 165 ] Since fundraising is vital, "members of Congress are forced to spend ever-increasing hours raising money for their re-election", according to the Fair Elections Now coalition. [ 166 ] The Supreme Court has treated campaign contributions as a free speech issue. [ 161 ] Some see money as a good influence in politics since it "enables candidates to communicate with voters". [ 161 ] Few members retire from Congress without complaining about how much it costs to campaign for reelection. [ 8 ] Critics contend that members of Congress are more likely to attend to the needs of heavy campaign contributors than to ordinary citizens. [ 8 ] Elections are influenced by many variables. Some political scientists speculate there is a coattail effect (when a popular president or party position has the effect of reelecting incumbents who win by "riding on the president's coattails"), although there is some evidence that the coattail effect is irregular and possibly declining since the 1950s. [ 53 ] Some districts are so heavily Democratic or Republican that they are called a safe seat ; any candidate winning the primary will almost always be elected, and these candidates do not need to spend money on advertising. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] But some races can be competitive when there is no incumbent. If a seat becomes vacant in an open district, then both parties may spend heavily on advertising in these races; in California in 1992, only four of twenty races for House seats were considered highly competitive. [ 169 ] Television and negative advertising Since members of Congress must advertise heavily on television, this usually involves negative advertising , which smears an opponent's character without focusing on the issues. [ 170 ] Negative advertising is seen as effective because "the messages tend to stick." [ 171 ] These advertisements sour the public on the political process in general as most members of Congress seek to avoid blame. [ 172 ] One wrong decision or one damaging television image can mean defeat at the next election, which leads to a culture of risk avoidance, a need to make policy decisions behind closed doors, [ 172 ] [ 173 ] and concentrating publicity efforts in the members' home districts. [ 64 ] Perceptions Prominent Founding Fathers , writing in The Federalist Papers , felt that elections were essential to liberty, that a bond between the people and the representatives was particularly essential, [ 174 ] and that "frequent elections are unquestionably the only policy by which this dependence and sympathy can be effectually secured." [ 174 ] In 2009, few Americans were familiar with leaders of Congress. [ 175 ] [ 176 ] [ 177 ] The percentage of Americans eligible to vote who did, in fact, vote was 63% in 1960, but has been falling since, although there was a slight upward trend in the 2008 election. [ 178 ] Public opinion polls asking people if they approve of the job Congress is doing have, in the last few decades, hovered around 25% with some variation. [ 8 ] [ 179 ] [ 180 ] [ 181 ] [ 182 ] [ 183 ] [ 184 ] Scholar Julian Zeliger suggested that the "size, messiness, virtues, and vices that make Congress so interesting also create enormous barriers to our understanding the institution ... Unlike the presidency, Congress is difficult to conceptualize." [ 185 ] Other scholars suggest that despite the criticism, "Congress is a remarkably resilient institution ... its place in the political process is not threatened ... it is rich in resources" and that most members behave ethically. [ 6 ] They contend that "Congress is easy to dislike and often difficult to defend" and this perception is exacerbated because many challengers running for Congress run against Congress, which is an "old form of American politics" that further undermines Congress's reputation with the public: [ 8 ] The rough-and-tumble world of legislating is not orderly and civil, human frailties too often taint its membership, and legislative outcomes are often frustrating and ineffective ... Still, we are not exaggerating when we say that Congress is essential to American democracy. We would not have survived as a nation without a Congress that represented the diverse interests of our society, conducted a public debate on the major issues, found compromises to resolve conflicts peacefully, and limited the power of our executive, military, and judicial institutions ... The popularity of Congress ebbs and flows with the public's confidence in government generally ... the legislative process is easy to dislike – it often generates political posturing and grandstanding, it necessarily involves compromise, and it often leaves broken promises in its trail. Also, members of Congress often appear self-serving as they pursue their political careers and represent interests and reflect values that are controversial. Scandals, even when they involve a single member, add to the public's frustration with Congress and have contributed to the institution's low ratings in opinion polls. The rough-and-tumble world of legislating is not orderly and civil, human frailties too often taint its membership, and legislative outcomes are often frustrating and ineffective ... Still, we are not exaggerating when we say that Congress is essential to American democracy. We would not have survived as a nation without a Congress that represented the diverse interests of our society, conducted a public debate on the major issues, found compromises to resolve conflicts peacefully, and limited the power of our executive, military, and judicial institutions ... The popularity of Congress ebbs and flows with the public's confidence in government generally ... the legislative process is easy to dislike – it often generates political posturing and grandstanding, it necessarily involves compromise, and it often leaves broken promises in its trail. Also, members of Congress often appear self-serving as they pursue their political careers and represent interests and reflect values that are controversial. Scandals, even when they involve a single member, add to the public's frustration with Congress and have contributed to the institution's low ratings in opinion polls. — Smith, Roberts & Wielen [ 8 ] An additional factor that confounds public perceptions of Congress is that congressional issues are becoming more technical and complex and require expertise in subjects such as science, engineering and economics. [ 8 ] As a result, Congress often cedes authority to experts at the executive branch. [ 8 ] Since 2006, Congress has dropped ten points in the Gallup confidence poll with only nine percent having "a great deal" or "quite a lot" of confidence in their legislators. [ 186 ] Since 2011, Gallup poll has reported Congress's approval rating among Americans at 10% or below three times. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Public opinion of Congress plummeted further to 5% in October 2013 after parts of the U.S. government deemed 'nonessential government' shut down. [ 72 ] Smaller states and bigger states When the Constitution was ratified in 1787, the ratio of the populations of large states to small states was roughly twelve to one. The Connecticut Compromise gave every state, large and small, an equal vote in the Senate. [ 187 ] Since each state has two senators, residents of smaller states have more clout in the Senate than residents of larger states. But since 1787, the population disparity between large and small states has grown; in 2006, for example, California had seventy times the population of Wyoming . [ 188 ] Critics, such as constitutional scholar Sanford Levinson , have suggested that the population disparity works against residents of large states and causes a steady redistribution of resources from "large states to small states". [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] Others argue that the Connecticut Compromise was deliberately intended by the Founding Fathers to construct the Senate so that each state had equal footing not based on population, [ 187 ] and contend that the result works well on balance. Members and constituents A major role for members of Congress is providing services to constituents . [ 192 ] Constituents request assistance with problems. [ 193 ] Providing services helps members of Congress win votes and elections [ 158 ] [ 194 ] [ 195 ] and can make a difference in close races. [ 196 ] Congressional staff can help citizens navigate government bureaucracies. [ 5 ] One academic described the complex intertwined relation between lawmakers and constituents as home style . [ 197 ] : 8 Motivation One way to categorize lawmakers, according to former University of Rochester political science professor Richard Fenno , is by their general motivation: Reelection: These are lawmakers who "never met a voter they didn't like" and provide excellent constituent services. Good public policy: Legislators who "burnish a reputation for policy expertise and leadership". Power in the chamber: Lawmakers who spend serious time along the "rail of the House floor or in the Senate cloakroom ministering to the needs of their colleagues". Famous legislator Henry Clay in the mid-19th century was described as an "issue entrepreneur" who looked for issues to serve his ambitions. [ 197 ] : 34 Privileges Outside income and gifts Representative Jim Cooper of Tennessee told Harvard professor Lawrence Lessig that a chief problem with Congress was that members focused on their future careers as lobbyists after serving – that Congress was a " Farm League for K Street ". [ 198 ] [ 199 ] Family members of active legislators have also been hired by lobbying firms, which while not allowed to lobby their family member, has drawn criticism as a conflict of interest. [ 200 ] Members of congress have been accused of insider trading , such as in the 2020 congressional insider trading scandal , where members of Congress or their family members have traded on stocks related to work on their committees. [ 201 ] One 2011 study concluded that portfolios of members of Congress outperformed both the market and hedge funds, which the authors suggested as evidence of insider trading. [ 202 ] Proposed solutions include putting stocks in blind trusts to prevent future insider trading. [ 203 ] Some members of Congress have gone on lavish trips paid for by outside groups, sometimes bringing family members, which are often legal even if in an ethical gray area. [ 204 ] [ 205 ] Pay Some critics complain congressional pay is high compared with a median American income . [ 206 ] Others have countered that congressional pay is consistent with other branches of government . [ 179 ] Another criticism is that members of Congress are insulated from the health care market due to their coverage. [ 207 ] Others have criticized the wealth of members of Congress. [ 160 ] [ 163 ] In January 2014, it was reported that for the first time over half of the members of Congress were millionaires. [ 208 ] Congress has been criticized for trying to conceal pay raises by slipping them into a large bill at the last minute. [ 209 ] Members elected since 1984 are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS). Like other federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and participants' contributions. Members of Congress under FERS contribute 1.3% of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2% of their salary in Social Security taxes. And like federal employees, members contribute one-third of the cost of health insurance with the government covering the other two-thirds. [ 210 ] The size of a congressional pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest three years of their salary. By law, the starting amount of a member's retirement annuity may not exceed 80% of their final salary. In 2018, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) was $75,528, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $41,208. [ 211 ] Members of Congress make fact-finding missions to learn about other countries and stay informed, but these outings can cause controversy if the trip is deemed excessive or unconnected with the task of governing. For example, The Wall Street Journal reported in 2009 that lawmaker trips abroad at taxpayer expense had included spas, $300-per-night extra unused rooms, and shopping excursions. [ 212 ] Some lawmakers responded that "traveling with spouses compensates for being away from them a lot in Washington" and justify the trips as a way to meet officials in other nations. [ 212 ] By the Twenty-seventh Amendment , changes to congressional pay may not take effect before the next election to the House of the Representatives. [ 213 ] In Boehner v. Anderson , the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ruled that the amendment does not affect cost-of-living adjustments . [ 214 ] [ 213 ] Postage The franking privilege allows members of Congress to send official mail to constituents at government expense. Though they are not permitted to send election materials, borderline material is often sent, especially in the run-up to an election by those in close races. [ 215 ] [ 216 ] Some academics consider free mailings as giving incumbents a big advantage over challengers. [ 9 ] [ failed verification ] [ 217 ] Protection Members of Congress enjoy parliamentary privilege , including freedom from arrest in all cases except for treason , felony , and breach of the peace , and freedom of speech in debate. This constitutionally derived immunity applies to members during sessions and when traveling to and from sessions. [ 218 ] The term "arrest" has been interpreted broadly, and includes any detention or delay in the course of law enforcement , including court summons and subpoenas . The rules of the House strictly guard this privilege; a member may not waive the privilege on their own but must seek the permission of the whole house to do so. Senate rules are less strict and permit individual senators to waive the privilege as they choose. [ 219 ] The Constitution guarantees absolute freedom of debate in both houses, providing in the Speech or Debate Clause of the Constitution that "for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place." Accordingly, a member of Congress may not be sued in court for slander because of remarks made in either house, although each house has its own rules restricting offensive speeches, and may punish members who transgress. [ 220 ] Obstructing the work of Congress is a crime under federal law and is known as contempt of Congress . Each member has the power to cite people for contempt but can only issue a contempt citation – the judicial system pursues the matter like a normal criminal case. If convicted in court of contempt of Congress, a person may be imprisoned for up to one year. [ 221 ] See also Caucuses of the United States Congress Congressional archives – Records documenting the history and activities of the United States Congress Congressional Baseball Game – Annual baseball game played by members of the United States Congress Divided government in the United States – Divided control of the US government between political parties Elections in the United States § Congressional elections List of current United States representatives List of current United States senators List of United States Congresses Oath of office § United States Radio and Television Correspondents' Association United States congressional hearing Notes ^ Independent Sens. Angus King of Maine and Bernie Sanders of Vermont caucus with the Democratic Party. [ 1 ] ^ Before the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1913, senators were chosen by state legislatures. ^ Congress does not take a grammatical article , except when referring to an individual Congress. [ 3 ] Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Maine Independent Angus King To Caucus With Senate Democrats" . 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January 1, 1957. ProQuest 1296619169 . Retrieved September 7, 2020 . References "How To Clean Up The Mess From Inside The System, A Plea – And A Plan – To Reform Campaign Finance Before It's Too" . Newsweek . October 28, 1996. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 20, 2009 . "The Constitution and the Idea of Compromise" . PBS. October 10, 2009. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved October 10, 2009 . Alexander Hamilton (1788). "Federalist No. 15 – The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union" . FoundingFathers.info. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved October 10, 2009 . Bacon, Donald C.; Davidson, Roger H.; Keller, Morton, eds. (1995). Encyclopedia of the United States Congress (4 vols.) . Simon & Schuster. Collier, Christopher & Collier, James Lincoln (1986). Decision in Philadelphia: The Constitutional Convention of 1787 . Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-394-52346-6 . Davidson, Roger H. & Walter J. Oleszek (2006). Congress and Its Members (10th ed.). Congressional Quarterly (CQ) Press. ISBN 0-87187-325-7 . (Legislative procedure, informal practices, and other information) English, Ross M. (2003). The United States Congress . Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-6309-4 . Francis-Smith, Janice (October 22, 2008). "Waging campaigns against incumbents in Oklahoma" . The Oklahoma City Journal Record. Archived from the original on May 10, 2010 . Retrieved September 20, 2009 . Herrnson, Paul S. (2004). Congressional Elections: Campaigning at Home and in Washington . CQ Press. ISBN 1-56802-826-1 . Huckabee, David C. (2003). Reelection Rates of Incumbents . Hauppauge, New York: Novinka Books, an imprint of Nova Science Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 1-59033-509-0 . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 27, 2020 . Huckabee, David C. – Analyst in American National Government – Government Division (March 8, 1995). "Reelection rate of House Incumbents 1790–1990 Summary (page 2)" (PDF) . Congressional Research Service – The Library of Congress. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 29, 2011 . Retrieved September 20, 2009 . Maier, Pauline (book reviewer) (November 18, 2007). "HISTORY – The Framers' Real Motives (book review) Unruly Americans and the Origins of the Constitution book by Woody Holton" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 14, 2021 . Retrieved October 10, 2009 . Oleszek, Walter J. (2004). Congressional Procedures and the Policy Process . CQ Press. ISBN 0-87187-477-6 . Polsby, Nelson W. (2004). How Congress Evolves: Social Bases of Institutional Change . Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516195-5 . Price, David E. (2000). The Congressional Experience . Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-1157-8 . Sanbonmatsu, Kira (2020). "Women's Underrepresentation in the U.S. Congress" . Daedalus . 149 : 40– 55. doi : 10.1162/daed_a_01772 . ISSN 0011-5266 . S2CID 209487865 . Archived from the original on April 24, 2021 . Retrieved April 6, 2021 . Struble, Robert Jr. (2007). Chapter seven, Treatise on Twelve Lights . TeLL. Archived from the original on April 14, 2016. Zelizer, Julian E. (2004). The American Congress: The Building of Democracy . Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-17906-2 . Further reading Ritchie, Donald A. (2022). The U.S. Congress: A Very Short Introduction . (History, representation, and legislative procedure) Smith, Steven S.; Roberts, Jason M.; Vander Wielen, Ryan (2007). The American Congress (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19704-5 . (Legislative procedure, informal practices, and other information) Hamilton, Lee H. (2004) How Congress Works and Why You Should Care , Indiana University Press. Lee, Frances and Bruce Oppenheimer. (1999). Sizing Up the Senate: The Unequal Consequences of Equal Representation . University of Chicago Press: Chicago. (Equal representation in the Senate) Some information in this article has been provided by the Senate Historical Office . 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4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e United States Congress v t e House of Representatives Senate Joint session ( 118th → 119th → 120th ) Lists of the United States Congress House of Representatives Senate Joint session ( 118th → 119th → 120th ) Lists of the United States Congress Members and leaders Membership Members By length of service By shortness of service New members Non-voting members Unseated members Youngest members Senate Members seniority Dean Former Expelled or censured Classes Born outside the U.S. Resigned Appointed Switched parties House Members seniority Dean Former Expelled, censured, and reprimanded Served a single term Lost re-election in a primary Switched parties Elected but did not serve Leaders Senate President list President pro tempore list Leaders Democratic Caucus Chair Secretary Policy Committee Chair Republican Conference Chair Vice-Chair Policy Committee Chair House Speaker list Leaders Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group Democratic Caucus Republican Conference Districts List Apportionment Gerrymandering Groups Congressional caucus Caucuses of the United States Congress Ethnic and racial African-American members Senate House Black Caucus Arab and Middle Eastern members Asian Pacific American members Asian Pacific American Caucus Hispanic and Latino members list Hispanic Caucus Hispanic Conference Jewish members Jewish Caucus Native American members Gender and sexual identity LGBTQ members Equality Caucus Women Senate House Issues Caucus current House Occupation Physicians Religion Buddhist members Hindu members Jewish members Mormon (LDS) members Muslim members Quaker members Sikh members Related By length of service historically Current members by wealth From multiple states Died in office 1790–1899 1900–1949 1950–1999 2000–present Killed or wounded in office Party switchers Slave owners Members and leaders Membership Members By length of service By shortness of service New members Non-voting members Unseated members Youngest members Senate Members seniority Dean Former Expelled or censured Classes Born outside the U.S. Resigned Appointed Switched parties House Members seniority Dean Former Expelled, censured, and reprimanded Served a single term Lost re-election in a primary Switched parties Elected but did not serve Leaders Senate President list President pro tempore list Leaders Democratic Caucus Chair Secretary Policy Committee Chair Republican Conference Chair Vice-Chair Policy Committee Chair House Speaker list Leaders Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group Democratic Caucus Republican Conference Districts List Apportionment Gerrymandering Groups Congressional caucus Caucuses of the United States Congress Ethnic and racial African-American members Senate House Black Caucus Arab and Middle Eastern members Asian Pacific American members Asian Pacific American Caucus Hispanic and Latino members list Hispanic Caucus Hispanic Conference Jewish members Jewish Caucus Native American members Gender and sexual identity LGBTQ members Equality Caucus Women Senate House Issues Caucus current House Occupation Physicians Religion Buddhist members Hindu members Jewish members Mormon (LDS) members Muslim members Quaker members Sikh members Related By length of service historically Current members by wealth From multiple states Died in office 1790–1899 1900–1949 1950–1999 2000–present Killed or wounded in office Party switchers Slave owners Membership Members By length of service By shortness of service New members Non-voting members Unseated members Youngest members Senate Members seniority Dean Former Expelled or censured Classes Born outside the U.S. Resigned Appointed Switched parties House Members seniority Dean Former Expelled, censured, and reprimanded Served a single term Lost re-election in a primary Switched parties Elected but did not serve Members By length of service By shortness of service New members Non-voting members Unseated members Youngest members By length of service By shortness of service New members Non-voting members Unseated members Youngest members Senate Members seniority Dean Former Expelled or censured Classes Born outside the U.S. Resigned Appointed Switched parties Members seniority seniority Dean Former Expelled or censured Classes Born outside the U.S. Resigned Appointed Switched parties House Members seniority Dean Former Expelled, censured, and reprimanded Served a single term Lost re-election in a primary Switched parties Elected but did not serve Members seniority seniority Dean Former Expelled, censured, and reprimanded Served a single term Lost re-election in a primary Switched parties Elected but did not serve Leaders Senate President list President pro tempore list Leaders Democratic Caucus Chair Secretary Policy Committee Chair Republican Conference Chair Vice-Chair Policy Committee Chair House Speaker list Leaders Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group Democratic Caucus Republican Conference Senate President list President pro tempore list Leaders Democratic Caucus Chair Secretary Policy Committee Chair Republican Conference Chair Vice-Chair Policy Committee Chair President list list President pro tempore list list Leaders Democratic Caucus Chair Secretary Policy Committee Chair Chair Secretary Policy Committee Chair Republican Conference Chair Vice-Chair Policy Committee Chair Chair Vice-Chair Policy Committee Chair House Speaker list Leaders Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group Democratic Caucus Republican Conference Speaker list list Leaders Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group Democratic Caucus Republican Conference Districts List Apportionment Gerrymandering List Apportionment Gerrymandering Groups Congressional caucus Caucuses of the United States Congress Ethnic and racial African-American members Senate House Black Caucus Arab and Middle Eastern members Asian Pacific American members Asian Pacific American Caucus Hispanic and Latino members list Hispanic Caucus Hispanic Conference Jewish members Jewish Caucus Native American members Gender and sexual identity LGBTQ members Equality Caucus Women Senate House Issues Caucus current House Occupation Physicians Religion Buddhist members Hindu members Jewish members Mormon (LDS) members Muslim members Quaker members Sikh members Congressional caucus Caucuses of the United States Congress Caucuses of the United States Congress Ethnic and racial African-American members Senate House Black Caucus Arab and Middle Eastern members Asian Pacific American members Asian Pacific American Caucus Hispanic and Latino members list Hispanic Caucus Hispanic Conference Jewish members Jewish Caucus Native American members African-American members Senate House Black Caucus Senate House Black Caucus Arab and Middle Eastern members Asian Pacific American members Asian Pacific American Caucus Asian Pacific American Caucus Hispanic and Latino members list Hispanic Caucus Hispanic Conference list Hispanic Caucus Hispanic Conference Jewish members Jewish Caucus Jewish Caucus Native American members Gender and sexual identity LGBTQ members Equality Caucus Women Senate House Issues Caucus current House LGBTQ members Equality Caucus Equality Caucus Women Senate House Issues Caucus current House Senate House Issues Caucus current House Occupation Physicians Physicians Religion Buddhist members Hindu members Jewish members Mormon (LDS) members Muslim members Quaker members Sikh members Buddhist members Hindu members Jewish members Mormon (LDS) members Muslim members Quaker members Sikh members Related By length of service historically Current members by wealth From multiple states Died in office 1790–1899 1900–1949 1950–1999 2000–present Killed or wounded in office Party switchers Slave owners By length of service historically Current members by wealth From multiple states Died in office 1790–1899 1900–1949 1950–1999 2000–present 1790–1899 1900–1949 1950–1999 2000–present Killed or wounded in office Party switchers Slave owners Powers, privileges, procedure, committees, history, media Powers Article I Copyright Commerce (Dormant) Contempt of Congress Declaration of war Impeachment Inquiries Trial Naturalization "Necessary and Proper" Power of enforcement Taxing/spending Privileges Salaries Franking Immunity Procedure Act of Congress list Appropriation bill Bill Budget process Censure Closed sessions House Senate Cloture Concurrent resolution Continuing resolution Dear Colleague letter Discharge petition Enrolled bill Expulsion Joint resolution Joint session list Lame-duck session Magic minute Majority of the majority (Hastert Rule) Multiple referral House procedures Quorum call Reconciliation Rider Saxbe fix Sponsorship Suspension of the rules Unanimous consent Veto Line-item veto Pocket veto Senate-specific Advice and consent Blue slip (U.S. Senate) Classes Executive communication Executive session Filibuster Jefferson's Manual Senate Journal Morning business Nuclear option Presiding Officer Recess appointment Reconciliation Riddick's Senate Procedure Senate hold Senatorial courtesy Seniority Standing Rules Tie-breaking votes Traditions Treaty Clause Committees Chairman and ranking member Of the Whole Conference Discharge petition Hearings Markup Oversight List (Joint) List (House) List (Senate) Select and special Standing Subcommittees Items Gavels Mace of the House Seal of the Senate History House history memoirs speaker elections Senate history election disputes memoirs Continental Congress Federal Hall (1789–1790) Congress Hall (1790–1800) Old Brick Capitol (1815–1819) Biographical Directory Divided government Party divisions Media C-SPAN Congressional Quarterly The Hill Politico Roll Call Powers, privileges, procedure, committees, history, media Powers Article I Copyright Commerce (Dormant) Contempt of Congress Declaration of war Impeachment Inquiries Trial Naturalization "Necessary and Proper" Power of enforcement Taxing/spending Privileges Salaries Franking Immunity Procedure Act of Congress list Appropriation bill Bill Budget process Censure Closed sessions House Senate Cloture Concurrent resolution Continuing resolution Dear Colleague letter Discharge petition Enrolled bill Expulsion Joint resolution Joint session list Lame-duck session Magic minute Majority of the majority (Hastert Rule) Multiple referral House procedures Quorum call Reconciliation Rider Saxbe fix Sponsorship Suspension of the rules Unanimous consent Veto Line-item veto Pocket veto Senate-specific Advice and consent Blue slip (U.S. Senate) Classes Executive communication Executive session Filibuster Jefferson's Manual Senate Journal Morning business Nuclear option Presiding Officer Recess appointment Reconciliation Riddick's Senate Procedure Senate hold Senatorial courtesy Seniority Standing Rules Tie-breaking votes Traditions Treaty Clause Committees Chairman and ranking member Of the Whole Conference Discharge petition Hearings Markup Oversight List (Joint) List (House) List (Senate) Select and special Standing Subcommittees Items Gavels Mace of the House Seal of the Senate History House history memoirs speaker elections Senate history election disputes memoirs Continental Congress Federal Hall (1789–1790) Congress Hall (1790–1800) Old Brick Capitol (1815–1819) Biographical Directory Divided government Party divisions Media C-SPAN Congressional Quarterly The Hill Politico Roll Call Powers Article I Copyright Commerce (Dormant) Contempt of Congress Declaration of war Impeachment Inquiries Trial Naturalization "Necessary and Proper" Power of enforcement Taxing/spending Article I Copyright Commerce (Dormant) Contempt of Congress Declaration of war Impeachment Inquiries Trial Inquiries Trial Naturalization "Necessary and Proper" Power of enforcement Taxing/spending Privileges Salaries Franking Immunity Salaries Franking Immunity Procedure Act of Congress list Appropriation bill Bill Budget process Censure Closed sessions House Senate Cloture Concurrent resolution Continuing resolution Dear Colleague letter Discharge petition Enrolled bill Expulsion Joint resolution Joint session list Lame-duck session Magic minute Majority of the majority (Hastert Rule) Multiple referral House procedures Quorum call Reconciliation Rider Saxbe fix Sponsorship Suspension of the rules Unanimous consent Veto Line-item veto Pocket veto Act of Congress list list Appropriation bill Bill Budget process Censure Closed sessions House Senate House Senate Cloture Concurrent resolution Continuing resolution Dear Colleague letter Discharge petition Enrolled bill Expulsion Joint resolution Joint session list list Lame-duck session Magic minute Majority of the majority (Hastert Rule) Multiple referral House procedures Quorum call Reconciliation Rider Saxbe fix Sponsorship Suspension of the rules Unanimous consent Veto Line-item veto Pocket veto Line-item veto Pocket veto Senate-specific Advice and consent Blue slip (U.S. Senate) Classes Executive communication Executive session Filibuster Jefferson's Manual Senate Journal Morning business Nuclear option Presiding Officer Recess appointment Reconciliation Riddick's Senate Procedure Senate hold Senatorial courtesy Seniority Standing Rules Tie-breaking votes Traditions Treaty Clause Advice and consent Blue slip (U.S. Senate) Classes Executive communication Executive session Filibuster Jefferson's Manual Senate Journal Morning business Nuclear option Presiding Officer Recess appointment Reconciliation Riddick's Senate Procedure Senate hold Senatorial courtesy Seniority Standing Rules Tie-breaking votes Traditions Treaty Clause Committees Chairman and ranking member Of the Whole Conference Discharge petition Hearings Markup Oversight List (Joint) List (House) List (Senate) Select and special Standing Subcommittees Chairman and ranking member Of the Whole Conference Discharge petition Hearings Markup Oversight List (Joint) List (House) List (Senate) Select and special Standing Subcommittees Items Gavels Mace of the House Seal of the Senate Gavels Mace of the House Seal of the Senate History House history memoirs speaker elections Senate history election disputes memoirs Continental Congress Federal Hall (1789–1790) Congress Hall (1790–1800) Old Brick Capitol (1815–1819) Biographical Directory Divided government Party divisions House history memoirs speaker elections Senate history election disputes memoirs Continental Congress Federal Hall (1789–1790) Congress Hall (1790–1800) Old Brick Capitol (1815–1819) Biographical Directory Divided government Party divisions House history memoirs speaker elections memoirs speaker elections Senate history election disputes memoirs election disputes memoirs Continental Congress Federal Hall (1789–1790) Congress Hall (1790–1800) Old Brick Capitol (1815–1819) Biographical Directory Divided government Party divisions Media C-SPAN Congressional Quarterly The Hill Politico Roll Call C-SPAN Congressional Quarterly The Hill Politico Roll Call Capitol Complex on Capitol Hill and other headquarters offices Legislative offices Congressional staff Gov. Accountability Office (GAO) Comptroller General GAO Building Architect of the Capitol Cap. Police Board Cap. Guide Service Congr. Budget Office (CBO) Congr. Workplace Rights (OCWR) Library of Congress Gov. Publishing Office (GPO) Technology Assessment Offices Senate Curator Historical Library House Congr. Ethics Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations Interparliamentary Affairs Law Revision Counsel Legislative Counsel Library Employees Senate Secretary Chaplain Curator Historian Librarian Pages Parliamentarian Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper House Chaplain Chief Administrative Officer Clerk Doorkeeper Floor Operations Floor Services Chief Historian Pages Board Parliamentarian Postmaster Reading Clerk Sergeant at Arms Library of Congress Congressional Research Service reports Copyright Office Register of Copyrights Law Library Poet Laureate THOMAS Adams Building Jefferson Building Madison Building Gov. Publishing Office Public Printer Congressional Pictorial Directory Congressional Record Official Congressional Directory U.S. Gov. Manual Serial Set Statutes at Large United States Code Capitol Building List of artwork at the United States Capitol complex Brumidi Corridors Congressional Prayer Room Crypt Dome Statue of Freedom Rotunda Hall of Columns Statuary Hall Visitor Center The Apotheosis of Washington Statue of Freedom Declaration of Independence painting Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States Apotheosis of Democracy Progress of Civilization Pediment First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln Surrender of General Burgoyne Surrender of Lord Cornwallis George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door Revolutionary War Door Columbus Doors Washington at Princeton Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way Vice President's Room Vice Presidential Bust Collection Office buildings Senate Dirksen Hart Mountains and Clouds Russell House Building Commission office lottery Cannon Ford Longworth O'Neill Rayburn Other facilities Botanic Garden Health and Fitness Facility House Recording Studio Senate chamber Old Senate Chamber Old Supreme Court Chamber Power Plant Webster Page Residence Subway Related Capitol Hill United States Capitol cornerstone laying Capitol Complex on Capitol Hill and other headquarters offices Legislative offices Congressional staff Gov. Accountability Office (GAO) Comptroller General GAO Building Architect of the Capitol Cap. Police Board Cap. Guide Service Congr. Budget Office (CBO) Congr. Workplace Rights (OCWR) Library of Congress Gov. Publishing Office (GPO) Technology Assessment Offices Senate Curator Historical Library House Congr. Ethics Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations Interparliamentary Affairs Law Revision Counsel Legislative Counsel Library Employees Senate Secretary Chaplain Curator Historian Librarian Pages Parliamentarian Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper House Chaplain Chief Administrative Officer Clerk Doorkeeper Floor Operations Floor Services Chief Historian Pages Board Parliamentarian Postmaster Reading Clerk Sergeant at Arms Library of Congress Congressional Research Service reports Copyright Office Register of Copyrights Law Library Poet Laureate THOMAS Adams Building Jefferson Building Madison Building Gov. Publishing Office Public Printer Congressional Pictorial Directory Congressional Record Official Congressional Directory U.S. Gov. Manual Serial Set Statutes at Large United States Code Capitol Building List of artwork at the United States Capitol complex Brumidi Corridors Congressional Prayer Room Crypt Dome Statue of Freedom Rotunda Hall of Columns Statuary Hall Visitor Center The Apotheosis of Washington Statue of Freedom Declaration of Independence painting Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States Apotheosis of Democracy Progress of Civilization Pediment First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln Surrender of General Burgoyne Surrender of Lord Cornwallis George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door Revolutionary War Door Columbus Doors Washington at Princeton Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way Vice President's Room Vice Presidential Bust Collection Office buildings Senate Dirksen Hart Mountains and Clouds Russell House Building Commission office lottery Cannon Ford Longworth O'Neill Rayburn Other facilities Botanic Garden Health and Fitness Facility House Recording Studio Senate chamber Old Senate Chamber Old Supreme Court Chamber Power Plant Webster Page Residence Subway Related Capitol Hill United States Capitol cornerstone laying Legislative offices Congressional staff Gov. Accountability Office (GAO) Comptroller General GAO Building Architect of the Capitol Cap. Police Board Cap. Guide Service Congr. Budget Office (CBO) Congr. Workplace Rights (OCWR) Library of Congress Gov. Publishing Office (GPO) Technology Assessment Congressional staff Gov. Accountability Office (GAO) Comptroller General GAO Building Comptroller General GAO Building Architect of the Capitol Cap. Police Board Board Cap. Guide Service Congr. Budget Office (CBO) Congr. Workplace Rights (OCWR) Library of Congress Gov. Publishing Office (GPO) Technology Assessment Offices Senate Curator Historical Library House Congr. Ethics Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations Interparliamentary Affairs Law Revision Counsel Legislative Counsel Library Senate Curator Historical Library Curator Historical Library House Congr. Ethics Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations Interparliamentary Affairs Law Revision Counsel Legislative Counsel Library Congr. Ethics Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations Interparliamentary Affairs Law Revision Counsel Legislative Counsel Library Employees Senate Secretary Chaplain Curator Historian Librarian Pages Parliamentarian Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper House Chaplain Chief Administrative Officer Clerk Doorkeeper Floor Operations Floor Services Chief Historian Pages Board Parliamentarian Postmaster Reading Clerk Sergeant at Arms Senate Secretary Chaplain Curator Historian Librarian Pages Parliamentarian Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper Secretary Chaplain Curator Historian Librarian Pages Parliamentarian Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper House Chaplain Chief Administrative Officer Clerk Doorkeeper Floor Operations Floor Services Chief Historian Pages Board Parliamentarian Postmaster Reading Clerk Sergeant at Arms Chaplain Chief Administrative Officer Clerk Doorkeeper Floor Operations Floor Services Chief Historian Pages Board Board Parliamentarian Postmaster Reading Clerk Sergeant at Arms Library of Congress Congressional Research Service reports Copyright Office Register of Copyrights Law Library Poet Laureate THOMAS Adams Building Jefferson Building Madison Building Congressional Research Service reports reports Copyright Office Register of Copyrights Register of Copyrights Law Library Poet Laureate THOMAS Adams Building Jefferson Building Madison Building Gov. Publishing Office Public Printer Congressional Pictorial Directory Congressional Record Official Congressional Directory U.S. Gov. Manual Serial Set Statutes at Large United States Code Public Printer Congressional Pictorial Directory Congressional Record Official Congressional Directory U.S. Gov. Manual Serial Set Statutes at Large United States Code Capitol Building List of artwork at the United States Capitol complex Brumidi Corridors Congressional Prayer Room Crypt Dome Statue of Freedom Rotunda Hall of Columns Statuary Hall Visitor Center The Apotheosis of Washington Statue of Freedom Declaration of Independence painting Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States Apotheosis of Democracy Progress of Civilization Pediment First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln Surrender of General Burgoyne Surrender of Lord Cornwallis George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door Revolutionary War Door Columbus Doors Washington at Princeton Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way Vice President's Room Vice Presidential Bust Collection List of artwork at the United States Capitol complex Brumidi Corridors Congressional Prayer Room Crypt Dome Statue of Freedom Statue of Freedom Rotunda Hall of Columns Statuary Hall Visitor Center The Apotheosis of Washington Statue of Freedom Declaration of Independence painting Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States Apotheosis of Democracy Progress of Civilization Pediment First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln Surrender of General Burgoyne Surrender of Lord Cornwallis George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door Revolutionary War Door Columbus Doors Washington at Princeton Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way Vice President's Room Vice Presidential Bust Collection Office buildings Senate Dirksen Hart Mountains and Clouds Russell House Building Commission office lottery Cannon Ford Longworth O'Neill Rayburn Senate Dirksen Hart Mountains and Clouds Russell Dirksen Hart Mountains and Clouds Mountains and Clouds Russell House Building Commission office lottery Cannon Ford Longworth O'Neill Rayburn Building Commission office lottery Cannon Ford Longworth O'Neill Rayburn Other facilities Botanic Garden Health and Fitness Facility House Recording Studio Senate chamber Old Senate Chamber Old Supreme Court Chamber Power Plant Webster Page Residence Subway Botanic Garden Health and Fitness Facility House Recording Studio Senate chamber Old Senate Chamber Old Supreme Court Chamber Power Plant Webster Page Residence Subway Related Capitol Hill United States Capitol cornerstone laying Capitol Hill United States Capitol cornerstone laying Articles related to the United States Congress v t e United States congresses (and year convened) 1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807) 11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827) 21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847) 31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867) 41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887) 51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907) 61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927) 71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947) 81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967) 91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987) 101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007) 111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019) 117 (2021) 118 (2023) 119 (2025) 120 (2027) v t e Lists of United States congressional delegations States Alabama H S Alaska H S Arizona H S Arkansas H S California H S Colorado H S Connecticut H S Delaware H S Florida H S Georgia H S Hawaii H S Idaho H S Illinois H S Indiana H S Iowa H S Kansas H S Kentucky H S Louisiana H S Maine H S Maryland H S Massachusetts H S Michigan H S Minnesota H S Mississippi H S Missouri H S Montana H S Nebraska H S Nevada H S New Hampshire H S New Jersey H S New Mexico H S New York H S North Carolina H S North Dakota H S Ohio H S Oklahoma H S Oregon H S Pennsylvania H S Rhode Island H S South Carolina H S South Dakota H S Tennessee H S Texas H S Utah H S Vermont H S Virginia H S Washington H S West Virginia H S Wisconsin H S Wyoming H S Others American Samoa District of Columbia Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Proposed ( Cherokee ) Obsolete Dakota Territory Northwest Territory Orleans Territory Philippines Southwest Territory Lists of former representatives List of former senators v t e Lists of acts of the United States Congress By congress 74th 103rd 104th 105th 106th 107th 108th 109th 110th 111th 112th 113th 114th 115th 116th 117th 118th 119th By year 1789–1901 1901–2001 2001–present By topic African-Americans Education Energy Environment U.S. Forest Service Immigration Tariffs v t e Legislatures of the United States United States Congress United States House of Representatives United States Senate State legislatures Alabama ( H , S ) Alaska ( H , S ) Arizona ( H , S ) Arkansas ( H , S ) California ( A , S ) Colorado ( H , S ) Connecticut ( H , S ) Delaware ( H , S ) Florida ( H , S ) Georgia ( H , S ) Hawaii ( H , S ) Idaho ( H , S ) Illinois ( H , S ) Indiana ( H , S ) Iowa ( H , S ) Kansas ( H , S ) Kentucky ( H , S ) Louisiana ( H , S ) Maine ( H , S ) Maryland ( H , S ) Massachusetts ( H , S ) Michigan ( H , S ) Minnesota ( H , S ) Mississippi ( H , S ) Missouri ( H , S ) Montana ( H , S ) Nebraska Nevada ( A , S ) New Hampshire ( H , S ) New Jersey ( GA , S ) New Mexico ( H , S ) New York ( A , S ) North Carolina ( H , S ) North Dakota ( H , S ) Ohio ( H , S ) Oklahoma ( H , S ) Oregon ( H , S ) Pennsylvania ( H , S ) Rhode Island ( H , S ) South Carolina ( H , S ) South Dakota ( H , S ) Tennessee ( H , S ) Texas ( H , S ) Utah ( H , S ) Vermont ( H , S ) Virginia ( H , S ) Washington ( H , S ) West Virginia ( H , S ) Wisconsin ( A , S ) Wyoming ( H , S ) Other legislatures District of Columbia American Samoa ( H , S ) Guam Northern Mariana Islands ( H , S ) Puerto Rico ( H , S ) U.S. Virgin Islands Legislative elections 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 List of U.S. state legislators Lists of past U.S. state legislatures .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} v t e United States History By period 1776–1789 1789–1815 1815–1849 1849–1865 1865–1917 1917–1945 1945–1964 1964–1980 1980–1991 1991–2016 2016–present By event Pre-colonial era Colonial era Stamp Act Congress Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Continental Association United Colonies military history Founding Fathers Halifax Resolves Lee Resolution Declaration of Independence American Revolution War Treaty of Paris Articles of Confederation Perpetual Union Confederation period American frontier Constitution drafting and ratification Bill of Rights Federalist Era War of 1812 Territorial evolution Mexican–American War Civil War Reconstruction era Indian Wars Native genocide Gilded Age Progressive Era Women's suffrage Civil rights movement 1865–1896 1896–1954 1954–1968 Spanish–American War Imperialism World War I Roaring Twenties Great Depression World War II home front American Century Cold War Korean War Space Race Feminist Movement LGBTQ Movement Vietnam War Post-Cold War (1991–2016) September 11 attacks War on Terror War in Afghanistan Iraq War Great Recession COVID-19 pandemic By topic Outline of U.S. history Demographic Discoveries Economic Inventions Military Postal Technological and industrial Geography Territory Contiguous United States counties federal district federal enclaves Indian reservations insular zones minor outlying islands populated places states Earthquakes Extreme points Islands Mountains peaks ranges Appalachian Rocky Sierra Nevada National Park Service National Parks Regions East Coast West Coast Great Plains Gulf Mid-Atlantic Midwestern New England Pacific Central Eastern Northern Northeastern Northwestern Southern Southeastern Southwestern Western Longest rivers Arkansas Colorado Columbia Mississippi Missouri Red (South) Rio Grande Yukon Time Water supply and sanitation World Heritage Sites Politics Federal Executive President of the United States powers Executive Office Vice President Cabinet Executive departments Independent agencies Intelligence Community Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Law enforcement ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA Inspector generals Civil service Public policy Legislative House of Representatives current members Speaker Senate current members President pro tempore President Capitol Police Library of Congress Congressional Budget Office Government Accountability Office Government Publishing Office Judicial Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices list Courts of appeals list of judges District courts / Territorial courts list of courts list of judges Other tribunals U.S. attorney Law Bill of Rights civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Constitution federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights United States Code Uniformed Armed Forces Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard NOAA Corps Public Health Service Corps State , Federal District , and Territorial Executive Governor list Lieutenant governor list Secretary of state Attorney general Treasurer Auditor/Comptroller Agriculture commissioner Insurance commissioner Public utilities commission State police list Legislative List of legislatures List of legislators Judicial Supreme courts Chief justices District attorney list Law State constitutions Statutory codes Uniform act Comparison of governments Tribal Tribal sovereignty Native American recognition in the United States Federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes State-recognized tribes Indian reservation list Hawaiian home land Local County List of counties and county equivalents County executive Sheriff Clerk Cities Consolidated city-county Independent city Coterminous municipality Charter Mayor–council government Council–manager government City commission government Mayor City manager City council Minor divisions Township Town meeting Special district School district list Corruption Democratic backsliding Elections Electoral College Red states and blue states Foreign relations foreign policy Imperial presidency Ideologies Anti-Americanism exceptionalism nationalism Parties Democratic Republican Third parties Scandals Economy By sector Agriculture Banking Communications Companies Energy Insurance Manufacturing Mining Science and technology Tourism Trade by state Currency Exports Federal budget Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Federal Reserve System Financial position Labor unions Public debt Social welfare programs Taxation Unemployment Wall Street Transport Aviation Driving Public transportation Rail transportation Transportation policy Transportation safety Trucking industry Society Culture Americana Architecture Cinema Crime Cuisine Dance Demographics Economic issues affluence eviction homeownership household income income inequality middle class personal income poverty standard of living wealth working class Education attainment literacy Family Fashion Flag list Folklore Holidays Federal holidays Homelessness Housing Human rights Languages American English Indigenous languages ASL Literature Media journalism internet newspapers radio television Music Names National anthem National symbols Columbia Mount Rushmore Statue of Liberty Uncle Sam People Philosophy Political ideologies Race Religion Sexuality Social class Society Sports history Theater Transportation Video games Visual art Social class Affluence American Dream Educational attainment Homelessness Homeownership Household income Income inequality Middle class Personal income Poverty Standard of living Health Aging Healthcare Abortion Birth control Prenatal care Hospice care Immigrant health care Rationing Health care finance Health insurance costs Health care prices Prescription drug prices Disability Health insurance Food safety Physician shortage Poverty and health Race and health Obesity Medical deserts Women's reproductive health Life expectancy Issues Capital punishment Crime incarceration Criticism of government Discrimination affirmative action antisemitism intersex rights Islamophobia LGBTQ rights racism Native American African American Energy policy Environmental issues Environmental movement Climate change Gun politics Mass shootings Hunger Smoking Human rights Immigration illegal National security Terrorism Opioid epidemic Separation of church and state Xenophobia Outline Index Category Portal v t e National bicameral legislatures Federal Argentina Australia Austria Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Brazil Canada Ethiopia India Malaysia Mexico Nepal Nigeria Pakistan Russia Somalia South Sudan Sudan Switzerland United States Unitary Algeria Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Bahrain Barbados Belarus Belize Bhutan Bolivia Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Chad Chile Colombia Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Czech Republic Dominican Republic Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eswatini France Gabon Grenada Haiti Indonesia Ireland Italy Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Morocco Myanmar Namibia Netherlands Oman Palau Paraguay Philippines Poland Romania Rwanda Saint Lucia Slovenia South Africa Spain Tajikistan Thailand Togo Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia United Kingdom Uruguay Uzbekistan Zimbabwe Dependent and other territories American Samoa Bermuda Isle of Man Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico Non-UN states Somaliland Historical Venezuela (1811–1999) Confederate States (1862–1865) Czechoslovakia (1920–1939) (1969–1992) Estonia (1938–1940) Serbia (1901–1903) Soviet Union (1938–1991) Texas (1836–1845) Yugoslavia (1931–1939, 1945–1963, 1974–1992) FR Yugoslavia (1992–2003) Ottoman Empire (1876–1878, 1908–1920) Related Unicameralism Tricameralism Multicameralism List of legislatures by country National unicameral legislatures National lower houses National upper houses v t e National legislative bodies of the Americas Sovereign states Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador France Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela Dependencies and other territories Anguilla Aruba Bermuda British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Curaçao Falkland Islands Greenland Montserrat Puerto Rico Saint Barthélemy Saint Pierre and Miquelon Sint Maarten Turks and Caicos Islands US Virgin Islands v t e United States congresses (and year convened) v t e 1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807) 11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827) 21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847) 31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867) 41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887) 51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907) 61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927) 71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947) 81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967) 91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987) 101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007) 111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019) 117 (2021) 118 (2023) 119 (2025) 120 (2027) 1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807) 1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807) 11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827) 11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827) 21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847) 21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847) 31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867) 31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867) 41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887) 41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887) 51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907) 51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907) 61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927) 61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927) 71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947) 71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947) 81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967) 81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967) 91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987) 91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987) 101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007) 101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007) 111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019) 117 (2021) 118 (2023) 119 (2025) 120 (2027) 111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019) 117 (2021) 118 (2023) 119 (2025) 120 (2027) v t e Lists of United States congressional delegations v t e States Alabama H S Alaska H S Arizona H S Arkansas H S California H S Colorado H S Connecticut H S Delaware H S Florida H S Georgia H S Hawaii H S Idaho H S Illinois H S Indiana H S Iowa H S Kansas H S Kentucky H S Louisiana H S Maine H S Maryland H S Massachusetts H S Michigan H S Minnesota H S Mississippi H S Missouri H S Montana H S Nebraska H S Nevada H S New Hampshire H S New Jersey H S New Mexico H S New York H S North Carolina H S North Dakota H S Ohio H S Oklahoma H S Oregon H S Pennsylvania H S Rhode Island H S South Carolina H S South Dakota H S Tennessee H S Texas H S Utah H S Vermont H S Virginia H S Washington H S West Virginia H S Wisconsin H S Wyoming H S Alabama H S H S Alaska H S H S Arizona H S H S Arkansas H S H S California H S H S Colorado H S H S Connecticut H S H S Delaware H S H S Florida H S H S Georgia H S H S Hawaii H S H S Idaho H S H S Illinois H S H S Indiana H S H S Iowa H S H S Kansas H S H S Kentucky H S H S Louisiana H S H S Maine H S H S Maryland H S H S Massachusetts H S H S Michigan H S H S Minnesota H S H S Mississippi H S H S Missouri H S H S Montana H S H S Nebraska H S H S Nevada H S H S New Hampshire H S H S New Jersey H S H S New Mexico H S H S New York H S H S North Carolina H S H S North Dakota H S H S Ohio H S H S Oklahoma H S H S Oregon H S H S Pennsylvania H S H S Rhode Island H S H S South Carolina H S H S South Dakota H S H S Tennessee H S H S Texas H S H S Utah H S H S Vermont H S H S Virginia H S H S Washington H S H S West Virginia H S H S Wisconsin H S H S Wyoming H S H S Others American Samoa District of Columbia Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Proposed ( Cherokee ) American Samoa District of Columbia Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Proposed ( Cherokee ) Obsolete Dakota Territory Northwest Territory Orleans Territory Philippines Southwest Territory Dakota Territory Northwest Territory Orleans Territory Philippines Southwest Territory Lists of former representatives List of former senators Lists of former representatives List of former senators v t e Lists of acts of the United States Congress v t e By congress 74th 103rd 104th 105th 106th 107th 108th 109th 110th 111th 112th 113th 114th 115th 116th 117th 118th 119th 74th 103rd 104th 105th 106th 107th 108th 109th 110th 111th 112th 113th 114th 115th 116th 117th 118th 119th By year 1789–1901 1901–2001 2001–present 1789–1901 1901–2001 2001–present By topic African-Americans Education Energy Environment U.S. Forest Service Immigration Tariffs African-Americans Education Energy Environment U.S. Forest Service Immigration Tariffs v t e Legislatures of the United States v t e United States Congress United States House of Representatives United States Senate United States House of Representatives United States Senate State legislatures Alabama ( H , S ) Alaska ( H , S ) Arizona ( H , S ) Arkansas ( H , S ) California ( A , S ) Colorado ( H , S ) Connecticut ( H , S ) Delaware ( H , S ) Florida ( H , S ) Georgia ( H , S ) Hawaii ( H , S ) Idaho ( H , S ) Illinois ( H , S ) Indiana ( H , S ) Iowa ( H , S ) Kansas ( H , S ) Kentucky ( H , S ) Louisiana ( H , S ) Maine ( H , S ) Maryland ( H , S ) Massachusetts ( H , S ) Michigan ( H , S ) Minnesota ( H , S ) Mississippi ( H , S ) Missouri ( H , S ) Montana ( H , S ) Nebraska Nevada ( A , S ) New Hampshire ( H , S ) New Jersey ( GA , S ) New Mexico ( H , S ) New York ( A , S ) North Carolina ( H , S ) North Dakota ( H , S ) Ohio ( H , S ) Oklahoma ( H , S ) Oregon ( H , S ) Pennsylvania ( H , S ) Rhode Island ( H , S ) South Carolina ( H , S ) South Dakota ( H , S ) Tennessee ( H , S ) Texas ( H , S ) Utah ( H , S ) Vermont ( H , S ) Virginia ( H , S ) Washington ( H , S ) West Virginia ( H , S ) Wisconsin ( A , S ) Wyoming ( H , S ) Alabama ( H , S ) Alaska ( H , S ) Arizona ( H , S ) Arkansas ( H , S ) California ( A , S ) Colorado ( H , S ) Connecticut ( H , S ) Delaware ( H , S ) Florida ( H , S ) Georgia ( H , S ) Hawaii ( H , S ) Idaho ( H , S ) Illinois ( H , S ) Indiana ( H , S ) Iowa ( H , S ) Kansas ( H , S ) Kentucky ( H , S ) Louisiana ( H , S ) Maine ( H , S ) Maryland ( H , S ) Massachusetts ( H , S ) Michigan ( H , S ) Minnesota ( H , S ) Mississippi ( H , S ) Missouri ( H , S ) Montana ( H , S ) Nebraska Nevada ( A , S ) New Hampshire ( H , S ) New Jersey ( GA , S ) New Mexico ( H , S ) New York ( A , S ) North Carolina ( H , S ) North Dakota ( H , S ) Ohio ( H , S ) Oklahoma ( H , S ) Oregon ( H , S ) Pennsylvania ( H , S ) Rhode Island ( H , S ) South Carolina ( H , S ) South Dakota ( H , S ) Tennessee ( H , S ) Texas ( H , S ) Utah ( H , S ) Vermont ( H , S ) Virginia ( H , S ) Washington ( H , S ) West Virginia ( H , S ) Wisconsin ( A , S ) Wyoming ( H , S ) Other legislatures District of Columbia American Samoa ( H , S ) Guam Northern Mariana Islands ( H , S ) Puerto Rico ( H , S ) U.S. Virgin Islands District of Columbia American Samoa ( H , S ) Guam Northern Mariana Islands ( H , S ) Puerto Rico ( H , S ) U.S. Virgin Islands Legislative elections 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 List of U.S. state legislators Lists of past U.S. state legislatures List of U.S. state legislators Lists of past U.S. state legislatures v t e United States v t e History By period 1776–1789 1789–1815 1815–1849 1849–1865 1865–1917 1917–1945 1945–1964 1964–1980 1980–1991 1991–2016 2016–present By event Pre-colonial era Colonial era Stamp Act Congress Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Continental Association United Colonies military history Founding Fathers Halifax Resolves Lee Resolution Declaration of Independence American Revolution War Treaty of Paris Articles of Confederation Perpetual Union Confederation period American frontier Constitution drafting and ratification Bill of Rights Federalist Era War of 1812 Territorial evolution Mexican–American War Civil War Reconstruction era Indian Wars Native genocide Gilded Age Progressive Era Women's suffrage Civil rights movement 1865–1896 1896–1954 1954–1968 Spanish–American War Imperialism World War I Roaring Twenties Great Depression World War II home front American Century Cold War Korean War Space Race Feminist Movement LGBTQ Movement Vietnam War Post-Cold War (1991–2016) September 11 attacks War on Terror War in Afghanistan Iraq War Great Recession COVID-19 pandemic By topic Outline of U.S. history Demographic Discoveries Economic Inventions Military Postal Technological and industrial By period 1776–1789 1789–1815 1815–1849 1849–1865 1865–1917 1917–1945 1945–1964 1964–1980 1980–1991 1991–2016 2016–present 1776–1789 1789–1815 1815–1849 1849–1865 1865–1917 1917–1945 1945–1964 1964–1980 1980–1991 1991–2016 2016–present By event Pre-colonial era Colonial era Stamp Act Congress Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Continental Association United Colonies military history Founding Fathers Halifax Resolves Lee Resolution Declaration of Independence American Revolution War Treaty of Paris Articles of Confederation Perpetual Union Confederation period American frontier Constitution drafting and ratification Bill of Rights Federalist Era War of 1812 Territorial evolution Mexican–American War Civil War Reconstruction era Indian Wars Native genocide Gilded Age Progressive Era Women's suffrage Civil rights movement 1865–1896 1896–1954 1954–1968 Spanish–American War Imperialism World War I Roaring Twenties Great Depression World War II home front American Century Cold War Korean War Space Race Feminist Movement LGBTQ Movement Vietnam War Post-Cold War (1991–2016) September 11 attacks War on Terror War in Afghanistan Iraq War Great Recession COVID-19 pandemic Pre-colonial era Colonial era Stamp Act Congress Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Continental Association United Colonies military history Founding Fathers Stamp Act Congress Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Continental Association United Colonies military history Founding Fathers Halifax Resolves Lee Resolution Declaration of Independence American Revolution War Treaty of Paris War Treaty of Paris Articles of Confederation Perpetual Union Confederation period Perpetual Union Confederation period American frontier Constitution drafting and ratification Bill of Rights drafting and ratification Bill of Rights Federalist Era War of 1812 Territorial evolution Mexican–American War Civil War Reconstruction era Indian Wars Native genocide Gilded Age Progressive Era Women's suffrage Civil rights movement 1865–1896 1896–1954 1954–1968 1865–1896 1896–1954 1954–1968 Spanish–American War Imperialism World War I Roaring Twenties Great Depression World War II home front home front American Century Cold War Korean War Space Race Feminist Movement LGBTQ Movement Vietnam War Post-Cold War (1991–2016) September 11 attacks War on Terror War in Afghanistan Iraq War War in Afghanistan Iraq War Great Recession COVID-19 pandemic By topic Outline of U.S. history Demographic Discoveries Economic Inventions Military Postal Technological and industrial Outline of U.S. history Demographic Discoveries Economic Inventions Military Postal Technological and industrial Geography Territory Contiguous United States counties federal district federal enclaves Indian reservations insular zones minor outlying islands populated places states Earthquakes Extreme points Islands Mountains peaks ranges Appalachian Rocky Sierra Nevada National Park Service National Parks Regions East Coast West Coast Great Plains Gulf Mid-Atlantic Midwestern New England Pacific Central Eastern Northern Northeastern Northwestern Southern Southeastern Southwestern Western Longest rivers Arkansas Colorado Columbia Mississippi Missouri Red (South) Rio Grande Yukon Time Water supply and sanitation World Heritage Sites Territory Contiguous United States counties federal district federal enclaves Indian reservations insular zones minor outlying islands populated places states Earthquakes Extreme points Islands Mountains peaks ranges Appalachian Rocky Sierra Nevada National Park Service National Parks Regions East Coast West Coast Great Plains Gulf Mid-Atlantic Midwestern New England Pacific Central Eastern Northern Northeastern Northwestern Southern Southeastern Southwestern Western Longest rivers Arkansas Colorado Columbia Mississippi Missouri Red (South) Rio Grande Yukon Time Water supply and sanitation World Heritage Sites Territory Contiguous United States counties federal district federal enclaves Indian reservations insular zones minor outlying islands populated places states Contiguous United States counties federal district federal enclaves Indian reservations insular zones minor outlying islands populated places states Earthquakes Extreme points Islands Mountains peaks ranges Appalachian Rocky Sierra Nevada peaks ranges Appalachian Rocky Sierra Nevada National Park Service National Parks National Parks Regions East Coast West Coast Great Plains Gulf Mid-Atlantic Midwestern New England Pacific Central Eastern Northern Northeastern Northwestern Southern Southeastern Southwestern Western East Coast West Coast Great Plains Gulf Mid-Atlantic Midwestern New England Pacific Central Eastern Northern Northeastern Northwestern Southern Southeastern Southwestern Western Longest rivers Arkansas Colorado Columbia Mississippi Missouri Red (South) Rio Grande Yukon Arkansas Colorado Columbia Mississippi Missouri Red (South) Rio Grande Yukon Time Water supply and sanitation World Heritage Sites Politics Federal Executive President of the United States powers Executive Office Vice President Cabinet Executive departments Independent agencies Intelligence Community Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Law enforcement ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA Inspector generals Civil service Public policy Legislative House of Representatives current members Speaker Senate current members President pro tempore President Capitol Police Library of Congress Congressional Budget Office Government Accountability Office Government Publishing Office Judicial Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices list Courts of appeals list of judges District courts / Territorial courts list of courts list of judges Other tribunals U.S. attorney Law Bill of Rights civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Constitution federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights United States Code Uniformed Armed Forces Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard NOAA Corps Public Health Service Corps State , Federal District , and Territorial Executive Governor list Lieutenant governor list Secretary of state Attorney general Treasurer Auditor/Comptroller Agriculture commissioner Insurance commissioner Public utilities commission State police list Legislative List of legislatures List of legislators Judicial Supreme courts Chief justices District attorney list Law State constitutions Statutory codes Uniform act Comparison of governments Tribal Tribal sovereignty Native American recognition in the United States Federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes State-recognized tribes Indian reservation list Hawaiian home land Local County List of counties and county equivalents County executive Sheriff Clerk Cities Consolidated city-county Independent city Coterminous municipality Charter Mayor–council government Council–manager government City commission government Mayor City manager City council Minor divisions Township Town meeting Special district School district list Corruption Democratic backsliding Elections Electoral College Red states and blue states Foreign relations foreign policy Imperial presidency Ideologies Anti-Americanism exceptionalism nationalism Parties Democratic Republican Third parties Scandals Federal Executive President of the United States powers Executive Office Vice President Cabinet Executive departments Independent agencies Intelligence Community Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Law enforcement ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA Inspector generals Civil service Public policy Legislative House of Representatives current members Speaker Senate current members President pro tempore President Capitol Police Library of Congress Congressional Budget Office Government Accountability Office Government Publishing Office Judicial Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices list Courts of appeals list of judges District courts / Territorial courts list of courts list of judges Other tribunals U.S. attorney Law Bill of Rights civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Constitution federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights United States Code Uniformed Armed Forces Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard NOAA Corps Public Health Service Corps State , Federal District , and Territorial Executive Governor list Lieutenant governor list Secretary of state Attorney general Treasurer Auditor/Comptroller Agriculture commissioner Insurance commissioner Public utilities commission State police list Legislative List of legislatures List of legislators Judicial Supreme courts Chief justices District attorney list Law State constitutions Statutory codes Uniform act Comparison of governments Tribal Tribal sovereignty Native American recognition in the United States Federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes State-recognized tribes Indian reservation list Hawaiian home land Local County List of counties and county equivalents County executive Sheriff Clerk Cities Consolidated city-county Independent city Coterminous municipality Charter Mayor–council government Council–manager government City commission government Mayor City manager City council Minor divisions Township Town meeting Special district School district list Corruption Democratic backsliding Elections Electoral College Red states and blue states Foreign relations foreign policy Imperial presidency Ideologies Anti-Americanism exceptionalism nationalism Parties Democratic Republican Third parties Scandals Federal Executive President of the United States powers Executive Office Vice President Cabinet Executive departments Independent agencies Intelligence Community Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Law enforcement ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA Inspector generals Civil service Public policy Legislative House of Representatives current members Speaker Senate current members President pro tempore President Capitol Police Library of Congress Congressional Budget Office Government Accountability Office Government Publishing Office Judicial Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices list Courts of appeals list of judges District courts / Territorial courts list of courts list of judges Other tribunals U.S. attorney Law Bill of Rights civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Constitution federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights United States Code Uniformed Armed Forces Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard NOAA Corps Public Health Service Corps Executive President of the United States powers Executive Office Vice President Cabinet Executive departments Independent agencies Intelligence Community Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Law enforcement ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA Inspector generals Civil service Public policy President of the United States powers Executive Office powers Executive Office Vice President Cabinet Executive departments Independent agencies Intelligence Community Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Law enforcement ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA Inspector generals Civil service Public policy Legislative House of Representatives current members Speaker Senate current members President pro tempore President Capitol Police Library of Congress Congressional Budget Office Government Accountability Office Government Publishing Office House of Representatives current members Speaker current members Speaker Senate current members President pro tempore President current members President pro tempore President Capitol Police Library of Congress Congressional Budget Office Government Accountability Office Government Publishing Office Judicial Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices list Courts of appeals list of judges District courts / Territorial courts list of courts list of judges Other tribunals U.S. attorney Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices list Chief Justice Associate Justices list Courts of appeals list of judges list of judges District courts / Territorial courts list of courts list of judges list of courts list of judges Other tribunals U.S. attorney Law Bill of Rights civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Constitution federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights United States Code Bill of Rights civil liberties civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Constitution federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights United States Code Uniformed Armed Forces Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard NOAA Corps Public Health Service Corps Armed Forces Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard NOAA Corps Public Health Service Corps State , Federal District , and Territorial Executive Governor list Lieutenant governor list Secretary of state Attorney general Treasurer Auditor/Comptroller Agriculture commissioner Insurance commissioner Public utilities commission State police list Legislative List of legislatures List of legislators Judicial Supreme courts Chief justices District attorney list Law State constitutions Statutory codes Uniform act Comparison of governments Executive Governor list Lieutenant governor list Secretary of state Attorney general Treasurer Auditor/Comptroller Agriculture commissioner Insurance commissioner Public utilities commission State police list Governor list list Lieutenant governor list list Secretary of state Attorney general Treasurer Auditor/Comptroller Agriculture commissioner Insurance commissioner Public utilities commission State police list list Legislative List of legislatures List of legislators List of legislatures List of legislators Judicial Supreme courts Chief justices District attorney list Supreme courts Chief justices Chief justices District attorney list list Law State constitutions Statutory codes Uniform act Comparison of governments State constitutions Statutory codes Uniform act Comparison of governments Tribal Tribal sovereignty Native American recognition in the United States Federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes State-recognized tribes Indian reservation list Hawaiian home land Tribal sovereignty Native American recognition in the United States Federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes State-recognized tribes Federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes State-recognized tribes Indian reservation list list Hawaiian home land Local County List of counties and county equivalents County executive Sheriff Clerk Cities Consolidated city-county Independent city Coterminous municipality Charter Mayor–council government Council–manager government City commission government Mayor City manager City council Minor divisions Township Town meeting Special district School district list County List of counties and county equivalents County executive Sheriff Clerk List of counties and county equivalents County executive Sheriff Clerk Cities Consolidated city-county Independent city Coterminous municipality Charter Mayor–council government Council–manager government City commission government Mayor City manager City council Consolidated city-county Independent city Coterminous municipality Charter Mayor–council government Council–manager government City commission government Mayor City manager City council Minor divisions Township Town meeting Township Town meeting Special district School district list School district list list Corruption Democratic backsliding Elections Electoral College Red states and blue states Foreign relations foreign policy Imperial presidency Ideologies Anti-Americanism exceptionalism nationalism Parties Democratic Republican Third parties Scandals Corruption Democratic backsliding Elections Electoral College Red states and blue states Electoral College Red states and blue states Foreign relations foreign policy foreign policy Imperial presidency Ideologies Anti-Americanism exceptionalism nationalism Anti-Americanism exceptionalism nationalism Parties Democratic Republican Third parties Democratic Republican Third parties Scandals Economy By sector Agriculture Banking Communications Companies Energy Insurance Manufacturing Mining Science and technology Tourism Trade by state Currency Exports Federal budget Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Federal Reserve System Financial position Labor unions Public debt Social welfare programs Taxation Unemployment Wall Street Transport Aviation Driving Public transportation Rail transportation Transportation policy Transportation safety Trucking industry By sector Agriculture Banking Communications Companies Energy Insurance Manufacturing Mining Science and technology Tourism Trade by state Currency Exports Federal budget Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Federal Reserve System Financial position Labor unions Public debt Social welfare programs Taxation Unemployment Wall Street By sector Agriculture Banking Communications Companies Energy Insurance Manufacturing Mining Science and technology Tourism Trade by state Agriculture Banking Communications Companies Energy Insurance Manufacturing Mining Science and technology Tourism Trade by state Currency Exports Federal budget Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Federal Reserve System Financial position Labor unions Public debt Social welfare programs Taxation Unemployment Wall Street Transport Aviation Driving Public transportation Rail transportation Transportation policy Transportation safety Trucking industry Aviation Driving Public transportation Rail transportation Transportation policy Transportation safety Trucking industry Society Culture Americana Architecture Cinema Crime Cuisine Dance Demographics Economic issues affluence eviction homeownership household income income inequality middle class personal income poverty standard of living wealth working class Education attainment literacy Family Fashion Flag list Folklore Holidays Federal holidays Homelessness Housing Human rights Languages American English Indigenous languages ASL Literature Media journalism internet newspapers radio television Music Names National anthem National symbols Columbia Mount Rushmore Statue of Liberty Uncle Sam People Philosophy Political ideologies Race Religion Sexuality Social class Society Sports history Theater Transportation Video games Visual art Social class Affluence American Dream Educational attainment Homelessness Homeownership Household income Income inequality Middle class Personal income Poverty Standard of living Health Aging Healthcare Abortion Birth control Prenatal care Hospice care Immigrant health care Rationing Health care finance Health insurance costs Health care prices Prescription drug prices Disability Health insurance Food safety Physician shortage Poverty and health Race and health Obesity Medical deserts Women's reproductive health Life expectancy Issues Capital punishment Crime incarceration Criticism of government Discrimination affirmative action antisemitism intersex rights Islamophobia LGBTQ rights racism Native American African American Energy policy Environmental issues Environmental movement Climate change Gun politics Mass shootings Hunger Smoking Human rights Immigration illegal National security Terrorism Opioid epidemic Separation of church and state Xenophobia Culture Americana Architecture Cinema Crime Cuisine Dance Demographics Economic issues affluence eviction homeownership household income income inequality middle class personal income poverty standard of living wealth working class Education attainment literacy Family Fashion Flag list Folklore Holidays Federal holidays Homelessness Housing Human rights Languages American English Indigenous languages ASL Literature Media journalism internet newspapers radio television Music Names National anthem National symbols Columbia Mount Rushmore Statue of Liberty Uncle Sam People Philosophy Political ideologies Race Religion Sexuality Social class Society Sports history Theater Transportation Video games Visual art Social class Affluence American Dream Educational attainment Homelessness Homeownership Household income Income inequality Middle class Personal income Poverty Standard of living Health Aging Healthcare Abortion Birth control Prenatal care Hospice care Immigrant health care Rationing Health care finance Health insurance costs Health care prices Prescription drug prices Disability Health insurance Food safety Physician shortage Poverty and health Race and health Obesity Medical deserts Women's reproductive health Life expectancy Issues Capital punishment Crime incarceration Criticism of government Discrimination affirmative action antisemitism intersex rights Islamophobia LGBTQ rights racism Native American African American Energy policy Environmental issues Environmental movement Climate change Gun politics Mass shootings Hunger Smoking Human rights Immigration illegal National security Terrorism Opioid epidemic Separation of church and state Xenophobia Culture Americana Architecture Cinema Crime Cuisine Dance Demographics Economic issues affluence eviction homeownership household income income inequality middle class personal income poverty standard of living wealth working class Education attainment literacy Family Fashion Flag list Folklore Holidays Federal holidays Homelessness Housing Human rights Languages American English Indigenous languages ASL Literature Media journalism internet newspapers radio television Music Names National anthem National symbols Columbia Mount Rushmore Statue of Liberty Uncle Sam People Philosophy Political ideologies Race Religion Sexuality Social class Society Sports history Theater Transportation Video games Visual art Americana Architecture Cinema Crime Cuisine Dance Demographics Economic issues affluence eviction homeownership household income income inequality middle class personal income poverty standard of living wealth working class affluence eviction homeownership household income income inequality middle class personal income poverty standard of living wealth working class Education attainment literacy attainment literacy Family Fashion Flag list list Folklore Holidays Federal holidays Federal holidays Homelessness Housing Human rights Languages American English Indigenous languages ASL American English Indigenous languages ASL Literature Media journalism internet newspapers radio television journalism internet newspapers radio television Music Names National anthem National symbols Columbia Mount Rushmore Statue of Liberty Uncle Sam Columbia Mount Rushmore Statue of Liberty Uncle Sam People Philosophy Political ideologies Race Religion Sexuality Social class Society Sports history history Theater Transportation Video games Visual art Social class Affluence American Dream Educational attainment Homelessness Homeownership Household income Income inequality Middle class Personal income Poverty Standard of living Affluence American Dream Educational attainment Homelessness Homeownership Household income Income inequality Middle class Personal income Poverty Standard of living Health Aging Healthcare Abortion Birth control Prenatal care Hospice care Immigrant health care Rationing Health care finance Health insurance costs Health care prices Prescription drug prices Disability Health insurance Food safety Physician shortage Poverty and health Race and health Obesity Medical deserts Women's reproductive health Life expectancy Aging Healthcare Abortion Birth control Prenatal care Hospice care Immigrant health care Rationing Abortion Birth control Prenatal care Hospice care Immigrant health care Rationing Health care finance Health insurance costs Health care prices Prescription drug prices Health insurance costs Health care prices Prescription drug prices Disability Health insurance Food safety Physician shortage Poverty and health Race and health Obesity Medical deserts Women's reproductive health Life expectancy Issues Capital punishment Crime incarceration Criticism of government Discrimination affirmative action antisemitism intersex rights Islamophobia LGBTQ rights racism Native American African American Energy policy Environmental issues Environmental movement Climate change Gun politics Mass shootings Hunger Smoking Human rights Immigration illegal National security Terrorism Opioid epidemic Separation of church and state Xenophobia Capital punishment Crime incarceration incarceration Criticism of government Discrimination affirmative action antisemitism intersex rights Islamophobia LGBTQ rights racism Native American African American affirmative action antisemitism intersex rights Islamophobia LGBTQ rights racism Native American African American Energy policy Environmental issues Environmental movement Climate change Environmental movement Climate change Gun politics Mass shootings Hunger Smoking Human rights Immigration illegal illegal National security Terrorism Terrorism Opioid epidemic Separation of church and state Xenophobia Outline Index Category Portal Outline Index Category Portal v t e National bicameral legislatures v t e Federal Argentina Australia Austria Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Brazil Canada Ethiopia India Malaysia Mexico Nepal Nigeria Pakistan Russia Somalia South Sudan Sudan Switzerland United States Argentina 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Portada Portal de la comunidad Actualidad Cambios recientes Páginas nuevas Página aleatoria Ayuda Notificar un error Páginas especiales Donaciones Crear una cuenta Acceder Donaciones Crear una cuenta Acceder Contenidos Inicio 1 Acontecimientos Alternar subsección Acontecimientos 1.1 Enero 1.2 Febrero 1.3 Marzo 1.4 Abril 1.5 Mayo 1.6 Junio 1.7 Julio 1.8 Agosto 1.9 Septiembre 1.10 Octubre 1.11 Noviembre 1.12 Diciembre 1.13 Sin fecha conocida 1.1 Enero 1.2 Febrero 1.3 Marzo 1.4 Abril 1.5 Mayo 1.6 Junio 1.7 Julio 1.8 Agosto 1.9 Septiembre 1.10 Octubre 1.11 Noviembre 1.12 Diciembre 1.13 Sin fecha conocida 2 Nacimientos Alternar subsección Nacimientos 2.1 Enero 2.2 Febrero 2.3 Marzo 2.4 Abril 2.5 Mayo 2.6 Junio 2.7 Julio 2.8 Agosto 2.9 Septiembre 2.10 Octubre 2.11 Noviembre 2.12 Diciembre 2.13 Fecha desconocida 2.1 Enero 2.2 Febrero 2.3 Marzo 2.4 Abril 2.5 Mayo 2.6 Junio 2.7 Julio 2.8 Agosto 2.9 Septiembre 2.10 Octubre 2.11 Noviembre 2.12 Diciembre 2.13 Fecha desconocida 3 Fallecimientos Alternar subsección Fallecimientos 3.1 Enero 3.2 Febrero 3.3 Marzo 3.4 Abril 3.5 Mayo 3.6 Junio 3.7 Julio 3.8 Agosto 3.9 Septiembre 3.10 Octubre 3.11 Noviembre 3.12 Diciembre 3.1 Enero 3.2 Febrero 3.3 Marzo 3.4 Abril 3.5 Mayo 3.6 Junio 3.7 Julio 3.8 Agosto 3.9 Septiembre 3.10 Octubre 3.11 Noviembre 3.12 Diciembre 4 Arte y literatura 5 Deporte 6 Ciencia y tecnología 7 Cine 8 Televisión 9 Premios Nobel 10 Referencias 11 Enlaces externos 1945 Аԥсшәа Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Aragonés العربية الدارجة مصرى Asturianu Авар Kotava Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Bikol Central Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български भोजपुरी Banjar বাংলা বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Brezhoneg Bosanski Català 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano کوردی Qırımtatarca Čeština Kaszëbsczi Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Dolnoserbski Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Võro Føroyskt Français Arpetan Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk Gaeilge Gagauz 贛語 Kriyòl gwiyannen Gàidhlig Galego Avañe'ẽ Bahasa Hulontalo Gaelg 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ilokano ГӀалгӀай Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 La .lojban. Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Kabɩyɛ Қазақша ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 Къарачай-малкъар Ripoarisch Kurdî Коми Kernowek Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Limburgs Ligure Lombard Lingála Lietuvių Latgaļu Latviešu मैथिली Basa Banyumasan Мокшень Malagasy Олык марий Māori Minangkabau Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Кырык мары Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Эрзянь مازِرونی Nāhuatl Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Nouormand Sesotho sa Leboa Occitan Livvinkarjala ଓଡ଼ିଆ Ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Kapampangan Papiamentu Polski پنجابی Português Runa Simi Română Tarandíne Русский Русиньскый Саха тыла Sardu Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Davvisámegiella Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски တႆး සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Anarâškielâ Shqip Српски / srpski Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Kiswahili Ślůnski தமிழ் తెలుగు Tetun Тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkmençe Tagalog Tolışi Tok Pisin Türkçe Татарча / tatarça Reo tahiti Удмурт ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Vèneto Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük Walon Winaray მარგალური ייִדיש Vahcuengh Zeêuws 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Artículo Discusión Leer Editar Ver historial Leer Editar Ver historial Lo que enlaza aquí Cambios en enlazadas Subir archivo Enlace permanente Información de la página Citar esta página Obtener URL acortado Descargar código QR Crear un libro Descargar como PDF Versión para imprimir Wikimedia Commons Elemento de Wikidata Año 1945 Años 1942 • 1943 • 1944 ← 1945 → 1946 • 1947 • 1948 Decenios Años 1910 • Años 1920 • Años 1930 ← Años 1940 → Años 1950 • Años 1960 • Años 1970 Siglos Siglo XIX ← Siglo XX → Siglo XXI Tabla anual del siglo XX Ir al año actual Artes Música • Cine • Televisión Categorías Categoría principal Nacimientos • Fallecimientos • Por país • Álbumes • Libros • Películas 1945 en otros calendarios Calendario gregoriano 1945 MCMXLV Ab Urbe condita 2698 Calendario armenio 1394 Calendario chino 4641-4642 Calendario hebreo 5705-5706 Calendarios hindúes Vikram Samvat 2000-2001 Shaka Samvat 1867-1868 Calendario persa 1323-1324 Calendario musulmán 1364-1365 1945 ( MCMXLV ) fue un año común comenzado en lunes según el calendario gregoriano . Este año marcó el fin de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , tras la derrota de las Potencias del Eje (la Italia Fascista , la Alemania Nazi y el Japón Imperial respectivamente); las fuerzas aliadas (particularmente Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética ) emergen como superpotencias globales y rápidamente establecen su hegemonía alrededor del mundo; pero eso traería como consecuencia el inicio de una rivalidad ideológica conocida como la Guerra Fría que iniciará dos años después. También fue el año en el que se utiliza por primera y única vez armas nucleares durante la etapa final de la conflagración global, cuando Estados Unidos decide lanzar dos bombas atómicas en las ciudades japonesas de Hiroshima y Nagasaki , provocando la destrucción total de las ciudades mencionadas y la muerte directa de miles de civiles, así contribuyendo el fin de la guerra. Acontecimientos Enero 2 de enero : en Japón ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial ― aviones estadounidenses y británicos atacan Taiwán y Okinawa . 3 de enero : en Bélgica ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial―, la ofensiva alemana de las Ardenas fracasa en la ciudad de Bastogne . 5 de enero : la Unión Soviética reconoce al nuevo régimen prosoviético de Polonia . 6 de enero : la escritora Carmen Laforet recibe el I Premio Nadal , por su novela Nada . 10 de enero : en Londres , el rey Jorge VI inaugura solemnemente los trabajos preparatorios de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas . 11 de enero : en España se decreta la ley fundacional del Instituto de Cultura Hispánica (actualmente es la AECID ). 13 de enero : en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la aviación estadounidense comienza un ataque contra Saigón (Vietnam), Hong Kong y Amoy (China). en Japón se registra un terremoto de 6,8 que deja más de 2.300 muertos. en Japón se registra un terremoto de 6,8 que deja más de 2.300 muertos. 14 de enero : en Chile comienza la 18.ª edición de la Copa América . 20 de enero : en Washington (Estados Unidos), el demócrata Franklin D. Roosevelt jura como presidente para un cuarto mandato. 23 de enero : En Argentina, Juan Domingo Perón (secretario de Trabajo y Previsión, y futuro presidente de la República) decreta la obligatoriedad de las vacaciones pagadas para todos los trabajadores argentinos. [ 1 ] 27 de enero : en Polonia ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial― el ejército soviético llega al campo de concentración de Auschwitz y liberan a más de cinco mil prisioneros. 30 de enero : en el mar Báltico, 150 km al noroeste de la ciudad polaca de Dánzig ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial― la Armada Soviética hunde mediante torpedos al buque alemán Wilhelm Gustloff . Mueren 9343 personas (civiles y militares) y 1239 son rescatadas por naves alemanas. Febrero 1 de febrero: En Filipinas ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial― las tropas estadounidenses y australianas vuelven a Manila . 1 de febrero: en el Teatro Español (de Madrid ) se estrena el drama La cárcel infinita , de Joaquín Calvo Sotelo . 3 de febrero : en la Alemania nazi ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial―, los aliados lanzan 3000 toneladas de bombas sobre Berlín . 3 de febrero: el Gobierno español crea, por decreto, el monopolio Tabacalera S. A. 4 de febrero : en Bélgica, las tropas alemanas nazis abandonan Büllingen y terminan de evacuar ese país. 4 de febrero: en la Conferencia de Yalta , Franklin Delano Roosevelt (Estados Unidos), Winston Churchill (Imperio británico) y Iósif Stalin (Unión Soviética) se reparten Europa. 6 de febrero : en Londres se abre la Conferencia Sindical Mundial. 6 de febrero: en Quito (Ecuador) se funda el club de fútbol Sociedad Deportiva Aucas . 6 de febrero: en Portugal se reglamenta el toreo . 11 de febrero : se clausura la Conferencia de Yalta, en la que Roosevelt, Churchill, y Stalin acuerdan el reparto de poder en el mundo tras el final de la guerra. 13 de febrero : las fuerzas soviéticas expulsan a los nazis alemanes y a los colaboracionistas húngaros de la ciudad de Budapest . 15 de febrero : en Alemania ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial―, los aliados perpetran el bombardeo de Dresde , el cuarto mayor bombardeo sobre población civil de la historia humana (el peor fue el bombardeo de Tokio , en la noche del 9 al 10 de marzo de 1945, en el que los estadounidenses mataron a 0,2 millones de personas en una sola noche, el segundo fue el bombardeo de Hiroshima y el tercero el de Nagasaki, ambos en agosto de 1945). Debilitada por los bombardeos e incendios de los días 13 y 14, se derrumba la famosa iglesia Frauenkirche, de Dresde. 15 de febrero: en Alemania ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial―, el ejército ruso toma posiciones a 80 km de Berlín. 16 de febrero : en Filipinas ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial―, el ejército de Estados Unidos ataca el bastión de Corregidor . 16 de febrero: en el océano Pacífico ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial― se inicia la batalla de Iwo Jima . 19 de febrero : 30 000 marines estadounidenses desembarcan en Iwo Jima . 21 de febrero al 6 de marzo : en la Ciudad de México se lleva a cabo la Conferencia Interamericana sobre los Problemas de la Guerra y de la Paz ( Conferencia de Chapultepec ). 23 de febrero : en la Alemania nazi, Heinrich Himmler ordena el desmantelamiento de la planta de falsificación en Sachsenhausen, llamada Operación Bernhard . Poniendo fin a la mayor operación de falsificación de la Historia. 24 de febrero : en Egipto , el presidente Ahmed Maher Pasha es asesinado en el parlamento después de leer un decreto. 28 de febrero : en Santiago (Chile) Finaliza la Copa América y Argentina gana su Séptima Copa América. Marzo 5 de marzo : en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Finlandia (hasta ahora del eje ) cambia de bando y declara la guerra a Alemania. 9 de marzo : en Japón, aviones B-29 estadounidenses atacan Tokio con bombas incendiarias durante la noche del 9 y todo el día 10, matando a unos 200 000 hombres, mujeres y niños civiles. 9 de marzo: en la Indochina francesa (actual Vietnam) ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial―, un golpe de Estado de las fuerzas japonesas elimina a los franceses del poder. Los japoneses ocupan militarmente las principales ciudades de la nación. 14 de marzo : fundación de la línea aérea TAP Portugal . 22 de marzo : se crea la Liga de Estados Árabes . 22 de marzo: en Madrid (España), el doctor Antonio Vallejo-Nágera publica el primer tratado español de psiquiatría. 27 de marzo : Argentina declara la guerra a la Alemania nazi y a Japón expulsando a los alemanes del país, pero nunca participaría militarmente 23 de marzo : en la Alemania nazi ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial―, los ejércitos aliados cruzan el río Rin . Muerte de Ana Frank , en el campo de concentración de Bergen-Belsen . Abril 1 de abril : comienza la batalla de Okinawa , una de las últimas batallas de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. 7 de abril : fue atacado y hundido el Yamato por aviones bombarderos y torpederos de un portaaviones de los EE. UU., lo que provocó la muerte de la mayor parte de su tripulación. 12 de abril : El presidente Franklin D. Roosevelt muere de un derrame cerebral . Le sucede su hasta entonces vicepresidente, el demócrata Harry S. Truman . En Chile , el Gobierno afirma que se une a los aliados, pero únicamente le declara la guerra a Japón (aunque nunca entrará en combate). En Estados Unidos, el vicepresidente Harry S. Truman sucede a Franklin Delano Roosevelt en la presidencia. El presidente Franklin D. Roosevelt muere de un derrame cerebral . Le sucede su hasta entonces vicepresidente, el demócrata Harry S. Truman . En Chile , el Gobierno afirma que se une a los aliados, pero únicamente le declara la guerra a Japón (aunque nunca entrará en combate). En Estados Unidos, el vicepresidente Harry S. Truman sucede a Franklin Delano Roosevelt en la presidencia. 16 de abril : comienza la ofensiva del Ejército rojo sobre la capital de la Alemania nazi y con ello la batalla de Berlín . 23 de abril : el mariscal Petain vuelve a Francia desde su refugio en Suiza para entregarse a las autoridades de la Francia liberada. 25 de abril al 26 de junio : en San Francisco (Estados Unidos) se realizan negociaciones para la creación de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas (Conferencia de San Francisco). 25 de abril : en el norte de Italia sucede una insurrección partisana general. Cae la República Social Italiana . 28 de abril : en Giulino (Italia), los partisanos linchan a Benito Mussolini ―ex dictador de la República Social Italiana (y antes, del Reino de Italia ) y líder fascista ― y exponen su cadáver junto al de su amante Claretta Petacci, Nicola Bombacci, Alessandro Pavolini y Achille Starace. 29 de abril : En su búnker en Berlín , Adolf Hitler se casa con Eva Braun . Es liberado el Campo de concentración de Dachau En su búnker en Berlín , Adolf Hitler se casa con Eva Braun . Es liberado el Campo de concentración de Dachau 30 de abril : Adolf Hitler se suicida con su esposa Eva Braun un día antes de la llegada de las tropas soviéticas a su búnker en Berlín. Mayo 1 de mayo : en la Alemania nazi ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial― las tropas soviéticas toman Berlín . 3 de mayo : en la Bahía de Lübeck . Es hundido por la RAF el Cap Arcona con 7.500.- sobrevivientes judíos en su interior. Es considerado un crimen de guerra ocasionado por el ejército británico. 7 de mayo : en Berlín ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial― la Alemania nazi se rinde incondicionalmente ante los aliados. Termina la Segunda Guerra Mundial en Europa (pero continúa en algunas zonas de Asia y Japón). 8 de mayo : se firma la rendición de Alemania. 8 de mayo: el Grupo de Ejércitos H se entrega al Mariscal de Campo Bernard Montgomery en torno a Luneburgo . 14 a 15 de mayo : en Poliana , cerca de Slovenj Gradec ( Eslovenia ) ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial―, los partisanos del Mariscal Tito vencen a soldados alemanes y croatas nazis en la batalla de Poljana : uno de los últimos combate de la Segunda Guerra Mundial en Europa . 25 de mayo : las últimas tropas del Estado Independiente de Croacia se rinden en Odžak . 30 de mayo : Teherán reclama a Moscú que retire sus tropas del territorio iraní. 31 de mayo : Nace en Cartagena de Indias el poeta colombiano Raúl Gómez Jattin . Junio 24 de junio : en Murcia (España) se funda la Cofradía del Santísimo Cristo de las Penas de Molina de Segura. 26 de junio : se firma, en San Francisco ( Estados Unidos ), la Carta de las Naciones Unidas y el Estatuto de la Corte Internacional de Justicia . 28 de junio : se funda el Club de Fútbol Monterrey . Julio 14 de julio : la estación Beaugrenelle, en la línea 10 del metro de París es rebautizada Charles Michels . 16 de julio : en el desierto Jornada del Muerto , a 96 km al noroeste de la ciudad de Alamogordo ( estado de Nuevo México ), a las 5:29:45 hora local, Estados Unidos detona su primera bomba atómica , Trinity (que forma parte del proyecto Manhattan ), de 19 kt . Empieza así la era atómica . Es la bomba n.º 1 de las 1129 que Estados Unidos detonó entre 1945 y 1992. Las siguientes dos bombas atómicas se arrojaron veinte días después sobre la población civil japonesa en Hiroshima 17 de julio : En el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , el ejército estadounidense realiza el bombardeo aéreo más grande a la ciudad de Numazu , en Japón. En el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , se realiza la Conferencia de Potsdam . En el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , el ejército estadounidense realiza el bombardeo aéreo más grande a la ciudad de Numazu , en Japón. En el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , se realiza la Conferencia de Potsdam . 18 de julio : en Madrid (España), el dictador Generalísimo Francisco Franco forma el « Quinto Gobierno nacional » (1945-1951). 27 de julio : en Londres (Reino Unido) termina el primer mandato de Winston Churchill . 28 de julio : en Perú , José Luis Bustamante y Rivero asume la presidencia. 28 de julio: en Nueva York , se produce un accidente aéreo: un bombardero B-25 colisiona contra el Empire State Building . Mueren 11 personas y 3 bomberos. [ 2 ] Agosto 1 de agosto : en Japón , en un ataque aéreo entre la tarde y la noche, 125 bombarderos B-29 reducen a escombros la ciudad de Nagaoka . Mueren 1470 civiles (hombres, mujeres y niños). 2 de agosto : ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial― la Conferencia de Potsdam , después de 17 días de negociaciones, define el mapa político de la Europa de la posguerra. 6 de agosto : en Japón ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial― Estados Unidos lanza la bomba atómica Little Boy sobre la población civil de la ciudad de Hiroshima . 9 de agosto : en Japón ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial― Estados Unidos lanza la bomba atómica Fat Man sobre la población civil de la ciudad japonesa de Nagasaki . Hiroshima tras el bombardeo atómico estadounidense. 9 de agosto: en la frontera entre la Unión Soviética y Manchuria las tropas del Ejército Rojo al mando del mariscal Aleksandr Vasilevski atacan a las tropas japonesas del Ejército de Kwantung al mando del general Otozō Yamada , comienza la batalla de Manchuria . 15 de agosto : en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Japón se rinde incondicionalmente ante los aliados . Termina la Guerra en el Pacífico. 15 de agosto: Las tropas soviéticas liberan Corea de la ocupación japonesa . 17 de agosto : cae otro bastión neocolonial : los indonesios expulsan a los invasores neerlandeses . Sukarno se convierte en presidente de la república ( Declaración de Independencia de Indonesia ). El Gobierno neerlandés reconocerá esta independencia recién en 1949. 21 de agosto : en el Laboratorio Los Álamos (estado de Nuevo México) el físico estadounidense Harry Daghlian (24) sufre un accidente nuclear durante un experimento. Fallecerá 25 días después, de envenenamiento por radiación. Nueve meses después sucederá un accidente similar en el que muere Louis Slotin . 21 de agosto: Constitución en México, D.F. del gobierno español en el exilio presidido por José Giral . 31 de agosto : en Australia, Robert Menzies funda el Partido Liberal de Australia . Septiembre 2 de septiembre : a bordo del acorazado Misuri ―en el marco de la Segunda Guerra Mundial―, el Gobierno de Japón firma su rendición . Termina oficialmente la Segunda Guerra Mundial tras seis años y un día. 29 de septiembre : Eduardo Simian , descubre petróleo en la Región de Magallanes , Chile . Octubre 4 de octubre : En Belgrado (Serbia), se funda la Sociedad Deportiva Partizan . 7 de octubre : la provincia de Pinar del Río ( Cuba ) es arrasada por un huracán . 9 de octubre : en Madrid (España), el dictador Francisco Franco decreta el indulto para los condenados a muerte por apoyar a la República durante la guerra civil española . 10 de octubre: se funda el Partido de los Trabajadores de Corea en Corea del Norte 12 de octubre : En Paso de los Libres ( Argentina ) y Uruguaiana ( Brasil ) se habilita al público el nuevo Puente Internacional Agustín P. Justo - Getulio Vargas . Dos años después lo inaugurarán oficialmente los presidentes Juan Domingo Perón (de Argentina) y Eurico Gaspar Dutra (de Brasil). En la isla de Cuba , un huracán afecta una estrecha faja de las provincias de Camagüey y Las Villas . En Paso de los Libres ( Argentina ) y Uruguaiana ( Brasil ) se habilita al público el nuevo Puente Internacional Agustín P. Justo - Getulio Vargas . Dos años después lo inaugurarán oficialmente los presidentes Juan Domingo Perón (de Argentina) y Eurico Gaspar Dutra (de Brasil). En la isla de Cuba , un huracán afecta una estrecha faja de las provincias de Camagüey y Las Villas . 13 de octubre : en Alemania, se funda la Unión Social Cristiana de Baviera 17 de octubre : en la Plaza de Mayo de Buenos Aires , una congregación de personas ―encabezadas por la CGT y apoyo militar y policial que organizaron el movimiento popular― exigen la liberación del teniente Juan Domingo Perón , detenido por fuerzas militares quienes se oponen a su política tendiente a favorecer a los sectores obreros. Una multitud de obreros se reúnen en Plaza de Mayo para pedir la libertad del general Juan Domingo Perón. 18 de octubre : en Venezuela , el presidente Isaías Medina Angarita es derrocado por un golpe militar . 22 de octubre : se aprueba la ley de referéndum para consultar directamente al pueblo español asuntos de especial trascendencia. [ 3 ] 24 de octubre : en Nueva York (Estados Unidos) se funda la ONU (Organización de las Naciones Unidas). 29 de octubre : en París (Francia), el filósofo Jean-Paul Sartre pronuncia la conferencia " El existencialismo es un humanismo ", punto de partida de ese movimiento . Noviembre 1 de noviembre : Se publica el libro Historia de la filosofía occidental de Bertrand Russell . 7 de noviembre : México ingresa a la Organización de las Naciones Unidas 20 de noviembre : en Alemania comienzan los Juicios de Núremberg contra la cúpula nazi por crímenes de guerra y crímenes contra la humanidad . 25 de noviembre : en Tabriz ( Irán ), el Partido Demócrata de Azerbaiyán, con apoyo del partido comunista prosoviético Tudé , declara la independencia del «Gobierno Nacional de Azerbaiyán». Las tropas soviéticas presentes en territorio iraní impiden la intervención al ejército iraní. 28 de noviembre : en la provincia pakistaní de Balochistán se registra un terremoto de 8,1 que provoca un tsunami que deja 4.000 muertos. Diciembre 2 de diciembre : en México se funda la empresa Bimbo . 9 de diciembre : en Alemania , sufre un accidente automovilístico el general George Patton . 10 de diciembre : en Suecia , recibe el premio nobel Gabriela Mistral . 17 de diciembre : Honduras se une a la Organización de las Naciones Unidas . 20 de diciembre : en Buenos Aires (Argentina), Juan Domingo Perón crea el Instituto Nacional de las Remuneraciones, que obliga a las industrias y las empresas privadas de todo el país que paguen el aguinaldo (sueldo anual complementario) a todos los obreros argentinos. 29 de diciembre : en Chile el gobierno de Juan Antonio Ríos descubre petróleo en Tierra del Fuego . En Italia, el musicólogo Remo Giazotto (1910-1998) compone el famoso Adagio de Albinoni , que atribuirá a Tomaso Albinoni (1671-1751). Sin fecha conocida En 1945 en Alemania Oriental se abandona la costumbre de secuestrar niños gitanos (en alemán: Kinder der Landstrasse ) para educarlos entre no gitanos. Esta práctica se había legalizado en Prusia en 1926 . Nacimientos Enero 1 de enero : Pietro Grasso , político italiano. Jacky Ickx , piloto de carreras belga. Betty Missiego , cantante peruano-española. Pietro Grasso , político italiano. Jacky Ickx , piloto de carreras belga. Betty Missiego , cantante peruano-española. 3 de enero : Stephen Stills , músico estadounidense. 4 de enero : Richard R. Schrock , científico estadounidense, premio nobel de química en 2005 . 6 de enero : Claudio Levrino , actor argentino (f. 1980 ). 7 de enero : María Manuela Díaz Orjales (María Manuela), cantante y pintora española. 10 de enero : Rod Stewart , músico británico. 15 de enero : María Antonia Iglesias , periodista española (f. 2014 ). 18 de enero : José Luis Perales , cantante y compositor español. María Isabel Allende , política chilena. José Luis Perales , cantante y compositor español. María Isabel Allende , política chilena. 21 de enero : Martin Shaw , actor británico. 23 de enero : Nora Cárpena , actriz argentina. 26 de enero : Jacqueline du Pré , violonchelista británica (f. 1987 ). David Purley , piloto de automovilismo británico (f. 1985 ). Jacqueline du Pré , violonchelista británica (f. 1987 ). David Purley , piloto de automovilismo británico (f. 1985 ). 28 de enero : Robert Wyatt , baterista y músico británico. 29 de enero : Tom Selleck , actor estadounidense. 30 de enero : Cristina Rota , actriz, productora y profesora de arte dramático argentino-española. 31 de enero : Jairo Alonso Vargas , presentador y periodista de televisión colombiano (f. 2019 ). Febrero 6 de febrero : Bob Marley , músico jamaicano de réggae (f. 1981). 7 de febrero : Pete Postlethwaite , actor británico (f. 2011). 8 de febrero : Hiroko Nagata , farmacéutica, revolucionaria izquierdista y terrorista japonesa (f. 2011), sentenciada a muerte por haber asesinado a 12 de sus compañeros del Ejército Rojo Unido en febrero de 1972; cáncer de cerebro. [ 4 ] 9 de febrero : Mia Farrow , actriz estadounidense. 12 de febrero : Thilo Sarrazin , político alemán. 13 de febrero : Simon Schama , historiador británico. 14 de febrero : Juan Adán II , aristócrata de Liechtenstein. 14 de febrero: Ladislao Mazurkiewicz , futbolista uruguayo (f. 2013). 16 de febrero : Fernando Esteso , actor español. 17 de febrero : Julio César Luna , actor y director de televisión colombo-argentino. 20 de febrero : George F. Smoot , físico y astrónomo estadounidense. 21 de febrero : Walter Momper , político alemán, exalcalde de Berlín. 22 de febrero : María del Carmen Aguilar , musicóloga y pedagoga argentina. 24 de febrero : Barry Bostwick , actor estadounidense de cine y televisión. 26 de febrero : Jimmy "Orion" Ellis , músico estadounidense (f. 1998). 26 de febrero: Tina Sainz , actriz española. 27 de febrero : Carl Anderson , cantante y actor estadounidense (f. 2004). 27 de febrero: Daniel Olbrychski , actor polaco. 27 de febrero: Danny Rivera , cantante y pacifista puertorriqueño. 28 de febrero : Bubba Smith , actor y jugador estadounidense de fútbol americano (f. 2011). Marzo 3 de marzo : George Miller , cineasta y productor australiano. Ronald Mallett , físico estadounidense. George Miller , cineasta y productor australiano. Ronald Mallett , físico estadounidense. 4 de marzo : Dieter Meier , artista y músico suizo. 8 de marzo : Micky Dolenz , actor, músico y director estadounidense. Anselm Kiefer , artista alemán. Micky Dolenz , actor, músico y director estadounidense. Anselm Kiefer , artista alemán. 9 de marzo : Katja Ebstein , cantante alemana. Robin Trower , músico británico. Dennis Rader , asesino en serie estadounidense. Katja Ebstein , cantante alemana. Robin Trower , músico británico. Dennis Rader , asesino en serie estadounidense. 11 de marzo : Pirri , futbolista español. 13 de marzo : Anatoli Fomenko , matemático ruso, autor de libros Nueva Cronología . Esteban Mellino , actor argentino (f. 2008 ). Anatoli Fomenko , matemático ruso, autor de libros Nueva Cronología . Esteban Mellino , actor argentino (f. 2008 ). 15 de marzo : Juan Luis Rodríguez-Vigil , político asturiano. Eduardo Franco , cantante uruguayo (f. 1989), miembro de la banda Los Iracundos. Juan Luis Rodríguez-Vigil , político asturiano. Eduardo Franco , cantante uruguayo (f. 1989), miembro de la banda Los Iracundos. 16 de marzo : Francisco Barrachina , pintor español. 17 de marzo : Michael Hayden , militar estadounidense. Elis Regina , cantante brasileña (f. 1982 ). José Watanabe , poeta peruano (f. 2007 ). Michael Hayden , militar estadounidense. Elis Regina , cantante brasileña (f. 1982 ). José Watanabe , poeta peruano (f. 2007 ). 20 de marzo Yula Pozo , actriz mexicana. César Ureta , actor y humorista peruano (f. 1982 ). Yula Pozo , actriz mexicana. César Ureta , actor y humorista peruano (f. 1982 ). 23 de marzo : Franco Battiato , cantante italiano (f. 2021 ). 24 de marzo : Robert Bakker , paleontólogo estadounidense. Curtis Hanson , cineasta estadounidense (f. 2016 ). Robert Bakker , paleontólogo estadounidense. Curtis Hanson , cineasta estadounidense (f. 2016 ). 25 de marzo : Adriano Pappalardo , actor y cantante italiano. 26 de marzo : Rodolfo Hernández Suárez , empresario y político colombiano (n. 1945), fundador del partido político Liga de Gobernantes Anticorrupción; en 2024 fue condenado por corrupción en el caso Vitalogic; acuñó la frase: «Yo soy seguidor de un gran pensador alemán que se llama Adolfo Hitler». 28 de marzo : Sally Carr , vocalista del grupo escocés Middle of the Road . Rodrigo Duterte , político filipino, presidente de Filipinas desde 2016. Sally Carr , vocalista del grupo escocés Middle of the Road . Rodrigo Duterte , político filipino, presidente de Filipinas desde 2016. 29 de marzo : Walt Frazier , baloncestista estadounidense. 30 de marzo : Eric Clapton , músico británico. Abril 2 de abril : Linda Hunt , actriz estadounidense. 4 de abril : Daniel Cohn-Bendit , político germano-francés. Katherine Neville , escritora estadounidense. Jesús Posada , político español. Daniel Cohn-Bendit , político germano-francés. Katherine Neville , escritora estadounidense. Jesús Posada , político español. 7 de abril : Rosa María Lobo , cantante española. Shirley Walker , compositora y productora estadounidense (f. 2006 ). Rosa María Lobo , cantante española. Shirley Walker , compositora y productora estadounidense (f. 2006 ). 12 de abril : Jorge Enrique Pulido , periodista colombiano (f. 1989 ). 14 de abril : Ritchie Blackmore , guitarrista británico. 19 de abril : Piero , cantautor y músico italo-argentino. Ginés Morata , biólogo español. Piero , cantautor y músico italo-argentino. Ginés Morata , biólogo español. 20 de abril : Thein Sein , político birmano. 21 de abril : Hernando Casanova , actor, comediante, cantante y director colombiano (f. 2002 ). 24 de abril : Doug Clifford , músico, baterista, estadounidense, miembro fundador de Creedence Clearwater Revival Stu Cook , músico, bajista, estadounidense, miembro fundador de Creedence Clearwater Revival Doug Clifford , músico, baterista, estadounidense, miembro fundador de Creedence Clearwater Revival Stu Cook , músico, bajista, estadounidense, miembro fundador de Creedence Clearwater Revival 25 de abril : Björn Ulvaeus , músico, compositor, cantante, sueco, integrante fundador de ABBA . 26 de abril : Jorge Serrano Elías , político, ingeniero, dictador y delincuente guatemalteco. 29 de abril : Tammi Terrell , cantante estadounidense (f. 1970 ). 30 de abril : Michael Smith , astronauta estadounidense (f. 1986 ). Mayo 1 de mayo : Rita Coolidge , cantante estadounidense. 2 de mayo : Bianca Jagger , actriz, modelo y activista nicaragüense. 5 de mayo : César Alierta , empresario y abogado español. 6 de mayo : Xosé Lluis García Arias , filólogo y escritor español. 8 de mayo : Keith Jarrett , músico estadounidense. 9 de mayo : Jupp Heynckes , futbolista y entrenador alemán. 11 de mayo : Margoth Velásquez , actriz colombiana. 12 de mayo : Ian McLagan , músico británico (f. 2014 ). Alan Ball , futbolista británico (f. 2007 ). Claudia Gravy , actriz española. Ian McLagan , músico británico (f. 2014 ). Alan Ball , futbolista británico (f. 2007 ). Claudia Gravy , actriz española. 13 de mayo : Sam Anderson , actor estadounidense. Lasse Berghagen , cantante, músico y actor sueco. Eba Ojanguren , actriz de voz española. Maneco Galeano , músico paraguayo (f. 1980 ). Sam Anderson , actor estadounidense. Lasse Berghagen , cantante, músico y actor sueco. Eba Ojanguren , actriz de voz española. Maneco Galeano , músico paraguayo (f. 1980 ). * Lou Marini , músico y compositor estadounidense de jazz. 14 de mayo : Vladislav Ardzinba , presidente abjasio (f. 2010 ). Francesca Annis , actriz británica. Yochanan Vollach , futbolista israelí. Vladislav Ardzinba , presidente abjasio (f. 2010 ). Francesca Annis , actriz británica. Yochanan Vollach , futbolista israelí. 15 de mayo : Eduardo Pío de Braganza , aristócrata portugués. 16 de mayo : Carlos Osoro , obispo español. Martha Beatriz Roque , economista y disidente cubana. Carlos Osoro , obispo español. Martha Beatriz Roque , economista y disidente cubana. 19 de mayo : Pete Townshend , músico británico, de la banda The Who. 20 de mayo : Vladimiro Montesinos , militar, abogado y político peruano. 21 de mayo : Carme Valls , política y médica española. 24 de mayo : Dris Yetú , político marroquí. Priscilla Presley , actriz estadounidense. Dris Yetú , político marroquí. Priscilla Presley , actriz estadounidense. 26 de mayo : Carmelo Artiles , profesor y político español (f. 2011 ). Consuelo Luzardo , actriz colombiana. Carmelo Artiles , profesor y político español (f. 2011 ). Consuelo Luzardo , actriz colombiana. 28 de mayo : John Fogerty , músico y cantante estadounidense. Patch Adams , médico y payaso estadounidense. John Fogerty , músico y cantante estadounidense. Patch Adams , médico y payaso estadounidense. 29 de mayo : Patricia Conde , actriz mexicana. 30 de mayo : Boti García Rodrigo , activista por los derechos LGTBI española. 31 de mayo : Pepe Eliaschev , periodista y escritor argentino (f. 2014 ). Rainer Werner Fassbinder , cineasta alemán (f. 1982 ). Laurent Gbagbo , expresidente marfileño. Raúl Gómez Jattin , poeta colombiano (f. 1997 ). Pepe Eliaschev , periodista y escritor argentino (f. 2014 ). Rainer Werner Fassbinder , cineasta alemán (f. 1982 ). Laurent Gbagbo , expresidente marfileño. Raúl Gómez Jattin , poeta colombiano (f. 1997 ). Junio 1 de junio : Frederica von Stade , mezzosoprano estadounidense. Gustavo Cisneros , empresario venezolano. Frederica von Stade , mezzosoprano estadounidense. Gustavo Cisneros , empresario venezolano. 3 de junio : Isabel de los Ángeles Ruano , escritora y poeta guatemalteca. 7 de junio : Wolfgang Schüssel , canciller austriaco. 13 de junio : Álvaro Lemmon , humorista, actor y cantante colombiano. 16 de junio : Pedro Escalante Arce , abogado e historiador salvadoreño.. 17 de junio : Eddy Merckx , ciclista belga. Ken Livingstone , político británico, exalcalde de Londres. Eddy Merckx , ciclista belga. Ken Livingstone , político británico, exalcalde de Londres. 19 de junio : Aung San Suu Kyi , política birmana, premio nobel de la paz en 1991. 20 de junio : Anne Murray , cantante canadiense. 21 de junio : Adam Zagajewski , poeta y ensayista polaco. Estela Núñez , actriz, cantante y conductora mexicana. Adam Zagajewski , poeta y ensayista polaco. Estela Núñez , actriz, cantante y conductora mexicana. 22 de junio : Rainer Brüderle , político alemán. 23 de junio : John Garang , político sursudanés (f. 2005). 24 de junio : Mario Alarcón , actor argentino. George Pataki , político estadounidense. Mario Alarcón , actor argentino. George Pataki , político estadounidense. 25 de junio : Carly Simon , cantante estadounidense. 26 de junio : Issa al-Haadi al-Mahdi Imam Isa Abdullah (Dwight York), líder sectario musulmán, supremacista negro y pedófilo afroestadounidense, fundador de la secta del nuwaubianismo, que predica la superioridad racial de la raza negra y su origen extraterrestre. Desde 2004 se encuentra en prisión por abuso sexual infantil contra miembros de su secta. 28 de junio : Luisito Rey , cantante español (f. 1992), padre del cantante Luis Miguel. 29 de junio : Lali Armengol , dramaturga española. Chandrika Kumaratunga , política esrilanquesa, presidenta entre 1994 y 2005. Horacio Cordero , pintor, escultor y ceramista argentino. Lali Armengol , dramaturga española. Chandrika Kumaratunga , política esrilanquesa, presidenta entre 1994 y 2005. Horacio Cordero , pintor, escultor y ceramista argentino. Julio 1 de julio : Deborah Harry , cantante y actriz estadounidense. Oscar Zucchi , historiador e investigador argentino. Felipe Sosa , guitarrista clásico, compositor y maestro de guitarra paraguayo. Deborah Harry , cantante y actriz estadounidense. Oscar Zucchi , historiador e investigador argentino. Felipe Sosa , guitarrista clásico, compositor y maestro de guitarra paraguayo. 2 de julio : Carmen Jaureguiberry , comunicadora de la televisión de Chile. 5 de julio : Félix Artuso , maquinista y suboficial primero de la Armada Argentina, que participó en la Guerra de las Malvinas como tripulante del submarino ARA Santa Fe (f. 1982). Fue asesinado por error por un soldado británico, cuando se encontraba como prisionero de guerra. 5 de julio: Humberto Benítez Treviño , político mexicano. 7 de julio : Adele Goldberg , empresaria e informática estadounidense. 8 de julio : Micheline Calmy-Rey , política suiza. 9 de julio : Dean R. Koontz , novelista estadounidense. 9 de julio: Gonzalo Morales Suárez , pintor hiperrealista costarricense (f. 2017). 9 de julio: Antonio José López Castillo , Arzobispo católico venezolano. 10 de julio : Luis Fuenmayor Toro , médico y profesor universitario. 10 de julio: Daniel Ona Ondo , político gabonés. 10 de julio: Virginia Wade , tenista británica. 15 de julio : Jeffrey C. Kramer , actor y productor de cine estadounidense. David Granger , 9.º presidente de la República de Guyana. Jeffrey C. Kramer , actor y productor de cine estadounidense. David Granger , 9.º presidente de la República de Guyana. 19 de julio : William Frederick Reyneke , naturalista, profesor, botánico y taxónomo sudafricano. Juana Pavón , poetisa y actriz hondureña (f. 2019). William Frederick Reyneke , naturalista, profesor, botánico y taxónomo sudafricano. Juana Pavón , poetisa y actriz hondureña (f. 2019). 26 de julio : Metin Çekmez , actor turco (f. 2021). Helen Mirren , actriz británica. Metin Çekmez , actor turco (f. 2021). Helen Mirren , actriz británica. 28 de julio : Jim Davis , dibujante estadounidense, creador del gato Garfield . Jim Davis , dibujante estadounidense, creador del gato Garfield . 30 de julio : Patrick Modiano , novelista francés. Daniel Lugo , actor puertorriqueño. Patrick Modiano , novelista francés. Daniel Lugo , actor puertorriqueño. Agosto 1 de agosto : Douglas Dean Osheroff , físico estadounidense. 5 de agosto : Loni Anderson , actriz estadounidense. 9 de agosto : Manuela Fingueret , escritora y periodista argentina (f. 2013 ). 12 de agosto : Jean Nouvel , arquitecto francés. 14 de agosto : Steve Martin , actor estadounidense. Wim Wenders , cineasta alemán. Steve Martin , actor estadounidense. Wim Wenders , cineasta alemán. 15 de agosto : Alain Juppé , político francés. Khaleda Zia , ex primera ministra bangladesí. Alain Juppé , político francés. Khaleda Zia , ex primera ministra bangladesí. 18 de agosto : Pedro de Silva , escritor y político español. 19 de agosto : Sandro (Roberto Sánchez), cantante y músico argentino (f. 2010 ). Alí Humar , actor y director de televisión colombiano (f. 2021 ). Sandro (Roberto Sánchez), cantante y músico argentino (f. 2010 ). Alí Humar , actor y director de televisión colombiano (f. 2021 ). 21 de agosto : Gerard Manset , cantautor, pintor, fotógrafo y escritor francés. Basil Poledouris , compositor estadounidense de origen griego (f. 2006 ). Gerard Manset , cantautor, pintor, fotógrafo y escritor francés. Basil Poledouris , compositor estadounidense de origen griego (f. 2006 ). 22 de agosto : David Chase , guionista, director y productor de televisión estadounidense. 24 de agosto : Vince McMahon , luchador y promotor estadounidense. 26 de agosto : Javier Tusell , historiador y político español (f. 2005 ). 31 de agosto : Van Morrison , músico y cantante irlandés. Itzhak Perlman , violinista israelí. Van Morrison , músico y cantante irlandés. Itzhak Perlman , violinista israelí. Septiembre 2 de septiembre : Marzenka Novak , actriz, cantante y escritora argentina nacida en Polonia (f. 2011 ). 6 de septiembre : Alberto Saavedra , actor colombiano. 10 de septiembre : Carlos Mayolo , actor, guionista y director del cine colombiano (f. 2007 ). José Feliciano , músico y guitarrista puertorriqueño. Carlos Mayolo , actor, guionista y director del cine colombiano (f. 2007 ). José Feliciano , músico y guitarrista puertorriqueño. 11 de septiembre : Franz Beckenbauer , futbolista alemán (f. 2024 ). 12 de septiembre : Milo Manara , creador de historietas italiano. 13 de septiembre : Eulogia Tapia , coplera, letrista y cantora argentina. [ 5 ] 15 de septiembre : Carmen Maura , actriz española. Eusebio Poncela , actor español. Carmen Maura , actriz española. Eusebio Poncela , actor español. 19 de septiembre : José María Latorre , crítico de cine y escritor español (f. 2014 ). 24 de septiembre : Anthony James Barr , diseñador software e inventor estadounidense. John Rutter , compositor británico. Anthony James Barr , diseñador software e inventor estadounidense. John Rutter , compositor británico. 26 de septiembre : Bryan Ferry , cantante británico. 29 de septiembre : Alicia Bruzzo , actriz argentina (f. 2007 ). 30 de septiembre : El Negro Álvarez (Carlos Alberto Álvarez), actor y humorista argentino. José Manuel Fuente , ciclista español (f. 1996 ). Ehud Ólmert , político y primer ministro israelí. El Negro Álvarez (Carlos Alberto Álvarez), actor y humorista argentino. José Manuel Fuente , ciclista español (f. 1996 ). Ehud Ólmert , político y primer ministro israelí. Octubre 2 de octubre : Don McLean , cantante y compositor estadounidense. Regina Torné , actriz mexicana. Don McLean , cantante y compositor estadounidense. Regina Torné , actriz mexicana. 4 de octubre : Shams al-Baroudi , actriz egipcia. 5 de octubre : Brian Connolly , cantante escocés. 13 de octubre : Dési Bouterse , militar y político surinamés. 14 de octubre : Vicky Hernández , actriz colombiana. 15 de octubre : Antonio Cañizares Llovera , obispo católico español. Florcita Motuda (Raúl Alarcón Rojas), músico y político chileno. Armando Croatto , sindicalista argentino (f. 1977). Antonio Cañizares Llovera , obispo católico español. Florcita Motuda (Raúl Alarcón Rojas), músico y político chileno. Armando Croatto , sindicalista argentino (f. 1977). 17 de octubre : Graça Machel , política mozambiqueña. 18 de octubre : Cristina Fernández Cubas , escritora y periodista española (f. 2000). 18 de octubre: Huell Howser , presentador estadounidense (f. 2013). 19 de octubre : Divine , actor, icono LGTBI y cantante estadounidense (f. 1988). 19 de octubre: John Lithgow , actor estadounidense. 24 de octubre : Henry López Sisco , policía venezolano. 25 de octubre : Francisco Sá , futbolista argentino. 27 de octubre : Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , político brasileño. 28 de octubre : Lincoln Silva , escritor, periodista, poeta paraguayo y profesor de guaraní (f. 2016). 30 de octubre : Henry Winkler , actor estadounidense. 30 de octubre: Olivia Leyva , actriz mexicana (f. 2019). 31 de octubre : Gustavo Álvarez Gardeazábal , escritor y político colombiano. 31 de octubre: Brian Doyle-Murray , actor estadounidense. Noviembre 3 de noviembre : Gerd Müller , futbolista alemán (f. 2021 ). 8 de noviembre : Abdelaziz Belkhadem , político argelino. Milos Alcalay , político y diplomático venezolano. Abdelaziz Belkhadem , político argelino. Milos Alcalay , político y diplomático venezolano. 11 de noviembre : Daniel Ortega , presidente nicaragüense. 12 de noviembre : Neil Young , cantante canadiense. 14 de noviembre : José Lucas , pintor español. 15 de noviembre : Anni-Frid Lyngstad , música sueca. Roger Donaldson , cineasta australiano. Anni-Frid Lyngstad , música sueca. Roger Donaldson , cineasta australiano. 17 de noviembre : Roland Joffé , cineasta británico. 17 de noviembre: Sergio López Suárez , ilustrador de libros infantiles y escritor uruguayo. 18 de noviembre : Mahinda Rajapaksa , presidente esrilanqués entre 2005 y 2015 . 21 de noviembre : Goldie Hawn , actriz estadounidense. 22 de noviembre . La Tigresa del Oriente , cantante, compositora, maquilladora y actriz peruana. 23 de noviembre : Assi Dayan , actor israelí (f. 2014 ). Assi Dayan , actor israelí (f. 2014 ). * Dennis Nilsen , asesino en serie británico. 26 de noviembre : Daniel Davis , actor estadounidense. 27 de noviembre : Randy Brecker , trompetista estadounidense. Eiv Eloon , escritora estonia. Benigno Fitial , político de las islas Marianas . Giuseppe Fiorini Morosini , obispo italiano. Eduardo Garat , abogado argentino, desaparecido por la dictadura antiperonista desde 1976 hasta 1983 (f. 1978 ). Roberto Rojas Díaz , futbolista chileno. James Avery , actor estadounidense (f. 2013 ). Randy Brecker , trompetista estadounidense. Eiv Eloon , escritora estonia. Benigno Fitial , político de las islas Marianas . Giuseppe Fiorini Morosini , obispo italiano. Eduardo Garat , abogado argentino, desaparecido por la dictadura antiperonista desde 1976 hasta 1983 (f. 1978 ). Roberto Rojas Díaz , futbolista chileno. James Avery , actor estadounidense (f. 2013 ). 28 de noviembre : Alessandro Bianchi , político italiano. 29 de noviembre : Edmundo Rojas Soriano , empresario y político mexicano (f. 1987 ). 30 de noviembre : Radu Lupu , pianista rumano. Diciembre 1 de diciembre : Bette Midler , actriz y cantante estadounidense. 12 de diciembre : Portia Simpson-Miller , primera ministra jamaiquina. 13 de diciembre : Herman Cain , político estadounidense (f. 2020 ). Ludivina García Arias , profesora y política socialista hispanomexicana. Herman Cain , político estadounidense (f. 2020 ). Ludivina García Arias , profesora y política socialista hispanomexicana. 17 de diciembre : Ernie Hudson , actor estadounidense y ex marine de los EE. UU.. 20 de diciembre : Peter Criss , baterista estadounidense, de la banda Kiss. 23 de diciembre : Adli Mansur , político egipcio. 24 de diciembre : Lemmy Kilmister , vocalista y bajista británico, de la banda Motörhead. (f. 2015 ). 25 de diciembre : Noel Redding , músico británico (f. 2003 ). Roberto Galicia , pintor salvadoreño. Noel Redding , músico británico (f. 2003 ). Roberto Galicia , pintor salvadoreño. 28 de diciembre : Birendra de Nepal , rey nepalí (f. 2001 ). 30 de diciembre : Davy Jones , músico británico (f. 2012 ). Fecha desconocida María Nsué Angüe , escritora y periodista ecuatoguineana (f. 2017). Fallecimientos Enero 2 de enero : Bertram Ramsay , militar británico (n. 1883). 3 de enero : Edgar Cayce , curandero y psíquico estadounidense (n. 1877). 6 de enero : Edith Frank-Hollander , madre de la escritora judía Ana Frank (n.1900) 14 de enero : Arthur Wynne : constructor de crucigramas y editor británico (n. 1871). 15 de enero : Richard Fall , director de orquesta y compositor checo, asesinado en Auschwitz (n. 1882). 31 de enero : Eddie Slovik , militar y soldado estadounidense (n. 1920). Febrero 3 de febrero : Roland Freisler , juez nazi alemán (n. 1893). c. 12 de febrero : Margot Frank , niña judía alemana, hermana mayor de Ana Frank (n. 1926). c. 15 de febrero : Ana Frank , niña judía alemana, famosa por su diario (n. 1929). 23 de febrero : Reginald Barker , cineasta estadounidense (n. 1886). Marzo 26 de marzo : David Lloyd George , primer ministro británico (n. 1863). Abril 8 de abril : Wilhelm Canaris , militar alemán (n. 1887). 9 de abril : Dietrich Bonhoeffer , religioso alemán (n. 1906). 12 de abril : Franklin Delano Roosevelt , político estadounidense, presidente entre 1933 y 1945 (n. 1882). 13 de abril : Ernst Cassirer , filósofo alemán (n. 1874). 17 de abril : Jaap Hillesum , médico neerlandés, hermano de la escritora Etty Hillesum (1914-1943), gaseada en Auschwitz (n. 1916). 18 de abril : John Ambrose Fleming , inventor británico. 26 de abril : Sigmund Rascher , médico nazi alemán (n. 1909). 28 de abril : Benito Mussolini , fundador del fascismo, duce de Italia entre 1922 y 1945 (n. 1883). 30 de abril : Eva Braun , esposa de Adolf Hitler (n. 1912). 30 de abril : Adolf Hitler , político austriaco, fundador del nazismo, führer (dictador) de Alemania entre 1933 y 1945 (n. 1889). Mayo 1 de mayo : Joseph Goebbels , político alemán, ministro de propaganda nazi (n. 1897). 2 de mayo : Martin Bormann , militar nazi alemán (n. 1900). 4 de mayo : Fedor von Bock , oficial alemán (n. 1880). 5 de mayo : Peter Van Pels : judío alemán que se escondió con Anne Frank (n.1926) 8 de mayo : Josef Terboven , político nazi alemán (n. 1900). 23 de mayo : Heinrich Himmler , militar alemán, líder de las SS (n. 1900). Junio 1 de junio : Eduard Bloch , médico judío austríaco, fue el médico de la familia de Adolf Hitler (n. 1872 ). 13 de junio : Diego Carbonell , médico, diplomático e historiador venezolano. (n. 1884 ) Julio 5 de julio : John Curtin , primer ministro australiano (n. 1885). Agosto 8 de agosto : Rafael Porlán , poeta español de la Generación del 27. 10 de agosto : Robert Hutchings Goddard , inventor estadounidense (n. 1882). 18 de agosto : Subhas Chandra Bose , político nacionalista indio (n. 1887). 19 de agosto : Tomás Burgos Sotomayor , emprendedor chileno (n. 1875). 26 de agosto : Franz Werfel , novelista, dramaturgo y poeta checo (n. 1890). Septiembre 15 de septiembre : Harry Daghlian , físico estadounidense que falleció en un accidente nuclear (n. 1921). 15 de septiembre : Anton Webern , compositor austriaco (n. 1883). 26 de septiembre : Bela Bartok , compositor húngaro (n. 1881). Octubre 2 de octubre : Timothy Joseph Crowley , obispo católico irlandés (n. 1880). 2 de octubre: Seisetsu Genjo (S EKI Seisetsu, 68 años), monje budista, calígrafo y pintor japonés (n. 1877). Criticado toda su vida por apoyar las masacres del ejército japonés en China: «Mostrar la máxima lealtad al emperador equivale a practicar el budismo mahayana. Esto se debe a que el budismo mahayana es idéntico a la “ley del rey”. [...] ¡Exterminemos a los diablos rojos [comunistas] tanto en Japón como en China!»; cuando a los 83 años visitó la invadida China ―los japoneses ya habían torturado y asesinado a 17.8 millones de hombres, mujeres y niños civiles―, predicó a los sobrevivientes chinos que debían aprender a perdonar y soltar . [ 6 ] [ 7 ] 2 de octubre: Renato Tartarotti , militar y policía italiano (n. 1916). 15 de octubre : Pierre Laval , político francés (n. 1883). 16 de octubre : José Oliva Nogueira , periodista y escritor argentino (n. 1873). 19 de octubre : Plutarco Elías Calles , político mexicano, presidente entre 1924 y 1928 (n. 1877). 24 de octubre : Vidkun Quisling , político noruego y colaborador nazi (n. 1887). 25 de octubre : Robert Ley , líder sindicalista de la Alemania nazi. 31 de octubre : Ignacio Zuloaga , pintor español (n. 1870). Noviembre 20 de noviembre : Francis William Aston , físico y químico británico, premio nobel de química en 1922 (n. 1877). Diciembre 4 de diciembre : Thomas Hunt Morgan , fisiólogo estadounidense, premio nobel de medicina en 1933 (n. 1866). 4 de diciembre : Julio Martínez Hombre , ingeniero agrónomo y astrónomo español (n. 1893). 8 de diciembre : Aleksandr Ziloti , pianista, director de orquesta y compositor ruso (n. 1863). 16 de diciembre : Irma Grese , supervisora de prisioneros en los campos de concentración de Auschwitz-Birkenau . (n. 1923 ). 16 de diciembre : Fumimaro Konoe , político japonés (n. 1891). 21 de diciembre : George Patton , militar estadounidense (n. 1885). Arte y literatura Ivo Andrić : Un puente sobre el Drina , Crónica de Travnik , La señorita . Agatha Christie : Cianuro espumoso . George Orwell : Rebelión en la granja . Evelyn Waugh : Retorno a Brideshead . Jacinto Benavente : La infanzona . J. B. Priestley : Ha llegado un inspector . Ernesto Sabato : Uno y el Universo . Aldous Huxley : La filosofía perenne . Karl Popper : La sociedad abierta y sus enemigos . Bertrand Russell : Historia de la filosofía occidental . Carmen Laforet : Nada . Deporte El FC Barcelona se proclama campeón de la Liga española de fútbol , consiguiendo su segundo título en esta competición. El FC Barcelona se proclama campeón de la Copa del Rey de Baloncesto . Inauguración del Estadio George Capwell de propiedad del Club Sport Emelec en la ciudad de Guayaquil . Se funda en Quito al club de fútbol Sociedad Deportiva Aucas . Inauguración del Estadio Lluís Sitjar de propiedad del Real Club Deportivo Mallorca en la ciudad de Palma de Mallorca Se funda el Club Deportivo Numancia de Soria . Se funda el Club de Fútbol Monterrey en México Se funda el Club Atlético Brown en Argentina. Ciencia y tecnología Clínica Mayo : Primer uso de la estreptomicina en el tratamiento de la tuberculosis . Fundación de la Unesco . Grand Rapids , Míchigan es la primera ciudad en el mundo con agua fluorada como método para prevenir la caries dental . Cine 120 rue de la Gare (120 rue de la Gare), de Jacques Daniel-Norman . Al morir la noche ("Dead Of Night") de Alberto Cavalcanti . Alma en suplicio ("Mildred Pierce") de Michael Curtiz . ¿Ángel o diablo? ("Fallen Angel"), de Otto Preminger . Las campanas de Santa María ("The Bells Of St. Mary's") de Leo McCarey . Breve encuentro ("Brief Encounter") de David Lean . Canción Inolvidable ("A Song To Remember") de Charles Vidor . El capitán Kidd (Captain Kidd), de Rowland V. Lee . Cartas a mi amada ("Love Letters") de William Dieterle . César y Cleopatra ("Caesar and Cleopatra"), de Gabriel Pascal . El código del amor ("Sing Your Way Home"), de Anthony Mann . El desvío ("Detour") de Edgar G. Ulmer . Días sin huella ("The Lost Weekend") de Billy Wilder . Domingo de carnaval , de Edgar Neville . Dos en la oscuridad ("Two O´Clock Courage"), de Anthony Mann . El espíritu burlón ("Blithe Spirit"), de David Lean . Esta noche y todas las noches (Tonight and Every Night), de Victor Saville . La feria de ilusiones ("State Fair") de Walter Lang . El gran Flamarion ("The Great Flamarion"), de Anthony Mann . Los hombres que caminan sobre la cola del tigre ("Tora no o wo fumu otokotachi"), de Akira Kurosawa . El ladrón de cadáveres ("The Body Snatcher"), de Robert Wise . Lazos humanos ("A Tree Grows In Brooklyn"), de Elia Kazan . Levando anclas ("Anchors Aweigh"), de George Sidney . La luna vale un millón , de Florián Rey . Las llaves del Reino ("The Keys Of The Kingdom"), de John M. Stahl . La mujer del cuadro ("The Woman in the Window"), de Fritz Lang . Los niños del paraíso ("Les Enfants du Paradis") de Marcel Carné . No eran imprescindibles ("They Were Expendable") de John Ford y Robert Montgomery . Objetivo Birmania ("Objective, Burma!") de Raoul Walsh . Que el cielo la juzgue ("Leave Her To Heaven") de John M. Stahl . Rapsodia Azul ("Rhapsody In Blue") de Irving Rapper . Spellbound ( Recuerda en España, Cuéntame tu vida en Argentina), de Alfred Hitchcock . El retrato de Dorian Gray , dirigida por Albert Lewin . Es una versión del libro de Oscar Wilde . Además ganó el Oscar a la mejor fotografía . Fue una de las primeras películas que combinaba el uso del color con el blanco y negro de forma dramática. Roma, ciudad abierta , de Roberto Rossellini . San Antonio ("San Antonio") de David Butler y Robert Florey . Sangre sobre el sol ("Blood On The Sun") de Frank Lloyd . Sé a donde voy ("I Know Where I´m Going!"), de Michael Powell y Emeric Pressburger . El sureño ("The Southerner") de Jean Renoir . Los tres caballeros ("The Three Caballeros") de Norman Ferguson . Los últimos de Filipinas (película) , de Antonio Román . La vida en un hilo , de Edgar Neville . El valle del destino ("The Valley Of Decision") de Tay Garnett . Yolanda y el ladrón ("Yolanda and the Thief"), de Vincente Minnelli . La zarina ("A royal scandal"), de Ernst Lubitsch y Otto Preminger . Televisión Premios Nobel Física : Wolfgang Pauli Química : Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Medicina : Alexander Fleming , Ernst Boris Chain y Howard Walter Florey Literatura : Gabriela Mistral Paz : Cordell Hull Referencias ↑ «Se establecen las vacaciones pagas» , artículo del 23 de enero de 2012 en el Diario Popular (Buenos Aires). ↑ «Plane Hits Empire State Building» (avión choca contra el edificio Empire State), véase el minuto 0:42. ↑ Pedro Martínez Ruano (26 de enero de 2009). La Administración Electoral . Universidad Almería. pp. 403-. ISBN 978-84-8240-908-5 . ↑ «Condemned '70s radical Nagata dies» . Archivado desde el original el 9 de febrero de 2011 . Consultado el 8 de marzo de 2011 . ↑ Mondino de Forni, Nidya (2013): «Con alma de copla» , artículo del 25 de noviembre de 2013 en el diario El Litoral (Santa Fe). Menciona que Eulogia Tapia nació en La Poma el 13 de septiembre de 1945. ↑ «Seisetsu, Seki». ↑ Victoria, Brian (1997): Lo zen alla guerra . Roma (Italia): Sensibili Alle Foglie Cooperativa, 1997. Enlaces externos Wikimedia Commons alberga una categoría multimedia sobre 1945 . Control de autoridades Proyectos Wikimedia Datos: Q5240 Multimedia: 1945 / Q5240 Identificadores LCCN : sh96002834 NKC : ch460654 NLI : 987007546706905171 Proyectos Wikimedia Datos: Q5240 Multimedia: 1945 / Q5240 Identificadores LCCN : sh96002834 NKC : ch460654 NLI : 987007546706905171 Datos: Q5240 Multimedia: 1945 / Q5240 1945 Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores LCCN Esta página se editó por última vez el 26 dic 2025 a las 16:29. El texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución-CompartirIgual 4.0 ; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio aceptas nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 4 Nobel Prizes 5 References 6 Further reading 1945 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century 20th century 21st century 19th century 20th century 21st century Decades 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s Years 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1945 by topic Subject Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American British Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American American British British By country Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Lists of leaders Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Birth and death categories Births Deaths Births Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments Disestablishments Establishments Disestablishments Works category Works Introductions Works Introductions v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1945 MCMXLV Ab urbe condita 2698 Armenian calendar 1394 ԹՎ ՌՅՂԴ Assyrian calendar 6695 Baháʼí calendar 101–102 Balinese saka calendar 1866–1867 Bengali calendar 1351–1352 Berber calendar 2895 British Regnal year 9 Geo. 6 – 10 Geo. 6 Buddhist calendar 2489 Burmese calendar 1307 Byzantine calendar 7453–7454 Chinese calendar 甲申 年 (Wood Monkey ) 4642 or 4435 — to — 乙酉年 (Wood Rooster ) 4643 or 4436 Coptic calendar 1661–1662 Discordian calendar 3111 Ethiopian calendar 1937–1938 Hebrew calendar 5705–5706 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 2001–2002 - Shaka Samvat 1866–1867 - Kali Yuga 5045–5046 Holocene calendar 11945 Igbo calendar 945–946 Iranian calendar 1323–1324 Islamic calendar 1364–1365 Japanese calendar Shōwa 20 (昭和２０年) Javanese calendar 1875–1876 Juche calendar 34 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days Korean calendar 4278 Minguo calendar ROC 34 民國34年 Nanakshahi calendar 477 Thai solar calendar 2488 Tibetan calendar ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood- Monkey ) 2071 or 1690 or 918 — to — ཤིང་མོ་བྱ་ལོ་ (female Wood- Bird ) 2072 or 1691 or 919 1945 ( MCMXLV ) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar , the 1945th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 945th year of the 2nd millennium , the 45th year of the 20th century , and the 6th year of the 1940s decade. A turning point [ 1 ] in human history , 1945 marked the end of World War II , ending with the defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan by the United States and the Soviet Union in the world of two superpowers which has led the beginning of the Cold War (1945–1991). It is also the year the Nazi concentration camps were liberated and the only year in which atomic weapons have been used in warfare . Events World War II will be abbreviated as "WWII" January January 1 – WWII: Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. January 6 – WWII: A German offensive recaptures Esztergom , Hungary from the Soviets. January 9 – WWII: American and Australian troops land at Lingayen Gulf on western coast of the largest Philippine island of Luzon , occupied by Japan since 1942. January 12 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German Army . [ 3 ] January 13 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive , to eliminate German forces in East Prussia . January 16 – WWII: Adolf Hitler takes residence in the Führerbunker in Berlin. [ 4 ] January 17 WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] January 18 – The Holocaust : The SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp . Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributed. January 19 – The Holocaust : Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto ; only 877 Jews of the initial population of 164,000 remain at this time. [ 6 ] January 20 – Germany begins the Evacuation of East Prussia . January 21 – 22 (night) – At the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing , collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing between 140 and 150 people. January 23 – WWII: Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . January 24 – WWII: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton , nine OSS men, and four SOE agents are executed by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp under Hitler's Commando Order of 1942, which stipulates the immediate execution of all captured Allied commandos or saboteurs without trial, even those in proper uniforms. Morton is the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during the war. January 25 – WWII: Hitler appoints Heinrich Himmler as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania , despite Himmler's lack of military experience. [ 7 ] January 26 – WWII: 19-year-old U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Audie Murphy sees action at Holtzwihr , France, for which is awarded the Medal of Honor . January 27 The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] January 30 – WWII: MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. January 31 – WWII: The Battle of Hill 170 in the Burma Campaign ends with the British 3rd Commando Brigade defeating the Imperial Japanese Army 54th Division , causing the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army to withdraw from the Arakan Peninsula. February February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid 's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut , announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin . [ 9 ] February 3 – WWII: Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. February 4 – 11 – WWII: President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta Conference . February 7 – WWII: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila . February 8 – The Alaska Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945, championed by charismatic native leader Elizabeth Peratrovich , is passed by the territorial Senate, after the legislature defeated a previous bill in 1943. February 9 Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. February 10 – WWII: German troopship SS General von Steuben is sunk by the Soviet submarine S-13 ; 3,608 drown. [ 10 ] February 10 – 20 – WWII: Operation Kita : The Imperial Japanese Navy returns "Completion Force", containing both its Ise -class battleships , safely from Singapore to Kure in Japan despite Allied attacks. February 12 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others. [ 11 ] February 13 – WWII: The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. February 16 – WWII: The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. February 18 – March 5 – WWII: American and Brazilian troops kick off Operation Encore in Northern Italy, a successful limited action in the Northern Apennines that prepares for the western portion of the Allied Spring offensive . [ 12 ] February 19 – 20 – 980 (actual figure is disputed) [ 13 ] Japanese soldiers die as a result of being attacked by long saltwater crocodiles in Ramree, Burma . [ 14 ] February 19 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima – About 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo Jima . February 21 – The last V-2 rocket is launched from Peenemünde . February 22 – WWII: Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. February 23 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . February 24 – Egyptian premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is assassinated in Parliament after declaring war on Germany and Japan. February 27 – The Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyed. February 28 – In Bucharest , a violent demonstration takes place, during which the Bolşevic group opens fire on the army and protesters. In response, Andrei Y. Vishinsky , USSR vice commissioner of foreign affairs and president of the Allied Control Commission for Romania , travels to Bucharest to compel Nicolae Rădescu to resign as premier. March March 1 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives what will be his last address to a joint session of the United States Congress , reporting on the Yalta Conference . March 2 Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] March 3 – WWII: Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. March 4 In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] March 5 – WWII: Brazilian troops take Castelnuovo ( Vergato ), in the last operations of the Allied Operation Encore . March 6 A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. March 7 WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] March 8 Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . March 9 – 10 – WWII: Bombing of Tokyo : USAAF B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan, with incendiary bombs , killing 100,000 citizens in the firebombing. It is the single most destructive conventional air attack of the war. March 11 The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] March 12 – WWII: Swinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation Hannibal . March 15 – 31 – WWII: The Soviet Red Army carries out the Upper Silesian Offensive . March 15 – The 17th Academy Awards ceremony is held, broadcast via radio in the United States for the first time. Best Picture goes to Going My Way . March 16 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. March 17 – WWII: Kobe , Japan is fire-bombed by 331 B-29 bombers, killing over 8,000 people. March 18 – WWII: The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] March 19 – WWII: Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. March 20 – WWII: Hitler dismisses Heinrich Himmler from his military command. [ 3 ] March 21 – WWII: British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. March 22 The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . March 24 WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . March 26 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistance, although there are Japanese holdouts here until 1949. March 27 – WWII: The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . March 29 WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . March 30 – WWII: The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . April April 1 – WWII: Battle of Okinawa : The Tenth United States Army lands on Okinawa . April 4 – WWII: American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. April 6 – WWII: Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. April 7 – WWII: The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . April 8 – The SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp ; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guards. April 9 WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . April 10 – WWII: Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] April 11 – Buchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army . April 12 Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . April 14 – WWII: The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam April 15 – WWII: The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . April 16 – WWII: The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. April 17 – WWII: Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. April 18 – American war correspondent Ernie Pyle is killed by Japanese machine gun fire on the island of Ie Shima off Okinawa . April 19 – Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Carousel , a musical play based on Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom , opens on Broadway , and becomes their second long-running stage classic. It includes the standard " You'll Never Walk Alone ". April 20 – WWII: On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] April 22 – WWII: Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. April 23 – WWII: Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. April 24 – WWII: Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . April 25 Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. April 25 – 26 – WWII: The last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command , the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro Lancasters . April 26 – WWII: Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . April 27 The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] April 28 The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . April 29 At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . April 30 – WWII: Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . May May – Interpol (being headquartered in Berlin) effectively ceases to exist (it is recreated on June 3 , 1946 ). May 1 – WWII: Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. May 2 – WWII: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. May 3 – WWII: The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] May 4 – WWII: German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] May 5 – WWII: Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. May 6 WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] May 6 – 7 – The government of the Independent State of Croatia , the Nazi-affiliated fascist puppet state established in occupied Yugoslavia , flees Zagreb for a location near Klagenfurt in Austria, but is captured in the Bleiburg repatriations that then leads to mass executions. [ 45 ] May 7 – WWII: At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. May 8 – WWII: Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] May 8 – 29 – Sétif and Guelma massacre : in Algeria , thousands die as French troops and released Italian POWs kill an estimated 6,000 to 40,000 Algerian citizens. May 9 – WWII: The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . May 10 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Sark ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops and leaving them under the orders of Dame Sibyl Hathaway . May 12 Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. May 14 – 15 – WWII: Battle of Poljana : The last battle of the War in Europe is fought at Poljana near Slovenj Gradec , Slovenia . May 15 – WWII: Surrender at Bleiburg – Retreating troops of the Croatian Armed Forces of the former puppet Independent State of Croatia (intermingled with fleeing civilians) attempt to surrender to the British Army at Bleiburg , but are directed to surrender to Yugoslav Partisans , who open fire on them. The remainder, after orders are given by Tito , are force-marched through Croatia and Serbia , interned or massacred, with thousands dying. [ 49 ] May 16 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Alderney ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops, the civilian population having been evacuated. May 18 – WWII: Operation Unthinkable – British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly requests his military chiefs of staff to consider a plan for British, American and reactivated German forces to attack the Soviet Red Army on July 1 to preserve the independence of Poland. The operation is ruled militarily unfeasible. [ 50 ] May 23 The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. May 28 – U.S.-born Irish-raised William Joyce (" Lord Haw-Haw ") is captured on the German border. He is later charged in London with high treason for his earlier English-language wartime broadcasts from German radio, convicted, and then hanged in January 1946. May 29 German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. May 30 – The Iranian government demands that all Soviet and British troops leave the country. June June 1 – The British take over Lebanon and Syria . June 5 – The Allied Control Council , the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes power. June 7 – King Haakon VII of Norway returns to Norway five years to the day after leaving for exile in Britain. June 11 William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] June 12 – The Yugoslav Army leaves Trieste , leaving the New Zealand Army in control. June 21 – WWII: The Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972 . June 24 – WWII: A victory parade is held in Red Square in Moscow. June 25 – Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second president of Ireland . June 26 – The United Nations Charter is signed in San Francisco. June 29 – Czechoslovakia cedes Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union . June 30 – John von Neumann 's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC is distributed, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer, with stored-program and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory ( von Neumann architecture ). July July 1 WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . July 2 – The 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion breaks out in Burao and Erigavo in British Somaliland , led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader. [ 52 ] July 4 – Brazilian cruiser Bahia is sunk by an accidentally induced explosion, killing more than 300 and stranding the survivors in shark-infested waters. July 5 The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. July 6 – 7 – Schio massacre : 54 prisoners, mostly fascist sympathisers, are killed by members of the Italian resistance movement in Schio . July 8 – WWII: Harry S. Truman is informed that Japan will talk peace if it can retain the reign of the Emperor. [ 51 ] July 12 – Ben Chifley is elected leader of the Labor Party , and consequently becomes the 16th Prime Minister of Australia , defeating Frank Forde as well as Norman Makin and H.V. Evatt . As a result, Forde becomes the shortest-serving prime minister in Australian history; nevertheless, he retains his post as deputy leader. July 14 – WWII: Italy declares war on Japan. July 16 The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. July 17 – August 2 – WWII: Potsdam Conference – At Potsdam , the three main Allied leaders hold their final summit of the war. President Truman officially informs Stalin that the U.S. has a powerful new weapon. July 21 – WWII: President Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against Japan. [ 51 ] July 23 – WWII: French marshal Philippe Pétain , who headed the Vichy government during WWII, goes on trial for treason. July 26 Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] July 27 – WWII: Bombing of Aomori – Two USAAF B-29s drop a total of 60,000 leaflets on the city of Aomori , Japan, warning civilians of an air raid and urging them to leave immediately. The city was firebombed the next day, killing more than 1,700 people. July 28 WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] July 29 The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. July 30 – WWII: Heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis is hit and sunk by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-58 in the Philippine Sea . Some 900 survivors jump into the sea and are adrift for up to four days. Nearly 600 die before help arrives. Captain Charles B. McVay III of the cruiser is later court-martialed and convicted; in 2000, he is posthumously exonerated. [ 55 ] August August 6 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Hiroshima : United States Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay drops a uranium-235 atomic bomb , codenamed " Little Boy ", on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. local time, resulting in between 90,000 and 146,000 deaths. August 7 – U.S. President Harry Truman announces the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, while he is returning from the Potsdam Conference aboard the U.S. Navy heavy cruiser USS Augusta (CA-31) , in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. August 8 The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. August 9 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] August 10 – WWII: Japan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the Emperor". August 11 WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. August 11 – 25 – Soviet troops complete the occupation of Sakhalin . August 13 – The Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to discuss the founding of the country of Israel . August 14 – WWII: Emperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace . At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT ), U.S. president Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrender. August 15 WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . August 17 Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . August 18 – WWII: Death of Subhas Chandra Bose : Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose is killed as a result of his overloaded Japanese plane crashing in Japanese Taiwan . August 19 – Chinese Civil War : Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the Nationalists . August 22 – Kim Il Sung as the guerilla fighter returned to the Soviet-occupied capital Pyongyang after the Red Army entered the northern peninsula of Korea . August 23 – Soviet–Japanese War : Joseph Stalin orders the detention of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union . August 25 – Bảo Đại abdicates as Emperor of Vietnam , ending 2,000 years of dynastic and monarchic rule in the country and 143 years of the Nguyễn dynasty , Paris marked the first anniversary of liberation from Nazi rule by the French Resistance as a momentous event at the Battle of Normandy against Dietrich von Choltitz . August 30 – WWII: Vietnam 's capital Hanoi is taken by the Viet Minh , which ends the French occupation in what becomes North Vietnam , and thus the southern provinces become South Vietnam . This ends the August Revolution . August 31 WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] September September 2 – World War II ends: Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] September 4 – WWII: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island , after hearing word of their country's surrender. September 5 Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. September 8 U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] September 9 Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] September 10 – Vidkun Quisling is sentenced to death for being a Nazi collaborator in Norway. [ 59 ] September 11 Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. September 12 Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. September 18 Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . September 20 – Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru demand that all British troops depart India. September 24 – Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia : The Topoľčany pogrom is carried out in Czechoslovakia. October October – Arthur C. Clarke puts forward the idea of a geosynchronous communications satellite , in a Wireless World magazine article. October 1 – 15 – Operation Backfire : Three A4 rockets are launched near Cuxhaven , in a demonstration to Allied forces. October 2 – George Albert Smith becomes president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . October 4 – The Partizan Belgrade sports club is founded in Belgrade , Serbia . October 5 – Hollywood Black Friday : A strike by the Set Decorator's Union in Hollywood results in a riot. October 8 – 15 – Hadamar Trial: Personnel of the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre , now in the American zone of Allied-occupied Germany , are the first to be tried for systematic extermination in Nazi Germany . October 9 – Former prime minister Pierre Laval is sentenced to death, for collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France . [ 59 ] October 10 – The Nazi Party is dissolved by the Allied Powers. October 14 – Czechoslovakia : A new provisional national assembly is elected, Kim Il Sung made his first major public appearance in Pyongyang as the celebration of liberation where he was officially introduced to the public by the Soviet authorities as a national hero, a legendary guerrilla fighter and leader. [ 59 ] October 15 – 21 – The Fifth Pan-African Congress is held in Manchester . October 16 – The Food and Agriculture Organization is established at a meeting in Quebec City , as a specialized agency of the United Nations , Syngman Rhee returned to the southern peninsula of Korea as he arrived in Seoul by becoming a prominent figure under the U.S. occupation. October 17 – A massive number of people, headed for the General Confederation of Labour (Argentina) , gather in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires to demand Juan Perón 's release. This is known to the Peronists as the Día de la lealtad ( Loyalty Day ) and considered the founding day of Peronism . October 18 – Isaías Medina Angarita , president of Venezuela , is overthrown by a military coup . [ 59 ] October 19 – Members of the Indonesian People's Army attack Anglo-Dutch forces in Indonesia . [ 59 ] October 20 – Mongolians vote for independence from China. [ 59 ] October 21 – Women's suffrage : Women are allowed to vote in the French Legislative Election for the first time. October 22 – Rómulo Betancourt is named provisional president of Venezuela . [ 59 ] October 24 The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] October 25 WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. October 27 – November 20 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia fight British and British Indian troops in Surabaya . October 29 Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. October 30 – The undivided country of India joins the United Nations . November November 1 International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . November 5 – Colombia joins the United Nations . November 6 – Indonesians reject an offer of autonomy from the Dutch . [ 59 ] November 7 – South Africa and Mexico both joined the United Nations . November 9 – Soo Bahk Do and Moo Duk Kwan martial arts are founded in Korea . November 10 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Following the killing of British officer Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby on October 30, the British Indian Army (in support of its allied Dutch colonial administration) begins an advance on Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies against Indonesian nationalists; although most of the city is retaken in 3 days of heavy fighting, the strength of the resistance leads to today being celebrated as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) in Indonesia. November 11 – 1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election : Marshal Josip Broz Tito and the People's Front win a decisive majority (90%) in the Yugoslavian Assembly. [ 59 ] November 15 Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] November 16 Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. November 18 – The Tudeh party starts a bloodless coup, and will form Azerbaijan within days. Soviet troops prevent Iranian troops from getting involved. November 20 – The Nuremberg trials begin: Trials against 22 Nazis for war crimes of World War II start at the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg . [ 59 ] November 26 – U.S. ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigns after he is unable to broker a deal between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Tse-tung . [ 59 ] November 28 The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] November 29 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. December December 1 – German general Anton Dostler is executed by firing squad in Italy for the war crime of ordering the summary execution of captured U.S. commandos. The U.S. military tribunal which has tried him has not accepted his plea of " superior orders ", setting a precedent for future Allied war crimes trials . [ 63 ] December 2 General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. December 3 – Communist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil War . December 4 – The United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7. December 5 – Flight 19 of United States Navy Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers disappears on a training exercise from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale . December 9 – American General George S. Patton is involved in a car accident in Germany, resulting in his death on December 21. December 21 – Iraq joins the United Nations . December 27 – Twenty-one nations ratify the articles creating the World Bank . [ 64 ] Date unknown A team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (led by Charles D. Coryell ) discovers chemical element 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the periodic table , which they will name promethium . [ 65 ] Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947. The Australian government introduces an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to encourage the immigration of British subjects, at a fare of £ 10, hence they become known as " Ten Pound Poms ". [ 66 ] The first geothermal milk pasteurization is done in Klamath Falls, Oregon , United States. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January January 1 Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver January 3 – Stephen Stills , American rock singer-songwriter ( Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young ) January 4 Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate January 5 Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist January 7 Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) January 10 – Sir Rod Stewart , British rock singer January 12 – André Bicaba , Burkinabé sprinter January 14 – Einar Hákonarson , Icelandic painter January 15 Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family January 17 – Javed Akhtar , Indian political activist, poet, lyricist and screenwriter January 20 – Robert Olen Butler , American writer January 21 Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor January 24 – Subhash Ghai , Indian film director, producer and screenwriter January 25 – Leigh Taylor-Young , American actress January 26 Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) January 27 – Harold Cardinal , Cree political leader, writer and lawyer (d. 2005 ) January 28 Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) January 29 Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) January 31 – Joseph Kosuth , American artist February February 1 – Yasuhiro Takai , Japanese professional baseball player (d. 2019 ) February 3 Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer February 4 – John P. Jumper , United States Air Force general February 5 – Sarah Weddington , American attorney (d. 2021 ) February 6 – Bob Marley , Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981 ) February 7 – Gerald Davies , Welsh rugby player February 9 Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] February 10 – Koo Bon-moo , South Korean business executive (d. 2018 ) February 12 Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist February 13 – Simon Schama , English historian [ 68 ] February 14 Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein February 15 – Douglas Hofstadter , American cognitive scientist February 17 – Brenda Fricker , Irish actress [ 69 ] February 18 – Hashem Mahameed , Israeli politician (d. 2018 ) February 22 – Oliver , American singer ( Good Morning Starshine ) (d. 2000 ) February 24 – Barry Bostwick , American actor February 25 – Roy Saari , American swimmer (d. 2008 ) February 26 – Marta Kristen , Norwegian actress ( Lost In Space ) February 27 – Carl Anderson , American singer, actor ( Jesus Christ Superstar ) (d. 2004 ) February 28 Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) March March 1 – Dirk Benedict , American actor March 3 – George Miller , Australian film director March 4 Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player March 7 – Arthur Lee , American musician (d. 2006 ) March 8 Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter March 9 Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer March 10 – Nobuhiko Higashikuni , Japanese Imperial prince (d. 2019 ) March 13 Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician March 14 – Michael Martin Murphey , American country singer-songwriter March 16 – Douglas Ahlstedt , American tenor March 17 Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) March 18 Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist March 20 Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach March 21 – Charles Greene , American Olympic athlete (d. 2022 ) March 26 – Mikhail Voronin , Russian gymnast (d. 2004 ) March 27 – Władysław Stachurski , Polish football player, manager (d. 2013 ) March 28 Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress March 29 Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) March 30 – Eric Clapton , English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter [ 71 ] March 31 Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] April April 2 – Linda Hunt , American actress [ 74 ] April 4 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit , French political activist [ 75 ] April 5 Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) April 12 – Lee Jong-wook , South Korean Director-General of the World Health Organization (d. 2006 ) April 13 Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) April 14 Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa April 20 – Naftali Temu , Kenyan Olympic long-distance runner (d. 2003 ) April 21 – Ana Lúcia Torre , Brazilian actress April 24 – Larry Tesler , American computer scientist (cut, copy, paste) (d. 2020 ) April 25 – Björn Ulvaeus , Swedish rock songwriter ( ABBA ) April 29 – Tammi Terrell , African-American soul singer (d. 1970 ) April 30 – Lara Saint Paul , Eritrean-born Italian singer (d. 2018 ) May May 1 – Rita Coolidge , American pop singer May 2 – Bianca Jagger , Nicaraguan social activist [ 76 ] May 3 – Jeffrey C. Hall , American geneticist and chronobiologist, Nobel Prize laureate May 4 David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist May 6 – Bob Seger , American rock singer May 7 – Robin Strasser , American actress May 8 – Keith Jarrett , American musician [ 77 ] May 9 – Jupp Heynckes , German footballer and manager May 11 Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist May 13 – Tammam Salam , 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon May 14 – Yochanan Vollach , Israeli footballer and president of Maccabi Haifa, CEO May 15 – Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza , heir to the Portuguese crown May 17 – Tony Roche , Australian tennis player May 19 – Pete Townshend , English rock guitarist, lyricist ( The Who ) May 20 – Anton Zeilinger , Austrian quantum physicist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 78 ] May 21 Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut May 22 – Victoria Wyndham , American actress ( Another World ) May 23 Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer May 24 – Priscilla Presley , American actress, businesswoman May 28 Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) May 29 Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) May 30 Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) May 31 Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire June June 1 – Frederica von Stade , American mezzo-soprano June 2 – Jon Peters , American film producer June 3 – Hale Irwin , American professional golfer June 4 – Anthony Braxton , American composer and musical instrumentalist June 5 John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) June 6 – David Dukes , American actor (d. 2000 ) June 7 – Wolfgang Schüssel , Chancellor of Austria June 9 – Nike Wagner , German woman of the theater June 10 – Benny Gallagher , Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist, half of duo Gallagher and Lyle June 11 – Adrienne Barbeau , American actress, television personality and author ( Maude ) June 12 – Pat Jennings , Northern Irish footballer June 14 – Jörg Immendorff , German painter June 15 Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) June 16 Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician June 17 P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist June 19 Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient June 20 – Anne Murray , Canadian singer June 21 Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter June 22 Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) June 23 Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer June 24 George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician June 25 Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army June 26 – Paul Chun , Hong Kong actor June 27 Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School June 28 Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) June 29 – Chandrika Kumaratunga , 5th President of Sri Lanka June 30 Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician July July 1 Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) July 2 – Linda Warren , American author July 3 – Thomas Mapfumo , Zimbabwean musician July 4 Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist July 5 Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor July 6 – Burt Ward , American actor ( Batman ) July 7 Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer July 8 – Micheline Calmy-Rey , Swiss Federal Councilor July 9 Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer July 10 Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) July 11 – Richard Wesley , American playwright, screenwriter July 12 Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player July 14 – Antun Vujić , Croatian politician, philosopher, political analyst, lexicographer and author July 15 Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) July 16 Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter July 17 Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia July 19 Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician July 20 Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat July 21 John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman July 23 – Edie McClurg , American actress July 24 – Azim Premji , Indian businessman July 26 Helen Mirren , British actress Helen Mirren , British actress July 28 – Jim Davis , American cartoonist ( Garfield ) July 30 Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) August August 1 – Douglas Osheroff , American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate August 4 – Alan Mulally , American businessman, CEO of the Ford Motor Company August 5 – Loni Anderson , American actress ( WKRP in Cincinnati ) (d. 2025 ) August 8 – Julie Anne Robinson , British theatre, television, film director and producer August 9 – Posy Simmonds , English cartoonist August 12 Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) August 14 Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer August 15 Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] August 17 – Katri Helena , Finnish singer August 19 – Ian Gillan , English rock singer ( Deep Purple ) August 22 David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) August 24 – Vincent K. "Vince" McMahon , American professional wrestling promoter, chairman and CEO of WWE August 25 – Daniel Hulet , Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011 ) August 26 – Tom Ridge , American politician August 27 – Marianne Sägebrecht , German film actress August 29 Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete August 31 Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor September September 1 – Mustafa Balel , Turkish writer September 5 K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) September 6 – Victor Ramahatra , 5th Prime Minister of Madagascar September 7 – Jacques Lemaire , Canadian ice hockey coach September 8 Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player September 10 – José Feliciano , Puerto Rican-American singer (" Feliz Navidad ") September 11 – Franz Beckenbauer , German footballer and manager (d. 2024 ) September 12 – Richard Thaler , American economist September 14 – Benjamin Harjo Jr. , Native American artist September 15 – Jessye Norman , American soprano (d. 2019 ) September 16 – Pat Stevens , American voice actress (d. 2010 ) September 17 Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor September 18 John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) September 19 - Randolph Mantooth , American actor September 21 Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet September 22 – Gonzaguinha , Brazilian singer, composer (d. 1991 ) September 24 – John Rutter , English choral composer, conductor September 26 – Bryan Ferry , English singer-songwriter and musician ( Roxy Music ) September 27 – Jack Goldstein , Canadian artist (d. 2003 ) September 29 – Nadezhda Chizhova , Russian athlete September 30 Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter October October 1 Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India October 2 Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") October 3 – Viktor Saneyev , Soviet athlete and Olympic champion (d. 2022 ) October 6 – Ivan Graziani , Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1997 ) October 9 Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) October 12 Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) October 18 Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer October 19 Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) October 22 – Yvan Ponton , Canadian actor, sportscaster October 23 – Kim Larsen , Danish rock musician (d. 2018 ) October 24 Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science October 25 Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor October 26 Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) October 27 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) October 29 Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress October 30 – Henry Winkler , American actor, producer and director ( Happy Days ) November November 3 – Gerd Müller , German footballer (d. 2021 ) November 5 – Jacques Lanctôt , Canadian terrorist November 7 Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer November 8 – Joseph James DeAngelo , American serial killer and serial rapist November 9 – Charlie Robinson , African-American actor (d. 2021 ) November 10 – Madeleine Juneau , Canadian museologist November 11 – Daniel Ortega , 58th and 62nd President of Nicaragua November 12 – Neil Young , Canadian singer-songwriter, musician November 15 – Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Norwegian-born rock singer ( ABBA ) November 17 Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria November 18 Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka November 21 – Goldie Hawn , American actress Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician November 22 – Kari Tapio , Finnish singer (d. 2010 ) November 23 – Dennis Nilsen , Scottish serial killer (d. 2018 ) [ 87 ] November 24 – Nuruddin Farah , Somali novelist November 25 – Mary Jo Deschanel , American actress November 26 – John McVie , English rock musician ( Fleetwood Mac ) November 27 Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) November 30 Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) December December 1 Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer December 2 – Tex Watson , American multiple murderer, 'Manson Family' member December 3 – Bozhidar Dimitrov , Bulgarian historian, politician and polemicist (d. 2018 ) December 4 – Geoff Emerick , English recording engineer (d. 2018 ) December 7 – Clive Russell , English actor December 8 – Julie Heldman , American tennis player [ 89 ] December 10 – John Ankerberg , American Christian television host, author and speaker December 11 – Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor December 12 René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) December 15 Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor December 16 – Patti Deutsch , American voice actress (d. 2017 ) December 17 – Ernie Hudson , African-American actor December 18 – Carolyn Wood , American professional swimmer December 19 – Elaine Joyce , American actress, game show panelist December 20 Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) December 21 – Mari Lill , Estonian actress December 22 – Diane Sawyer , American news journalist December 23 – Donald A. Ritchie , American historian December 24 Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer December 25 – Noel Redding , English musician (d. 2003 ) [ 91 ] December 29 – Birendra of Nepal , King of Nepal (d. 2001 ) December 30 – Davy Jones , English-born pop singer, actor ( The Monkees ) (d. 2012 ) December 31 Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Deaths January January 2 – Sir Bertram Ramsay , British admiral (b. 1883 ) January 3 – Edgar Cayce , American mystic (b. 1877 ) January 4 – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno , 3-time President of Costa Rica (b. 1859 ) January 6 Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) January 7 Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) January 9 – Jüri Uluots , 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1890 ) January 10 – Pēteris Juraševskis , 8th Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1872 ) January 12 – Teresio Olivelli , Italian Roman Catholic soldier and venerable (b. 1916 ) January 15 – Pedro Abad Santos , Filipino politician, brother of José Abad Santos (b. 1876 ) January 16 – José Fabella , Filipino physician (b. 1888 ) January 19 Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) January 20 – Federico Pedrocchi , Italian artist, writer (killed on active service) (b. 1907 ) January 21 Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) January 22 – Else Lasker-Schüler , German poet, author (b. 1869 ) January 23 Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) January 29 – Hans Conrad Leipelt , Austrian member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany (executed) (b. 1921 ) January 30 Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) January 31 – Eddie Slovik , American soldier (executed for desertion) (b. 1920 ) [ 96 ] February February (or March) – Anne Frank , German-born Jewish diarist, writer (typhus in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp ) (b. 1929 ) [ 97 ] February 1 Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) February 2 Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) February 3 – Roland Freisler , Nazi German judge (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 5 Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) February 6 – Robert Brasillach , French writer (executed) (b. 1909 ) [ 98 ] February 8 – Robert Mallet-Stevens , French architect, designer (b. 1886 ) February 11 – Al Dubin , Swiss-born American songwriter (b. 1891 ) February 13 – Maria Orosa , Filipino technologist, chemist, humanitarian and WWII heroine (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 16 – Otto Kittel , German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1917 ) [ 99 ] February 18 – Ivan Chernyakhovsky , Soviet general (died of wounds) (b. 1906 ) February 19 – John Basilone , American war hero (killed in action) (b. 1916 ) February 21 – Eric Liddell , British Olympic athlete (in internment camp) (b. 1902 ) February 22 – Sara Josephine Baker , American physician (b. 1873 ) February 23 José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] February 24 – Josef Mayr-Nusser , Italian Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1910 ) February 25 – Mário de Andrade , Brazilian writer, photographer (b. 1893 ) February 26 – Millard Harmon , American general (b. 1888 ) [ 101 ] March March 2 – Emily Carr , Canadian painter (b. 1871 ) March 3 Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) March 4 Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) March 5 – George Alan Vasey , Australian general (killed in military aircraft accident) (b. 1895 ) March 12 – Friedrich Fromm , German Nazi official (executed) (b. 1888 ) March 14 – Francisco Braga , Brazilian composer (b. 1868 ) March 15 – Sava Caracaș , Romanian general (b. 1890 ) March 18 – William Grover-Williams , British/French racing driver, war hero (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 104 ] March 19 – Marcel Callo , French Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (in concentration camp) (b. 1921 ) March 20 – Lord Alfred Douglas , English poet (b. 1870 ) March 22 Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) March 23 – Élisabeth de Rothschild , French WWII heroine (b. 1902 ) March 26 David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) March 27 – Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil , Turkish author (b. 1867 ) March 29 – Ferenc Csik , Hungarian swimmer (air raid victim) (b. 1913 ) March 30 – Maurice Rose , American general (killed in action) (b. 1899 ) [ 105 ] March 31 Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) April April 7 Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) April 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] April 10 Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] April 11 – Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard , British colonial administrator (b. 1858 ) April 12 – Franklin D. Roosevelt , American political leader and statesman, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882 ) April 13 – Ernst Cassirer , German philosopher (b. 1874 ) April 15 – Joachim Albrecht Eggeling , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1884 ) April 18 Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) April 21 Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) April 22 – Käthe Kollwitz , German artist (b. 1867 ) April 23 – Klaus Bonhoeffer , German resistance fighter, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1901 ) April 24 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz , German SS Reichsphysician (suicide) (b. 1899 ) April 28 Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) April 29 – Achille Starace , Italian Fascist politician (executed) (b. 1889 ) April 30 Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) May May 1 Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) May 2 Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) May 3 – Mario Blasich , Italian physician, politician (b. 1878 ) May 4 – Fedor von Bock , German field marshal (killed in action) (b. 1880 ) [ 108 ] May 6 – Xhem Hasa , Albanian nationalist (assassinated) (b. 1908 ) May 7 – Vladimir Boyarsky , Soviet army officer (executed) (b. 1901 ) May 8 Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 9 – Gustav Becking , German musicologist (b. 1894 ) May 10 – Konrad Henlein , Sudeten German Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 11 Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] May 14 Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) May 15 Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) May 16 – Kaju Sugiura , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1896 ) May 18 – William Joseph Simmons , American founder of the second Ku Klux Klan (b. 1880 ) May 19 – Philipp Bouhler , German Nazi leader and general (suicide) (b. 1899 ) May 21 – Prince Kan'in Kotohito , Japanese prince, member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (b. 1865 ) May 23 – Heinrich Himmler , German politician, Reichsführer-SS (suicide) (b. 1900 ) May 24 – Robert Ritter von Greim , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1892 ) May 25 Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] May 31 Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) June June 4 – Georg Kaiser , German dramatist (b. 1878 ) June 7 – Kitaro Nishida , Japanese philosopher (b. 1870 ) June 8 Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) June 11 – Lurana W. Sheldon , American author and editor (b. 1862 ) June 13 – Minoru Ōta , Japanese admiral (suicide) (b. 1891 ) June 15 Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) June 16 Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) June 18 Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) June 20 Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) June 22 Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) June 24 – José Gutiérrez Solana , Spanish painter (b. 1886 ) June 27 – Emil Hácha , 3rd President of Czechoslovakia , State President of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1872 ) June 30 Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) July July 1 – Félix Evaristo Mejía , Dominican diplomat, educator and writer (b. 1866 ) July 2 – Óscar R. Benavides , Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, politician and President of Peru (b. 1876 ) July 5 – John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885 ) July 7 – Peter To Rot , Papuan Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1912 ) July 9 – Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti , Italian politician, diplomat (b. 1876 ) July 12 Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) July 13 – Alla Nazimova , Russian-born American actress (b. 1879 ) July 17 – Ernst Busch , German field marshal, as prisoner of war (b. 1885 ) July 20 – Paul Valéry , French poet (b. 1871 ) July 24 – Arnold von Winckler , German general (b. 1856 ) July 25 – Malin Craig , United States Army general (b. 1875 ) July 28 – Margot Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith (b. 1864 ) July 29 – Maria Pierina De Micheli , Italian Roman Catholic religious sister, mystic and blessed (b. 1890 ) July 31 – Artemio Ricarte , Filipino general (b. 1866 ) August August 1 – Blas Cabrera Felipe , Spanish physicist (b. 1878 ) August 2 – Pietro Mascagni , Italian composer (b. 1863 ) August 3 – Roman Kochanowski , Polish painter, illustrator (b. 1857 ) August 4 – Gerhard Gentzen , German mathematician and logician (starvation in prison camp) (b. 1909 ) August 5 – Nat Jaffe , American swing jazz pianist (b. 1918 ) August 7 – Jacques Vaillant de Guélis , British/French WWII hero (injuries received in automobile accident) (b. 1907 ) August 8 – Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane , French flatulist (b. 1857 ) August 9 Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) August 10 – Robert H. Goddard , American rocket scientist (b. 1882 ) August 12 – Karl Leisner , German Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1915 ) August 15 Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) August 16 – Takijirō Ōnishi , Japanese admiral (ritual suicide) (b. 1891 ) August 18 Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) August 24 – Shizuichi Tanaka , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1887 ) August 25 – Willis Augustus Lee , American admiral, Olympic shooter (b. 1888 ) August 26 Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) August 27 – Blessed María Pilar Izquierdo Albero , Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed (b. 1906 ) August 29 – Fritz Pfleumer , German engineer, inventor (b. 1881 ) August 30 – Florencio Harmodio Arosemena , 6th President of Panama (b. 1872 ) August 31 Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) September September 6 Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) September 9 – Aage Bertelsen , Danish painter (b. 1873 ) September 12 – Hajime Sugiyama , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1880 ) September 15 Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) September 16 – John McCormack , Irish tenor (b. 1884 ) September 18 José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) September 20 Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) September 24 – Hans Geiger , German physicist, inventor (b. 1882 ) September 26 Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) October October 1 – Walter Bradford Cannon , American physiologist (b. 1871 ) [ 119 ] October 6 – Leonardo Conti , German physician, Nazi officer (suicide) (b. 1900 ) October 8 – Felix Salten , Austrian author (b. 1869 ) [ 120 ] October 10 – Joseph Darnand , Vichy French politician (executed) (b. 1897 ) October 12 – Dmytro Antonovych , Soviet politician (b. 1877 ) October 13 – Milton S. Hershey , American chocolate tycoon (b. 1857 ) October 15 – Pierre Laval , French politician, 2-time Prime Minister of France (executed) (b. 1883 ) [ 59 ] October 18 – Frederick Hovey , American tennis player (b. 1868 ) October 19 Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) October 21 Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] October 24 Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) October 25 – Robert Ley , German Nazi politician (suicide) (b. 1890 ) October 26 Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) October 30 – Xian Xinghai , Chinese composer (b. 1905 ) October 31 Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) November November 8 – August von Mackensen , German field marshal (b. 1849 ) November 11 – Jerome Kern , American composer (b. 1885 ) [ 123 ] November 13 – Sir Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair , British admiral (b. 1865 ) [ 124 ] November 16 – Sigurður Eggerz , Minister for Iceland during World War I and 2nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1875 ) November 17 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1882 ) November 20 – Francis William Aston , British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877 ) November 21 Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] November 23 – Charles Coborn , British singer (b. 1852 ) November 27 – Josep Maria Sert , Spanish Catalan muralist (b. 1874 ) November 28 – Dwight F. Davis , American tennis player (b. 1879 ) November 30 – Shigeru Honjō , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1876 ) December December 1 – Anton Dostler , German general (executed) (b. 1891 ) December 4 Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] December 5 – Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1864 ) December 8 – Gabriellino D'Annunzio , Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1886 ) December 12 – Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1868 ) December 13 Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) December 14 – Forrester Harvey , Irish actor (b. 1884 ) December 16 Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) December 19 – Leonard F. Wing , American general and politician (b. 1893 ) [ 129 ] December 21 – George S. Patton , American general (injuries from automobile accident) (b. 1885 ) [ 130 ] December 22 – Otto Neurath , Austrian philosopher, political economist (b. 1892 ) December 26 Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) December 28 – Theodore Dreiser , American novelist (b. 1871 ) [ 131 ] Nobel Prizes Physics – Wolfgang Pauli Chemistry – Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Physiology or Medicine – Sir Alexander Fleming , Ernst Chain , Howard Florey Literature – Gabriela Mistral Peace – Cordell Hull References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What Was 1945 a Turning Point - 1377 Words | Bartleby" . ^ Girbig, Werner (1975). 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January 6, 2024. ^ "LIEUTENANT GENERAL MILLARD F. HARMON" . Air Force . [ dead link ] ^ Hill, Alec (1979). " 'Chauvel, Sir Henry George (Harry) (1865–1945)' " . Australian Dictionary of Biography . National Centre of Biography, Australian National University . ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7 . ISSN 1833-7538 . OCLC 70677943 . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . ^ "Preview unavailable" . ProQuest . ProQuest 107039613 . ^ "Casualty Details | CWGC" . www.cwgc.org . Retrieved March 8, 2021 . ^ MG Maurice Rose ^ "Georg Elser" . www.gdw-berlin.de . Retrieved January 4, 2025 . ^ "Ontdek amateurschilder, drukker, fotograaf Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman" . rkd.nl . ^ Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945 . London: Allen Lane. p. 750. ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . ^ Wallace, Sam (January 25, 2020). "The imperishable story of Julius Hirsch: the great goalscorer murdered at Auschwitz who adorns Stamford Bridge mural" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. ^ Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (November 3, 2009). Danger's Hour: The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot Who Crippled Her . Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-6081-7 . ^ "AAFA Bio - Kenneth J. Alford" . ^ "Ishii Kikujiro | Biography & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . March 15, 2024. ^ "Boris Galerkin" . TheFreeDictionary.com . ^ Harry Hillman Taken by Death, Cumberland News , August 10, 1945 ^ Firoz Alam (October 1, 2009). Subhas Chandra Bose . Sahni Publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-7564-242-3 . ^ Fildes, P. (February 13, 1956). "Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer, 1858-1945" . Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 2 (2): 237– 247. doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1956.0016 . S2CID 73380545 . ^ .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} Stevens, Halsey. 2018. " Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer ". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018). ^ "Kaupisch, Leonhard" (in German). lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ "Dr. W.B. Cannon, 73, Neurologist, Dead. Harvard Psychology Professor for 36 Years Noted for His Work on Traumatic Shock Became Professor in 1906" . New York Times . October 2, 1945 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 . ^ "Felix Salten | Austrian novelist | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . September 2, 2023. ^ "Felicija Bortkevičienė" . www.vle.lt . ^ Franklin Carmichael ^ Hugh Fordin, Stephen Sondheim (1995). Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II . Da Capo Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-306-80668-1 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ [Sinclair, Sir Edwyn Sinclair Alexander-, of Freswick (1865–1945)] ^ Billy Altman, Laughter's Gentle Soul: The Life of Robert Benchley . (New York City: W. W. Norton , 1997. ISBN 0-393-03833-5 ) Pages 352–362 ^ Inge, Tonette Bond. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture , ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William R. Ferris. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 884. ^ FC, Celtic. "Jimmy Quinn" . Celtic FC . ^ Siegman, Joseph (2020). Jewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496222121 . ^ Wing, Leonard Fish ^ Axelrod, Alan (2006), Patton: A Biography , London : Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 168– 9, ISBN 978-1-4039-7139-5 ^ Theodore Dreiser Recalled . Clemson University Press. 2017. p. 311. ISBN 9781942954446 . Further reading Ian Buruma . Year Zero: A History of 1945 (Penguin Press; 2013) 368 pages; covers liberation, revenge, decolonization, and the rise of the United Nations. excerpt International News Service, It Happened In 1945 The Essential Year Book (1946) Keith Lowe. Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (2012) excerpt and text search McDannald, A. H. ed. The Americana Annual 1946 (1946) events of 1945 online ; encyclopedia yearbook global coverage in 950pp Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, 4 vol., encyclopedia yearbook online v t e Events by month v t e 1949 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1948 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1947 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1946 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1945 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1944 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1943 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1942 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1941 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1940 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1945 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2022 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with dead external links from February 2023 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with dead external links from March 2025 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from August 2019 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 01:14 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . 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The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Turner, Graham (27 March 1994). "How to Write a Best-Seller" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 37 . Retrieved 28 May 2025 . ^ "Hardbacks." Books. Sunday Times , June 12, 1988, 15[S5]. The Sunday Times Historical Archive. ^ Lewis, Tim (29 September 2024). " 'Are you good in bed?' Jilly Cooper on horses, lefties and which fictional character she would like to sleep with" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Bell, Jane (13 May 1992). "Jilly Makes a Mint". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 6. ^ "Judging a Book by its Bonk" . Avidly . 19 February 2013 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "Jilly Cooper: 'People were always coming up to us at parties and asking us to bed' " . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 April 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1992). Polo: A Legend of Fair Women and Brave Men . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-13552-8 . ^ Vlietstra, Amanda (13 September 2016). "5 (slightly naughty) reasons we're overexcited about Jilly Cooper's new book" . Horse & Hound . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ "A love letter to Jilly Cooper" . Red Online . 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ a b c d Flood, Alison (9 August 2010). "Jilly Cooper: Queen of the bonkbuster" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Walter, Natascha (22 May 1993). "The art of coarse litrutshire" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Oates, Quentin (30 April 1993). "Jilly goes solo – super". The Bookseller . p. 46. ^ Agg, Jennie (9 February 2023). Life, Almost: Miscarriage, Misconceptions and a Search for Answers from the Brink of Motherhood . Random House. ISBN 978-1-5291-9294-0 . ^ a b "Classical Music: Sex, Chopin and subterfuge - Music, Arts & Entertainment - The Independent" . Independent.co.uk . 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2025 . ^ Rasmussen, Sonja. "24 May 1996". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 25. ^ a b Morley, Christopher (11 April 1996). "A wild tale of sex and drugs and barcarolles". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 14. ^ Campbell-Alexander, Melanie (25 April 1996). "Appassionata". Country Life . p. 85. ^ Ryan, Liz (19 April 1996). "Pointless orchestra tale is the pits". Evening Herald . p. 22. ^ Roberts, Gabriel (14 May 1999). "Jolly Jilly scores with new bonkbuster". Gloucester Citizen . p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Patterson, Ian (17 May 2017). "Miss Dior, Prodigally Applied" . London Review of Books . Vol. 39, no. 10. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Barker, Christine (15 May 1999). "True blue Jilly scores another winner". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 60. ^ a b MacFarlane, Robert (5 May 2002). "Laughing all the way to the bonk" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Letts, Quentin (11 April 2012). "Fumbling for right touch in Larkshire" . The Standard . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Holden, Wendy (13 May 2002). "Foreskin Saga". New Statesman . Vol. 131, no. 4587. ISSN 1364-7431 . ^ Elliott, Giles. "Da Vinci doubles up: Dan Brown's novel takes the top two spots in the chart with sales of his books set to pass 10 million in the UK this week." The Bookseller , no. 5230, 19 May 2006, p. 17. ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 April 2006). "Jilly Cooper goes back to school" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Martin, Tim (20 May 2006). "Wicked! by Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Briscoe, Joanna (13 May 2006). "Larks with toffs and oiks!" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ a b Laing, Olivia (12 September 2010). "Jump! by Jilly Cooper" . The Observer . Retrieved 26 April 2021 . ^ "Jilly Cooper takes revenge on critic by naming goat after her" . The Daily Telegraph . London. 11 October 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 April 2018 . ^ "Jilly Cooper - Meet the Author - Suffolk Libraries" . www.suffolklibraries.co.uk . Archived from the original on 25 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Radloff, Lili. "Book review: Mount by Jilly Cooper" . Life . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper's ninth 'bonkbuster' falls short" . www.stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 . Retrieved 25 May 2025 . ^ Bird, Orlando (8 September 2016). "Mount! by Jilly Cooper, review – 'back to basics' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Williams, Zoe (8 November 2023). "Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . 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[ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Friedrich Schelling (1775–1854) coined the word, and Friedrich Welcker (1784–1868) used it to depict primitive monotheism among ancient Greeks. [ 4 ] Max Müller (1823–1900), a British philologist and orientalist , brought the term into wider usage in his scholarship on the Indian religions , [ 5 ] [ 6 ] particularly Hinduism , whose scriptures mention and praise numerous deities as if they are one ultimate unitary divine essence. [ 2 ] Müller made the term central to his criticism of Western theological and religious exceptionalism (relative to Eastern religions ), focusing on a cultural dogma which held "monotheism" to be both fundamentally well-defined and inherently superior to differing concepts of God . [ 7 ] Definition and terminology Friedrich Schelling coined the German term Henotheismus from Greek ἕν (hén) ' one ' and German Theismus 'theism' (which comes from Greek θεός (theós) ' god ' ). [ 2 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] The term refers to a form of theism focused on a single god. Related terms are monolatry and kathenotheism . [ 3 ] The latter term is an extension of "henotheism", from καθ' ἕνα θεόν (kath' hena theon) ' "one god at a time" ' . [ 10 ] Henotheism refers to a pluralistic theology wherein different deities are viewed to be of a unitary, equivalent divine essence. [ 2 ] Another term related to henotheism is "equitheism", referring to the belief that all gods are equal. [ 11 ] Furthermore, the term henotheism does not exclude monism , nondualism , or dualism . [ 6 ] Various scholars prefer the term monolatry to henotheism, to discuss religions where a single god is central, but the existence or the position of other gods is not denied. [ 3 ] [ 9 ] According to Christoph Elsas, henotheism in modern usage connotes a syncretic stage in the development of religions in late antiquity. A henotheist may worship a single god from a pantheon of deities at a given time, depending on his or her choice, while accepting other deities and concepts of god. [ 2 ] [ 6 ] Henotheism and inclusive monotheism are terms that refer to a middle position between unlimited polytheism and exclusive monotheism. [ 3 ] Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism is often regarded as one of the oldest monotheistic religions in the world. Although Ahura Mazda is the supreme god, Zoroastrianism believes in lesser divinities known as Yazatas. [ 12 ] These yazatas ("good agents") include Anahita , Sraosha , Mithra , Rashnu , and Tishtrya . According to some scholars, there are two issues that have long made it problematic to identify Zoroastrianism as true monotheism: the presence of lesser deities and dualism. But before hastening to conclude that the Amesha Spentas and the other yazatas compromise the purity of monotheism, we should consider that the other historical monotheisms too made room for other figures endowed with supernatural powers to bridge the gulf between the exalted, remote Creator God and the human world: the angels in all of them (whose conception in post-exilic Judaism was apparently developed after the pattern of the Amesha Spentas; Boyce and Grenet, 1991, 404–405), the saints and the Virgin Mary in several Christian churches, and the other persons of the Trinity in all of Christianity. Despite the vast differences with Zoroastrian theology, the common thread is that all these beings are subordinate to the Godhead as helpers or (in the case of the persons of the Trinity) co-equals, hence they do not pursue different interests and are worshiped jointly with the Godhead, not separately; therefore the supplicant's dilemma does not arise. [ 12 ] Others such as Richard Foltz has put forth evidence that Iranians of Pre-Islamic era worshipped all these figures, especially Mithra and Anahita. [ 13 ] Prods Oktor Skjærvø states Zoroastrianism is henotheistic, and "a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos". [ 14 ] Other scholars state that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in "one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism". [ 15 ] Hinduism To what is One They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly-winged Garutman. To what is One, sages give many a title. To what is One They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly-winged Garutman. To what is One, sages give many a title. Henotheism was the term used by scholars such as Max Müller to describe the theology of Vedic religion . [ 18 ] [ 2 ] Müller noted that the hymns of the Rigveda , the oldest scripture of Hinduism, mention many deities, but praises them successively as the "one ultimate, supreme God", alternatively as "one supreme Goddess", [ 19 ] thereby asserting that the essence of the deities was unitary ( ekam ), and the deities were nothing but pluralistic manifestations of the same concept of the divine (God). [ 2 ] [ 6 ] [ 9 ] The Vedic era conceptualization of the divine or the One, states Jeaneane Fowler, is more abstract than a monotheistic God, it is the Reality behind and of the phenomenal universe. [ 20 ] The Vedic hymns treat it as "limitless, indescribable, absolute principle", thus the Vedic divine is something of a panentheism rather than simple henotheism. [ 20 ] In late Vedic era, around the start of Upanishadic age (~800 BCE), theosophical speculations emerge that develop concepts which scholars variously call nondualism or monism , as well as forms of non-theism and pantheism . [ 20 ] [ 21 ] [ 22 ] An example of the questioning of the concept of God, in addition to henotheistic hymns found therein, are in later portions of the Rigveda , such as the Nasadiya Sukta . [ 23 ] Hinduism calls the metaphysical absolute concept as Brahman , incorporating within it the transcendent and immanent reality. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] Different schools of thought interpret Brahman as either personal , impersonal or transpersonal. Ishwar Chandra Sharma describes it as "Absolute Reality, beyond all dualities of existence and non-existence, light and darkness, and of time, space and cause." [ 27 ] Hellenistic religion While Greek and Roman religion began as polytheism , during the Classical period, under the influence of philosophy, differing conceptions emerged. Often Zeus (or Jupiter ) was considered the supreme, all-powerful and all-knowing king and father of the Olympian gods. According to Maijastina Kahlos , "monotheism was pervasive in the educated circles in Late Antiquity" and "all divinities were interpreted as aspects, particles or epithets of one supreme God". [ 28 ] (pp 145, 160) Maximus Tyrius (2nd century CE) stated: "In such a mighty contest, sedition and discord, you will see one according law and assertion in all the earth, that there is one God, the king and father of all things, and many gods, sons of God, ruling together with him." [ 29 ] The Neoplatonic philosopher Plotinus taught that above the gods of traditional belief was "The One". [ 28 ] (pp 145, 160) Maximus, the polytheist grammarian of Madauros , [ 28 ] (pp 70) even stated that "only a madman would deny the existence of the supreme God". [ 28 ] (pp 145, 160) Canaanite religion and Yahwism Second Temple Judaism and Rabbinical Judaism are emphatically monotheistic; however, its predecessor—the worship of Yahweh as it was practiced in ancient Israel during the 9th and 8th centuries BCE ( Yahwism )—has been described as henotheistic or monolatric . For example, the Moabites worshipped the god Chemosh , the Edomites , Qaus , both of whom were part of the greater Canaanite pantheon, headed by the chief god, El . The Canaanite pantheon consisted of El and Asherah as the chief deities, with 70 sons who were said to rule over each of the nations of the earth, each being worshiped within a specific region. Kurt Noll states that "the Bible preserves a tradition that Yahweh used to 'live' in the south, in the land of Edom" and that the original god of Israel was El Shaddai . [ 30 ] Deuteronomy 32:8-9 is often interpreted as depicting El assigning Yahweh to rule over Israel. [ 31 ] Several biblical stories allude to the belief that the Canaanite gods all existed and were thought to possess the most power in the lands by the people who worshiped them and their sacred objects; their power was believed to be real and could be invoked by the people who patronized them. There are numerous accounts of surrounding nations of Israel showing fear or reverence for the Israelite God despite their continued polytheistic practices. [ 32 ] For instance, in 1 Samuel 4, the Philistines fret before the second battle of Aphek when they learn that the Israelites are bearing the Ark of the Covenant , and therefore Yahweh, into battle. The Israelites were forbidden to worship other deities; according to some interpretations of the Bible, they were not fully monotheistic before the Babylonian captivity . The biblical scholar Mark S. Smith refers to this stage as a form of monolatry . [ 33 ] Smith argues that Yahweh underwent a process of merging with El and that acceptance of cults of Asherah was common in the period of the Judges. [ 33 ] 2 Kings 3:27 has been interpreted as describing a human sacrifice in Moab that led the invading Israelite army to fear the power of Chemosh . [ 34 ] In Christianity Paul the Apostle , in his First Epistle to the Corinthians , writes that "we know that an idol is nothing" and "that there is none other God but one". [ 35 ] He argues in verse 5 that "for though there be that are called gods, whether in heaven or in earth", "but to us there is but one God". Some translators of verse 5 put the words "gods" and "lords" in quotes to indicate that they are gods or lords only so-called . [ 36 ] In his Second Epistle to the Corinthians , Paul refers to "the god of this world", [ 37 ] which the 18th-century theologian John Gill interpreted as a reference to Satan or the material things put before God, such as money, rather than acknowledging any separate deity from God. [ 38 ] The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Some scholars have written that the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) can be characterized as henotheistic but others have rejected that stance. Eugene England , a professor at Brigham Young University , asserted that LDS Presidents Brigham Young and Joseph Fielding Smith along with the LDS scholar B. H. Roberts used the LDS interpretation of 1 Corinthians 8:5–6 as "a brief explanation of how it is possible to be both a Christian polytheist (technically a henotheist) and a monotheist". [ 39 ] BYU Professor Roger R. Keller rejected descriptions of the LDS Church as polytheistic by countering, as summarized by a reviewer, "Mormons are fundamentally monotheistic because they deal with only one god out of the many which exist." [ 40 ] In their book, Mormon America: The Power and the Promise , Richard and Joan Ostling , wrote that some Mormons are comfortable describing themselves as henotheists. [ 41 ] Kurt Widmer, professor at the University of Lethbridge , described LDS beliefs as a "cosmic henotheism". [ 42 ] A review of Widmer's book by Bruening and Paulsen in the FARMS Review of Books countered that Widmer's hypothesis was "strongly disconfirmed in light of the total evidence". [ 43 ] Van Hale wrote that "Mormonism teaches the existence of gods who are not the Father, Son, or Holy Ghost" and "the existence of more than one god [is] clearly a Mormon doctrine", but he also said that defining this belief system in theological terms was troublesome. According to Van Hale, henotheism might appear to be "promising" in describing LDS beliefs but is ultimately not accurate because henotheism was intended to describe the worship of a god that was restricted to a specific geographical area. [ 44 ] Japanese religions In Japan, many Japanese new religions can be considered to be monotheistic (such as Tenrikyo ) [ 45 ] or henotheistic (such as Konkokyo ). [ 46 ] See also Comparative religion Henosis – Mystical "oneness", "union", or "unity" in classical Greek King of the gods – A tendency for one divinity, usually male, to achieve preeminence Monolatry – It is the belief in the existence of many gods, but with the consistent worship of only one deity. Religion Mythology Hinduism Christianity Judaism Islam References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Noll, K.L. (2001). Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction . Sheffield Academic Press. p. 249. ISBN 978-1-84127-318-1 . From many of the examples provided above, it should be clear that the best preserved example of Iron Age Canaanite henotheism is the anthology we call the Jewish Bible (Christian Old Testament). Although the Bible contains a few late additions designed to transform its religion into monotheism, the overwhelming majority of its texts are henotheistic. To be more precise, the Bible usually expresses monolatry, which is a more extreme form of henotheism. Whereas henotheism believes in many gods, but with one supremely powerful god, monolatry believes in many gods, but with only one god that is worthy of worship. Thus, the monolatrist is a henotheist who acknowledges lesser gods but refuses to worship them. ^ a b c d e f g Charles Taliaferro; Victoria S. Harrison; Stewart Goetz (2012). The Routledge Companion to Theism . Routledge. pp. 78– 79. ISBN 978-1-136-33823-6 . Archived from the original on 2023-01-15 . Retrieved 2016-10-15 . ^ a b c d Monotheism Archived 2017-12-29 at the Wayback Machine and Polytheism Archived 2020-11-11 at the Wayback Machine , Encyclopædia Britannica (2014) ^ Robert Karl Gnuse (1997). No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel . Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 132–133 with footnote 6. ISBN 978-1-85075-657-6 . ^ Müller, Max. (1878) Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion: As Illustrated by the Religions of India. London:Longmans, Green and Co. ^ a b c d Ilai Alon; Ithamar Gruenwald; Itamar Singer (1994). Concepts of the Other in Near Eastern Religions . BRILL Academic. pp. 370– 371. ISBN 978-9004102200 . ^ Muller, F. M. (1907). Thoughts on Life and Religion / An Aftermath from the Writings of The Right Honourable Professor Max Müller . Edinburgh: T. and A. Constable, Printers to His Majesty. ^ "Definition of HENOTHEISM" . Archived from the original on 2022-10-24 . Retrieved 2022-10-24 . ^ a b c Christoph Elsas (1999). Erwin Fahlbusch (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Christianity . Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 524. ISBN 978-90-04-11695-5 . ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary: kathenotheism" . Archived from the original on 2009-06-29 . Retrieved 2009-06-24 . ^ Carl Olson (2007). The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction . Rutgers University Press. pp. 8– 9. ISBN 978-0-8135-4068-9 . ^ a b Ferrero, Mario (2021). "From Polytheism to Monotheism: Zoroaster and Some Economic Theory" . Homo Oeconomicus . 38 ( 1– 4): 77– 108. doi : 10.1007/s41412-021-00113-4 . ^ Richard Foltz , "Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present", Oneworld Publications, 2013, p. xiv ^ Prods Oktor Skjærvø (2006), Introduction to Zoroastrianism Archived 2017-07-13 at the Wayback Machine , 2005, Harvard University Archives, p. 15 with footnote 1 ^ Brian Arthur Brown (2016). Four Testaments: Tao Te Ching, Analects, Dhammapada, Bhagavad Gita: Sacred Scriptures of Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Hinduism . Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 347– 349. ISBN 978-1-4422-6578-3 . ^ Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010). A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition . State University of New York Press. pp. 103 with footnote 10 on page 529. ISBN 978-0-7914-8011-3 . ^ See also, Griffith's Rigveda translation: Wikisource Archived 2019-05-06 at the Wayback Machine ^ Sugirtharajah, Sharada, Imagining Hinduism: A Postcolonial Perspective , Routledge, 2004, p.44; ^ William A. Graham (1993). Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion . Cambridge University Press. pp. 70– 71. ISBN 978-0-521-44820-8 . ^ a b c Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002). Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism . Sussex Academic Press. pp. 43– 44. ISBN 978-1-898723-93-6 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ James L. Ford (2016). The Divine Quest, East and West: A Comparative Study of Ultimate Realities . State University of New York Press. pp. 308– 309. ISBN 978-1-4384-6055-0 . ^ Ninian Smart (2013). The Yogi and the Devotee (Routledge Revivals): The Interplay Between the Upanishads and Catholic Theology . Routledge. pp. 46– 47, 117. ISBN 978-1-136-62933-4 . ^ Jessica Frazier (2013). Russell Re Manning (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology . Oxford University Press. pp. 172– 173. ISBN 978-0-19-161171-1 . ^ PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, ISBN 978-1406732627 , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII ^ Jeffrey Brodd (2003). World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery . Saint Mary's Press. pp. 43– 45. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5 . ^ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684 , page 91 ^ Ishwar Chandra Sharma, Ethical Philosophies of India , Harper & Row, 1970, p.75. ^ a b c d Kahlos, Maijastina (2007). Debate and Dialogue: Christian and pagan cultures c. 360–430 . Ashgate Publishing. ^ Tyrius, Maximus (1804). "Dissertation I. What God is according to Plato". In Taylor, Thomas (ed.). The Dissertations of Maximus Tyrius . p. 5. ^ K. L. Noll Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction , Continuum, 2002, p.123 ^ Hansen, Christopher M. (7 November 2022). "The Many Gods of Deuteronomy: A Response to Michael Heiser's Interpretation of Deut. 32: 8–9" . Alternative Spirituality and Religion Review . 13 (1): 76– 94. doi : 10.5840/asrr202261792 . ^ David Bridger, Samuel Wolk et al., The New Jewish Encyclopedia , Behrman House, 1976, pp.326-7 ^ a b Mark S. Smith, The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel , Eerdmans Publishing, 2002, pp.58, 183 ^ Gregory A. Boyd, God at War: The Bible & Spiritual Conflict , InterVarsity Press, 1997, p.118 ^ Bible , 1 Corinthians 8:4–6 ^ "1 Corinthians 8:5b, in the NKJV and several versions" . blueletterbible.org . Archived from the original on 27 May 2015 . Retrieved 19 March 2013 . ^ 2 Corinthians 4:4 ^ Gill, John. John Gill's Exposition of the Bible . pp. 2 Corinthians 4:4. ^ Englund, Eugene. "The Weeping God of Mormonism". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought , 35(1), Spring 2002, pp. 63–80. ^ Sillman, H. Jeffrey. "A One-Sided Dialogue", Sunstone , June 1989, pp. 48–49 (review of Roger R. Keller's "Reformed Christians and Mormon Christians: Let's Talk", Ann Arbor, Michigan: Pryor Pettengill, 1986) ^ Osterling, Richard and Osterline, Joan (2007). Mormon America: the power and the promise . HarperCollins. p. 310 ^ Kurt Widmer. Mormonism and the Nature of God: A Theological Evolution, 1830–1915 . Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2000, p. 158 ^ Bruening, Ari D. and Paulsen, David L.. "The Development of the Mormon Understanding of God: Early Mormon Modalism and Early Myths". FARMS Review of Books 13/2 (2001), pp. 109–169. ^ Hale, Van. "Defining the Mormon Doctrine of Deity: What Can Theological Terminology Tell Us About Our Own Beliefs?" Sunstone 10 (January 1985), pp. 23–27. ^ Amis, Joel (2015). The Japanese new religion Oomoto : reconciliation of nativist and internationalist trends (Master's thesis). Université du Québec à Montréal. ^ D., John (2018-02-05). "Konkokyo priestess interview (Bernkastel)" . Green Shinto . Retrieved 2025-05-03 . External links What are Henotheism and Monolatry? 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Seddiqin Nyayakusumanjali Ontological Anselm Gödel Meinongian Modal Mulla Sadra Pascal's wager Reason Proper basis and Reformed epistemology Responses to the problem of evil Teleological Natural law Watchmaker Testimony Historical events Historical personages Trademark Transcendental Beauty Christological Trilemma Resurrection Trilemma Resurrection Consciousness Cosmological Kalam cosmological Contingency Metaphysical Kalam cosmological Contingency Metaphysical Degree Desire Experience Existential choice Fine-tuned universe Knowledge Love Mathematics Miracles Morality Mystical idealism Natural-law Necessary existent Seddiqin Seddiqin Nyayakusumanjali Ontological Anselm Gödel Meinongian Modal Mulla Sadra Anselm Gödel Meinongian Modal Mulla Sadra Pascal's wager Reason Proper basis and Reformed epistemology Responses to the problem of evil Teleological Natural law Watchmaker Natural law Watchmaker Testimony Historical events Historical personages Historical events Historical personages 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Blaise Pascal Desiderius Erasmus Baruch Spinoza Nicolas Malebranche Gottfried W Leibniz William Wollaston Thomas Chubb David Hume Baron d'Holbach Immanuel Kant Johann G Herder 1800 1850 Friedrich Schleiermacher Karl C F Krause Georg W F Hegel Thomas Carlyle William Whewell Ludwig Feuerbach Søren Kierkegaard Karl Marx Albrecht Ritschl Afrikan Spir 1880 1900 Ernst Haeckel W K Clifford Friedrich Nietzsche Harald Høffding William James Vladimir Solovyov Ernst Troeltsch Rudolf Otto Lev Shestov Sergei Bulgakov Pavel Florensky Ernst Cassirer Joseph Maréchal 1920 postwar George Santayana Bertrand Russell Martin Buber René Guénon Paul Tillich Karl Barth Emil Brunner Rudolf Bultmann Gabriel Marcel Reinhold Niebuhr Charles Hartshorne Mircea Eliade Frithjof Schuon J L Mackie Walter Kaufmann Martin Lings Peter Geach George I Mavrodes William Alston Antony Flew 1970 1990 2010 William L Rowe Dewi Z Phillips Alvin Plantinga Anthony Kenny Nicholas Wolterstorff Richard Swinburne Robert Merrihew Adams Ravi Zacharias Peter van Inwagen Daniel Dennett Loyal Rue Jean-Luc Marion William Lane Craig Ali Akbar Rashad Alexander Pruss Ancient and medieval Anselm of Canterbury Augustine of Hippo Avicenna Averroes Boethius Gaudapada Gaunilo of Marmoutiers Pico della Mirandola Heraclitus King James VI and I Marcion of Sinope Maimonides Adi Shankara Thomas Aquinas William of Ockham Anselm of Canterbury Augustine of Hippo Avicenna Averroes Boethius Gaudapada Gaunilo of Marmoutiers Pico della Mirandola Heraclitus King James VI and I Marcion of Sinope Maimonides Adi Shankara Thomas Aquinas William of Ockham Early modern Augustin Calmet René Descartes Blaise Pascal Desiderius Erasmus Baruch Spinoza Nicolas Malebranche Gottfried W Leibniz William Wollaston Thomas Chubb David Hume Baron d'Holbach Immanuel Kant Johann G Herder Augustin Calmet René Descartes Blaise Pascal Desiderius Erasmus Baruch Spinoza Nicolas Malebranche Gottfried W Leibniz William Wollaston Thomas Chubb David Hume Baron d'Holbach Immanuel Kant Johann G Herder 1800 1850 Friedrich Schleiermacher Karl C F Krause Georg W F Hegel Thomas Carlyle William Whewell Ludwig Feuerbach Søren Kierkegaard Karl Marx Albrecht Ritschl Afrikan Spir Friedrich Schleiermacher Karl C F Krause Georg W F Hegel Thomas Carlyle William Whewell Ludwig Feuerbach Søren Kierkegaard Karl Marx Albrecht Ritschl Afrikan Spir 1880 1900 Ernst Haeckel W K Clifford Friedrich Nietzsche Harald Høffding William James Vladimir Solovyov Ernst Troeltsch Rudolf Otto Lev Shestov Sergei Bulgakov Pavel Florensky Ernst Cassirer Joseph Maréchal Ernst Haeckel W K Clifford Friedrich Nietzsche Harald Høffding William James Vladimir Solovyov Ernst Troeltsch Rudolf Otto Lev Shestov Sergei Bulgakov Pavel Florensky Ernst Cassirer Joseph Maréchal 1920 postwar George Santayana Bertrand Russell Martin Buber René Guénon Paul Tillich Karl Barth Emil Brunner Rudolf Bultmann Gabriel Marcel Reinhold Niebuhr Charles Hartshorne Mircea Eliade Frithjof Schuon J L Mackie Walter Kaufmann Martin Lings Peter Geach George I Mavrodes William Alston Antony Flew George Santayana Bertrand Russell Martin Buber René Guénon Paul Tillich Karl Barth Emil Brunner Rudolf Bultmann Gabriel Marcel Reinhold Niebuhr Charles Hartshorne Mircea Eliade Frithjof Schuon J L Mackie Walter Kaufmann Martin Lings Peter Geach George I Mavrodes William Alston Antony Flew 1970 1990 2010 William L Rowe Dewi Z Phillips Alvin Plantinga Anthony Kenny Nicholas Wolterstorff Richard Swinburne Robert Merrihew Adams Ravi Zacharias Peter van Inwagen Daniel Dennett Loyal Rue Jean-Luc Marion William Lane Craig Ali Akbar Rashad Alexander Pruss William L Rowe Dewi Z Phillips Alvin Plantinga Anthony Kenny Nicholas Wolterstorff Richard Swinburne Robert Merrihew Adams Ravi Zacharias Peter van Inwagen Daniel Dennett Loyal Rue Jean-Luc Marion William Lane Craig Ali Akbar Rashad Alexander Pruss Related topics Criticism of religion Desacralization of knowledge Ethics in religion Exegesis History of religion 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Divinity Gender of God and gods Goddess Numen Deity Divinity Gender of God and gods Goddess Goddess Numen Singular god theologies By faith Abrahamic religions Baháʼí Faith Judaism Christianity Islam Rastafari Buddhism Hinduism Jainism Sikhism Tenrikyo Zoroastrianism Concepts Absolute Brahman Emanationism Logos Supreme Being God as Time Good ( Ahura Mazda , Father of Greatness ) By faith Abrahamic religions Baháʼí Faith Judaism Christianity Islam Rastafari Buddhism Hinduism Jainism Sikhism Tenrikyo Zoroastrianism Abrahamic religions Baháʼí Faith Judaism Christianity Islam Rastafari Baháʼí Faith Judaism Christianity Islam Rastafari Buddhism Hinduism Jainism Sikhism Tenrikyo Zoroastrianism Concepts Absolute Brahman Emanationism Logos Supreme Being Absolute Brahman Emanationism Logos Supreme Being God as Time Good ( Ahura Mazda , Father of Greatness ) Time Good ( Ahura Mazda , Father of Greatness ) Trinitarianism Athanasian Creed Comma Johanneum Consubstantiality Homoousian Homoiousian 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–13 of 13 results for author: Campedelli, G M Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10567 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CY cs.HC cs.LG cs.MA Generative AI collective behavior needs an interactionist paradigm Authors: Laura Ferrarotti , Gian Maria Campedelli , Roberto Dessì , Andrea Baronchelli , Giovanni Iacca , Kathleen M. Carley , Alex Pentland , Joel Z. Leibo , James Evans , Bruno Lepri Abstract : In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together… ▽ More In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together with their capability of adaptation through in-context learning--motivates the need for an interactionist paradigm consisting of alternative theoretical foundations, methodologies, and analytical tools, in order to systematically examine how prior knowledge and embedded values interact with social context to shape emergent phenomena in multi-agent generative AI systems. We propose and discuss four directions that we consider crucial for the development and deployment of LLM-based collectives, focusing on theory, methods, and trans-disciplinary dialogue. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10567 [ pdf , ps , other ] Generative AI collective behavior needs an interactionist paradigm Authors: Laura Ferrarotti , Gian Maria Campedelli , Roberto Dessì , Andrea Baronchelli , Giovanni Iacca , Kathleen M. Carley , Alex Pentland , Joel Z. Leibo , James Evans , Bruno Lepri Abstract : In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together… ▽ More In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together with their capability of adaptation through in-context learning--motivates the need for an interactionist paradigm consisting of alternative theoretical foundations, methodologies, and analytical tools, in order to systematically examine how prior knowledge and embedded values interact with social context to shape emergent phenomena in multi-agent generative AI systems. We propose and discuss four directions that we consider crucial for the development and deployment of LLM-based collectives, focusing on theory, methods, and trans-disciplinary dialogue. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2511.02895 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CY cs.AI cs.HC physics.soc-ph A Criminology of Machines Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli Abstract : While the possibility of reaching human-like Artificial Intelligence (AI) remains controversial, the likelihood that the future will be characterized by a society with a growing presence of autonomous machines is high. Autonomous AI agents are already deployed and active across several industries and digital environments and alongside human-human and human-machine interactions, machine-machine int… ▽ More While the possibility of reaching human-like Artificial Intelligence (AI) remains controversial, the likelihood that the future will be characterized by a society with a growing presence of autonomous machines is high. Autonomous AI agents are already deployed and active across several industries and digital environments and alongside human-human and human-machine interactions, machine-machine interactions are poised to become increasingly prevalent. Given these developments, I argue that criminology must begin to address the implications of this transition for crime and social control. Drawing on Actor-Network Theory and Woolgar's decades-old call for a sociology of machines -- frameworks that acquire renewed relevance with the rise of generative AI agents -- I contend that criminologists should move beyond conceiving AI solely as a tool. Instead, AI agents should be recognized as entities with agency encompassing computational, social, and legal dimensions. Building on the literature on AI safety, I thus examine the risks associated with the rise of multi-agent AI systems, proposing a dual taxonomy to characterize the channels through which interactions among AI agents may generate deviant, unlawful, or criminal outcomes. I then advance and discuss four key questions that warrant theoretical and empirical attention: (1) Can we assume that machines will simply mimic humans? (2) Will crime theories developed for humans suffice to explain deviant or criminal behaviors emerging from interactions between autonomous AI agents? (3) What types of criminal behaviors will be affected first? (4) How might this unprecedented societal shift impact policing? These questions underscore the urgent need for criminologists to theoretically and empirically engage with the implications of multi-agent AI systems for the study of crime and play a more active role in debates on AI safety and governance. △ Less Submitted 6 November, 2025; v1 submitted 4 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: This pre-print is also available at CrimRxiv with DOI: arXiv:2511.02895 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Criminology of Machines Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli Abstract : While the possibility of reaching human-like Artificial Intelligence (AI) remains controversial, the likelihood that the future will be characterized by a society with a growing presence of autonomous machines is high. Autonomous AI agents are already deployed and active across several industries and digital environments and alongside human-human and human-machine interactions, machine-machine int… ▽ More While the possibility of reaching human-like Artificial Intelligence (AI) remains controversial, the likelihood that the future will be characterized by a society with a growing presence of autonomous machines is high. Autonomous AI agents are already deployed and active across several industries and digital environments and alongside human-human and human-machine interactions, machine-machine interactions are poised to become increasingly prevalent. Given these developments, I argue that criminology must begin to address the implications of this transition for crime and social control. Drawing on Actor-Network Theory and Woolgar's decades-old call for a sociology of machines -- frameworks that acquire renewed relevance with the rise of generative AI agents -- I contend that criminologists should move beyond conceiving AI solely as a tool. Instead, AI agents should be recognized as entities with agency encompassing computational, social, and legal dimensions. Building on the literature on AI safety, I thus examine the risks associated with the rise of multi-agent AI systems, proposing a dual taxonomy to characterize the channels through which interactions among AI agents may generate deviant, unlawful, or criminal outcomes. I then advance and discuss four key questions that warrant theoretical and empirical attention: (1) Can we assume that machines will simply mimic humans? (2) Will crime theories developed for humans suffice to explain deviant or criminal behaviors emerging from interactions between autonomous AI agents? (3) What types of criminal behaviors will be affected first? (4) How might this unprecedented societal shift impact policing? These questions underscore the urgent need for criminologists to theoretically and empirically engage with the implications of multi-agent AI systems for the study of crime and play a more active role in debates on AI safety and governance. △ Less Submitted 6 November, 2025; v1 submitted 4 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: This pre-print is also available at CrimRxiv with DOI: arXiv:2510.09243 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI CrisiText: A dataset of warning messages for LLM training in emergency communication Authors: Giacomo Gonella , Gian Maria Campedelli , Stefano Menini , Marco Guerini Abstract : Effectively identifying threats and mitigating their potential damage during crisis situations, such as natural disasters or violent attacks, is paramount for safeguarding endangered individuals. To tackle these challenges, AI has been used in assisting humans in emergency situations. Still, the use of NLP techniques remains limited and mostly focuses on classification tasks. The significant poten… ▽ More Effectively identifying threats and mitigating their potential damage during crisis situations, such as natural disasters or violent attacks, is paramount for safeguarding endangered individuals. To tackle these challenges, AI has been used in assisting humans in emergency situations. Still, the use of NLP techniques remains limited and mostly focuses on classification tasks. The significant potential of timely warning message generation using NLG architectures, however, has been largely overlooked. In this paper we present CrisiText, the first large-scale dataset for the generation of warning messages across 13 different types of crisis scenarios. The dataset contains more than 400,000 warning messages (spanning almost 18,000 crisis situations) aimed at assisting civilians during and after such events. To generate the dataset, we started from existing crisis descriptions and created chains of events related to the scenarios. Each event was then paired with a warning message. The generations follow experts' written guidelines to ensure correct terminology and factuality of their suggestions. Additionally, each message is accompanied by three suboptimal warning types to allow for the study of different NLG approaches. To this end, we conducted a series of experiments comparing supervised fine-tuning setups with preference alignment, zero-shot, and few-shot approaches. We further assessed model performance in out-of-distribution scenarios and evaluated the effectiveness of an automatic post-editor. △ Less Submitted 13 October, 2025; v1 submitted 10 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.09243 [ pdf , other ] CrisiText: A dataset of warning messages for LLM training in emergency communication Authors: Giacomo Gonella , Gian Maria Campedelli , Stefano Menini , Marco Guerini Abstract : Effectively identifying threats and mitigating their potential damage during crisis situations, such as natural disasters or violent attacks, is paramount for safeguarding endangered individuals. To tackle these challenges, AI has been used in assisting humans in emergency situations. Still, the use of NLP techniques remains limited and mostly focuses on classification tasks. The significant poten… ▽ More Effectively identifying threats and mitigating their potential damage during crisis situations, such as natural disasters or violent attacks, is paramount for safeguarding endangered individuals. To tackle these challenges, AI has been used in assisting humans in emergency situations. Still, the use of NLP techniques remains limited and mostly focuses on classification tasks. The significant potential of timely warning message generation using NLG architectures, however, has been largely overlooked. In this paper we present CrisiText, the first large-scale dataset for the generation of warning messages across 13 different types of crisis scenarios. The dataset contains more than 400,000 warning messages (spanning almost 18,000 crisis situations) aimed at assisting civilians during and after such events. To generate the dataset, we started from existing crisis descriptions and created chains of events related to the scenarios. Each event was then paired with a warning message. The generations follow experts' written guidelines to ensure correct terminology and factuality of their suggestions. Additionally, each message is accompanied by three suboptimal warning types to allow for the study of different NLG approaches. To this end, we conducted a series of experiments comparing supervised fine-tuning setups with preference alignment, zero-shot, and few-shot approaches. We further assessed model performance in out-of-distribution scenarios and evaluated the effectiveness of an automatic post-editor. △ Less Submitted 13 October, 2025; v1 submitted 10 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2509.20913 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI doi 10.1007/s10940-025-09629-3 Deep Learning for Crime Forecasting: The Role of Mobility at Fine-grained Spatiotemporal Scales Authors: Ariadna Albors Zumel , Michele Tizzoni , Gian Maria Campedelli Abstract : Objectives: To develop a deep learning framework to evaluate if and how incorporating micro-level mobility features, alongside historical crime and sociodemographic data, enhances predictive performance in crime forecasting at fine-grained spatial and temporal resolutions. Methods: We advance the literature on computational methods and crime forecasting by focusing on four U.S. cities (i.e., Bal… ▽ More Objectives: To develop a deep learning framework to evaluate if and how incorporating micro-level mobility features, alongside historical crime and sociodemographic data, enhances predictive performance in crime forecasting at fine-grained spatial and temporal resolutions. Methods: We advance the literature on computational methods and crime forecasting by focusing on four U.S. cities (i.e., Baltimore, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia). We employ crime incident data obtained from each city's police department, combined with sociodemographic data from the American Community Survey and human mobility data from Advan, collected from 2019 to 2023. This data is aggregated into grids with equally sized cells of 0.077 sq. miles (0.2 sq. kms) and used to train our deep learning forecasting model, a Convolutional Long Short-Term Memory (ConvLSTM) network, which predicts crime occurrences 12 hours ahead using 14-day and 2-day input sequences. We also compare its performance against three baseline models: logistic regression, random forest, and standard LSTM. Results: Incorporating mobility features improves predictive performance, especially when using shorter input sequences. Noteworthy, however, the best results are obtained when both mobility and sociodemographic features are used together, with our deep learning model achieving the highest recall, precision, and F1 score in all four cities, outperforming alternative methods. With this configuration, longer input sequences enhance predictions for violent crimes, while shorter sequences are more effective for property crimes. Conclusion: These findings underscore the importance of integrating diverse data sources for spatiotemporal crime forecasting, mobility included. They also highlight the advantages (and limits) of deep learning when dealing with fine-grained spatial and temporal scales. △ Less Submitted 25 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 64 pages, 33 figures, and 6 tables (including appendix) Journal ref: Albors Zumel, A., Tizzoni, M., & Campedelli, G.M. (2025). Deep Learning for Crime Forecasting: The Role of Mobility at Fine-grained Spatiotemporal Scales. Journal of Quantitative Criminology arXiv:2509.20913 [ pdf , ps , other ] Deep Learning for Crime Forecasting: The Role of Mobility at Fine-grained Spatiotemporal Scales Authors: Ariadna Albors Zumel , Michele Tizzoni , Gian Maria Campedelli Abstract : Objectives: To develop a deep learning framework to evaluate if and how incorporating micro-level mobility features, alongside historical crime and sociodemographic data, enhances predictive performance in crime forecasting at fine-grained spatial and temporal resolutions. Methods: We advance the literature on computational methods and crime forecasting by focusing on four U.S. cities (i.e., Bal… ▽ More Objectives: To develop a deep learning framework to evaluate if and how incorporating micro-level mobility features, alongside historical crime and sociodemographic data, enhances predictive performance in crime forecasting at fine-grained spatial and temporal resolutions. Methods: We advance the literature on computational methods and crime forecasting by focusing on four U.S. cities (i.e., Baltimore, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia). We employ crime incident data obtained from each city's police department, combined with sociodemographic data from the American Community Survey and human mobility data from Advan, collected from 2019 to 2023. This data is aggregated into grids with equally sized cells of 0.077 sq. miles (0.2 sq. kms) and used to train our deep learning forecasting model, a Convolutional Long Short-Term Memory (ConvLSTM) network, which predicts crime occurrences 12 hours ahead using 14-day and 2-day input sequences. We also compare its performance against three baseline models: logistic regression, random forest, and standard LSTM. Results: Incorporating mobility features improves predictive performance, especially when using shorter input sequences. Noteworthy, however, the best results are obtained when both mobility and sociodemographic features are used together, with our deep learning model achieving the highest recall, precision, and F1 score in all four cities, outperforming alternative methods. With this configuration, longer input sequences enhance predictions for violent crimes, while shorter sequences are more effective for property crimes. Conclusion: These findings underscore the importance of integrating diverse data sources for spatiotemporal crime forecasting, mobility included. They also highlight the advantages (and limits) of deep learning when dealing with fine-grained spatial and temporal scales. △ Less Submitted 25 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 64 pages, 33 figures, and 6 tables (including appendix) Journal ref: Albors Zumel, A., Tizzoni, M., & Campedelli, G.M. (2025). Deep Learning for Crime Forecasting: The Role of Mobility at Fine-grained Spatiotemporal Scales. Journal of Quantitative Criminology arXiv:2410.07109 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.CY cs.MA I Want to Break Free! Persuasion and Anti-Social Behavior of LLMs in Multi-Agent Settings with Social Hierarchy Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli , Nicolò Penzo , Massimo Stefan , Roberto Dessì , Marco Guerini , Bruno Lepri , Jacopo Staiano Abstract : As LLM-based agents become increasingly autonomous and will more freely interact with each other, studying the interplay among them becomes crucial to anticipate emergent phenomena and potential risks. In this work, we provide an in-depth analysis of the interactions among agents within a simulated hierarchical social environment, drawing inspiration from the Stanford Prison Experiment. Leveraging… ▽ More As LLM-based agents become increasingly autonomous and will more freely interact with each other, studying the interplay among them becomes crucial to anticipate emergent phenomena and potential risks. In this work, we provide an in-depth analysis of the interactions among agents within a simulated hierarchical social environment, drawing inspiration from the Stanford Prison Experiment. Leveraging 2,400 conversations across six LLMs (i.e., LLama3, Orca2, Command-r, Mixtral, Mistral2, and gpt4.1) and 240 experimental scenarios, we analyze persuasion and anti-social behavior between a guard and a prisoner agent with differing objectives. We first document model-specific conversational failures in this multi-agent power dynamic context, thereby narrowing our analytic sample to 1,600 conversations. Among models demonstrating successful interaction, we find that goal setting significantly influences persuasiveness but not anti-social behavior. Moreover, agent personas, especially the guard's, substantially impact both successful persuasion by the prisoner and the manifestation of anti-social actions. Notably, we observe the emergence of anti-social conduct even in absence of explicit negative personality prompts. These results have important implications for the development of interactive LLM agents and the ongoing discussion of their societal impact. △ Less Submitted 4 November, 2025; v1 submitted 9 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. arXiv:2410.07109 [ pdf , ps , other ] I Want to Break Free! Persuasion and Anti-Social Behavior of LLMs in Multi-Agent Settings with Social Hierarchy Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli , Nicolò Penzo , Massimo Stefan , Roberto Dessì , Marco Guerini , Bruno Lepri , Jacopo Staiano Abstract : As LLM-based agents become increasingly autonomous and will more freely interact with each other, studying the interplay among them becomes crucial to anticipate emergent phenomena and potential risks. In this work, we provide an in-depth analysis of the interactions among agents within a simulated hierarchical social environment, drawing inspiration from the Stanford Prison Experiment. Leveraging… ▽ More As LLM-based agents become increasingly autonomous and will more freely interact with each other, studying the interplay among them becomes crucial to anticipate emergent phenomena and potential risks. In this work, we provide an in-depth analysis of the interactions among agents within a simulated hierarchical social environment, drawing inspiration from the Stanford Prison Experiment. Leveraging 2,400 conversations across six LLMs (i.e., LLama3, Orca2, Command-r, Mixtral, Mistral2, and gpt4.1) and 240 experimental scenarios, we analyze persuasion and anti-social behavior between a guard and a prisoner agent with differing objectives. We first document model-specific conversational failures in this multi-agent power dynamic context, thereby narrowing our analytic sample to 1,600 conversations. Among models demonstrating successful interaction, we find that goal setting significantly influences persuasiveness but not anti-social behavior. Moreover, agent personas, especially the guard's, substantially impact both successful persuasion by the prisoner and the manifestation of anti-social actions. Notably, we observe the emergence of anti-social conduct even in absence of explicit negative personality prompts. These results have important implications for the development of interactive LLM agents and the ongoing discussion of their societal impact. △ Less Submitted 4 November, 2025; v1 submitted 9 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. arXiv:2212.07676 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CY Inequality, Crime and Public Health: A Survey of Emerging Trends in Urban Data Science Authors: Massimiliano Luca , Gian Maria Campedelli , Simone Centellegher , Michele Tizzoni , Bruno Lepri Abstract : Urban agglomerations are constantly and rapidly evolving ecosystems, with globalization and increasing urbanization posing new challenges in sustainable urban development well summarized in the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The advent of the digital age generated by modern alternative data sources provides new tools to tackle these challenges with spatio-temporal scales tha… ▽ More Urban agglomerations are constantly and rapidly evolving ecosystems, with globalization and increasing urbanization posing new challenges in sustainable urban development well summarized in the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The advent of the digital age generated by modern alternative data sources provides new tools to tackle these challenges with spatio-temporal scales that were previously unavailable with census statistics. In this review, we present how new digital data sources are employed to provide data-driven insights to study and track (i) urban crime and public safety; (ii) socioeconomic inequalities and segregation; and (iii) public health, with a particular focus on the city scale. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2022; originally announced December 2022. arXiv:2212.07676 [ pdf , ps , other ] Inequality, Crime and Public Health: A Survey of Emerging Trends in Urban Data Science Authors: Massimiliano Luca , Gian Maria Campedelli , Simone Centellegher , Michele Tizzoni , Bruno Lepri Abstract : Urban agglomerations are constantly and rapidly evolving ecosystems, with globalization and increasing urbanization posing new challenges in sustainable urban development well summarized in the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The advent of the digital age generated by modern alternative data sources provides new tools to tackle these challenges with spatio-temporal scales tha… ▽ More Urban agglomerations are constantly and rapidly evolving ecosystems, with globalization and increasing urbanization posing new challenges in sustainable urban development well summarized in the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The advent of the digital age generated by modern alternative data sources provides new tools to tackle these challenges with spatio-temporal scales that were previously unavailable with census statistics. In this review, we present how new digital data sources are employed to provide data-driven insights to study and track (i) urban crime and public safety; (ii) socioeconomic inequalities and segregation; and (iii) public health, with a particular focus on the city scale. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2022; originally announced December 2022. arXiv:2203.04768 [ pdf , other ] cs.LG cs.AI econ.EM stat.AP stat.ML doi 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2022.101898 Explainable Machine Learning for Predicting Homicide Clearance in the United States Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli Abstract : Purpose: To explore the potential of Explainable Machine Learning in the prediction and detection of drivers of cleared homicides at the national- and state-levels in the United States. Methods: First, nine algorithmic approaches are compared to assess the best performance in predicting cleared homicides country-wise, using data from the Murder Accountability Project. The most accurate algorithm… ▽ More Purpose: To explore the potential of Explainable Machine Learning in the prediction and detection of drivers of cleared homicides at the national- and state-levels in the United States. Methods: First, nine algorithmic approaches are compared to assess the best performance in predicting cleared homicides country-wise, using data from the Murder Accountability Project. The most accurate algorithm among all (XGBoost) is then used for predicting clearance outcomes state-wise. Second, SHAP, a framework for Explainable Artificial Intelligence, is employed to capture the most important features in explaining clearance patterns both at the national and state levels. Results: At the national level, XGBoost demonstrates to achieve the best performance overall. Substantial predictive variability is detected state-wise. In terms of explainability, SHAP highlights the relevance of several features in consistently predicting investigation outcomes. These include homicide circumstances, weapons, victims' sex and race, as well as number of involved offenders and victims. Conclusions: Explainable Machine Learning demonstrates to be a helpful framework for predicting homicide clearance. SHAP outcomes suggest a more organic integration of the two theoretical perspectives emerged in the literature. Furthermore, jurisdictional heterogeneity highlights the importance of developing ad hoc state-level strategies to improve police performance in clearing homicides. △ Less Submitted 9 March, 2022; originally announced March 2022. Comments: 41 pages, 18 figures Journal ref: Journal of Criminal Justice, 79 (2022) arXiv:2203.04768 [ pdf , other ] Explainable Machine Learning for Predicting Homicide Clearance in the United States Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli Abstract : Purpose: To explore the potential of Explainable Machine Learning in the prediction and detection of drivers of cleared homicides at the national- and state-levels in the United States. Methods: First, nine algorithmic approaches are compared to assess the best performance in predicting cleared homicides country-wise, using data from the Murder Accountability Project. The most accurate algorithm… ▽ More Purpose: To explore the potential of Explainable Machine Learning in the prediction and detection of drivers of cleared homicides at the national- and state-levels in the United States. Methods: First, nine algorithmic approaches are compared to assess the best performance in predicting cleared homicides country-wise, using data from the Murder Accountability Project. The most accurate algorithm among all (XGBoost) is then used for predicting clearance outcomes state-wise. Second, SHAP, a framework for Explainable Artificial Intelligence, is employed to capture the most important features in explaining clearance patterns both at the national and state levels. Results: At the national level, XGBoost demonstrates to achieve the best performance overall. Substantial predictive variability is detected state-wise. In terms of explainability, SHAP highlights the relevance of several features in consistently predicting investigation outcomes. These include homicide circumstances, weapons, victims' sex and race, as well as number of involved offenders and victims. Conclusions: Explainable Machine Learning demonstrates to be a helpful framework for predicting homicide clearance. SHAP outcomes suggest a more organic integration of the two theoretical perspectives emerged in the literature. Furthermore, jurisdictional heterogeneity highlights the importance of developing ad hoc state-level strategies to improve police performance in clearing homicides. △ Less Submitted 9 March, 2022; originally announced March 2022. Comments: 41 pages, 18 figures Journal ref: Journal of Criminal Justice, 79 (2022) arXiv:2112.07998 [ pdf , other ] cs.SI cs.LG physics.soc-ph stat.AP doi 10.1080/09546553.2021.2003785 Multi-modal Networks Reveal Patterns of Operational Similarity of Terrorist Organizations Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli , Iain J. Cruickshank , Kathleen M. Carley Abstract : Capturing dynamics of operational similarity among terrorist groups is critical to provide actionable insights for counter-terrorism and intelligence monitoring. Yet, in spite of its theoretical and practical relevance, research addressing this problem is currently lacking. We tackle this problem proposing a novel computational framework for detecting clusters of terrorist groups sharing similar b… ▽ More Capturing dynamics of operational similarity among terrorist groups is critical to provide actionable insights for counter-terrorism and intelligence monitoring. Yet, in spite of its theoretical and practical relevance, research addressing this problem is currently lacking. We tackle this problem proposing a novel computational framework for detecting clusters of terrorist groups sharing similar behaviors, focusing on groups' yearly repertoire of deployed tactics, attacked targets, and utilized weapons. Specifically considering those organizations that have plotted at least 50 attacks from 1997 to 2018, accounting for a total of 105 groups responsible for more than 42,000 events worldwide, we offer three sets of results. First, we show that over the years global terrorism has been characterized by increasing operational cohesiveness. Second, we highlight that year-to-year stability in co-clustering among groups has been particularly high from 2009 to 2018, indicating temporal consistency of similarity patterns in the last decade. Third, we demonstrate that operational similarity between two organizations is driven by three factors: (a) their overall activity; (b) the difference in the diversity of their operational repertoires; (c) the difference in a combined measure of diversity and activity. Groups' operational preferences, geographical homophily and ideological affinity have no consistent role in determining operational similarity. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2021; originally announced December 2021. Comments: 42 pages, 19 figures Journal ref: Terrorism and Political Violence, 0(0), 1-20 (2021) arXiv:2112.07998 [ pdf , other ] Multi-modal Networks Reveal Patterns of Operational Similarity of Terrorist Organizations Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli , Iain J. Cruickshank , Kathleen M. Carley Abstract : Capturing dynamics of operational similarity among terrorist groups is critical to provide actionable insights for counter-terrorism and intelligence monitoring. Yet, in spite of its theoretical and practical relevance, research addressing this problem is currently lacking. We tackle this problem proposing a novel computational framework for detecting clusters of terrorist groups sharing similar b… ▽ More Capturing dynamics of operational similarity among terrorist groups is critical to provide actionable insights for counter-terrorism and intelligence monitoring. Yet, in spite of its theoretical and practical relevance, research addressing this problem is currently lacking. We tackle this problem proposing a novel computational framework for detecting clusters of terrorist groups sharing similar behaviors, focusing on groups' yearly repertoire of deployed tactics, attacked targets, and utilized weapons. Specifically considering those organizations that have plotted at least 50 attacks from 1997 to 2018, accounting for a total of 105 groups responsible for more than 42,000 events worldwide, we offer three sets of results. First, we show that over the years global terrorism has been characterized by increasing operational cohesiveness. Second, we highlight that year-to-year stability in co-clustering among groups has been particularly high from 2009 to 2018, indicating temporal consistency of similarity patterns in the last decade. Third, we demonstrate that operational similarity between two organizations is driven by three factors: (a) their overall activity; (b) the difference in the diversity of their operational repertoires; (c) the difference in a combined measure of diversity and activity. Groups' operational preferences, geographical homophily and ideological affinity have no consistent role in determining operational similarity. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2021; originally announced December 2021. Comments: 42 pages, 19 figures Journal ref: Terrorism and Political Violence, 0(0), 1-20 (2021) arXiv:2104.10398 [ pdf , other ] cs.LG cs.AI doi 10.1038/s41598-021-87709-7 Learning future terrorist targets through temporal meta-graphs Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli , Mihovil Bartulovic , Kathleen M. Carley Abstract : In the last 20 years, terrorism has led to hundreds of thousands of deaths and massive economic, political, and humanitarian crises in several regions of the world. Using real-world data on attacks occurred in Afghanistan and Iraq from 2001 to 2018, we propose the use of temporal meta-graphs and deep learning to forecast future terrorist targets. Focusing on three event dimensions, i.e., employed… ▽ More In the last 20 years, terrorism has led to hundreds of thousands of deaths and massive economic, political, and humanitarian crises in several regions of the world. Using real-world data on attacks occurred in Afghanistan and Iraq from 2001 to 2018, we propose the use of temporal meta-graphs and deep learning to forecast future terrorist targets. Focusing on three event dimensions, i.e., employed weapons, deployed tactics and chosen targets, meta-graphs map the connections among temporally close attacks, capturing their operational similarities and dependencies. From these temporal meta-graphs, we derive 2-day-based time series that measure the centrality of each feature within each dimension over time. Formulating the problem in the context of the strategic behavior of terrorist actors, these multivariate temporal sequences are then utilized to learn what target types are at the highest risk of being chosen. The paper makes two contributions. First, it demonstrates that engineering the feature space via temporal meta-graphs produces richer knowledge than shallow time-series that only rely on frequency of feature occurrences. Second, the performed experiments reveal that bi-directional LSTM networks achieve superior forecasting performance compared to other algorithms, calling for future research aiming at fully discovering the potential of artificial intelligence to counter terrorist violence. △ Less Submitted 21 April, 2021; originally announced April 2021. Comments: 19 pages, 18 figures Journal ref: Sci Rep 11, 8533 (2021) arXiv:2104.10398 [ pdf , other ] Learning future terrorist targets through temporal meta-graphs Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli , Mihovil Bartulovic , Kathleen M. Carley Abstract : In the last 20 years, terrorism has led to hundreds of thousands of deaths and massive economic, political, and humanitarian crises in several regions of the world. Using real-world data on attacks occurred in Afghanistan and Iraq from 2001 to 2018, we propose the use of temporal meta-graphs and deep learning to forecast future terrorist targets. Focusing on three event dimensions, i.e., employed… ▽ More In the last 20 years, terrorism has led to hundreds of thousands of deaths and massive economic, political, and humanitarian crises in several regions of the world. Using real-world data on attacks occurred in Afghanistan and Iraq from 2001 to 2018, we propose the use of temporal meta-graphs and deep learning to forecast future terrorist targets. Focusing on three event dimensions, i.e., employed weapons, deployed tactics and chosen targets, meta-graphs map the connections among temporally close attacks, capturing their operational similarities and dependencies. From these temporal meta-graphs, we derive 2-day-based time series that measure the centrality of each feature within each dimension over time. Formulating the problem in the context of the strategic behavior of terrorist actors, these multivariate temporal sequences are then utilized to learn what target types are at the highest risk of being chosen. The paper makes two contributions. First, it demonstrates that engineering the feature space via temporal meta-graphs produces richer knowledge than shallow time-series that only rely on frequency of feature occurrences. Second, the performed experiments reveal that bi-directional LSTM networks achieve superior forecasting performance compared to other algorithms, calling for future research aiming at fully discovering the potential of artificial intelligence to counter terrorist violence. △ Less Submitted 21 April, 2021; originally announced April 2021. Comments: 19 pages, 18 figures Journal ref: Sci Rep 11, 8533 (2021) arXiv:2101.06458 [ pdf , other ] physics.soc-ph cs.LG econ.GN stat.AP doi 10.1371/journal.pone.0250433 Temporal Clustering of Disorder Events During the COVID-19 Pandemic Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli , Maria Rita D'Orsogna Abstract : The COVID-19 pandemic has unleashed multiple public health, socio-economic, and institutional crises. Measures taken to slow the spread of the virus have fostered significant strain between authorities and citizens, leading to waves of social unrest and anti-government demonstrations. We study the temporal nature of pandemic-related disorder events as tallied by the "COVID-19 Disorder Tracker" ini… ▽ More The COVID-19 pandemic has unleashed multiple public health, socio-economic, and institutional crises. Measures taken to slow the spread of the virus have fostered significant strain between authorities and citizens, leading to waves of social unrest and anti-government demonstrations. We study the temporal nature of pandemic-related disorder events as tallied by the "COVID-19 Disorder Tracker" initiative by focusing on the three countries with the largest number of incidents, India, Israel, and Mexico. By fitting Poisson and Hawkes processes to the stream of data, we find that disorder events are inter-dependent and self-excite in all three countries. Geographic clustering confirms these features at the subnational level, indicating that nationwide disorders emerge as the convergence of meso-scale patterns of self-excitation. Considerable diversity is observed among countries when computing correlations of events between subnational clusters; these are discussed in the context of specific political, societal and geographic characteristics. Israel, the most territorially compact and where large scale protests were coordinated in response to government lockdowns, displays the largest reactivity and the shortest period of influence following an event, as well as the strongest nationwide synchrony. In Mexico, where complete lockdown orders were never mandated, reactivity and nationwide synchrony are lowest. Our work highlights the need for authorities to promote local information campaigns to ensure that livelihoods and virus containment policies are not perceived as mutually exclusive. △ Less Submitted 23 April, 2021; v1 submitted 16 January, 2021; originally announced January 2021. Comments: 37 pages, 16 figures Journal ref: PLOS ONE, 16(4), e0250433 (2021) arXiv:2101.06458 [ pdf , other ] Temporal Clustering of Disorder Events During the COVID-19 Pandemic Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli , Maria Rita D'Orsogna Abstract : The COVID-19 pandemic has unleashed multiple public health, socio-economic, and institutional crises. Measures taken to slow the spread of the virus have fostered significant strain between authorities and citizens, leading to waves of social unrest and anti-government demonstrations. We study the temporal nature of pandemic-related disorder events as tallied by the "COVID-19 Disorder Tracker" ini… ▽ More The COVID-19 pandemic has unleashed multiple public health, socio-economic, and institutional crises. Measures taken to slow the spread of the virus have fostered significant strain between authorities and citizens, leading to waves of social unrest and anti-government demonstrations. We study the temporal nature of pandemic-related disorder events as tallied by the "COVID-19 Disorder Tracker" initiative by focusing on the three countries with the largest number of incidents, India, Israel, and Mexico. By fitting Poisson and Hawkes processes to the stream of data, we find that disorder events are inter-dependent and self-excite in all three countries. Geographic clustering confirms these features at the subnational level, indicating that nationwide disorders emerge as the convergence of meso-scale patterns of self-excitation. Considerable diversity is observed among countries when computing correlations of events between subnational clusters; these are discussed in the context of specific political, societal and geographic characteristics. Israel, the most territorially compact and where large scale protests were coordinated in response to government lockdowns, displays the largest reactivity and the shortest period of influence following an event, as well as the strongest nationwide synchrony. In Mexico, where complete lockdown orders were never mandated, reactivity and nationwide synchrony are lowest. Our work highlights the need for authorities to promote local information campaigns to ensure that livelihoods and virus containment policies are not perceived as mutually exclusive. △ Less Submitted 23 April, 2021; v1 submitted 16 January, 2021; originally announced January 2021. Comments: 37 pages, 16 figures Journal ref: PLOS ONE, 16(4), e0250433 (2021) arXiv:2001.03494 [ pdf , other ] cs.MA cs.CY cs.SI nlin.CD A Policy-oriented Agent-based Model of Recruitment into Organized Crime Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli , Francesco Calderoni , Mario Paolucci , Tommaso Comunale , Daniele Vilone , Federico Cecconi , Giulia Andrighetto Abstract : Criminal organizations exploit their presence on territories and local communities to recruit new workforce in order to carry out their criminal activities and business. The ability to attract individuals is crucial for maintaining power and control over the territories in which these groups are settled. This study proposes the formalization, development and analysis of an agent-based model (ABM)… ▽ More Criminal organizations exploit their presence on territories and local communities to recruit new workforce in order to carry out their criminal activities and business. The ability to attract individuals is crucial for maintaining power and control over the territories in which these groups are settled. This study proposes the formalization, development and analysis of an agent-based model (ABM) that simulates a neighborhood of Palermo (Sicily) with the aim to understand the pathways that lead individuals to recruitment into organized crime groups (OCGs). Using empirical data on social, economic and criminal conditions of the area under analysis, we use a multi-layer network approach to simulate this scenario. As the final goal, we test different policies to counter recruitment into OCGs. These scenarios are based on two different dimensions of prevention and intervention: (i) primary and secondary socialization and (ii) law enforcement targeting strategies. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2020; originally announced January 2020. Comments: 15 pages, 2 figures. Paper accepted and in press for the Proceedings of the 2019 Social Simulation Conference (Mainz, Germany) arXiv:2001.03494 [ pdf , other ] A Policy-oriented Agent-based Model of Recruitment into Organized Crime Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli , Francesco Calderoni , Mario Paolucci , Tommaso Comunale , Daniele Vilone , Federico Cecconi , Giulia Andrighetto Abstract : Criminal organizations exploit their presence on territories and local communities to recruit new workforce in order to carry out their criminal activities and business. The ability to attract individuals is crucial for maintaining power and control over the territories in which these groups are settled. This study proposes the formalization, development and analysis of an agent-based model (ABM)… ▽ More Criminal organizations exploit their presence on territories and local communities to recruit new workforce in order to carry out their criminal activities and business. The ability to attract individuals is crucial for maintaining power and control over the territories in which these groups are settled. This study proposes the formalization, development and analysis of an agent-based model (ABM) that simulates a neighborhood of Palermo (Sicily) with the aim to understand the pathways that lead individuals to recruitment into organized crime groups (OCGs). Using empirical data on social, economic and criminal conditions of the area under analysis, we use a multi-layer network approach to simulate this scenario. As the final goal, we test different policies to counter recruitment into OCGs. These scenarios are based on two different dimensions of prevention and intervention: (i) primary and secondary socialization and (ii) law enforcement targeting strategies. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2020; originally announced January 2020. Comments: 15 pages, 2 figures. Paper accepted and in press for the Proceedings of the 2019 Social Simulation Conference (Mainz, Germany) arXiv:2001.03367 [ pdf , other ] cs.CY cs.SI stat.AP doi 10.1007/s41109-019-0184-6 A Complex Networks Approach to Find Latent Clusters of Terrorist Groups Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli , Iain Cruickshank , Kathleen M. Carley Abstract : Given the extreme heterogeneity of actors and groups participating in terrorist actions, investigating and assessing their characteristics can be important to extract relevant information and enhance the knowledge on their behaviors. The present work will seek to achieve this goal via a complex networks approach. This approach will allow finding latent clusters of similar terror groups using infor… ▽ More Given the extreme heterogeneity of actors and groups participating in terrorist actions, investigating and assessing their characteristics can be important to extract relevant information and enhance the knowledge on their behaviors. The present work will seek to achieve this goal via a complex networks approach. This approach will allow finding latent clusters of similar terror groups using information on their operational characteristics. Specifically, using open access data of terrorist attacks occurred worldwide from 1997 to 2016, we build a multi-partite network that includes terrorist groups and related information on tactics, weapons, targets, active regions. We propose a novel algorithm for cluster formation that expands our earlier work that solely used Gower's coefficient of similarity via the application of Von Neumann entropy for mode-weighting. This novel approach is compared with our previous Gower-based method and a heuristic clustering technique that only focuses on groups' ideologies. The comparative analysis demonstrates that the entropy-based approach tends to reliably reflect the structure of the data that naturally emerges from the baseline Gower-based method. Additionally, it provides interesting results in terms of behavioral and ideological characteristics of terrorist groups. We furthermore show that the ideology-based procedure tends to distort or hide existing patterns. Among the main statistical results, our work reveals that groups belonging to opposite ideologies can share very common behaviors and that Islamist/jihadist groups hold peculiar behavioral characteristics with respect to the others. Limitations and potential work directions are also discussed, introducing the idea of a dynamic entropy-based framework. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2020; originally announced January 2020. Comments: 24 pages, 8 figures Journal ref: Appl Netw Sci 4, 59 (2019) arXiv:2001.03367 [ pdf , other ] A Complex Networks Approach to Find Latent Clusters of Terrorist Groups Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli , Iain Cruickshank , Kathleen M. Carley Abstract : Given the extreme heterogeneity of actors and groups participating in terrorist actions, investigating and assessing their characteristics can be important to extract relevant information and enhance the knowledge on their behaviors. The present work will seek to achieve this goal via a complex networks approach. This approach will allow finding latent clusters of similar terror groups using infor… ▽ More Given the extreme heterogeneity of actors and groups participating in terrorist actions, investigating and assessing their characteristics can be important to extract relevant information and enhance the knowledge on their behaviors. The present work will seek to achieve this goal via a complex networks approach. This approach will allow finding latent clusters of similar terror groups using information on their operational characteristics. Specifically, using open access data of terrorist attacks occurred worldwide from 1997 to 2016, we build a multi-partite network that includes terrorist groups and related information on tactics, weapons, targets, active regions. We propose a novel algorithm for cluster formation that expands our earlier work that solely used Gower's coefficient of similarity via the application of Von Neumann entropy for mode-weighting. This novel approach is compared with our previous Gower-based method and a heuristic clustering technique that only focuses on groups' ideologies. The comparative analysis demonstrates that the entropy-based approach tends to reliably reflect the structure of the data that naturally emerges from the baseline Gower-based method. Additionally, it provides interesting results in terms of behavioral and ideological characteristics of terrorist groups. We furthermore show that the ideology-based procedure tends to distort or hide existing patterns. Among the main statistical results, our work reveals that groups belonging to opposite ideologies can share very common behaviors and that Islamist/jihadist groups hold peculiar behavioral characteristics with respect to the others. Limitations and potential work directions are also discussed, introducing the idea of a dynamic entropy-based framework. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2020; originally announced January 2020. Comments: 24 pages, 8 figures Journal ref: Appl Netw Sci 4, 59 (2019) arXiv:1912.11084 [ pdf , other ] cs.DL cs.CY cs.LG doi 10.1007/s42001-020-00082-9 Where Are We? Using Scopus to Map the Literature at the Intersection Between Artificial Intelligence and Research on Crime Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli Abstract : Research on Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications has spread over many scientific disciplines. Scientists have tested the power of intelligent algorithms developed to predict (or learn from) natural, physical and social phenomena. This also applies to crime-related research problems. Nonetheless, studies that map the current state of the art at the intersection between AI and crime are lacking… ▽ More Research on Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications has spread over many scientific disciplines. Scientists have tested the power of intelligent algorithms developed to predict (or learn from) natural, physical and social phenomena. This also applies to crime-related research problems. Nonetheless, studies that map the current state of the art at the intersection between AI and crime are lacking. What are the current research trends in terms of topics in this area? What is the structure of scientific collaboration when considering works investigating criminal issues using machine learning, deep learning, and AI in general? What are the most active countries in this specific scientific sphere? Using data retrieved from the Scopus database, this work quantitatively analyzes 692 published works at the intersection between AI and crime employing network science to respond to these questions. Results show that researchers are mainly focusing on cyber-related criminal topics and that relevant themes such as algorithmic discrimination, fairness, and ethics are considerably overlooked. Furthermore, data highlight the extremely disconnected structure of co-authorship networks. Such disconnectedness may represent a substantial obstacle to a more solid community of scientists interested in these topics. Additionally, the graph of scientific collaboration indicates that countries that are more prone to engage in international partnerships are generally less central in the network. This means that scholars working in highly productive countries (e.g. the United States, China) tend to mostly collaborate domestically. Finally, current issues and future developments within this scientific area are also discussed. △ Less Submitted 6 August, 2020; v1 submitted 23 December, 2019; originally announced December 2019. Comments: 25 pages, 12 figures, pre-print (currently R&R in JCSS) Journal ref: J Comput Soc Sc (2020) arXiv:1912.11084 [ pdf , other ] Where Are We? Using Scopus to Map the Literature at the Intersection Between Artificial Intelligence and Research on Crime Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli Abstract : Research on Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications has spread over many scientific disciplines. Scientists have tested the power of intelligent algorithms developed to predict (or learn from) natural, physical and social phenomena. This also applies to crime-related research problems. Nonetheless, studies that map the current state of the art at the intersection between AI and crime are lacking… ▽ More Research on Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications has spread over many scientific disciplines. Scientists have tested the power of intelligent algorithms developed to predict (or learn from) natural, physical and social phenomena. This also applies to crime-related research problems. Nonetheless, studies that map the current state of the art at the intersection between AI and crime are lacking. What are the current research trends in terms of topics in this area? What is the structure of scientific collaboration when considering works investigating criminal issues using machine learning, deep learning, and AI in general? What are the most active countries in this specific scientific sphere? Using data retrieved from the Scopus database, this work quantitatively analyzes 692 published works at the intersection between AI and crime employing network science to respond to these questions. Results show that researchers are mainly focusing on cyber-related criminal topics and that relevant themes such as algorithmic discrimination, fairness, and ethics are considerably overlooked. Furthermore, data highlight the extremely disconnected structure of co-authorship networks. Such disconnectedness may represent a substantial obstacle to a more solid community of scientists interested in these topics. Additionally, the graph of scientific collaboration indicates that countries that are more prone to engage in international partnerships are generally less central in the network. This means that scholars working in highly productive countries (e.g. the United States, China) tend to mostly collaborate domestically. Finally, current issues and future developments within this scientific area are also discussed. △ Less Submitted 6 August, 2020; v1 submitted 23 December, 2019; originally announced December 2019. Comments: 25 pages, 12 figures, pre-print (currently R&R in JCSS) Journal ref: J Comput Soc Sc (2020) About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Campedelli%2C+G+M
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Start and end dates 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 3 Pre-war events Toggle Pre-war events subsection 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war Toggle Course of the war subsection 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Sources 9.1 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links World War II Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article contains one or more duplicated citations . The reason given is: DuplicateReferences script detected: (refs: 141, 198) It is recommended to use named references to consolidate citations that are used multiple times. 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("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Allied victory Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders : Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Main Axis leaders : Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Theatres of World War II v t e Europe Poland Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Asia-Pacific China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Mediterranean and Middle East Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Other campaigns Air warfare Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Coups Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Resistance movements Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans Poland Soviet invasion Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Air warfare Strategic bombing Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Madagascar Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans World War II Navigation Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Campaigns Countries Equipment Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Category Bibliography v t e v t e World War II [ b ] or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions : the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising their resources in pursuit of total war . Tanks and aircraft played major roles , enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of over 60 million people. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust , and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were put on trial for war crimes . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I , the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania , while Germany conquered Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy , and the British Empire / British Commonwealth , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , East Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and the naval Battle of the Atlantic . By mid-1941 Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains along with Axis allies. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway . In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime , and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy , and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Faced with an imminent Allied invasion , the prospect of further atomic bombings, and a Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 . World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the half-century Cold War . In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia . Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . Start and end dates Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath By topic Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Causes ( Diplomacy ) Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Battles Operations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies v t e v t e Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 18 September 1931. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. [ 7 ] The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. [ 8 ] Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. [ 11 ] A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. [ 12 ] No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, [ 13 ] although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. [ 14 ] Background Aftermath of World War I World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires . [ 15 ] [ failed verification ] To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. [ 16 ] Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , [ 17 ] irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . [ 18 ] Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire". [ 19 ] Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . [ 20 ] France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. [ 21 ] European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. [ 22 ] The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. [ 23 ] Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . [ 24 ] In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. [ 25 ] Asia The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies [ 26 ] and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China [ 27 ] as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . [ 28 ] China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe , and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . [ 29 ] After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. [ 30 ] Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . [ 31 ] The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . [ 32 ] The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. [ 33 ] Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . [ 34 ] Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. [ 35 ] The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . [ 36 ] His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . [ 37 ] Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts . [ 38 ] The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . [ 39 ] From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , [ 40 ] fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan [ 41 ] [ 42 ] , and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. [ 43 ] Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. [ 47 ] In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River. [ 48 ] Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War [ 53 ] and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. [ 56 ] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. [ 57 ] Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. [ 58 ] Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . [ 59 ] Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . [ 60 ] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . [ 61 ] Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . [ 62 ] Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . [ 63 ] The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, [ 64 ] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. [ 65 ] This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. [ 66 ] The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I . Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. [ 67 ] In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. [ 68 ] On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. [ 68 ] The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. [ 69 ] Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. [ 71 ] The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . [ 72 ] The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. [ c ] During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland . [ 73 ] The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. [ 74 ] Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . [ 75 ] On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland [ 76 ] under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. [ 77 ] On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. [ 78 ] A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war. [ 79 ] Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland . Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected [ 69 ] and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, [ 80 ] which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, [ 87 ] and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. [ 88 ] Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . [ 89 ] In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, [ 85 ] as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. [ 90 ] In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova . [ 91 ] The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II , turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. [ 92 ] Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation [ 93 ] [ 94 ] gradually stalled, [ 95 ] [ 96 ] and both states began preparations for war. [ 97 ] Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off . [ 98 ] Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. [ 99 ] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. [ 100 ] On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . [ 101 ] The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, [ 102 ] which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. [ 105 ] On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. [ 106 ] The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , [ 107 ] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. [ 108 ] The air Battle of Britain [ 109 ] began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . [ 110 ] The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 [ 111 ] after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. [ 110 ] Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . [ 112 ] The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . [ 113 ] In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies. [ 114 ] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . [ 115 ] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. [ 116 ] In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. [ 117 ] The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. [ 118 ] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. [ 119 ] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. [ 120 ] Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . [ 121 ] Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. [ 122 ] To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. [ 123 ] In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . [ 124 ] The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . [ 125 ] Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. [ 126 ] In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk . [ 127 ] By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade ; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. [ 128 ] The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. [ 129 ] Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. [ 130 ] In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . [ 131 ] Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . [ 132 ] Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. [ 133 ] By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. [ 134 ] Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. [ 135 ] On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . [ 136 ] However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. [ 137 ] In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. [ 138 ] On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them ; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. [ 139 ] The primary targets of this surprise offensive [ 140 ] were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line —from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism , generate Lebensraum ("living space") [ 141 ] by dispossessing the native population , [ 142 ] and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. [ 143 ] Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, [ 144 ] Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence . During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk , Smolensk , and Uman .. Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order , and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death . By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate. [ 145 ] By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. [ 146 ] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov ). [ 147 ] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front [ 148 ] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy . [ 149 ] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany [ 150 ] and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter , which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. [ 151 ] In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor , Iran's oil fields , and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. [ 152 ] By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad [ 153 ] and Sevastopol continuing. [ 154 ] A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops [ 155 ] were forced to suspend the offensive. [ 156 ] Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. [ 157 ] By early December, freshly mobilised reserves [ 158 ] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. [ 159 ] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , [ 160 ] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. [ 161 ] War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre , Japanese-American relations deteriorated . In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts —which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. [ 117 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , but was repulsed by late September. [ 164 ] Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940. [ 165 ] Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; [ 166 ] in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy , a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation. [ 169 ] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao . [ 170 ] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. [ 171 ] German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. [ 172 ] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. [ 175 ] Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. [ 176 ] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. [ 177 ] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries". [ 177 ] Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito , after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, [ 178 ] began to favour Japan's entry into the war. [ 179 ] As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. [ 182 ] On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. [ 183 ] On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. [ 184 ] On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. [ 176 ] The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. [ 185 ] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; [ 186 ] [ 187 ] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [ 188 ] Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. [ 189 ] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. [ 190 ] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . [ 191 ] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines , as well as invasions of Guam , Wake Island , Malaya , [ 191 ] Thailand , and Hong Kong . [ 192 ] These attacks led the United States , United Kingdom , China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. [ 193 ] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States [ 194 ] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. [ 139 ] [ 195 ] Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four [ 196 ] —the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter [ 197 ] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. [ 198 ] During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces ; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. [ 199 ] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. [ 200 ] At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. [ 201 ] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. [ 202 ] Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore. [ 203 ] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march , resulting in thousands of deaths. [ 204 ] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. [ 205 ] Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea , and Indian Ocean , [ 206 ] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . [ 207 ] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. [ 208 ] In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . [ 209 ] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. [ 210 ] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . [ 213 ] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . [ 214 ] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [ 215 ] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona . [ 216 ] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. [ 217 ] By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . [ 218 ] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. [ 219 ] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. [ 220 ] Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. [ 221 ] In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov . [ 222 ] The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas. [ 223 ] In June 1942 launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [ 224 ] By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting . The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad , [ 225 ] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed. [ 226 ] By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, [ 227 ] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk . [ 228 ] Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . [ 229 ] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. [ 230 ] The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, [ 231 ] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. [ 232 ] Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. [ 233 ] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . [ 234 ] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid , [ 235 ] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. [ 236 ] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein [ 237 ] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . [ 238 ] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. [ 239 ] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies. [ 240 ] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; [ 240 ] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. [ 240 ] [ 242 ] In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house " the civilian population. [ 243 ] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. [ 244 ] Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . [ 245 ] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . [ 246 ] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . [ 247 ] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, [ 248 ] and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. [ 249 ] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. [ 250 ] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, [ 251 ] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive . [ 254 ] On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. [ 255 ] Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, [ 256 ] and creating a series of defensive lines. [ 257 ] German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , [ 258 ] causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. [ 259 ] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [ 260 ] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [ 261 ] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory [ 262 ] and the military planning for the Burma campaign , [ 263 ] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [ 264 ] From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde , the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . [ 268 ] On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , thereby ending the most lethal siege in history . [ 269 ] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. [ 270 ] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops. [ 271 ] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. [ 272 ] The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India , [ 273 ] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . [ 274 ] In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, [ 274 ] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . [ 275 ] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. [ 276 ] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha . [ 277 ] Allies Offensives (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day ), after three years of Soviet pressure, [ 278 ] the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France . [ 279 ] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , [ 280 ] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. [ 281 ] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river . In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line . [ 282 ] On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre . [ 283 ] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance , loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. [ 286 ] The Soviet Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. [ 287 ] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania , and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. [ 288 ] By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia , the Soviet Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. [ 289 ] Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, [ 290 ] although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies . [ 291 ] By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River [ 292 ] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road . [ 293 ] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. [ 294 ] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November [ 295 ] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. [ 296 ] In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history. [ 297 ] Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border , hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp . By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. [ 298 ] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia . [ 299 ] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. [ 300 ] In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B . [ 301 ] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton . Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna , and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg , while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. [ 302 ] In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. [ 303 ] Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman . [ 304 ] Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. [ 305 ] On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich ) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich ). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government . Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . [ 306 ] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [ 307 ] On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg . On 5 June all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration . [ 308 ] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . [ 309 ] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. [ 310 ] In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. [ 311 ] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. [ 312 ] At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, [ 315 ] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ". [ 316 ] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. [ 317 ] The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. [ 318 ] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan , invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force. [ 319 ] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. [ 320 ] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration . [ 321 ] On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ( Gyokuon-hōsō , literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). [ 322 ] On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. [ 323 ] Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany , both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany . [ 324 ] In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. [ 325 ] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, [ 326 ] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, [ 327 ] [ 328 ] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line , [ 329 ] from which two million Poles were expelled . [ 328 ] [ 330 ] North-east Romania, [ 331 ] [ 332 ] parts of eastern Finland, [ 333 ] and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union . [ 334 ] [ 335 ] Italy lost its monarchy , colonial empire , and some European territories . [ 336 ] In an effort to maintain world peace , [ 337 ] the Allies formed the United Nations , [ 338 ] which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, [ 339 ] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations . [ 340 ] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council . [ 341 ] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. [ 342 ] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . [ 343 ] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany , [ 344 ] Poland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Albania [ 345 ] became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the Soviet Union . [ 346 ] A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. [ 347 ] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact . [ 348 ] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War —would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world. [ 349 ] In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . [ 350 ] Korea , formerly under Japanese colonial rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War . [ 351 ] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. [ 352 ] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom , and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. [ 355 ] The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. [ 356 ] Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group . The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. [ 359 ] Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . [ 362 ] Italy also experienced an economic boom [ 363 ] and the French economy rebounded . [ 364 ] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, [ 365 ] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, [ 366 ] it continued in relative economic decline for decades. [ 367 ] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, [ 368 ] having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. [ d ] [ 369 ] Japan recovered much later. [ 370 ] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. [ 371 ] Impact Casualties and war crimes An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] [ 374 ] [ 375 ] The majority of these deaths were on the Eastern Front and the Chinese Theatre . [ 376 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people [ 377 ] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. [ 378 ] A quarter of the Soviet population were wounded or killed. [ 379 ] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. [ 380 ] An estimated 11 [ 381 ] to 17 million [ 382 ] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies , including mass killing of around 6 million Jews , along with Roma , homosexuals , at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles [ 383 ] [ 384 ] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups . [ 385 ] [ 382 ] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 1,200,000 Yugoslavians died. [ 386 ] 200,000 were ethnic Serbs , along with Roma and Jews, were persecuted and killed by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia . [ 387 ] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks , [ 388 ] with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians). [ 389 ] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres , between 1943 and 1945. [ 390 ] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other units in reprisal attacks. [ 391 ] The number of deaths resulting from the war in Asia and the Pacific is contested. Estimates of Chinese deaths range from 8 million to over 20 million. [ e ] Arne Westad estimates 14 million Chinese died directly from war, of which 2 million were soldiers and the rest civilians. [ 394 ] Rana Mitter considers Westad's figures conservative. [ 398 ] An estimated 500,000 died as a result of Nationalist forces flooding the Yellow River . [ 399 ] In the Nanking Massacre , between 100,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed by Japanese forces, while another 20,000 were raped. [ 44 ] Another 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed by Japanese forces during the Three Alls policy . [ 400 ] Japanese forces killed between 5 million and 10 million civilians in Southeast Asia. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] At least a million civilians died in Indochina , while as many as 4 million died in the Dutch East Indies, 3 million of which died on Java from famine. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died during the Japanese occupation and American liberation. [ 403 ] [ 404 ] Estimates of the number of people killed by Japanese forces in all theatres are as high as 30 million. [ 405 ] Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) [ 406 ] [ 407 ] and in early conflicts against the Soviets . [ 408 ] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, [ 409 ] and sometimes on prisoners of war . [ 410 ] The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, [ 411 ] and the imprisonment or execution of hundreds of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD secret police, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia , in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. [ 412 ] Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in Germany . [ 413 ] [ 414 ] The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million, [ 415 ] while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. [ 416 ] [ 417 ] The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. [ 418 ] The USAAF bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and destroying 65% of built-up areas. [ 419 ] Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany , under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for killing about 6 million Jews in what is now known as the Holocaust . They also killed an additional 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " (including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , Romani , homosexuals , Freemasons , and Jehovah's Witnesses ) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a " genocidal state". [ 420 ] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions , and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. [ 421 ] [ 422 ] In addition to concentration camps , death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers ; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. [ 423 ] The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–1943, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, [ 425 ] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–1940 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs . [ 426 ] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. [ 427 ] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps , many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), [ 428 ] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. [ 429 ] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56. [ 430 ] At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. [ 431 ] In Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. [ 432 ] Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. [ 433 ] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. [ 434 ] In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. [ 435 ] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes . [ 436 ] The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust . [ 437 ] Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, [ 438 ] the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans [ 439 ] and French Resistance [ 440 ] suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [ 441 ] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. [ 442 ] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m 3 ) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. [ 442 ] Home fronts and production In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. [ 443 ] In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. [ 444 ] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. [ 444 ] The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. [ 445 ] Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition . [ 446 ] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , [ 447 ] Allied strategic bombing , [ 448 ] and Germany's late shift to a war economy [ 449 ] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. [ 450 ] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; [ 451 ] Germany enslaved about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, [ 423 ] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground-support , and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); [ 452 ] and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). [ 453 ] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. [ 454 ] Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). [ 455 ] [ 456 ] [ 457 ] In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . [ 458 ] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft [ 459 ] and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. [ 460 ] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , [ 461 ] were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. [ 462 ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light , Hedgehog , Squid , and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines. [ 463 ] Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry , to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. [ 464 ] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, [ 465 ] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. [ 466 ] [ 467 ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. [ 468 ] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. [ 464 ] Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled ), mines , short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. [ 468 ] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, [ 469 ] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. [ 470 ] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. [ 470 ] The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. [ 471 ] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine . [ 472 ] Development of SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes [ 473 ] and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. [ 474 ] Another component of military intelligence was deception , which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard . [ 473 ] [ 475 ] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ), guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research , the development of artificial harbours , and oil pipelines under the English Channel . [ 476 ] [ 477 ] Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development ] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. [ 478 ] See also Greatest Generation – Cohort born from 1901 to 1927 Opposition to World War II World War III – Hypothetical future global conflict Notes ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited. ^ Often abbreviated as WWII or WW2 ^ The UK declared war on Germany at 11 am. France followed 6 hours later at 5 pm. ^ Reparations were exacted from East Germany , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan ." ^ Multiple sources: [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 397 ] References ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6. ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 7. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). 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Wiest, Andrew; Barbier, M. K. (2002). Strategy and Tactics: Infantry Warfare . St Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-1401-2 . Williams, Andrew (2006). Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-35980-1 . Wilt, Alan F. (1981). "Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941". Military Affairs . 45 (4): 187– 191. doi : 10.2307/1987464 . JSTOR 1987464 . Wohlstetter, Roberta (1962). Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision . Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press . Wolf, Holger C. (1993). "The Lucky Miracle: Germany 1945–1951". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge: MIT Press . pp. 29– 56. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Wood, James B. (2007). Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable? . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5339-2 . Yoder, Amos (1997). 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Past & Present (258): 246– 281. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtab042 . ISSN 0031-2746 . also see online review Archived 4 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine Gerlach, Christian (2024). Conditions of Violence . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-1115-6873-7 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage West Point Maps of the European War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 – August 1945) v t e World War II v t e Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences Outline Battles Operations Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences General Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Air warfare of World War II In Europe In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Participants Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire British Empire United States Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Soviet Union Azerbaijan Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Timeline Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Redlists (lists of redlinked articles to be created) 2 Participants 13 comments 3 Outcomes (articles) 1 comment Toggle Outcomes (articles) subsection 3.1 Promote our work 3.2 New or upgraded articles 3.1 Promote our work 3.2 New or upgraded articles 4 Outcomes (media) Toggle Outcomes (media) subsection 4.1 Did You Know features 4.1 Did You Know features 5 Event resources Wikipedia : WikiProject Women in Red/Meetup/357 Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Skip to TOC Skip to bottom Skip to bottom Welcome to WikiProject Women in Red (WiR)! Our objective is to turn red links into blue ones . Our project's scope is women's representation on all language Wikipedias (biographies, women's works, women's issues, broadly construed). Did you know that only 20.27 % of the English Wikipedia's biographies are about women? Not impressed? Content gender gap is a form of systemic bias , and this is what WiR addresses. We invite you to participate, whenever you like, in whatever way suits you and your schedule. Editors of all genders are equally and warmly welcome at Women in Red! Women who died: 2025 edit‑a‑thon Online event December 2025 – January 2026 Women in Red's icon for this event Meetup 357 Type Edit-a-thon Series Women who died Articles Meetup 357 articles (69) Use social media to promote our work! Facebook Wiki Women in Red Twitter @wikiwomeninred Instagram @wikiwomeninred Pinterest December-2025-editathons Hashtag #wikiwomeninred Add to articles Authority control Authority control should be included at the foot of every biography: {{Authority control}} . It will remain hidden until relevant identifiers have been added to Wikidata. Categories Choose applicable categories including relevant subcategories of Category:Women . Stub If applicable, add stub template at the foot of an article: {{stub}} . Add to article talk pages {{ WikiProject Biography }} {{ WikiProject Women }} if born after 1950; or {{ WikiProject Women's History }} if born before 1950. Editathon banner: {{ WIR |357}} Recently completed: Music #1day1woman: 2025 Alphabet run: X, Y, Z Food and drink New this month: #1day1woman: 2026 Sports Alphabet run: Countries starting with A Ongoing initiatives: Women who died: 2025 Upcoming events: Ideas Once again in December and January we are focusing on notable women who died in 2025 , from all fields and nationalities. Many of them will have been covered in detail in the obituaries published in newspapers and journals around the world. We hope both inexperienced and seasoned editors will join us in creating biographies and other articles about notable women who have recently died, including their writings or other works. This virtual editathon allows enthusiasts wherever they may be to participate in our initiative. Contributors are of course also welcome to add articles on any other women who deserve to be covered, for example under our #1day1woman priority. The main goals of the event are: to encourage inexperienced editors and show them how they can contribute to Wikipedia by creating biographies of prominent women to draw the attention of more experienced editors to the need for concerted action on combating the systemic bias against the coverage of women and women's works to promote the new/improved articles and images through social media and via nominations to Main Page features Did You Know…? and In The News. What else? Below, you'll see a section where you can list the articles you created this month and another section where you can add the images you have uploaded to Commons. This essay on creating women's biographies and our Ten Simple Rules might be helpful to newer editors. If you share any of the articles or images on social media, please indicate you have done so next to the article name. Redlists (lists of redlinked articles to be created) We have red-link lists on women from all relevant fields, which can be found in our redlist index . A selection of those which might be most useful for this priority is listed below. Crowd-sourced (CS) and Wikidata (WD) red-link lists: women's biographies in other language versions of Wikipedia: Women who died in 2025 (WD) Recent deaths (WD) (last two weeks) A wide variety of redlink lists can be found on our Redlist index . For any country or occupation, you can look for those who died in 2025. Crowd-sourced (CS) and Wikidata (WD) red-link lists: women's biographies in other language versions of Wikipedia: Women who died in 2025 (WD) Recent deaths (WD) (last two weeks) A wide variety of redlink lists can be found on our Redlist index . For any country or occupation, you can look for those who died in 2025. Other sources where women who died in 2025 may be found: Deaths in 2025 (for prior months, use history to find version before redlinks removed) Obituaries in The New York Times Obituaries in the UK's The Guardian , including from the ( Start of the year ) Add other red links here, if possible with a source: Participants Penny Richards ( talk ) 17:02, 27 November 2025 (UTC) [ reply ] WomenArtistUpdates ( talk ) 20:10, 28 November 2025 (UTC) [ reply ] Moondragon21 ( talk ) 00:09, 29 November 2025 (UTC) [ reply ] _-_Alsor ( talk ) 00:11, 29 November 2025 (UTC) [ reply ] Deb ( talk ) Deb ( talk ) 09:00, 29 November 2025 (UTC) [ reply ] Victuallers ( talk ) 16:56, 1 December 2025 (UTC) [ reply ] Pam D 09:21, 3 December 2025 (UTC) [ reply ] Animaliak ( talk ) 19:39, 3 December 2025 (UTC) [ reply ] Gazamp ( talk ) 18:39, 4 December 2025 (UTC) [ reply ] Roundtheworld ( talk ) 11:23, 12 December 2025 (UTC) [ reply ] Izlhyl ( talk ) 20:40, 13 December 2025 (UTC) [ reply ] Hawksquill ( talk ) 23:20, 15 December 2025 (UTC) [ reply ] SDGB1217 ( talk ) 20:43, 19 December 2025 (UTC) [ reply ] Outcomes (articles) Promote our work Key: Add FB after the article if you mention it on Facebook Add PIN after the article if you pin the image on Pinterest Add IG after the article if you post it on Instagram Add LI after the article if you post it on LinkedIn Add Bsky after the article if you post it on Bluesky New or upgraded articles Most recent on top, please, specifying upgraded if not new and biographical dictionary, if used: Annie Stainer upgrade Priscilla Frisch Jen Bartlett upgrade Jean Frantz Blackall Gabriele Iwersen Anne Scargill pic Lydia Nyati-Ramahobo (also 358) Sine Larsen (also 358) Angelica Bäumer (also 358, 360) Zohra Rasekh (also 358, 360) Dorothy Bosch Keller Galina Matvievskaya Susan Brynteson Anne Rankin Mahoney Jorunn Aanderaa Judy Jean Chapman Kee Malesky add pic by Sarah Stierch Susantha Chandramali add pic Doreen Hall (also 326) Velma Pollard add pic Gerlin Bean add pic Susie Figgis Birthe Wesselhøft Barbara G. Walker - upgraded Allwell Ademola Anna Rusticano (also 326) Angela Tillmann Alicja Bobrowska (also 327) Danuta Ptaszycka-Jackowska (also 327) Daisy Wende (also 327) Alda Rosa Agata Kowalska-Szubert Rosalie Tennison Mária J. Nagy Ivonne Young H. Catherine W. Skinner (promoted on Mastodon) Fernanda Maria Valerie Pearlman Andria Hall Elżbieta Penderecka (also 326) Ada Becchi Teresa Ulloa Ziáurriz Elizette Bayan Cora Weiss Teresa Cupertino de Miranda Maria José Palla Anna Díaz Morello Ana Lía Kornblit Inmaculada García Rioja (also added in Deaths in February 2025 ) Paulina Tamayo (also 326) Maria da Nazaré Ângela Ribeiro (actress) Olga Cardoso Constança Cunha e Sá Fiorenza de Bernardi (upgraded) Pamela Mabini Vesna Bučić Eli Årdal Berland Jane Reed Agnieszka Maciąg Valentina Basiul Mildred Barnes Griggs Irina Zolotova (also 355 ) Margaret Miles-Bramwell (also 327 and 356) Marika Sherwood pic Susan Iversen pic Gwen Watkins ibox and pic Charlotte Raven add fair use pic Hazel Walford Davies (already present on cywiki) Deb ( talk ) 09:01, 29 November 2025 (UTC) [ reply ] Barbara Maxwell (producer) add fair use pic Sabine Wienker-Piepho translated from German Lea Gleitman translated from Swedish Outcomes (media) Please add this category to the image if you're uploading it to Commons: Media supported by WikiProject Women in Red - 2025 Gwen Watkins Stella Rimmington Brigitte Bardot Did You Know features This is a list of recognized content, updated weekly by JL-Bot ( talk · contribs ) (typically on Saturdays). There is no need to edit the list yourself. If an article is missing from the list, make sure it is tagged or categorized (e.g. Category:WikiProject Women in Red meetup 357 articles ) correctly and wait for the next update. See WP:RECOG for configuration options. ... that activist Gerlin Bean co-founded the Organisation of Women of African and Asian Descent in 1978, an event described as "a watershed in the history of Black women's rights activism"? (2022-07-19) Event resources Invitation: WikiProject Women in Red/Outreach/2025 Editathon banner for talk pages: Template:WikiProject Women in Red - {{WIR|357}} .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Women in Red Mainpage / Talkpage / Categories v t e Editors Members (join us!) Opt-in/opt-out mailing lists Recruitment User talk page invitation Members (join us!) Opt-in/opt-out mailing lists Recruitment User talk page invitation Editing Resources for new editors: Introduction {{ Wikipedia help pages }} {{ Wikipedia policies and guidelines }} How to run an edit-a-thon Resources related to women's biographies, works, issues: WiR Librarian-in-Residence List of resources List of essays Primer for creating women's biographies Ten simple rules for creating women's biographies How to write women into Wikipedia Writing about women on Wikipedia Writing about women in computing on Wikipedia Primer for AfD, AfC and PROD Tip of the Month Resources for new editors: Introduction {{ Wikipedia help pages }} {{ Wikipedia policies and guidelines }} How to run an edit-a-thon Resources related to women's biographies, works, issues: WiR Librarian-in-Residence List of resources List of essays Primer for creating women's biographies Ten simple rules for creating women's biographies How to write women into Wikipedia Writing about women on Wikipedia Writing about women in computing on Wikipedia Primer for AfD, AfC and PROD Tip of the Month Articles List of created articles: Main Lists of missing articles: Index Articles needing improvement: Article alerts (watch) Article gender gap statistics: Biographies per occupation Wikidata Human Gender Indicators (WHGI) Wikidata-generated gender gap graphs List of created articles: Main Lists of missing articles: Index Articles needing improvement: Article alerts (watch) Article gender gap statistics: Biographies per occupation Wikidata Human Gender Indicators (WHGI) Wikidata-generated gender gap graphs Events New this month #1day1woman: 2026 Sports Alphabet run: Countries starting with A Ongoing initiatives Women who died: 2025 Recently completed Music #1day1woman: 2025 Alphabet run: X, Y, Z Food and drink Coordination Future event planning Invitation templates Past events 2025 EDIT-A-THONS: Jan: Alphabet run: A & B Internet personalities Feb: Alphabet run: C & D Black women Mar: Alphabet run: E & F Artists+Activists Women of the Arab World Apr: Alphabet run: G & H Business May: Revolutionary women Alphabet run: I & J Jun: LGBTQ+ women Alphabet run: K & L Jul: Alphabet run: M & N Women in Red turns 10 Geofocus: Ten for Kenya Aug: Alphabet run: O & P Indigenous women Film and stage Sep: Alphabet run: Q & R Women writers & their works Geofocus: Microstates Oct: Alphabet run: S & T Women in STEM Halloween Nov: Alphabet run: U, V, W Asian women 2024 EDIT-A-THONS: Women in Sports Women who died: 2024 Jan: Alphabet run: M & N Temperance Women Feb: Alphabet run: O & P Black women Mar: Alphabet run: Q & R Art+Feminism Find Her Apr: Alphabet run: S & T Gender studies Health May: Press women Alphabet run: U–W Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Jun: LGBTQ+ women | Wiki Loves Pride Women in Music Alphabet run: X–Z Jul: Science Fiction and Fantasy Aug: Indigenous women Film and stage Sep: Women writers & their works Geofocus: Islands A–H Oct: Women in STEM Geofocus: Islands I–P Women in archaeology Nov: Asian women Geofocus: Islands Q–Z Women in engineering Dec: Religion INITIATIVES: #1day1woman Education CONTESTS: Translation 2023 INITIATIVES: Peace and Diplomacy #1day1woman EDIT-A-THONS: Folklore Women who died: 2023 Jan: Alphabet run: M & N Geofocus: East Asia Feb: Alphabet run: O & P Black women Justice Mar: Geofocus: Mediterranean Art + Activism Alphabet run: Q & R Apr: Gender studies Health Dance Alphabet run: S & T Books by women May: Alphabet run: U–W Disability Education Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Jun: Alphabet run: X–Z LGBTQ+ women Women in music Jul: Happy 8th Anniversary Women in Red Alphabet run: A & B Sports Aug: Alphabet run: C & D Indigenous women Film and stage Geofocus: Arab League countries Sep: Alphabet run: E & F Women writers & their works Geofocus: Celtic nations Oct: Alphabet run: G & H Women in STEM Geofocus: Sub-Saharan Africa Nov: Alphabet run: I & J Geofocus: Indian subcontinent Women in Politics Dec: Alphabet run: K & L Honoured women 2022 EDIT-A-THONS: Women in Sport Women who died: 2022 Jan: Women in business Geofocus: U.S. territories Feb: Black women Geofocus: Hong Kong and Macau Mar: Art+Activism Feminism and Folklore Geofocus: Dutch Caribbean Apr: Gender studies Geofocus: French overseas territories May: Women in the Ancient World Geofocus: British Overseas Territories Jun: LGBTQ+ women Geofocus: Greenland and the Faroes Women in music Jul: Alphabet run: A & B Geofocus: Baltic States Aug: Alphabet run: C & D Indigenous women Refugees Comedians, comics and other performers Sep: Alphabet run: E & F Women writers & their works Oct: Alphabet run: G & H Women in STEM Geofocus: West Asia Nov: Alphabet run: I & J Geofocus: Central and Southern Asia Women in Education Dec: Alphabet run: K & L Geofocus: Southeast Asia INITIATIVES: Climate #1day1woman CONTESTS: Translation 2021 EDIT-A-THONS: Olympics & Paralympics Women's leadership & empowerment Women who died: 2021 Jan: Climate and environment Public domain Feb: Black women Folklore Classicists Mar: Art+Activism VisibleWikiWomen Apr: Plants & Gardens Gender studies May: May Mays Mental Health Jun: LGBTQ+ women June Junes Jewellers & Watchmakers Jul: July Julies Finance, Economics & Banking Aug: Indigenous women Sep: Women writers & their works Oct: Women in STEM Ada Lovelace Day Nov: Film and stage Endocrine Health Dec: Double the lede! INITIATIVES: #1day1woman Women's rights CONTESTS: Women in Africa Women in Europe Women in Latin America Women in Oceania 2020 INITIATIVES: #1day1woman Sports EDIT-A-THONS: BLM/Anti-discrimination Women who died: 2020 Jan: Activists Public domain Geofocus: Central America Feb: Explorers Black women Women in Horror Mar: Art+Activists & Folklore Aviation Geofocus: Great Britain and Ireland Visible Wiki Women Apr: Gender studies Dance Geofocus: Caucasus May: Healthcare Women and their animals Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Mary Mary month of May Jun: LGBTQ women & Wiki Loves Pride United Nations & UN Agencies Geofocus: Reducing gender imbalance Jul: July Julies Women and Disability Geofocus: Women from Where? Aug: Indigenous women Geofocus: Countries headed by women Sep: Women writers & their works Women in conflict zones Oct: Women in STEM Nov: Textile Arts Stage+Screen+Radio+Podcast Dec: Philanthropists CONTESTS: Women in Asia 2019 INITIATIVES: Focus on Suffrage #1day1woman EDIT-A-THONS: Sports Women who died: 2019 Jan: Women of War and Peace Play! Geofocus: Caucasus Feb: Women in Social Work Black women: History Geofocus: Ancient worlds Mar: Women's History Month Geofocus: Francophone women Apr: Gender studies United Nations Dance Geofocus: Portuguese-speaking countries May: Women associated with May Mayors Environmentalists Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Jun: Wiki loves Pride Royals Space Geofocus: Mediterranean countries Jul: Educators Geofocus: Microstates Aug: Indigenous women Film and stage Geofocus: Millennial countries Sep: Women and Law Military History Women writers & their works Geofocus: Defunct countries Interwiki Women Collaboration Oct: Women in STEM Fashion Geofocus: Landlocked countries Nov: Libraries and Archives Leadership Asian Month Dec: Parliamentarians Classical musicians Arab world CONTESTS: Stub 2018 EDIT-A-THONS: Geofocus: Central & Eastern European Jan: Prisoners and detainees Fashion designers Geofocus: British Isles Feb: Black women Mathematicians and Statisticians Geofocus: Island women Mar: Women's History Month Apr: April + Further With Art + Feminism Archaeology Military History Geofocus: Indian subcontinent May: Women of the Sea Villains Women in Sports Jun: Celebrating LGBTQ Women and Wiki Loves Pride Singers, songwriters, songs by women Women in GLAM Geofocus: Russia/USSR Jul: Geofocus: Sub-Saharan Africa Film and stage 20th Century Women Rock Aug: Indigenous women Women of marginalized populations Women writers & their works Geofocus: Bottom 10 Sep: Women currently in academics Women + Law Geofocus: Hispanic countries Oct: Clubwomen Science fiction & fantasy Women in STEM Geofocus: Mediterranean Nov: Religion Deceased politicians Geofocus: Asia Dec: Photographers Laureates Geofocus: Countries beginning with 'I' INITIATIVES: #1day1woman 2017 EDIT-A-THONS: Jan: Women Philosophers Women in Education Feb: Women Anthropologists Black women Mar: Art+Feminism Role Models from Women's Universities Apr: Women in Psychology Book artists Central and Eastern Europe May: Women's organizations & conferences Women in sports and athletics Women from the Asian and Pacific Islands Jun: Met's art by women LGBTQ Women Pre-20th Century Women Jul: Women in dance Women in music Indian women Aug: Indigenous women Women in peace Canadian women Sep: Hispanic & Latina women Olympic women Women from New Zealand Oct: Women and disability Women and healthcare Nordic women Dec: Seasonal celebrations First ladies Go local! INITIATIVES: #1day1woman CONTESTS: Nov: Women in the world 2016 EDIT-A-THONS: Celebrating Women Scientists Jan: Women in music Feb: Black women: History Mar: Art+Feminism Apr: Women writers & their works Women in Espionage May: Women in Photography MENA artists Jun: Women in Jewish History Women in Entertainment LGBTQ Women Jul: Women in Halls of Fame United Nations Aug: Indigenous women Polar women Sep: Women in Nursing Women Labor Activists Nigerian Women in Entertainment Oct: Women in Architecture Women in Archaeology Nov: Women in Food and Drink Women writers & their works Asian Women BBC 100 Women Dec: Women in Aviation Women in the Military Caribbean Women 2015 EDIT-A-THONS: Sep: Asian Pacific American Women Women in Leadership Oct: Women in Architecture Nov: Women in Science Dec: Women in Religion New this month #1day1woman: 2026 Sports Alphabet run: Countries starting with A #1day1woman: 2026 Sports Alphabet run: Countries starting with A Ongoing initiatives Women who died: 2025 Women who died: 2025 Recently completed Music #1day1woman: 2025 Alphabet run: X, Y, Z Food and drink Music #1day1woman: 2025 Alphabet run: X, Y, Z Food and drink Coordination Future event planning Invitation templates Future event planning Invitation templates Past events 2025 EDIT-A-THONS: Jan: Alphabet run: A & B Internet personalities Feb: Alphabet run: C & D Black women Mar: Alphabet run: E & F Artists+Activists Women of the Arab World Apr: Alphabet run: G & H Business May: Revolutionary women Alphabet run: I & J Jun: LGBTQ+ women Alphabet run: K & L Jul: Alphabet run: M & N Women in Red turns 10 Geofocus: Ten for Kenya Aug: Alphabet run: O & P Indigenous women Film and stage Sep: Alphabet run: Q & R Women writers & their works Geofocus: Microstates Oct: Alphabet run: S & T Women in STEM Halloween Nov: Alphabet run: U, V, W Asian women 2024 EDIT-A-THONS: Women in Sports Women who died: 2024 Jan: Alphabet run: M & N Temperance Women Feb: Alphabet run: O & P Black women Mar: Alphabet run: Q & R Art+Feminism Find Her Apr: Alphabet run: S & T Gender studies Health May: Press women Alphabet run: U–W Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Jun: LGBTQ+ women | Wiki Loves Pride Women in Music Alphabet run: X–Z Jul: Science Fiction and Fantasy Aug: Indigenous women Film and stage Sep: Women writers & their works Geofocus: Islands A–H Oct: Women in STEM Geofocus: Islands I–P Women in archaeology Nov: Asian women Geofocus: Islands Q–Z Women in engineering Dec: Religion INITIATIVES: #1day1woman Education CONTESTS: Translation 2023 INITIATIVES: Peace and Diplomacy #1day1woman EDIT-A-THONS: Folklore Women who died: 2023 Jan: Alphabet run: M & N Geofocus: East Asia Feb: Alphabet run: O & P Black women Justice Mar: Geofocus: Mediterranean Art + Activism Alphabet run: Q & R Apr: Gender studies Health Dance Alphabet run: S & T Books by women May: Alphabet run: U–W Disability Education Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Jun: Alphabet run: X–Z LGBTQ+ women Women in music Jul: Happy 8th Anniversary Women in Red Alphabet run: A & B Sports Aug: Alphabet run: C & D Indigenous women Film and stage Geofocus: Arab League countries Sep: Alphabet run: E & F Women writers & their works Geofocus: Celtic nations Oct: Alphabet run: G & H Women in STEM Geofocus: Sub-Saharan Africa Nov: Alphabet run: I & J Geofocus: Indian subcontinent Women in Politics Dec: Alphabet run: K & L Honoured women 2022 EDIT-A-THONS: Women in Sport Women who died: 2022 Jan: Women in business Geofocus: U.S. territories Feb: Black women Geofocus: Hong Kong and Macau Mar: Art+Activism Feminism and Folklore Geofocus: Dutch Caribbean Apr: Gender studies Geofocus: French overseas territories May: Women in the Ancient World Geofocus: British Overseas Territories Jun: LGBTQ+ women Geofocus: Greenland and the Faroes Women in music Jul: Alphabet run: A & B Geofocus: Baltic States Aug: Alphabet run: C & D Indigenous women Refugees Comedians, comics and other performers Sep: Alphabet run: E & F Women writers & their works Oct: Alphabet run: G & H Women in STEM Geofocus: West Asia Nov: Alphabet run: I & J Geofocus: Central and Southern Asia Women in Education Dec: Alphabet run: K & L Geofocus: Southeast Asia INITIATIVES: Climate #1day1woman CONTESTS: Translation 2021 EDIT-A-THONS: Olympics & Paralympics Women's leadership & empowerment Women who died: 2021 Jan: Climate and environment Public domain Feb: Black women Folklore Classicists Mar: Art+Activism VisibleWikiWomen Apr: Plants & Gardens Gender studies May: May Mays Mental Health Jun: LGBTQ+ women June Junes Jewellers & Watchmakers Jul: July Julies Finance, Economics & Banking Aug: Indigenous women Sep: Women writers & their works Oct: Women in STEM Ada Lovelace Day Nov: Film and stage Endocrine Health Dec: Double the lede! INITIATIVES: #1day1woman Women's rights CONTESTS: Women in Africa Women in Europe Women in Latin America Women in Oceania 2020 INITIATIVES: #1day1woman Sports EDIT-A-THONS: BLM/Anti-discrimination Women who died: 2020 Jan: Activists Public domain Geofocus: Central America Feb: Explorers Black women Women in Horror Mar: Art+Activists & Folklore Aviation Geofocus: Great Britain and Ireland Visible Wiki Women Apr: Gender studies Dance Geofocus: Caucasus May: Healthcare Women and their animals Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Mary Mary month of May Jun: LGBTQ women & Wiki Loves Pride United Nations & UN Agencies Geofocus: Reducing gender imbalance Jul: July Julies Women and Disability Geofocus: Women from Where? Aug: Indigenous women Geofocus: Countries headed by women Sep: Women writers & their works Women in conflict zones Oct: Women in STEM Nov: Textile Arts Stage+Screen+Radio+Podcast Dec: Philanthropists CONTESTS: Women in Asia 2019 INITIATIVES: Focus on Suffrage #1day1woman EDIT-A-THONS: Sports Women who died: 2019 Jan: Women of War and Peace Play! Geofocus: Caucasus Feb: Women in Social Work Black women: History Geofocus: Ancient worlds Mar: Women's History Month Geofocus: Francophone women Apr: Gender studies United Nations Dance Geofocus: Portuguese-speaking countries May: Women associated with May Mayors Environmentalists Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Jun: Wiki loves Pride Royals Space Geofocus: Mediterranean countries Jul: Educators Geofocus: Microstates Aug: Indigenous women Film and stage Geofocus: Millennial countries Sep: Women and Law Military History Women writers & their works Geofocus: Defunct countries Interwiki Women Collaboration Oct: Women in STEM Fashion Geofocus: Landlocked countries Nov: Libraries and Archives Leadership Asian Month Dec: Parliamentarians Classical musicians Arab world CONTESTS: Stub 2018 EDIT-A-THONS: Geofocus: Central & Eastern European Jan: Prisoners and detainees Fashion designers Geofocus: British Isles Feb: Black women Mathematicians and Statisticians Geofocus: Island women Mar: Women's History Month Apr: April + Further With Art + Feminism Archaeology Military History Geofocus: Indian subcontinent May: Women of the Sea Villains Women in Sports Jun: Celebrating LGBTQ Women and Wiki Loves Pride Singers, songwriters, songs by women Women in GLAM Geofocus: Russia/USSR Jul: Geofocus: Sub-Saharan Africa Film and stage 20th Century Women Rock Aug: Indigenous women Women of marginalized populations Women writers & their works Geofocus: Bottom 10 Sep: Women currently in academics Women + Law Geofocus: Hispanic countries Oct: Clubwomen Science fiction & fantasy Women in STEM Geofocus: Mediterranean Nov: Religion Deceased politicians Geofocus: Asia Dec: Photographers Laureates Geofocus: Countries beginning with 'I' INITIATIVES: #1day1woman 2017 EDIT-A-THONS: Jan: Women Philosophers Women in Education Feb: Women Anthropologists Black women Mar: Art+Feminism Role Models from Women's Universities Apr: Women in Psychology Book artists Central and Eastern Europe May: Women's organizations & conferences Women in sports and athletics Women from the Asian and Pacific Islands Jun: Met's art by women LGBTQ Women Pre-20th Century Women Jul: Women in dance Women in music Indian women Aug: Indigenous women Women in peace Canadian women Sep: Hispanic & Latina women Olympic women Women from New Zealand Oct: Women and disability Women and healthcare Nordic women Dec: Seasonal celebrations First ladies Go local! INITIATIVES: #1day1woman CONTESTS: Nov: Women in the world 2016 EDIT-A-THONS: Celebrating Women Scientists Jan: Women in music Feb: Black women: History Mar: Art+Feminism Apr: Women writers & their works Women in Espionage May: Women in Photography MENA artists Jun: Women in Jewish History Women in Entertainment LGBTQ Women Jul: Women in Halls of Fame United Nations Aug: Indigenous women Polar women Sep: Women in Nursing Women Labor Activists Nigerian Women in Entertainment Oct: Women in Architecture Women in Archaeology Nov: Women in Food and Drink Women writers & their works Asian Women BBC 100 Women Dec: Women in Aviation Women in the Military Caribbean Women 2015 EDIT-A-THONS: Sep: Asian Pacific American Women Women in Leadership Oct: Women in Architecture Nov: Women in Science Dec: Women in Religion Past events 2025 EDIT-A-THONS: Jan: Alphabet run: A & B Internet personalities Feb: Alphabet run: C & D Black women Mar: Alphabet run: E & F Artists+Activists Women of the Arab World Apr: Alphabet run: G & H Business May: Revolutionary women Alphabet run: I & J Jun: LGBTQ+ women Alphabet run: K & L Jul: Alphabet run: M & N Women in Red turns 10 Geofocus: Ten for Kenya Aug: Alphabet run: O & P Indigenous women Film and stage Sep: Alphabet run: Q & R Women writers & their works Geofocus: Microstates Oct: Alphabet run: S & T Women in STEM Halloween Nov: Alphabet run: U, V, W Asian women Jan: Alphabet run: A & B Internet personalities Alphabet run: A & B Internet personalities Feb: Alphabet run: C & D Black women Alphabet run: C & D Black women Mar: Alphabet run: E & F Artists+Activists Women of the Arab World Alphabet run: E & F Artists+Activists Women of the Arab World Apr: Alphabet run: G & H Business Alphabet run: G & H Business May: Revolutionary women Alphabet run: I & J Revolutionary women Alphabet run: I & J Jun: LGBTQ+ women Alphabet run: K & L LGBTQ+ women Alphabet run: K & L Jul: Alphabet run: M & N Women in Red turns 10 Geofocus: Ten for Kenya Alphabet run: M & N Women in Red turns 10 Geofocus: Ten for Kenya Aug: Alphabet run: O & P Indigenous women Film and stage Alphabet run: O & P Indigenous women Film and stage Sep: Alphabet run: Q & R Women writers & their works Geofocus: Microstates Alphabet run: Q & R Women writers & their works Geofocus: Microstates Oct: Alphabet run: S & T Women in STEM Halloween Alphabet run: S & T Women in STEM Halloween Nov: Alphabet run: U, V, W Asian women Alphabet run: U, V, W Asian women 2024 EDIT-A-THONS: Women in Sports Women who died: 2024 Jan: Alphabet run: M & N Temperance Women Feb: Alphabet run: O & P Black women Mar: Alphabet run: Q & R Art+Feminism Find Her Apr: Alphabet run: S & T Gender studies Health May: Press women Alphabet run: U–W Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Jun: LGBTQ+ women | Wiki Loves Pride Women in Music Alphabet run: X–Z Jul: Science Fiction and Fantasy Aug: Indigenous women Film and stage Sep: Women writers & their works Geofocus: Islands A–H Oct: Women in STEM Geofocus: Islands I–P Women in archaeology Nov: Asian women Geofocus: Islands Q–Z Women in engineering Dec: Religion INITIATIVES: #1day1woman Education CONTESTS: Translation Women in Sports Women who died: 2024 Jan: Alphabet run: M & N Temperance Women Alphabet run: M & N Temperance Women Feb: Alphabet run: O & P Black women Alphabet run: O & P Black women Mar: Alphabet run: Q & R Art+Feminism Find Her Alphabet run: Q & R Art+Feminism Find Her Apr: Alphabet run: S & T Gender studies Health Alphabet run: S & T Gender studies Health May: Press women Alphabet run: U–W Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Press women Alphabet run: U–W Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Jun: LGBTQ+ women | Wiki Loves Pride Women in Music Alphabet run: X–Z LGBTQ+ women | Wiki Loves Pride Women in Music Alphabet run: X–Z Jul: Science Fiction and Fantasy Science Fiction and Fantasy Aug: Indigenous women Film and stage Indigenous women Film and stage Sep: Women writers & their works Geofocus: Islands A–H Women writers & their works Geofocus: Islands A–H Oct: Women in STEM Geofocus: Islands I–P Women in archaeology Women in STEM Geofocus: Islands I–P Women in archaeology Nov: Asian women Geofocus: Islands Q–Z Women in engineering Asian women Geofocus: Islands Q–Z Women in engineering Dec: Religion Religion #1day1woman Education Translation 2023 INITIATIVES: Peace and Diplomacy #1day1woman EDIT-A-THONS: Folklore Women who died: 2023 Jan: Alphabet run: M & N Geofocus: East Asia Feb: Alphabet run: O & P Black women Justice Mar: Geofocus: Mediterranean Art + Activism Alphabet run: Q & R Apr: Gender studies Health Dance Alphabet run: S & T Books by women May: Alphabet run: U–W Disability Education Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Jun: Alphabet run: X–Z LGBTQ+ women Women in music Jul: Happy 8th Anniversary Women in Red Alphabet run: A & B Sports Aug: Alphabet run: C & D Indigenous women Film and stage Geofocus: Arab League countries Sep: Alphabet run: E & F Women writers & their works Geofocus: Celtic nations Oct: Alphabet run: G & H Women in STEM Geofocus: Sub-Saharan Africa Nov: Alphabet run: I & J Geofocus: Indian subcontinent Women in Politics Dec: Alphabet run: K & L Honoured women Peace and Diplomacy #1day1woman Folklore Women who died: 2023 Jan: Alphabet run: M & N Geofocus: East Asia Alphabet run: M & N Geofocus: East Asia Feb: Alphabet run: O & P Black women Justice Alphabet run: O & P Black women Justice Mar: Geofocus: Mediterranean Art + Activism Alphabet run: Q & R Geofocus: Mediterranean Art + Activism Alphabet run: Q & R Apr: Gender studies Health Dance Alphabet run: S & T Books by women Gender studies Health Dance Alphabet run: S & T Books by women May: Alphabet run: U–W Disability Education Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Alphabet run: U–W Disability Education Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Jun: Alphabet run: X–Z LGBTQ+ women Women in music Alphabet run: X–Z LGBTQ+ women Women in music Jul: Happy 8th Anniversary Women in Red Alphabet run: A & B Sports Happy 8th Anniversary Women in Red Alphabet run: A & B Sports Aug: Alphabet run: C & D Indigenous women Film and stage Geofocus: Arab League countries Alphabet run: C & D Indigenous women Film and stage Geofocus: Arab League countries Sep: Alphabet run: E & F Women writers & their works Geofocus: Celtic nations Alphabet run: E & F Women writers & their works Geofocus: Celtic nations Oct: Alphabet run: G & H Women in STEM Geofocus: Sub-Saharan Africa Alphabet run: G & H Women in STEM Geofocus: Sub-Saharan Africa Nov: Alphabet run: I & J Geofocus: Indian subcontinent Women in Politics Alphabet run: I & J Geofocus: Indian subcontinent Women in Politics Dec: Alphabet run: K & L Honoured women Alphabet run: K & L Honoured women 2022 EDIT-A-THONS: Women in Sport Women who died: 2022 Jan: Women in business Geofocus: U.S. territories Feb: Black women Geofocus: Hong Kong and Macau Mar: Art+Activism Feminism and Folklore Geofocus: Dutch Caribbean Apr: Gender studies Geofocus: French overseas territories May: Women in the Ancient World Geofocus: British Overseas Territories Jun: LGBTQ+ women Geofocus: Greenland and the Faroes Women in music Jul: Alphabet run: A & B Geofocus: Baltic States Aug: Alphabet run: C & D Indigenous women Refugees Comedians, comics and other performers Sep: Alphabet run: E & F Women writers & their works Oct: Alphabet run: G & H Women in STEM Geofocus: West Asia Nov: Alphabet run: I & J Geofocus: Central and Southern Asia Women in Education Dec: Alphabet run: K & L Geofocus: Southeast Asia INITIATIVES: Climate #1day1woman CONTESTS: Translation Women in Sport Women who died: 2022 Jan: Women in business Geofocus: U.S. territories Women in business Geofocus: U.S. territories Feb: Black women Geofocus: Hong Kong and Macau Black women Geofocus: Hong Kong and Macau Mar: Art+Activism Feminism and Folklore Geofocus: Dutch Caribbean Art+Activism Feminism and Folklore Geofocus: Dutch Caribbean Apr: Gender studies Geofocus: French overseas territories Gender studies Geofocus: French overseas territories May: Women in the Ancient World Geofocus: British Overseas Territories Women in the Ancient World Geofocus: British Overseas Territories Jun: LGBTQ+ women Geofocus: Greenland and the Faroes Women in music LGBTQ+ women Geofocus: Greenland and the Faroes Women in music Jul: Alphabet run: A & B Geofocus: Baltic States Alphabet run: A & B Geofocus: Baltic States Aug: Alphabet run: C & D Indigenous women Refugees Comedians, comics and other performers Alphabet run: C & D Indigenous women Refugees Comedians, comics and other performers Sep: Alphabet run: E & F Women writers & their works Alphabet run: E & F Women writers & their works Oct: Alphabet run: G & H Women in STEM Geofocus: West Asia Alphabet run: G & H Women in STEM Geofocus: West Asia Nov: Alphabet run: I & J Geofocus: Central and Southern Asia Women in Education Alphabet run: I & J Geofocus: Central and Southern Asia Women in Education Dec: Alphabet run: K & L Geofocus: Southeast Asia Alphabet run: K & L Geofocus: Southeast Asia Climate #1day1woman Translation 2021 EDIT-A-THONS: Olympics & Paralympics Women's leadership & empowerment Women who died: 2021 Jan: Climate and environment Public domain Feb: Black women Folklore Classicists Mar: Art+Activism VisibleWikiWomen Apr: Plants & Gardens Gender studies May: May Mays Mental Health Jun: LGBTQ+ women June Junes Jewellers & Watchmakers Jul: July Julies Finance, Economics & Banking Aug: Indigenous women Sep: Women writers & their works Oct: Women in STEM Ada Lovelace Day Nov: Film and stage Endocrine Health Dec: Double the lede! INITIATIVES: #1day1woman Women's rights CONTESTS: Women in Africa Women in Europe Women in Latin America Women in Oceania Olympics & Paralympics Women's leadership & empowerment Women who died: 2021 Jan: Climate and environment Public domain Climate and environment Public domain Feb: Black women Folklore Classicists Black women Folklore Classicists Mar: Art+Activism VisibleWikiWomen Art+Activism VisibleWikiWomen Apr: Plants & Gardens Gender studies Plants & Gardens Gender studies May: May Mays Mental Health May Mays Mental Health Jun: LGBTQ+ women June Junes Jewellers & Watchmakers LGBTQ+ women June Junes Jewellers & Watchmakers Jul: July Julies Finance, Economics & Banking July Julies Finance, Economics & Banking Aug: Indigenous women Indigenous women Sep: Women writers & their works Women writers & their works Oct: Women in STEM Ada Lovelace Day Women in STEM Ada Lovelace Day Nov: Film and stage Endocrine Health Film and stage Endocrine Health Dec: Double the lede! Double the lede! #1day1woman Women's rights Women in Africa Women in Europe Women in Latin America Women in Oceania 2020 INITIATIVES: #1day1woman Sports EDIT-A-THONS: BLM/Anti-discrimination Women who died: 2020 Jan: Activists Public domain Geofocus: Central America Feb: Explorers Black women Women in Horror Mar: Art+Activists & Folklore Aviation Geofocus: Great Britain and Ireland Visible Wiki Women Apr: Gender studies Dance Geofocus: Caucasus May: Healthcare Women and their animals Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Mary Mary month of May Jun: LGBTQ women & Wiki Loves Pride United Nations & UN Agencies Geofocus: Reducing gender imbalance Jul: July Julies Women and Disability Geofocus: Women from Where? Aug: Indigenous women Geofocus: Countries headed by women Sep: Women writers & their works Women in conflict zones Oct: Women in STEM Nov: Textile Arts Stage+Screen+Radio+Podcast Dec: Philanthropists CONTESTS: Women in Asia #1day1woman Sports BLM/Anti-discrimination Women who died: 2020 Jan: Activists Public domain Geofocus: Central America Activists Public domain Geofocus: Central America Feb: Explorers Black women Women in Horror Explorers Black women Women in Horror Mar: Art+Activists & Folklore Aviation Geofocus: Great Britain and Ireland Visible Wiki Women Art+Activists & Folklore Aviation Geofocus: Great Britain and Ireland Visible Wiki Women Apr: Gender studies Dance Geofocus: Caucasus Gender studies Dance Geofocus: Caucasus May: Healthcare Women and their animals Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Mary Mary month of May Healthcare Women and their animals Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Mary Mary month of May Jun: LGBTQ women & Wiki Loves Pride United Nations & UN Agencies Geofocus: Reducing gender imbalance LGBTQ women & Wiki Loves Pride United Nations & UN Agencies Geofocus: Reducing gender imbalance Jul: July Julies Women and Disability Geofocus: Women from Where? July Julies Women and Disability Geofocus: Women from Where? Aug: Indigenous women Geofocus: Countries headed by women Indigenous women Geofocus: Countries headed by women Sep: Women writers & their works Women in conflict zones Women writers & their works Women in conflict zones Oct: Women in STEM Women in STEM Nov: Textile Arts Stage+Screen+Radio+Podcast Textile Arts Stage+Screen+Radio+Podcast Dec: Philanthropists Philanthropists Women in Asia 2019 INITIATIVES: Focus on Suffrage #1day1woman EDIT-A-THONS: Sports Women who died: 2019 Jan: Women of War and Peace Play! Geofocus: Caucasus Feb: Women in Social Work Black women: History Geofocus: Ancient worlds Mar: Women's History Month Geofocus: Francophone women Apr: Gender studies United Nations Dance Geofocus: Portuguese-speaking countries May: Women associated with May Mayors Environmentalists Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Jun: Wiki loves Pride Royals Space Geofocus: Mediterranean countries Jul: Educators Geofocus: Microstates Aug: Indigenous women Film and stage Geofocus: Millennial countries Sep: Women and Law Military History Women writers & their works Geofocus: Defunct countries Interwiki Women Collaboration Oct: Women in STEM Fashion Geofocus: Landlocked countries Nov: Libraries and Archives Leadership Asian Month Dec: Parliamentarians Classical musicians Arab world CONTESTS: Stub Focus on Suffrage #1day1woman Sports Women who died: 2019 Jan: Women of War and Peace Play! Geofocus: Caucasus Women of War and Peace Play! Geofocus: Caucasus Feb: Women in Social Work Black women: History Geofocus: Ancient worlds Women in Social Work Black women: History Geofocus: Ancient worlds Mar: Women's History Month Geofocus: Francophone women Women's History Month Geofocus: Francophone women Apr: Gender studies United Nations Dance Geofocus: Portuguese-speaking countries Gender studies United Nations Dance Geofocus: Portuguese-speaking countries May: Women associated with May Mayors Environmentalists Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Women associated with May Mayors Environmentalists Geofocus: Central and Eastern Europe Jun: Wiki loves Pride Royals Space Geofocus: Mediterranean countries Wiki loves Pride Royals Space Geofocus: Mediterranean countries Jul: Educators Geofocus: Microstates Educators Geofocus: Microstates Aug: Indigenous women Film and stage Geofocus: Millennial countries Indigenous women Film and stage Geofocus: Millennial countries Sep: Women and Law Military History Women writers & their works Geofocus: Defunct countries Interwiki Women Collaboration Women and Law Military History Women writers & their works Geofocus: Defunct countries Interwiki Women Collaboration Oct: Women in STEM Fashion Geofocus: Landlocked countries Women in STEM Fashion Geofocus: Landlocked countries Nov: Libraries and Archives Leadership Asian Month Libraries and Archives Leadership Asian Month Dec: Parliamentarians Classical musicians Arab world Parliamentarians Classical musicians Arab world Stub 2018 EDIT-A-THONS: Geofocus: Central & Eastern European Jan: Prisoners and detainees Fashion designers Geofocus: British Isles Feb: Black women Mathematicians and Statisticians Geofocus: Island women Mar: Women's History Month Apr: April + Further With Art + Feminism Archaeology Military History Geofocus: Indian subcontinent May: Women of the Sea Villains Women in Sports Jun: Celebrating LGBTQ Women and Wiki Loves Pride Singers, songwriters, songs by women Women in GLAM Geofocus: Russia/USSR Jul: Geofocus: Sub-Saharan Africa Film and stage 20th Century Women Rock Aug: Indigenous women Women of marginalized populations Women writers & their works Geofocus: Bottom 10 Sep: Women currently in academics Women + Law Geofocus: Hispanic countries Oct: Clubwomen Science fiction & fantasy Women in STEM Geofocus: Mediterranean Nov: Religion Deceased politicians Geofocus: Asia Dec: Photographers Laureates Geofocus: Countries beginning with 'I' INITIATIVES: #1day1woman Geofocus: Central & Eastern European Jan: Prisoners and detainees Fashion designers Geofocus: British Isles Prisoners and detainees Fashion designers Geofocus: British Isles Feb: Black women Mathematicians and Statisticians Geofocus: Island women Black women Mathematicians and Statisticians Geofocus: Island women Mar: Women's History Month Women's History Month Apr: April + Further With Art + Feminism Archaeology Military History Geofocus: Indian subcontinent April + Further With Art + Feminism Archaeology Military History Geofocus: Indian subcontinent May: Women of the Sea Villains Women in Sports Women of the Sea Villains Women in Sports Jun: Celebrating LGBTQ Women and Wiki Loves Pride Singers, songwriters, songs by women Women in GLAM Geofocus: Russia/USSR Celebrating LGBTQ Women and Wiki Loves Pride Singers, songwriters, songs by women Women in GLAM Geofocus: Russia/USSR Jul: Geofocus: Sub-Saharan Africa Film and stage 20th Century Women Rock Geofocus: Sub-Saharan Africa Film and stage 20th Century Women Rock Aug: Indigenous women Women of marginalized populations Women writers & their works Geofocus: Bottom 10 Indigenous women Women of marginalized populations Women writers & their works Geofocus: Bottom 10 Sep: Women currently in academics Women + Law Geofocus: Hispanic countries Women currently in academics Women + Law Geofocus: Hispanic countries Oct: Clubwomen Science fiction & fantasy Women in STEM Geofocus: Mediterranean Clubwomen Science fiction & fantasy Women in STEM Geofocus: Mediterranean Nov: Religion Deceased politicians Geofocus: Asia Religion Deceased politicians Geofocus: Asia Dec: Photographers Laureates Geofocus: Countries beginning with 'I' Photographers Laureates Geofocus: Countries beginning with 'I' #1day1woman 2017 EDIT-A-THONS: Jan: Women Philosophers Women in Education Feb: Women Anthropologists Black women Mar: Art+Feminism Role Models from Women's Universities Apr: Women in Psychology Book artists Central and Eastern Europe May: Women's organizations & conferences Women in sports and athletics Women from the Asian and Pacific Islands Jun: Met's art by women LGBTQ Women Pre-20th Century Women Jul: Women in dance Women in music Indian women Aug: Indigenous women Women in peace Canadian women Sep: Hispanic & Latina women Olympic women Women from New Zealand Oct: Women and disability Women and healthcare Nordic women Dec: Seasonal celebrations First ladies Go local! INITIATIVES: #1day1woman CONTESTS: Nov: Women in the world Jan: Women Philosophers Women in Education Women Philosophers Women in Education Feb: Women Anthropologists Black women Women Anthropologists Black women Mar: Art+Feminism Role Models from Women's Universities Art+Feminism Role Models from Women's Universities Apr: Women in Psychology Book artists Central and Eastern Europe Women in Psychology Book artists Central and Eastern Europe May: Women's organizations & conferences Women in sports and athletics Women from the Asian and Pacific Islands Women's organizations & conferences Women in sports and athletics Women from the Asian and Pacific Islands Jun: Met's art by women LGBTQ Women Pre-20th Century Women Met's art by women LGBTQ Women Pre-20th Century Women Jul: Women in dance Women in music Indian women Women in dance Women in music Indian women Aug: Indigenous women Women in peace Canadian women Indigenous women Women in peace Canadian women Sep: Hispanic & Latina women Olympic women Women from New Zealand Hispanic & Latina women Olympic women Women from New Zealand Oct: Women and disability Women and healthcare Nordic women Women and disability Women and healthcare Nordic women Dec: Seasonal celebrations First ladies Go local! Seasonal celebrations First ladies Go local! #1day1woman Nov: Women in the world Women in the world 2016 EDIT-A-THONS: Celebrating Women Scientists Jan: Women in music Feb: Black women: History Mar: Art+Feminism Apr: Women writers & their works Women in Espionage May: Women in Photography MENA artists Jun: Women in Jewish History Women in Entertainment LGBTQ Women Jul: Women in Halls of Fame United Nations Aug: Indigenous women Polar women Sep: Women in Nursing Women Labor Activists Nigerian Women in Entertainment Oct: Women in Architecture Women in Archaeology Nov: Women in Food and Drink Women writers & their works Asian Women BBC 100 Women Dec: Women in Aviation Women in the Military Caribbean Women Celebrating Women Scientists Jan: Women in music Women in music Feb: Black women: History Black women: History Mar: Art+Feminism Art+Feminism Apr: Women writers & their works Women in Espionage Women writers & their works Women in Espionage May: Women in Photography MENA artists Women in Photography MENA artists Jun: Women in Jewish History Women in Entertainment LGBTQ Women Women in Jewish History Women in Entertainment LGBTQ Women Jul: Women in Halls of Fame United Nations Women in Halls of Fame United Nations Aug: Indigenous women Polar women Indigenous women Polar women Sep: Women in Nursing Women Labor Activists Nigerian Women in Entertainment Women in Nursing Women Labor Activists Nigerian Women in Entertainment Oct: Women in Architecture Women in Archaeology Women in Architecture Women in Archaeology Nov: Women in Food and Drink Women writers & their works Asian Women BBC 100 Women Women in Food and Drink Women writers & their works Asian Women BBC 100 Women Dec: Women in Aviation Women in the Military Caribbean Women Women in Aviation Women in the Military Caribbean Women 2015 EDIT-A-THONS: Sep: Asian Pacific American Women Women in Leadership Oct: Women in Architecture Nov: Women in Science Dec: Women in Religion Sep: Asian Pacific American Women Women in Leadership Asian Pacific American Women Women in Leadership Oct: Women in Architecture Women in Architecture Nov: Women in Science Women in Science Dec: Women in Religion Women in Religion Administration Media: Main Social media guidelines Press inquiries Roger Bamkin (UK) Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight (US) Templates Tabbed header Talkpage template Categories Category templates other header templates Media: Main Social media guidelines Press inquiries Roger Bamkin (UK) Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight (US) Roger Bamkin (UK) Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight (US) Templates Tabbed header Talkpage template Tabbed header Talkpage template Categories Category templates other header templates Category templates other header templates Sister projects Women in Red in other language Wikipedias: List Wikimedia Commons: Main Logos and barnstars Presentations Social media banners Photo uploads: (main) (2020) Wikidata: Q23875215 ( WikiProject Women in Red ) Q43653733 ( Women in Red ) History of projects supporting women Women in Red in other language Wikipedias: List Wikimedia Commons: Main Logos and barnstars Presentations Social media banners Photo uploads: (main) (2020) Wikidata: Q23875215 ( WikiProject Women in Red ) Q43653733 ( Women in Red ) History of projects supporting women Pinterest Instagram {{ WikiProject Footer }} Pinterest Instagram {{ WikiProject Footer }} WikiProject Women in Red in 2025 WikiProject Women in Red in 2026 Wikipedia meetups in December 2025 Wikipedia meetups in January 2026 WikiProject Women in Red events This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 13:39 (UTC) . 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parser Lumikha ng isang aklat I-download bilang PDF Bersyong mapi-print Wikimedia Commons MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Multilingual Wikisource Wikispecies Wikidata Wikifunctions Item na Wikidata .mw-parser-output .ombox{margin:4px 0;border-collapse:collapse;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:#f8f9fa;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ombox.mbox-small{font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ombox-speedy{border:2px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ombox-delete{border:2px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ombox-content{border:1px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ombox-style{border:1px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ombox-move{border:1px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ombox-protection{border:2px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ombox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.9em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ombox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ombox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ombox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ombox .mbox-invalid-type{text-align:center}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ombox{margin:4px 10%}.mw-parser-output .ombox.mbox-small{clear:right;float:right;margin:4px 0 4px 1em;width:238px}} Mga paalala .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Pangkalahatan Nilalaman Legal Medikal Panganib Sarbey HINDI GARANTISADONG TAMA AT TUMPAK ANG NILALAMAN NG WIKIPEDIA Isang malaya at bukás na ensiklopedyang online ang Wikipedia, na sama-samang pinagtutulungan ng mga boluntaryo na may iisang layunin na makagawa ng pangkalahatang mapagkukunan ng kaalaman ng sangkatauhan. Dahil sa anyo nito, maaaring mabago ng sinuman ang nilalaman nito, basta nakakonekta siya sa internet. Dapat niyo pong malaman na wala sa mga nakikita niyo sa mga pahina nito ang narebyu ng mga eksperto ng mga paksang ibinabahagi dito upang mabigyan kayo ng kumpleto, tumpak, at maaasahang impormasyon. Hindi ibig sabihin nito na wala kang makikitang tama at magagamit na impormasyon dito sa Wikipedia. Gayunpaman, hindi po ginagarantiya ng Wikipedia na tama at tumpak ang mga nakikita niyong impormasyon dito. Maaari kasing nabago kamakailan ang kahit anong partikular na artikulo rito, o di kaya'y binaboy ng sinuman, o binago ng sinuman na may opinyon na iba sa opinyon ng mga eksperto ukol sa naturang paksa sa kasalukuyang panahon. Hindi lang po Wikipedia ang may ganitong pagtatanggi; may ganito rin ang ibang mga ensiklopedya (halimbawa, Encyclopedia Britannica ), diksiyonaryo (halimbawa, Oxford English Dictionary , Merriam-Webster ), o mga pahayagan (halimbawa, The New York Times , The Guardian ). Mga paalala .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Pangkalahatan Nilalaman Legal Medikal Panganib Sarbey Pangkalahatan Nilalaman Legal Medikal Panganib Sarbey HINDI GARANTISADONG TAMA AT TUMPAK ANG NILALAMAN NG WIKIPEDIA Isang malaya at bukás na ensiklopedyang online ang Wikipedia, na sama-samang pinagtutulungan ng mga boluntaryo na may iisang layunin na makagawa ng pangkalahatang mapagkukunan ng kaalaman ng sangkatauhan. Dahil sa anyo nito, maaaring mabago ng sinuman ang nilalaman nito, basta nakakonekta siya sa internet. Dapat niyo pong malaman na wala sa mga nakikita niyo sa mga pahina nito ang narebyu ng mga eksperto ng mga paksang ibinabahagi dito upang mabigyan kayo ng kumpleto, tumpak, at maaasahang impormasyon. Hindi ibig sabihin nito na wala kang makikitang tama at magagamit na impormasyon dito sa Wikipedia. Gayunpaman, hindi po ginagarantiya ng Wikipedia na tama at tumpak ang mga nakikita niyong impormasyon dito. Maaari kasing nabago kamakailan ang kahit anong partikular na artikulo rito, o di kaya'y binaboy ng sinuman, o binago ng sinuman na may opinyon na iba sa opinyon ng mga eksperto ukol sa naturang paksa sa kasalukuyang panahon. Hindi lang po Wikipedia ang may ganitong pagtatanggi; may ganito rin ang ibang mga ensiklopedya (halimbawa, Encyclopedia Britannica ), diksiyonaryo (halimbawa, Oxford English Dictionary , Merriam-Webster ), o mga pahayagan (halimbawa, The New York Times , The Guardian ). Walang pormal na pagsusuri ng nakakarami [ baguhin ang wikitext ] Ginagamit ng aming aktibong komunidad ng mga editor (makikita niyo rin ang salitang "tagagamit" o "patnugot" dito sa Wikipediang Tagalog) ang mga kagamitan tulad ng Natatangi:Mga huling binago at Natatangi:Mga bagong pahina para bantayan ang mga pumapasok na bago at binagong pahina. Gayunpaman, hindi pantay-pantay na nasuri ang bawat pahina dito; bagamat pwedeng itama ng mga mambabasa ang mga nakita nilang kamalian dito o di kaya'y magsagawa ng impormal na pagsusuri sa pahina, wala po silang responsibilidad na legal na gawin ito kaya naman wala rin pong kasiguraduhan na ang mga nababasa niyo ritong impormasyon ay tama o magagamit sa kahit anong sitwasyon. Kahit maging ang mga artikulo na sumailalim sa proseso ng pagsusuri dito sa Wikipedia o naging isang napiling artikulo dito ay maaari ding nabago kamakailan, bago niyo makita ito. Pakatandaan po lalo na dahil mas maliit ang komunidad ng mga editor ng Wikipediang Tagalog kesa sa Wikipediang Ingles, mas matindi ang mga kaso ng pambababoy o katulad na hindi nasuri ng mga aktibo rito, kahit maging ang mga napiling artikulo rito. Wala po sa mga nag-ambag, sponsor , tagapangasiwa ( admin ), o sinumang konektado sa Wikipedia ang responsable sa kahit anong kaparaanan para sa kahit anong mga mali o mapanirang impormasyon na makikita dito o maging sa paggamit mo sa mga impormasyong nandito o naka- link sa mga pahina nito. Walang pormal na pagsusuri ng nakakarami Ginagamit ng aming aktibong komunidad ng mga editor (makikita niyo rin ang salitang "tagagamit" o "patnugot" dito sa Wikipediang Tagalog) ang mga kagamitan tulad ng Natatangi:Mga huling binago at Natatangi:Mga bagong pahina para bantayan ang mga pumapasok na bago at binagong pahina. Gayunpaman, hindi pantay-pantay na nasuri ang bawat pahina dito; bagamat pwedeng itama ng mga mambabasa ang mga nakita nilang kamalian dito o di kaya'y magsagawa ng impormal na pagsusuri sa pahina, wala po silang responsibilidad na legal na gawin ito kaya naman wala rin pong kasiguraduhan na ang mga nababasa niyo ritong impormasyon ay tama o magagamit sa kahit anong sitwasyon. Kahit maging ang mga artikulo na sumailalim sa proseso ng pagsusuri dito sa Wikipedia o naging isang napiling artikulo dito ay maaari ding nabago kamakailan, bago niyo makita ito. Pakatandaan po lalo na dahil mas maliit ang komunidad ng mga editor ng Wikipediang Tagalog kesa sa Wikipediang Ingles, mas matindi ang mga kaso ng pambababoy o katulad na hindi nasuri ng mga aktibo rito, kahit maging ang mga napiling artikulo rito. Wala po sa mga nag-ambag, sponsor , tagapangasiwa ( admin ), o sinumang konektado sa Wikipedia ang responsable sa kahit anong kaparaanan para sa kahit anong mga mali o mapanirang impormasyon na makikita dito o maging sa paggamit mo sa mga impormasyong nandito o naka- link sa mga pahina nito. Hindi nakakontrata; limitadong lisensiya [ baguhin ang wikitext ] Siguraduhin na naiintindihan niyo na libre niyong makukuha ang impormasyong binibigay sa inyo dito, at walang kahit anong uri ng kasunduan o kontrata ang nagawa sa pagitan mo at sa mga may-ari o mga user ng site na ito, sa mga may-ari ng mga server na pinaglalagyan nito, sa sinumang nag-ambag sa Wikipedia, sa sinumang tagapangasiwa sa proyekto, sa mga sysop , o sa sinumang konektado sa kahit anong kaparaanan sa proyektong ito o sa mga kaugnay na proyekto nito na mapapailalim sa kahit anong mga panghahabol mo laban sa kanila nang direkta. Binibigyan ka ng limitadong lisensiya upang makopya mo ang kahit anong nasa site na ito; hindi ibig sabihin nito na may nagawa o nagsasabi na may pananagutang kontraktuwal o ekstrakontraktuwal ang Wikipedia o alinman sa mga ahente nito, miyembro, organizer, o iba pang mga user . Wala pong kasunduan o pag-unawang ginawa sa pagitan mo at ng Wikipedia ukol sa paggamit mo o sa pagbago mo sa impormasyong nandito na lagpas sa saklaw ng lisensiyang walang hurisdiksyon ( unported license ) na Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 4.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA) at GNU Free Documentation (GFDL); wala rin sa Wikipedia ang responsable kung sakaling may nagbago o nagtanggal sa kahit anong impormasyon na inilagay mo sa Wikipedia o sa mga kaugnay nitong proyekto. Hindi nakakontrata; limitadong lisensiya Siguraduhin na naiintindihan niyo na libre niyong makukuha ang impormasyong binibigay sa inyo dito, at walang kahit anong uri ng kasunduan o kontrata ang nagawa sa pagitan mo at sa mga may-ari o mga user ng site na ito, sa mga may-ari ng mga server na pinaglalagyan nito, sa sinumang nag-ambag sa Wikipedia, sa sinumang tagapangasiwa sa proyekto, sa mga sysop , o sa sinumang konektado sa kahit anong kaparaanan sa proyektong ito o sa mga kaugnay na proyekto nito na mapapailalim sa kahit anong mga panghahabol mo laban sa kanila nang direkta. Binibigyan ka ng limitadong lisensiya upang makopya mo ang kahit anong nasa site na ito; hindi ibig sabihin nito na may nagawa o nagsasabi na may pananagutang kontraktuwal o ekstrakontraktuwal ang Wikipedia o alinman sa mga ahente nito, miyembro, organizer, o iba pang mga user . Wala pong kasunduan o pag-unawang ginawa sa pagitan mo at ng Wikipedia ukol sa paggamit mo o sa pagbago mo sa impormasyong nandito na lagpas sa saklaw ng lisensiyang walang hurisdiksyon ( unported license ) na Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 4.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA) at GNU Free Documentation (GFDL); wala rin sa Wikipedia ang responsable kung sakaling may nagbago o nagtanggal sa kahit anong impormasyon na inilagay mo sa Wikipedia o sa mga kaugnay nitong proyekto. Tatak [ baguhin ang wikitext ] Pagmamay-ari ng mga may-ari sa kanila ang anumang mga tatak ( trademark ), tatak ng serbisyo ( service mark ), kolektibong tatak ( collective mark ), karapatan sa disenyo, o mga katulad na karapatan na binanggit, ginamit, o sinipi sa mga artikulong nandito sa Wikipedia. Hindi porket ginamit dito sa Wikipedia ang mga ito ay maaari mo na rin itong gamitin sa mga layuning hindi pareho sa mga layuning impormatibo na unang inilahad ng mga orihinal na may-akda sa mga artikulong ito ng Wikipedia sa ilalim ng CC-BY-SA at GFDL. Maliban lamang kung tahasang binanggit, hindi ineendorso o nauugnay ang Wikipedia at mga site ng Wikimedia sa mga mayhawak ng mga karapatan sa mga ito, kaya naman, wala ring maibibigay na karapatan ang Wikipedia upang magamit mo ang mga protektadong materyales na ito. Nasa sa'yo kung gagamitin mo pa rin ang mga pagmamay-ari na ito. Tatak Pagmamay-ari ng mga may-ari sa kanila ang anumang mga tatak ( trademark ), tatak ng serbisyo ( service mark ), kolektibong tatak ( collective mark ), karapatan sa disenyo, o mga katulad na karapatan na binanggit, ginamit, o sinipi sa mga artikulong nandito sa Wikipedia. Hindi porket ginamit dito sa Wikipedia ang mga ito ay maaari mo na rin itong gamitin sa mga layuning hindi pareho sa mga layuning impormatibo na unang inilahad ng mga orihinal na may-akda sa mga artikulong ito ng Wikipedia sa ilalim ng CC-BY-SA at GFDL. Maliban lamang kung tahasang binanggit, hindi ineendorso o nauugnay ang Wikipedia at mga site ng Wikimedia sa mga mayhawak ng mga karapatan sa mga ito, kaya naman, wala ring maibibigay na karapatan ang Wikipedia upang magamit mo ang mga protektadong materyales na ito. Nasa sa'yo kung gagamitin mo pa rin ang mga pagmamay-ari na ito. Karapatan sa pagkatao [ baguhin ang wikitext ] Naglalaman ang Wikipedia ng mga materyales na maaaaring makatukoy ng isang buhay o kamamatay lang na tao. Maaaring may limitasyon ang pagpapakita sa mga larawan ng mga taong buhay o kamamatay lang sa ilang mga bansa dahil sa kanilang mga batas ukol sa karapatan sa pagkatao ( personality rights ), bukod sa estado ng karapatang-sipi ng mga larawan. Bago mo gamitin ang mga ito, siguraduhin niyo po na may karapatan po kayong gamitin ang mga ito alinsunod sa mga batas na may kaugnayan sa layunin ng paggamit mo sa mga ito. Ikaw at ikaw lamang ang tanging responsable sa pagsigurong wala kang nilalabag na karapatan sa pagkatao ng sinuman. Karapatan sa pagkatao Naglalaman ang Wikipedia ng mga materyales na maaaaring makatukoy ng isang buhay o kamamatay lang na tao. Maaaring may limitasyon ang pagpapakita sa mga larawan ng mga taong buhay o kamamatay lang sa ilang mga bansa dahil sa kanilang mga batas ukol sa karapatan sa pagkatao ( personality rights ), bukod sa estado ng karapatang-sipi ng mga larawan. Bago mo gamitin ang mga ito, siguraduhin niyo po na may karapatan po kayong gamitin ang mga ito alinsunod sa mga batas na may kaugnayan sa layunin ng paggamit mo sa mga ito. Ikaw at ikaw lamang ang tanging responsable sa pagsigurong wala kang nilalabag na karapatan sa pagkatao ng sinuman. Hurisdiksyon at legalidad ng nilalaman [ baguhin ang wikitext ] Maaaring labag sa mga batas ng ilang bansa o hurisdiksiyon kung saan ka kasalukuyang nagbabasa ang mga nakalathalang impormasyon na nakalagay sa Wikipedia. Nakalagay sa mga server ng Estados Unidos ng Amerika ang database ng Wikipedia, na patuloy na pinangangalagaan at protektado sa ilalim ng mga lokal at pambansang batas nito. Maaaring hindi pinapayagan ng mga batas ng bansa o hurisdiksiyon mo ang ganitong klase ng pananalita o pamamahagi. Hindi po hinihimok ng Wikipedia na lumabag sa mga batas na ito, at hindi rin ito maaaring maging responsable para sa mga paglabag sa mga batas na ito, kung sakaling maisipan mong mag- link sa domain na ito, o gamitin, kopyahin, o ilimbag muli ang mga impormasyon na nakalagay rito. Hurisdiksyon at legalidad ng nilalaman Maaaring labag sa mga batas ng ilang bansa o hurisdiksiyon kung saan ka kasalukuyang nagbabasa ang mga nakalathalang impormasyon na nakalagay sa Wikipedia. Nakalagay sa mga server ng Estados Unidos ng Amerika ang database ng Wikipedia, na patuloy na pinangangalagaan at protektado sa ilalim ng mga lokal at pambansang batas nito. Maaaring hindi pinapayagan ng mga batas ng bansa o hurisdiksiyon mo ang ganitong klase ng pananalita o pamamahagi. Hindi po hinihimok ng Wikipedia na lumabag sa mga batas na ito, at hindi rin ito maaaring maging responsable para sa mga paglabag sa mga batas na ito, kung sakaling maisipan mong mag- link sa domain na ito, o gamitin, kopyahin, o ilimbag muli ang mga impormasyon na nakalagay rito. Hindi ito payo ng propesyonal [ baguhin ang wikitext ] Sakaling kailanganin mo ng partikular na payo (halimbawa, para sa kadahilanang medikal, legal, pinansiyal, o pamamahala sa panganib), mangyari pong maghanap po kayo ng angkop na propesyonal na lisensiyado o maalam sa larangang iyon. Hindi ito payo ng propesyonal Sakaling kailanganin mo ng partikular na payo (halimbawa, para sa kadahilanang medikal, legal, pinansiyal, o pamamahala sa panganib), mangyari pong maghanap po kayo ng angkop na propesyonal na lisensiyado o maalam sa larangang iyon. Wikipedia Huling pagbabago: 13:31, 26 Enero 2025. Ni-render ang pahina gamit ng Parsoid . Magagamit ang teksto sa ilalim ng Lisensyang Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike ; maaaring mailapat ang karagdagang termino. Tingnan ang Takdang Gamit para sa mga detalye. Patakaran sa Pagkapribado Patungkol sa Wikipedia Pagtatanggi Kodigo ng Paggawi Mga Developer Estadistika Tungkol sa Cookie Itsura sa mobile
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 Pre-1600 1.2 1601–1900 1.3 1901–present 1.1 Pre-1600 1.2 1601–1900 1.3 1901–present 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 Pre-1600 2.2 1601–1900 2.3 1901–present 2.1 Pre-1600 2.2 1601–1900 2.3 1901–present 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 Pre-1600 3.2 1601–1900 3.3 1901–present 3.1 Pre-1600 3.2 1601–1900 3.3 1901–present 4 Holidays and observances 5 References 6 External links January 17 Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kiswahili Коми Kongo Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Перем коми Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла संस्कृतम् Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taqbaylit Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Тыва дыл Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Руски Tolışi ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikidata item Page version status This is an accepted version of this page .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{color:var(--color-base,#202122);background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{color:var(--color-base,#202122);background-color:#d8e0ff}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{background-color:#2a2a5c}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{background-color:#202040}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{background-color:#2a2a5c}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{background-color:#202040}} << January >> Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2026 January 17 in recent years 2025 (Friday) 2024 (Wednesday) 2023 (Tuesday) 2022 (Monday) 2021 (Sunday) 2020 (Friday) 2019 (Thursday) 2018 (Wednesday) 2017 (Tuesday) 2016 (Sunday) January 17 is the 17th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar ; 348 days remain until the end of the year (349 in leap years ). Events Pre-1600 38 BC – Octavian divorces his wife Scribonia and marries Livia Drusilla , ending the fragile peace between the Second Triumvirate and Sextus Pompey . [ 1 ] 1362 – Saint Marcellus' flood kills at least 25,000 people on the shores of the North Sea. [ 2 ] 1377 – Pope Gregory XI reaches Rome, after deciding to move the Papacy back to Rome from Avignon . [ 3 ] 1524 – Giovanni da Verrazzano sets sail westward from Madeira to find a sea route to the Pacific Ocean. [ 4 ] 1562 – France grants religious toleration to the Huguenots in the Edict of Saint-Germain . [ 5 ] 1595 – During the French Wars of Religion , Henry IV of France declares war on Spain. [ 6 ] 1601–1900 1608 – Emperor Susenyos I of Ethiopia surprises an Oromo army at Ebenat; his army reportedly kills 12,000 Oromo at the cost of 400 of his men. [ 7 ] 1648 – England's Long Parliament passes the " Vote of No Addresses ", breaking off negotiations with King Charles I and thereby setting the scene for the second phase of the English Civil War . [ 8 ] 1649 – The Second Ormonde Peace creates an alliance between the Irish Royalists and Confederates during the War of the Three Kingdoms . The coalition was then decisively defeated during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland . [ 9 ] 1773 – Captain James Cook leads the first expedition to sail south of the Antarctic Circle . [ 10 ] 1781 – American Revolutionary War : Battle of Cowpens : Continental troops under Brigadier General Daniel Morgan defeat British forces under Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton at the battle in South Carolina . [ 11 ] 1799 – Maltese patriot Dun Mikiel Xerri , along with a number of other patriots, is executed. [ 12 ] 1811 – Mexican War of Independence : In the Battle of Calderón Bridge , a heavily outnumbered Spanish force of 6,000 troops defeats nearly 100,000 Mexican revolutionaries. [ 13 ] 1852 – The United Kingdom signs the Sand River Convention with the South African Republic . [ 14 ] 1873 – A group of Modoc warriors defeats the United States Army in the First Battle of the Stronghold , part of the Modoc War . [ 15 ] 1885 – A British force defeats a large Dervish army at the Battle of Abu Klea in the Sudan . [ 16 ] 1893 – Lorrin A. Thurston , along with the Citizens' Committee of Public Safety , led the Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and the government of Queen Liliʻuokalani . [ 17 ] 1899 – The United States takes possession of Wake Island in the Pacific Ocean. [ 18 ] 1901–present 1903 – El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico becomes part of the United States National Forest System as the Luquillo Forest Reserve. 1904 – Anton Chekhov 's The Cherry Orchard receives its premiere performance at the Moscow Art Theatre . [ 19 ] 1912 – British polar explorer Captain Robert Falcon Scott reaches the South Pole , one month after Roald Amundsen . 1915 – Russia defeats Ottoman Turkey in the Battle of Sarikamish during the Caucasus Campaign of World War I . 1917 – The United States pays Denmark $25 million for the Virgin Islands . [ 20 ] 1918 – Finnish Civil War : The first serious battles take place between the Red Guards and the White Guard . 1920 – Alcohol Prohibition begins in the United States as the Volstead Act goes into effect. [ 21 ] 1941 – Franco-Thai War : Vichy French forces inflict a decisive defeat over the Royal Thai Navy . 1943 – World War II : Greek submarine Papanikolis captures the 200-ton sailing vessel Agios Stefanos and mans her with part of her crew. 1944 – World War II: Allied forces launch the first of four assaults on Monte Cassino with the intention of breaking through the Winter Line and seizing Rome, an effort that would ultimately take four months and cost 105,000 Allied casualties. 1945 – World War II: The Vistula–Oder Offensive forces German troops out of Warsaw . 1945 – The SS-Totenkopfverbände begin the evacuation of the Auschwitz concentration camp as the Red Army closes in. 1945 – Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg is taken into Soviet custody while in Hungary; he is never publicly seen again. [ 22 ] 1946 – The UN Security Council holds its first session. 1948 – The Renville Agreement between the Netherlands and Indonesia is ratified. 1950 – The Great Brink's Robbery : Eleven thieves steal more than $2 million from an armored car company's offices in Boston . [ 23 ] 1950 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 79 relating to arms control is adopted. 1961 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower delivers a televised farewell address to the nation three days before leaving office, in which he warns against the accumulation of power by the " military–industrial complex " as well as the dangers of massive spending, especially deficit spending. 1961 – Former Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba is murdered together with former Minister of Youth and Sports of the Republic of the Congo Maurice Mpolo and former Senator from Kasai Province Joseph Okito in circumstances suggesting the support and complicity of the governments of Belgium and the United States. 1966 – Palomares incident : A B-52 bomber collides with a KC-135 Stratotanker over Spain, killing seven airmen, and dropping three 70-kiloton nuclear bombs near the town of Palomares and another one into the sea. 1969 – Black Panther Party members Bunchy Carter and John Huggins are killed during a meeting in Campbell Hall on the campus of UCLA . 1977 – Capital punishment in the United States resumes after a ten-year hiatus, as convicted murderer Gary Gilmore is executed by firing squad in Utah. 1981 – President of the Philippines Ferdinand Marcos lifts martial law eight years and five months after declaring it. 1991 – Gulf War : Operation Desert Storm begins early in the morning as aircraft strike positions across Iraq, it is also the first major combat sortie for the F-117 . LCDR Scott Speicher's F/A-18C Hornet from VFA-81 is shot down by a Mig-25 and is the first American casualty of the War. Iraq fires eight Scud missiles into Israel in an unsuccessful bid to provoke Israeli retaliation. 1991 – Crown Prince Harald of Norway becomes King Harald V , following the death of his father, King Olav V . 1992 – During a visit to South Korea, Japanese Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa apologizes for forcing Korean women into sexual slavery during World War II. 1994 – The 6.7 M w Northridge earthquake shakes the Greater Los Angeles Area with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX ( Violent ), leaving 57 people dead and more than 8,700 injured. 1995 – The 6.9 M w Great Hanshin earthquake shakes the southern Hyōgo Prefecture with a maximum Shindo of 7, leaving 5,502–6,434 people dead, and 251,301–310,000 displaced. 1996 – The Czech Republic applies for membership in the European Union . 1997 – Cape Canaveral Air Force Station : A Delta II carrying the GPS IIR-1 satellite explodes 13 seconds after launch, dropping 250 tons of burning rocket remains around the launch pad. 1998 – Clinton–Lewinsky scandal : Matt Drudge breaks the story of the Bill Clinton – Monica Lewinsky affair on his Drudge Report website. 2002 – Mount Nyiragongo erupts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo , displacing an estimated 400,000 people. 2007 – The Doomsday Clock is set to five minutes to midnight in response to North Korea 's nuclear testing. 2008 – British Airways Flight 38 crashes short of the runway at Heathrow Airport , injuring 47. [ 24 ] 2010 – Rioting begins between Muslim and Christian groups in Jos, Nigeria , results in at least 200 deaths. 2013 – Former cyclist Lance Armstrong confesses to his doping in an airing of Oprah's Next Chapter . [ 25 ] 2013 – Shahzad Luqman is murdered by members of Golden Dawn in Petralona , Athens , leading the creation of new measures to combat race-based attacks in Greece . [ 26 ] 2016 – President Barack Obama announces the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action , an agreement intended to limit Iran's nuclear program. [ 27 ] 2017 – The search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 is announced to be suspended. [ 28 ] 2023 – An avalanche strikes Nyingchi, Tibet , killing 28 people. [ 29 ] Births Pre-1600 1342 – Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (died 1404) 1429 – Antonio del Pollaiuolo , Italian artist (diedc. 1498 ) 1463 – Frederick III, Elector of Saxony (died 1525) 1463 – Antoine Duprat , French cardinal (died 1535) 1472 – Guidobaldo da Montefeltro , Italian captain (died 1508) 1484 – George Spalatin , German priest and reformer (died 1545) 1501 – Leonhart Fuchs , German physician and botanist (died 1566) 1504 – Pope Pius V (died 1572) [ 30 ] 1517 – Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk , English Duke (died 1554) 1560 – Gaspard Bauhin , Swiss botanist, physician, and academic (died 1624) 1574 – Robert Fludd , English physician, astrologer, and mathematician (died 1637) 1593 – William Backhouse , English alchemist and astrologer (died 1662) 1600 – Pedro Calderón de la Barca , Spanish playwright and poet (died 1681) 1601–1900 1612 – Thomas Fairfax , English general and politician (died 1671) 1640 – Jonathan Singletary Dunham , American settler (died 1724) 1659 – Antonio Veracini , Italian violinist and composer (died 1745) 1666 – Antonio Maria Valsalva , Italian anatomist and physician (died 1723) 1686 – Archibald Bower , Scottish historian and author (died 1766) 1693 – Melchor de Navarrete , Spanish colonial governor of Cartagena de Indias (Colombia, 1739 – 1742); of Spanish Florida (1749 – 1752); and of Yucatán (Mexico, 1754 – 1758) (died 1761) [ 31 ] 1706 – Benjamin Franklin , American publisher, inventor, and politician, 6th President of Pennsylvania (died 1790) 1712 – John Stanley , English organist and composer (died 1786) 1719 – William Vernon , American businessman (died 1806) 1728 – Johann Gottfried Müthel , German pianist and composer (died 1788) 1732 – Stanisław August Poniatowski , Polish-Lithuanian king (died 1798) 1734 – François-Joseph Gossec , French composer and conductor (died 1829) 1761 – Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet , Scottish geologist and geophysicist (died 1832) 1789 – August Neander , German historian and theologian (died 1850) 1793 – Antonio José Martínez , Spanish-American priest, rancher and politician (died 1867) 1814 – Ellen Wood , English author (died 1887) 1820 – Anne Brontë , English author and poet (died 1849) 1828 – Lewis A. Grant , American lawyer and general, Medal of Honor recipient (died 1918) 1828 – Ede Reményi , Hungarian violinist and composer (died 1898) 1832 – Henry Martyn Baird , American historian and academic (died 1906) 1834 – August Weismann , German biologist, zoologist, and geneticist (died 1914) 1850 – Joaquim Arcoverde de Albuquerque Cavalcanti , Brazilian cardinal (died 1930) 1850 – Alexander Taneyev , Russian pianist and composer (died 1918) 1851 – A. B. Frost , American author and illustrator (died 1928) 1853 – Alva Belmont , American suffragist (died 1933) [ 32 ] 1853 – T. Alexander Harrison , American painter and academic (died 1930) 1857 – Wilhelm Kienzl , Austrian pianist, composer, and conductor (died 1941) 1857 – Eugene Augustin Lauste , French-American engineer (died 1935) 1858 – Tomás Carrasquilla , Colombian author (died 1940) 1860 – Douglas Hyde , Irish academic and politician, 1st President of Ireland (died 1949) 1863 – David Lloyd George , Welsh lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (died 1945) 1863 – Konstantin Stanislavski , Russian actor and director (died 1938) 1865 – Sir Charles Fergusson, 7th Baronet , English general and politician, 3rd Governor-General of New Zealand (died 1951) 1867 – Carl Laemmle , German-born American film producer, co-founded Universal Studios (died 1939) 1867 – Sir Alfred Rawlinson, 3rd Baronet , English colonel, pilot, and polo player (died 1934) 1871 – David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty , English admiral (died 1936) 1871 – Nicolae Iorga , Romanian historian and politician, 34th Prime Minister of Romania (died 1940) 1875 – Florencio Sánchez , Uruguayan journalist and playwright (died 1910) 1876 – Frank Hague , American lawyer and politician, 30th Mayor of Jersey City (died 1956) 1877 – Marie Zdeňka Baborová-Čiháková , Czech botanist and zoologist (died 1937) [ 33 ] 1877 – May Gibbs , English-Australian author and illustrator (died 1969) 1880 – Mack Sennett , Canadian-American actor, director, and producer (died 1960) 1881 – Antoni Łomnicki , Polish mathematician and academic (died 1941) 1881 – Harry Price , English psychologist and author (died 1948) 1882 – Noah Beery, Sr. , American actor (died 1946) 1883 – Compton Mackenzie , English-Scottish author, poet, and playwright (died 1972) 1886 – Glenn L. Martin , American pilot and businessman, founded the Glenn L. Martin Company (died 1955) 1887 – Ola Raknes , Norwegian psychoanalyst and philologist (died 1975) 1888 – Babu Gulabrai , Indian philosopher and author (died 1963) 1897 – Marcel Petiot , French physician and serial killer (died 1946) 1898 – Lela Mevorah , Serbian librarian (died 1972) [ 34 ] 1899 – Al Capone , American mob boss (died 1947) 1899 – Robert Maynard Hutchins , American philosopher and academic (died 1977) 1899 – Nevil Shute , English engineer and author (died 1960) 1901–present 1901 – Aron Gurwitsch , Lithuanian-American philosopher and author (died 1973) 1904 – Hem Vejakorn , Thai painter and illustrator (died 1969) 1905 – Ray Cunningham , American baseball player (died 2005) 1905 – Peggy Gilbert , American saxophonist and bandleader (died 2007) 1905 – Eduard Oja , Estonian composer, conductor, educator, and critic (died 1950) 1905 – Guillermo Stábile , Argentinian footballer and manager (died 1966) 1905 – Jan Zahradníček , Czech poet and translator (died 1960) 1907 – Henk Badings , Indonesian-Dutch composer and engineer (died 1987) 1907 – Alfred Wainwright , British fellwalker, guidebook author and illustrator (died 1991) 1908 – Cus D'Amato , American boxing manager and trainer (died 1985) 1911 – Busher Jackson , Canadian ice hockey player (died 1966) 1911 – John S. McCain Jr. , American admiral (died 1981) 1911 – George Stigler , American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1991) 1914 – Anacleto Angelini , Italian-Chilean businessman (died 2007) 1914 – Irving Brecher , American director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2008) 1914 – Howard Marion-Crawford , English actor (died 1969) [ 35 ] 1914 – Paul Royle , Australian lieutenant and pilot (died 2015) 1914 – William Stafford , American poet and author (died 1993) 1916 – Peter Frelinghuysen Jr. , American lieutenant and politician (died 2011) 1917 – M. G. Ramachandran , Indian actor, director, and politician, 3rd Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (died 1987) 1918 – Keith Joseph , English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Education (died 1994) 1918 – George M. Leader , American soldier and politician, 36th Governor of Pennsylvania (died 2013) 1920 – Georges Pichard , French author and illustrator (died 2003) 1921 – Jackie Henderson , Scottish footballer (died 2005) [ 36 ] 1921 – Asghar Khan , Pakistani general and politician (died 2018) 1921 – Charlie Mitten , English footballer and manager (died 2002) [ 37 ] 1921 – Antonio Prohías , Cuban cartoonist (died 1998) 1922 – Luis Echeverría , Mexican academic and politician, 50th President of Mexico (died 2022) [ 38 ] 1922 – Nicholas Katzenbach , American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 65th United States Attorney General (died 2012) 1922 – Betty White , American actress, game show panelist, television personality, and animal rights activist (died 2021) [ 39 ] 1923 – Rangeya Raghav , Indian author and playwright (died 1962) 1924 – Rik De Saedeleer , Belgian footballer and journalist (died 2013) 1924 – Jewel Plummer Cobb , American biologist, cancer researcher, and academic (died 2017) 1925 – Gunnar Birkerts , Latvian-American architect (died 2017) 1925 – Robert Cormier , American author and journalist (died 2000) 1925 – Abdul Hafeez Kardar , Pakistani cricketer and author (died 1996) 1926 – Newton N. Minow , American lawyer and politician (died 2023) [ 40 ] 1926 – Moira Shearer , Scottish-English ballerina and actress (died 2006) 1926 – Clyde Walcott , Barbadian cricketer (died 2006) 1927 – Thomas Anthony Dooley III , American physician and humanitarian (died 1961) 1927 – Eartha Kitt , American actress and singer (died 2008) [ 41 ] 1927 – Harlan Mathews , American lawyer and politician (died 2014) 1927 – E. W. Swackhamer , American director and producer (died 1994) 1928 – Jean Barraqué , French composer (died 1973) 1928 – Vidal Sassoon , English-American hairdresser and businessman (died 2012) [ 42 ] 1929 – Philip Latham , British actor (died 2020) [ 43 ] 1929 – Jacques Plante , Canadian-Swiss ice hockey player, coach, and sportscaster (died 1986) 1929 – Tan Boon Teik , Malaysian-Singaporean lawyer and politician, Attorney-General of Singapore (died 2012) 1931 – James Earl Jones , American actor (died 2024) [ 44 ] 1931 – Douglas Wilder , American sergeant and politician, 66th Governor of Virginia [ 42 ] 1931 – Don Zimmer , American baseball player, coach, and manager (died 2014) 1932 – John Cater , English actor (died 2009) [ 45 ] 1932 – Sheree North , American actress and dancer (died 2005) [ 46 ] 1933 – Dalida , Egyptian-French singer and actress (died 1987) 1933 – Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan , French-Pakistani diplomat, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (died 2003) 1933 – Shari Lewis , American actress, puppeteer/ventriloquist, and television host (died 1998) [ 42 ] 1934 – Donald Cammell , Scottish-American director and screenwriter (died 1996) [ 47 ] 1935 – Ruth Ann Minner , American businesswoman and politician, 72nd Governor of Delaware (died 2021) 1936 – John Boyd , English academic and diplomat, British ambassador to Japan (died 2019) 1936 – A. Thangathurai , Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (died 1997) 1937 – Alain Badiou , French philosopher and academic 1938 – John Bellairs , American author and academic (died 1991) 1938 – Toini Gustafsson , Swedish cross country skier 1939 – Christodoulos of Athens , Greek archbishop (died 2008) 1939 – Maury Povich , American talk show host and producer [ 48 ] 1940 – Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni , Egyptian-Armenian patriarch (died 2015) 1940 – Kipchoge Keino , Kenyan athlete [ 42 ] 1940 – Tabaré Vázquez , Uruguayan physician and politician, 39th President of Uruguay (died 2020) 1941 – István Horthy, Jr. , Hungarian physicist and architect 1942 – Muhammad Ali , American boxer and activist (died 2016) [ 49 ] 1942 – Ita Buttrose , Australian journalist and author 1942 – Ulf Hoelscher , German violinist and educator 1942 – Nigel McCulloch , English bishop 1943 – Chris Montez , American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1943 – René Préval , Haitian agronomist and politician, 52nd President of Haiti (died 2017) 1944 – Ann Oakley , English sociologist, author, and academic 1945 – Javed Akhtar , Indian poet, playwright, and composer 1945 – Anne Cutler , Australian psychologist and academic (died 2022) 1947 – Joanna David , English actress [ 48 ] 1947 – Jane Elliot , American actress [ 48 ] 1948 – Davíð Oddsson , Icelandic politician, 21st Prime Minister of Iceland 1949 – Anita Borg , American computer scientist and academic (died 2003) 1949 – Gyude Bryant , Liberian businessman and politician (died 2014) 1949 – Augustin Dumay , French violinist and conductor 1949 – Andy Kaufman , American actor and comedian (died 1984) [ 42 ] 1949 – Mick Taylor , English singer-songwriter and guitarist [ 42 ] 1950 – Luis López Nieves , Puerto Rican-American author and academic 1952 – Tom Deitz , American author (died 2009) [ 50 ] 1952 – Darrell Porter , American baseball player and sportscaster (died 2002) 1952 – Ryuichi Sakamoto , Japanese pianist, composer, and producer (died 2023) [ 51 ] 1953 – Jeff Berlin , American bass player and educator 1953 – Carlos Johnson , American singer and guitarist 1954 – Robert F. Kennedy, Jr. , American environmental lawyer, writer, and conspiracy theorist 1955 – Steve Earle , American singer-songwriter, musician, record producer, author and actor [ 48 ] 1955 – Pietro Parolin , Italian cardinal 1955 – Steve Javie , American basketball player and referee 1956 – Damian Green , English journalist and politician 1956 – Paul Young , English singer-songwriter and guitarist [ 48 ] 1957 – Steve Harvey , American actor, comedian, television personality and game show host [ 52 ] 1957 – Ann Nocenti , American journalist and author 1958 – Tony Kouzarides , English biologist, cancer researcher 1959 – Susanna Hoffs , American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress [ 48 ] 1960 – John Crawford , American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1960 – Chili Davis , Jamaican-American baseball player and coach 1961 – Brian Helgeland , American director, producer, and screenwriter [ 48 ] 1962 – Jun Azumi , Japanese broadcaster and politician, 46th Japanese Minister of Finance 1962 – Jim Carrey , Canadian-American actor, comedian, and producer [ 48 ] 1962 – Sebastian Junger , American journalist and author [ 42 ] 1962 – Denis O'Hare , American actor and singer [ 48 ] 1963 – Colin Gordon , English footballer, agent, manager and chief executive [ 53 ] 1963 – Kai Hansen , German singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1964 – Michelle Obama , American lawyer and activist, 44th First Lady of the United States [ 48 ] 1964 – John Schuster , Samoan-New Zealand rugby player 1965 – Sylvain Turgeon , Canadian ice hockey player 1966 – Trish Johnson , English golfer 1966 – Joshua Malina , American actor [ 48 ] 1966 – Shabba Ranks , Jamaican rapper, musician, and songwriter [ 48 ] 1967 – Richard Hawley , English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1968 – Rowan Pelling , English journalist and author 1968 – Ilja Leonard Pfeijffer , Dutch author, poet, and scholar 1969 – Naveen Andrews , English actor [ 48 ] 1969 – Lukas Moodysson , Swedish director, screenwriter, and author 1969 – Tiësto , Dutch DJ and producer [ 48 ] 1970 – Cássio Alves de Barros , Brazilian footballer 1970 – Jeremy Roenick , American ice hockey player and actor 1970 – Genndy Tartakovsky , Russian-American animator, director, and producer [ 54 ] 1971 – Giorgos Balogiannis , Greek basketball player 1971 – Richard Burns , English race car driver (died 2005) 1971 – Kid Rock , American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor [ 48 ] 1971 – Sylvie Testud , French actress, director, and screenwriter 1973 – Cuauhtémoc Blanco , Mexican footballer and actor 1973 – Chris Bowen , Australian politician, 37th Treasurer of Australia 1973 – Liz Ellis , Australian netball player and sportscaster 1973 – Aaron Ward , Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1974 – Yang Chen , Chinese footballer and manager 1974 – Vesko Kountchev , Bulgarian viola player, composer, and producer 1974 – Derrick Mason , American football player 1975 – Freddy Rodriguez , American actor [ 48 ] 1977 – Leigh Whannell , Australian actor, director, screenwriter, and producer [ 48 ] 1978 – Lisa Llorens , Australian Paralympian [ 55 ] 1978 – Ricky Wilson , English singer-songwriter 1980 – Maksim Chmerkovskiy , Ukrainian-American dancer and choreographer [ 42 ] 1980 – Zooey Deschanel , American singer-songwriter and actress [ 48 ] 1980 – Modestas Stonys , Lithuanian footballer 1981 – Warren Feeney , Northern Irish footballer and manager 1981 – Ray J , American singer, actor, and television personality [ 56 ] 1981 – Michael Zigomanis , Canadian ice hockey player [ 57 ] 1982 – Dwyane Wade , American basketball player [ 42 ] 1982 – Andrew Webster , Australian rugby league player and coach [ 58 ] 1982 – Amanda Wilkinson , Canadian singer [ 48 ] 1983 – Álvaro Arbeloa , Spanish footballer 1983 – Ryan Gage , English actor [ 48 ] 1983 – Johannes Herber , German basketball player 1983 – Rick Kelly , Australian race car driver 1983 – Marcelo Garcia , Brazilian martial artist 1984 – Calvin Harris , Scottish singer-songwriter, DJ, and producer [ 48 ] 1984 – Dexter Lumis , American wrestler [ 59 ] 1985 – Pablo Barrientos , Argentinian footballer 1985 – Simone Simons , Dutch singer-songwriter 1986 – Viktor Stålberg , Swedish ice hockey player [ 60 ] 1987 – Cody Decker , American baseball player 1987 – Oleksandr Usyk , Ukrainian boxer [ 61 ] 1988 – Andrea Antonelli , Italian motorcycle racer (died 2013) 1988 – Earl Clark , American basketball player [ 62 ] 1988 – Will Genia , Australian rugby player 1988 – Jonathan Keltz , American actor [ 48 ] 1988 – Héctor Moreno , Mexican footballer 1989 – Taylor Jordan , American baseball player 1989 – Kelly Marie Tran , American actress [ 48 ] 1990 – Santiago Tréllez , Colombian footballer 1990 – Tyler Zeller , American basketball player [ 63 ] 1991 – Trevor Bauer , American baseball player 1991 – Willa Fitzgerald , American actress [ 42 ] 1991 – Esapekka Lappi , Finnish rally driver 1991 – Alise Post , American BMX rider 1992 – Stanislav Galiev , Russian ice hockey player [ 64 ] 1994 – Lucy Boynton , American-English actress [ 42 ] 1994 – Mark Steketee , Australian cricketer 1995 – Indya Moore , American actor and model [ 65 ] 1996 – Allonzo Trier , American basketball player [ 66 ] 1997 – Jake Paul , American boxer, actor, rapper, and social media personality [ 67 ] 1997 – Kyle Tucker , American baseball player [ 68 ] 1998 – Sophie Molineux , Australian cricketer 1998 – Jeff Reine-Adélaïde , French footballer 1999 – Isa Briones , American actor and singer [ 69 ] 2000 – Kang Chan-hee , South Korean singer and actor [ 70 ] 2000 – Devlin DeFrancesco , Canadian race car driver [ 71 ] 2000 – Ayo Dosunmu , American basketball player [ 72 ] 2001 – Enzo Fernández , Argentinian footballer [ 73 ] 2002 – Samuel , American singer based in South Korea. [ 74 ] 2003 – Robin Roefs , Dutch footballer [ 75 ] 2005 – Peio Canales , Spanish footballer [ 76 ] Deaths Pre-1600 395 – Theodosius I , Roman emperor (born 347) 644 – Sulpitius the Pious , French bishop and saint 764 – Joseph of Freising , German bishop 1040 – Mas'ud I of Ghazni , Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire (born 998) 1156 – André de Montbard , fifth Grand Master of the Knights Templar 1168 – Thierry, Count of Flanders (born 1099) 1229 – Albert of Riga , German bishop (born 1165) 1329 – Roseline of Villeneuve , Carthusian nun (born 1263) 1334 – John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond (born 1266) 1345 – Henry of Asti , Greek patriarch 1345 – Martino Zaccaria , Genoese Lord of Chios 1369 – Peter I of Cyprus (born 1328) 1456 – Elisabeth of Lorraine-Vaudémont , French translator (born 1395) 1468 – Skanderbeg , Albanian soldier and politician (born 1405) 1523 – Elisabeth of Hesse-Marburg , German landgravine (born 1466) [ 77 ] [ 78 ] 1588 – Qi Jiguang , Chinese general (born 1528) 1598 – Feodor I of Russia (born 1557) 1601–1900 1617 – Fausto Veranzio , Croatian bishop and lexicographer (born 1551) 1705 – John Ray , English botanist and historian (born 1627) 1718 – Benjamin Church , American colonel (born 1639) 1737 – Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann , German architect (born 1662) 1738 – Jean-François Dandrieu , French organist and composer (born 1682) 1751 – Tomaso Albinoni , Italian violinist and composer (born 1671) 1826 – Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga , Spanish-French composer (born 1806) 1834 – Giovanni Aldini , Italian physicist and academic (born 1762) 1850 – Elizabeth Simcoe , English-Canadian painter and author (born 1762) [ 79 ] 1861 – Lola Montez , Irish actress and dancer (born 1821) 1863 – Horace Vernet , French painter (born 1789) 1869 – Alexander Dargomyzhsky , Russian composer (born 1813) 1878 – Edward Shepherd Creasy , English historian and jurist (born 1812) 1884 – Hermann Schlegel , German ornithologist and herpetologist (born 1804) 1887 – William Giblin , Australian lawyer and politician, 13th Premier of Tasmania (born 1840) 1888 – Big Bear , Canadian tribal chief (born 1825) 1891 – George Bancroft , American historian and politician, 17th United States Secretary of the Navy (born 1800) 1893 – Rutherford B. Hayes , American general, lawyer, and politician, 19th President of the United States (born 1822) 1896 – Augusta Hall, Baroness Llanover , Welsh writer and patron of the arts (born 1802) [ 80 ] 1901–present 1903 – Ignaz Wechselmann , Hungarian architect and philanthropist (born 1828) 1908 – Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of Tuscany (born 1835) 1909 – Agathon Meurman , Finnish politician and journalist (born 1826) [ 81 ] 1909 – Francis Smith , Australian lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th Premier of Tasmania (born 1819) 1911 – Francis Galton , English polymath, anthropologist, and geographer (born 1822) 1927 – Juliette Gordon Low , American founder of the Girl Scouts of the USA (born 1860) 1930 – Gauhar Jaan , One of the first performers to record music on 78 rpm records in India. (born 1873) 1931 – Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich of Russia (born 1864) 1932 – Ahmet Derviş , Turkish general (born 1881) 1932 – Albert Jacka , Australian captain, Victoria Cross recipient (born 1893) 1933 – Louis Comfort Tiffany , American stained glass artist (born 1848) 1936 – Mateiu Caragiale , Romanian journalist, author, and poet (born 1885) 1942 – Walther von Reichenau , German field marshal (born 1884) 1947 – Pyotr Krasnov , Russian historian and general (born 1869) 1947 – Jean-Marie-Rodrigue Villeneuve , Canadian cardinal (born 1883) 1951 – Jyoti Prasad Agarwala , Indian poet, playwright, and director (born 1903) 1952 – Walter Briggs Sr. , American businessman (born 1877) 1961 – Patrice Lumumba , Congolese politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (born 1925) 1970 – Simon Kovar , Russian-American bassoon player and educator (born 1890) 1970 – Billy Stewart , American rhythm and blues singer and pianist (born 1937) 1972 – Betty Smith , American author and playwright (born 1896) 1977 – Dougal Haston , Scottish mountaineer (born 1940) 1977 – Gary Gilmore , American murderer (born 1940) 1981 – Loukas Panourgias , Greek footballer and lawyer (born 1899) 1984 – Kostas Giannidis , Greek pianist, composer, and conductor (born 1903) 1987 – Hugo Fregonese , Argentinian director and screenwriter (born 1908) 1987 – Lawrence Kohlberg , American psychologist and author (born 1927) [ 82 ] 1988 – Percy Qoboza , South African journalist and author (born 1938) 1990 – Panka Pelishek , Bulgarian pianist and music teacher (born 1899) [ 83 ] 1991 – Olav V of Norway (born 1903) 1992 – Frank Pullen , English soldier and businessman (born 1915) 1993 – Albert Hourani , English-Lebanese historian and academic (born 1915) 1994 – Yevgeni Ivanov , Russian spy (born 1926) 1994 – Helen Stephens , American runner, shot putter, and discus thrower (born 1918) 1996 – Barbara Jordan , American lawyer and politician (born 1936) 1996 – Sylvia Lawler , English geneticist (born 1922) 1997 – Bert Kelly , Australian farmer and politician, 20th Australian Minister for the Navy (born 1912) 1997 – Clyde Tombaugh , American astronomer and academic, discovered Pluto (born 1906) 2000 – Philip Jones , English trumpet player and educator (born 1928) 2000 – Ion Rațiu , Romanian journalist and politician (born 1917) 2002 – Camilo José Cela , Spanish author and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1916) 2002 – Roman Personov , Russian physicist and academic (born 1932) 2003 – Richard Crenna , American actor and director (born 1926) 2004 – Raymond Bonham Carter , English banker (born 1929) 2004 – Harry Brecheen , American baseball player and coach (born 1914) 2004 – Ray Stark , American film producer (born 1915) 2004 – Noble Willingham , American actor (born 1931) 2005 – Charlie Bell , Australian businessman (born 1960) 2005 – Virginia Mayo , American actress, singer, and dancer (born 1920) 2005 – Albert Schatz , American microbiologist and academic (born 1920) 2005 – Zhao Ziyang , Chinese politician, 3rd Premier of the People's Republic of China (born 1919) 2006 – Pierre Grondin , Canadian surgeon (born 1925) 2007 – Art Buchwald , American journalist and author (born 1925) 2007 – Yevhen Kushnaryov , Ukrainian engineer and politician (born 1951) 2007 – Uwe Nettelbeck , German record producer, journalist and film critic (born 1940) [ 84 ] 2008 – Bobby Fischer , American chess player and author (born 1943) [ 85 ] 2008 – Ernie Holmes , American football player, wrestler, and actor (born 1948) 2009 – Anders Isaksson , Swedish journalist and historian (born 1943) 2010 – Gaines Adams , American football player (born 1983) 2010 – Jyoti Basu , Indian politician and 9th Chief Minister of West Bengal (born 1914) 2010 – Michalis Papakonstantinou , Greek journalist and politician, Foreign Minister of Greece (born 1919) 2010 – Erich Segal , American author and screenwriter (born 1937) 2011 – Don Kirshner , American songwriter and producer (born 1934) 2012 – Julius Meimberg , German soldier and pilot (born 1917) 2012 – Johnny Otis , American singer-songwriter and producer (born 1921) 2012 – Marty Springstead , American baseball player and umpire (born 1937) 2013 – Mehmet Ali Birand , Turkish journalist and author (born 1941) 2013 – Jakob Arjouni , German author (born 1964) 2013 – Yves Debay , Belgian journalist (born 1954) 2013 – John Nkomo , Zimbabwean politician, Vice President of Zimbabwe (born 1934) 2013 – Lizbeth Webb , English soprano and actress (born 1926) 2014 – Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin , Indian spiritual leader, 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq (born 1915) 2014 – Francine Lalonde , Canadian educator and politician (born 1940) 2014 – Alistair McAlpine, Baron McAlpine of West Green , English businessman and politician (born 1942) 2014 – John J. McGinty III , American captain, Medal of Honor recipient (born 1940) 2014 – Sunanda Pushkar , Indian-Canadian businesswoman (born 1962) 2014 – Suchitra Sen , Indian film actress (born 1931) [ 86 ] 2015 – Ken Furphy , English footballer and manager (born 1931) 2015 – Faten Hamama , Egyptian actress and producer (born 1931) 2015 – Don Harron , Canadian actor and screenwriter (born 1924) 2016 – Blowfly , American singer-songwriter and producer (born 1939) 2016 – Melvin Day , New Zealand painter and historian (born 1923) 2016 – V. Rama Rao , Indian lawyer and politician, 12th Governor of Sikkim (born 1935) 2016 – Sudhindra Thirtha , Indian religious leader (born 1926) 2017 – Tirrel Burton , American football player and coach (born 1929) 2017 – Colo , American western lowland gorilla , first gorilla born in captivity and oldest recorded (born 1956) [ 87 ] [ 88 ] 2019 – S. Balakrishnan , Malayalam movie composer (born 1948) [ 89 ] 2020 – Derek Fowlds , British actor (born1937) [ 90 ] 2021 – Rasheed Naz , Pakistani film and television actor (born 1948) [ 91 ] 2022 – Birju Maharaj , Indian dancer (born 1937) [ 92 ] 2023 – Lucile Randon , French supercentenarian (born 1904) [ 93 ] 2025 – Didier Guillaume , French politician, 25th Minister of State of Monaco (born 1959) [ 94 ] 2025 – Jules Feiffer , American cartoonist, playwright, screenwriter, and educator (born 1929) [ 95 ] 2025 – Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat , Mongolian politician, 1st President of Mongolia (born 1942) [ 96 ] 2025 – Denis Law , Scottish footballer (born 1940) [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Holidays and observances Christian feast day : Anthony the Great Blessed Angelo Paoli Blessed Gamelbert of Michaelsbuch Charles Gore ( Church of England ) Jenaro Sánchez Delgadillo (one of Saints of the Cristero War ) Mildgyth Our Lady of Pontmain Sulpitius the Pious January 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Anthony the Great Blessed Angelo Paoli Blessed Gamelbert of Michaelsbuch Charles Gore ( Church of England ) Jenaro Sánchez Delgadillo (one of Saints of the Cristero War ) Mildgyth Our Lady of Pontmain Sulpitius the Pious January 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) National Day ( Menorca , Spain ) The opening ceremony of Patras Carnival , celebrated until Clean Monday . ( Patras , Greece ) References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Anthony A. Barrett (4 January 2002). Agrippina: Mother of Nero . Routledge. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-134-61863-7 . ^ Stephen Moss (2011-01-20). "Weatherwatch: The Grote Mandrenke" . The Guardian . Retrieved 2014-01-23 . ^ Philippe Levillain (2002). The Papacy: Gaius-Proxies . Psychology Press. p. 660. ISBN 978-0-415-92230-2 . ^ Shaw, Edward Richard (1900). Discoverers and Explorers . American Book Company. p. 103 . ISBN 1-4353-8990-5 . Verrazzano january 17. {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) ^ Nolan, Cathal J. (2006). The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000-1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization. Volume 2 . Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. pp. 239– 240. ISBN 9780313337338 . ^ Lesaffer, Randall (2017). "Between Faith and Empire: The Justification of the Spanish Intervention in the French Wars of Religion in the 1590s". In Koskenniemi, Martti; Rech, Walter; Fonseca, Manuel Jiménez (eds.). International Law and Empire: Historical Explorations . Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 101. ISBN 9780198795575 . ^ Bruce, James (1790). Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, In the Years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772 and 1773. Volume II . London: G.G.J. and J. Robinson. pp. 277– 278. ^ Ashton, Robert (1994). Counter-Revolution: The Second Civil War and Its Origins, 1646-8 . New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. p. 39. ISBN 9780300061147 . ^ Nolan, Cathal J. The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000-1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization, Volume 2 . Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. p.651 ^ Bastmeijer, Kees (2003). The Antarctic Environmental Protocol and Its Domestic Legal Implementation . The Hague: Kluwer Law International. p. 4. ISBN 9789041120649 . ^ Buchanan, John (1997). The Road to Guilford Courthouse: The American Revolution in the Carolinas . New York: Wiley. pp. 320– 322. ISBN 9780471164029 . ^ Vassallo, Mario (1979). From Lordship to Stewardship: Religion and Social Change in Malta . 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"Luis Echeverría Alvarez, Former President of Mexico, Dies at 100" . The New York Times . Retrieved 9 July 2022 . ^ Blistein, Jon (31 December 2021). "Beloved TV Icon Betty White Dead on Cusp of 100th Birthday" . Rolling Stone . Retrieved December 31, 2021 . ^ Bernstein, Adam (May 6, 2023). "Newton Minow, FCC chairman who assailed 'vast wasteland' of TV, dies at 97" . The Washington Post . Retrieved May 6, 2023 . ^ Jack, Adrian (26 December 2008). "Obituary: Eartha Kitt" . The Guardian . Retrieved 10 December 2020 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Famous birthdays for Jan. 17: Dwyane Wade, Jim Carrey" . UPI . 17 January 2023 . Retrieved 16 January 2024 . ^ "Stage, television and film actor dies" (PDF) . The Old Felstedian . December 2020. p. 25 . Retrieved 19 January 2024 . ^ "James Earl Jones, renowned actor and voice of Darth Vader, dies at 93" . Reuters . Retrieved 9 September 2024 . ^ Coveney, Michael (13 May 2009). "Obituary: John Cater" . The Guardian . 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OCLC 252454075 . ^ Agathon Meurman – Agathon Meurmanin sukuseura (in Finnish) ^ Rest, James; Power, Clark; Brabeck, Mary (May 1988). "Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)". American Psychologist . 43 (5): 399– 400. doi : 10.1037/h0091958 . ^ Bozhikova, Milena (2001). "Pelishek, Panka" . Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online. doi : 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.2274258 . Retrieved 19 August 2025 . ^ Boyd, J (13 February 2007). "Obituary: Uwe Nettelbeck" . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 10 June 2021 . ^ "Bobby Fischer (March 9, 1943 – January 17, 2008) – The U.S. Chess Trust" . uschesstrust.org . Retrieved 31 January 2020 . ^ "Suchitra Sen, India's Greta Garbo, dies aged 82" . The National . January 18, 2014. ^ Lyttle, Jeff (1997). Gorillas in Our Midst: The Story of the Columbus Zoo Gorillas . Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press. ISBN 9780814207666 . ^ "Colo, the oldest gorilla in captivity, dies aged 60" . BBC News. January 18, 2017 . Retrieved June 20, 2023 . ^ "Noted music composer S Balakrishnan passes away" . Mathrubhumi . Archived from the original on 2019-01-19 . Retrieved 2019-01-17 . ^ Louise Randell. "Yes Minister and Heartbeat star Derek Fowlds dead at 82" . MSN . Retrieved 2020-01-18 . ^ "Veteran actor Rashid Naz passes away at 73" . Images . 2022-01-17 . Retrieved 2025-08-07 . ^ "Leading Indian dancer Birju Maharaj dies" . Reuters . 2022-01-17 . Retrieved 2022-01-18 . ^ "The world's oldest known person, French nun Lucile Randon, dead at 118" . France 24 . 2023-01-17 . Retrieved 2023-03-05 . ^ Beaudet, Florence (January 17, 2025). "Drôme : Didier Guillaume, ancien président du département et ancien ministre de l'Agriculture, est mort" . France Bleu (in French) . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . ^ Webster, Andy (January 21, 2025). "Jules Feiffer, Acerbic Cartoonist, Writer and Much Else, Dies at 95" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved January 21, 2025 . ^ "Mongolian ex-president passes away" . XinhauNet . January 18, 2025 . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . ^ "Denis Law obituary" . The Guardian, UK . January 19, 2025 . Retrieved January 19, 2025 . ^ "Man Utd and Scotland legend Law dies aged 84" . BBC Sport . January 17, 2025 . Retrieved January 24, 2025 . External links BBC: On This Day The New York Times : On This Day Historical Events on January 17 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Months and days of the year v t e Today: January 16 , 2026 [refresh] January 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 February 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 March 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 April 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 May 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 June 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 July 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 August 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 September 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 October 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 November 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 December 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Related: List of non-standard dates Related: List of non-standard dates Days of January CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 Czech-language sources (cs) CS1 Korean-language sources (ko) CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles using Mw magnitude scale Commons link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 03:25 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Reign Toggle Reign subsection 2.1 Foreign policy 2.1 Foreign policy 3 Death 4 Legacy Toggle Legacy subsection 4.1 In popular culture 4.1 In popular culture 5 Family 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography Feodor I of Russia Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Татарча / tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Feodor I Italian engraving, 1580s Tsar of all Russia Reign 28 March [ O.S. 18 March] 1584 – 17 January [ O.S. 7 January] 1598 Coronation 31 May 1584 Predecessor Ivan IV Successor Irina (disputed) or Boris Born ( 1557-05-31 ) 31 May 1557 Moscow, Russia Died 17 January 1598 (1598-01-17) (aged 40) Moscow, Russia Burial Archangel Cathedral , Kremlin Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Irina Godunova ( m. 1575) Issue Tsarevna Feodosiya of Russia Names Feodor Ivanovich Names Feodor Ivanovich Dynasty Rurik Father Ivan IV of Russia Mother Anastasia Romanovna Religion Russian Orthodox Feodor I Ioannovich ( Russian : Феодор I Иoаннович ) or Fyodor I Ivanovich (Russian: Фёдор I Иванович ; 31 May 1557 – 17 January 1598), nicknamed the Blessed ( Блаженный ), was Tsar of all Russia from 1584 until his death in 1598. Feodor's mother died when he was three, and he grew up in the shadow of his father, Ivan the Terrible . He was a pious man of retiring disposition and possibly suffered from mental disability. He took little interest in politics, and the country was effectively administered in his name by Boris Godunov , the brother of his beloved wife Irina . He died without surviving children and was succeeded by Godunov as tsar, marking the end of the rule of the Rurik dynasty and spurring Russia's descent into the catastrophic Time of Troubles . He is listed in the Great Synaxaristes of the Eastern Orthodox Church , with his feast day on 7 January (O.S.). [ 1 ] Early life Feodor was born on 31 May 1557 in Moscow, the third son of Ivan the Terrible by his first wife Anastasia Romanovna . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] He was baptized at the Chudov Monastery and his godfather was Macarius , the metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church . [ 2 ] Although he was the sixth and youngest child of his mother, he grew up with only one older brother, Ivan Ivanovich , because all his other older siblings had died in infancy. [ 3 ] His mother also died by the time Feodor was three years old, and her death greatly affected his father, who had been very attached to his wife. [ 4 ] He also took a series of other wives, but Feodor's only surviving half-sibling, Dmitry of Uglich , was born on 19 October 1582 to the tsar's last wife. [ 2 ] Feodor therefore grew up in the shadow of a distant father, with no mother to succor him, and only his older brother Ivan Ivanovich for family solidarity. He grew to be sickly of health and diffident of temperament. He was extremely pious by nature, spending hours in prayer and contemplation. He was very fond of visiting churches, and would often cause the bells to be rung according to a special tradition in the Russian Orthodox Church. For this reason, he is known to history as Feodor the Bellringer. He is also listed in the Great Synaxaristes of the Orthodox Church, with his feast day on 7 January (O.S.). [ 5 ] In May 1562, as Ivan IV went on a campaign against the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , he left both tsareviches in Moscow and ordered Ivan Ivanovich “to write in his name to the commanders in all the towns about taking care of things and ordered all affairs of the land to his son Tsarevich Ivan". [ 6 ] Upon his return in the autumn, the two tsareviches met the tsar on the Arbat , along with the metropolitan. [ 6 ] During the next military campaign in the following year, the two sons were not given any formal responsibilities, and at the end of 1564, Ivan IV took his sons with him in the procession to Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda , where he would stay for most of the remainder of his reign. [ 7 ] In 1577, Feodor was left by his father in Novgorod with the boyars Dmitry and Boris Godunov and others, including a tutor. [ 8 ] Feodor did not play any role in foreign affairs, whereas his brother is mentioned as a participant in military campaigns and political discussions in razriady every year from 1567 until his death. [ 9 ] Despite this, Feodor was selected as a candidate for the Polish throne in 1572–1573 and 1574–1576, besides his father himself. [ 10 ] Feodor and his brother were not given a new title by their father, and in August 1581, the papal envoy in Russia, Antonio Possevino , was ordered to be told by the tsar that Russian documents did not need to be written in the name of both the tsar and the tsareviches because "my son Ivan has not yet been honored with the name of sovereign and my son Fyodor has not attained the age when he can rule the state with us". [ 11 ] In the testament of Ivan IV, which has only survived in an 18th-century copy and is dated by historians to the 1570s, Feodor's brother was blessed with the tsardom along with most of the tsar's personal domain, with Feodor being given an appanage ; however, the testament lost its validity following the sudden death of Ivan Ivanovich. [ 12 ] On 9 November 1581, Ivan Ivanovich died, with Antonio Possevino asserting in his 1586 book that he had been killed by his father in a fit of rage. [ 12 ] His death left only Feodor and Dmitry as the remaining sons of the tsar. [ 12 ] Feodor became tsar not only because of his brother's death, but also because his brother did not have any children, despite being married three times. [ 13 ] He lived very differently to his elder brother due to his physical weakness and possible mental deficiencies. [ 8 ] According to the metropolitan, Feodor was blessed by his father to succeed him, "to be anointed and crowned with that crown and diadem of the tsars ... [as] your father's heritor [ otchichem ] and your grandfather's heritor [ dedichem ] and the heir [ naslednik ] of the Russian tsardom". [ 14 ] In the spring of 1583, Feodor accompanied his father's army on a military campaign against rebels around Kazan , along with two dyadki (servants). [ 8 ] The two were not important boyars, but the first one belonged to the clan of Boris Godunov and would achieve the rank of boyar and dvoretsky shortly after Feodor ascended the throne, while the second one was another supporter of the Godunovs who would be promoted from dumny dvoryanin to okolnichy in 1586. [ 8 ] Around the same time, Ivan IV was looking for his eighth wife in England and consulted his physician Robert Jacob about relatives of Queen Elizabeth I who would be suitable. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Jacob suggested Lady Mary Hastings , and Ivan told Elizabeth that if the two were to have sons, they would be given appanages "according to their sovereign rank" ( po ikh gosudarskomu chinu ) and be treated "equally in degree with Fyodor" ( v rovenstve po stepeni so tsarevichem Fedorom ). [ 15 ] [ 17 ] However, the plan did not go anywhere. [ 15 ] Reign Ivan IV died on 28 March [ O.S. 18 March] 1584, and Feodor succeeded his father as tsar. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Two months later, on 31 May 1584, he was crowned as the tsar and autocrat of all Russia at the Dormition Cathedral in Moscow . [ a ] [ 21 ] The coronation of Feodor was slightly modified to account for his father's recent conquests and the increasingly Byzantine practice of the tsar's court. [ 22 ] As Feodor was Ivan's third son, the speechmakers for the coronation omitted the mention of "first" or "firstborn" in reference to heredity, which in the record of the coronation of his father, it was stated that the ancient custom of Russian grand princes was to bestow the rulership on "their firstborn sons". [ 22 ] As a result, Metropolitan Dionysius simply stated that "the tsars and grand princes gave the Tsardom and Grand Principality of Russia to their sons [ synom svoim ]". [ 22 ] Due to the only surviving testament of Ivan IV being outdated and there being no reference of another testament having been written, historians have debated whether there was an informal regency council or not. [ 23 ] The historian Ruslan Skrynnikov attempted to prove that the Zemsky Sobor (assembly of the land) elected Feodor as tsar, while Aleksandr Zimin rejected the idea. [ 24 ] Lev Cherepnin tried to prove that the assembly had met but Feodor was not elected as he was already recognized as the new tsar. [ 24 ] The few contemporary Russian sources available do not state that an election took place, such as the Stoglav of the church council of 2 July 1584 which states that Feodor was placed on the throne "according to the blessing of his father... having taken up the scepter of the Russian tsardom". [ 25 ] At his coronation, Feodor was also claimed to have said that his father gave him the title "Tsar and Grand Prince, inheritor from his father and grandfather of the Russian tsardom". [ 25 ] Foreign sources like the account by Jerome Bowes described Feodor's accession as normal and without any mention of a council. [ 23 ] Another English source from Jerome Horsey described how the boyars "were appointed to settle and dispose his [Ivan the Terrible's] son Fyodor Ivanovich, having sworn one another, and all the nobility and officers whosoever" before a "parliament" met on 4 May. [ 23 ] However, both of the English reports were published soon after the events, and therefore may contain omissions due to political reasons, while the originals have not survived. [ 23 ] Polish and Vatican reports mention the expectation of an election taking place, due to Feodor's "madness", but the letter of the emissary Lew Sapieha tells how the Russian pristav shared the story of Feodor sitting on the throne according to the blessing of his father. [ 26 ] Pontus De la Gardie , the Swedish viceroy of Livonia , wrote a letter on 16 April to the viceroy of Novgorod about prolonging the truce between Sweden and Russia, because he had learned that the tsar had died and "in his place they had elected as grand prince his son Fyodor to the rank of his father and crowned him". [ 25 ] The answering letter did not correct the error about Feodor being elected and simply stated that "with God’s help according to the blessing of his father, his son our sovereign tsar and grand prince Fyodor Ivanovich came to rule his states". [ 27 ] Feodor was only the nominal ruler: his wife's brother and trusted minister Boris Godunov legitimized himself, after Ivan IV's death, as the de facto regent for the weak and disabled Feodor. [ 28 ] [ 29 ] [ 21 ] As a result, the government was mainly in the hands of the boyars and Feodor's brother-in-law. [ 30 ] By the summer of 1584, the two boyar clans had effected a rapprochement, and Luka Novosiltsev, the Russian ambassador to the Holy Roman Empire , referred to Godunov in November as "the ruler of the land, a great and gracious lord". [ 21 ] By the end of the 1580s, Boris Godunov was able to deal with foreign powers independently, using a variety of titles in addition to that of equerry , which he received in 1584. [ 31 ] Feodor's wife Irina also began to play a role in the affairs of the state, although it is not clear if she had any real political power. [ 32 ] Three charters regarding grants to monasteries from 1587 to 1597 are in the name of both the tsar and tsaritsa. [ 32 ] In May 1586, the Shuyskys , backed by the metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church and the people of Moscow, organized a petition in the name of the Zemsky Sobor that was addressed to Feodor and urged him to divorce his wife, who was childless. [ 21 ] Feodor rejected the proposition, and Godunov waited until the return of the Russian embassy from Poland on 1 October, where he may have received confirmation of his suspicions that the Shuyskys were in contact with Polish lords. [ 21 ] In the autumn, the Shuyskys were banished from the capital and Boris Godunov persecuted them heavily in the following year. [ 21 ] In addition, Metropolitan Dionysius was removed from his post. [ 21 ] Although Boris Godunov focused on strengthening the autocracy like Feodor's father, he was not opposed to the princely elite, and the composition of the duma was predominated by the highest-ranking boyar elite. [ 33 ] Foreign policy Unlike his father, Feodor had no enthusiasm for maintaining exclusive trading rights with the Kingdom of England . Feodor declared his kingdom open to all foreigners, and dismissed the English ambassador Sir Jerome Bowes , whose pomposity had been tolerated by Feodor's father. Elizabeth I sent a new ambassador, Giles Fletcher, the Elder , to demand of Boris Godunov that he convince the tsar to reconsider. The negotiations failed because Fletcher addressed Feodor with two of his titles omitted. Even after this setback, Elizabeth continued to address Feodor on that topic in half appealing, half reproachful letters. [ 34 ] She proposed an alliance between Russia and England, something which she had refused to do when it had been sought by Feodor's father, but he turned her down. [ 35 ] Some boyars may also have been interested in a Habsburg succession to the throne as early as 1584, which would have meant the election of one of the brothers of Rudolf II . [ 36 ] As the Habsburg court was interested in preventing Polish expansion into Russia, discussions were held in Prague , and in 1589, a Habsburg envoy reported that Boris Godunov wanted Archduke Maximilian , who was a candidate for the Polish throne, to be Feodor's successor. [ 36 ] Andrey Shchelkalov , the head of the Posolsky prikaz (ambassadorial office), made a secret proposal to the Habsburg envoy in 1593 to have Feodor's daughter Feodosiya married to one of the Habsburg princes; however, Feodosiya died and the proposal was no longer being considered. [ 36 ] Death Feodor died on 17 January [ O.S. 7 January] 1598 in Moscow . [ 37 ] He was buried at the Archangel Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin . Feodor produced no sons, despite his efforts to have children. [ 38 ] After the end of the 40-day period of mourning, the Zemsky Sobor convened and elected Boris Godunov as the new tsar. [ 37 ] The traditional view among historians was that supporters of Godunov dominated the assembly; however, Vasily Klyuchevsky concluded that the assembly was entirely conventional in its composition at the time. [ 37 ] Klyuchevsky argued that if there was a campaign in favor of Godunov, it did not alter the composition of the assembly, and thus Godunov was legitimately elected. [ 37 ] On the other hand, contemporaries of the Time of Troubles viewed the election of Godunov as immoral due to his perceived role in the death of Tsarevich Dmitry of Uglich . [ 37 ] Legacy Feodor's failure to sire other children brought an end to the centuries-old central branch of the Rurik dynasty , although many princes of later times are descendants of Rurik as well. The termination of the dynasty would later result in the Time of Troubles . [ 39 ] Paul Bushkovitch disagrees with the assumption by historians that the elections of tsars that took place after the death of Feodor was simply caused by the extinction of the Rurik dynasty, stating that from at least 1450, the succession of monarchs relied on the public designation of the tsar's successor, rather than automatic primogeniture . [ 40 ] Contemporaries are unanimous that Feodor's reign was a period of prosperity and stability in Russia, as the government secured peace for Russia's borders, and the economic policy of the government led to a revival in the economy during the last decade of the century; however, much of the credit goes to Boris Godunov, who was called "incomparable" by the Russian envoys to Persia in reference to his intelligence and unique position in government. [ 41 ] The veneration of Feodor began shortly after his death and Patriarch Job composed the Tale of the Honorable Tsar and Grand Prince of all Russia Fedor Ivanovich . [ 42 ] [ 43 ] The tale says that Boris Godunov, who built a fort and within it a church dedicated to Sergius of Radonezh , stationed his army there in hopes of saving Moscow from "pagan barbarians". [ 44 ] Feodor prayed before an icon of the Mother of God, seeking intercession in the tradition of his ancestor Dmitry Donskoy , while Patriarch Job led a procession, parading the icon around Moscow and then to the Church of St. Sergius to appeal for divine help. [ 44 ] In popular culture His reign was dramatised by Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy in his verse drama Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich (1868). [ 45 ] Family In 1575, Feodor married Irina Godunova , a sister of Ivan's minister Boris Godunov . [ b ] [ 47 ] The exact date of the marriage is not known, but the evidence suggests that Feodor, along with his brother, were married by 5 March, and that their weddings probably took place shortly after their father's wedding the same year. [ 48 ] Daniel Prinz von Buchau, the ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire who was in Moscow from November 1575 to February 1576, wrote that "both sons, the older one 20 years old and the younger one 18, both still without whiskers, entered into marriage with some or other daughters of boyars in the same year when we were there". [ 49 ] Although the marriage was arranged by the tsar and the couple knew nothing of each other before their wedding day, they went on to have a strong marriage. The lonely Feodor soon grew extremely close to his wife, to a degree that was unusual for that period and milieu . The two shared a relationship of warmth and trust which was the support of Feodor's life for as long as he lived. He entrusted her to handle tsarist responsibilities, including signing decrees in his name. [ 50 ] Feodor and Irina's marriage did not immediately produce children, and may not have even been consummated for some years. It was only in 1592, after almost twelve years of marriage and numerous attempts by the court to cure her perceived barrenness (at the time, the wife was always blamed for the infertility of a couple), that Tsaritsa Irina gave birth to a daughter, who was named Feodosiya (29 May 1592 – 25 January 1594) after her father. Feodor and his wife doted on their daughter, but she died aged two in 1594. There were no other children from the marriage. The boyar families rival to the Godunov clan attempted to convince Feodor to divorce and re-marry, but he always rejected the idea. [ 51 ] See also Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613) Family tree of Russian monarchs Notes ^ Although the term samoderzhets (autocrat) did not become standard in the title of the tsar until the 17th century, Feodor was the first ruler to be crowned as both the tsar and autocrat of Russia. [ 20 ] ^ Some historians have dated the marriage to 1580 due to erroneous speculation by Nikolai Karamzin that the marriage took place at the same time that Boris Godunov was promoted to the rank of boyar. [ 46 ] References ^ Great Synaxaristes : (in Greek) Ὁ Ἅγιος Θεόδωρος ὁ Πρίγκιπας . 7 Ιανουαρίου. ΜΕΓΑΣ ΣΥΝΑΞΑΡΙΣΤΗΣ. ^ a b c Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 75. ^ a b Madariaga 2006 , p. 131. ^ Madariaga 2006 , p. 142. ^ Great Synaxaristes : (in Greek) Ὁ Ἅγιος Θεόδωρος ὁ Πρίγκιπας . 7 Ιανουαρίου. ΜΕΓΑΣ ΣΥΝΑΞΑΡΙΣΤΗΣ. ^ a b Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 95. ^ Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 96. ^ a b c d Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 103. ^ Bushkovitch 2021 , pp. 97–98. ^ Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 98. ^ Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 101. ^ a b c Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 102. ^ Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 94. ^ Gruber 2012 , p. 78. ^ a b c Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 105. ^ Madariaga 2006 , p. 343. ^ Madariaga 2006 , p. 344. ^ Bushkovitch 2021 , pp. 106–107. ^ Madariaga 2006 , p. 356. ^ Sashalmi 2022 , p. 265. ^ a b c d e f g Pavlov 2006 , p. 266. ^ a b c Gruber 2012 , p. 77. ^ a b c d Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 107. ^ a b Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 106. ^ a b c Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 110. ^ Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 108. ^ Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 111. ^ Cathal J. Nolan, The Greenwood Encyclopedia of International Relations , Greenwood, 2002, page 63 ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). "Theodore (tsars)" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 70. ^ Pavlov 2006 , p. 275. ^ a b Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 117. ^ Pavlov 2006 , p. 267. ^ See Hume, David (1983). The History of England from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution of 1688 . Vol. IV (1778 ed.). Indianapolis, IN: LibertyClassics. p. 376 – via Online Library of Liberty. ^ Russia and Britain by Crankshaw, Edward, published by Collins, 126 p. The Nations and Britain series ^ a b c Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 118. ^ a b c d e Pavlov 2006 , p. 278. ^ Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 71. ^ Ehlers, Kai. (2009). Russland - Herzschlag einer Weltmacht . Pforte-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-85636-213-3 . OCLC 428224102 . ^ Bushkovitch 2021 , p. 6. ^ Pavlov 2006 , p. 274. ^ Langer, Lawrence N. (15 September 2021). Historical Dictionary of Medieval Russia . Rowman & Littlefield. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-5381-1942-6 . ^ Miller 2010 , p. 103. ^ a b Miller 2010 , p. 104. ^ Martin Banham, The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1998. p.1115. ISBN 0-521-43437-8 . ^ Martin 2012 , p. 148. ^ Martin 2012 , pp. 148–149, 160. ^ Martin 2012 , pp. 148–149. ^ Martin 2012 , p. 149. ^ Pushkareva 2016 , pp. 76–77. ^ Pushkareva 2016 , p. 77. Bibliography Bushkovitch, Paul (18 March 2021). Succession to the Throne in Early Modern Russia: The Transfer of Power 1450–1725 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-47934-9 . Gruber, Isaiah (15 May 2012). Orthodox Russia in Crisis: Church and Nation in the Time of Troubles . Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-5738-9 . Madariaga, Isabel de (25 September 2006). Ivan the Terrible . Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14376-8 . Martin, Russell E. (15 June 2012). A Bride for the Tsar: Bride-Shows and Marriage Politics in Early Modern Russia . Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-5665-8 . Miller, David B. (5 November 2010). Saint Sergius of Radonezh, His Trinity Monastery, and the Formation of the Russian Identity . Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-5661-0 . Pavlov, A. P. (2006). "Fedor Ivanovich and Boris Godunov (1584–1605)". In Perrie, Maureen (ed.). The Cambridge History of Russia: Volume 1: From Early Rus' to 1689 . Cambridge University Press. pp. 264– 285. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521812276 . ISBN 978-1-107-63942-3 . Pushkareva, Natalia (16 September 2016). Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century . Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-48043-5 . Sashalmi, Endre (2022). Russian Notions of Power and State in a European Perspective, 1462–1725: Assessing the Significance of Peter's Reign . Academic Studies Press. doi : 10.2307/j.ctv2xszr80 . ISBN 978-1-64469-417-6 . JSTOR j.ctv2xszr80 . Regnal titles Preceded by Ivan IV Tsar of Russia 1584–1598 Succeeded by Boris I .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e List of Russian monarchs v t e Grand princes of Vladimir and Moscow Yuri I the Long Arm Andrei I of Bogolyubovo Mikhail of Vladimir Vsevolod the Big Nest Yuri II of Vladimir Konstantin of Rostov Yuri II of Vladimir Yaroslav II of Vladimir Sviatoslav III of Vladimir Andrey II of Vladimir Alexander Nevsky Yaroslav of Tver Vasily of Kostroma Dmitry of Pereslavl Andrey of Gorodets Mikhail of Tver Yuri of Moscow Dmitry the Terrible Eyes Alexander of Tver Ivan I Simeon the Proud Ivan II the Fair Dmitry of Suzdal Dmitry of the Don Vasily I Vasily II the Blind Ivan III the Great Vasily III Ivan IV Yuri I the Long Arm Andrei I of Bogolyubovo Mikhail of Vladimir Vsevolod the Big Nest Yuri II of Vladimir Konstantin of Rostov Yuri II of Vladimir Yaroslav II of Vladimir Sviatoslav III of Vladimir Andrey II of Vladimir Alexander Nevsky Yaroslav of Tver Vasily of Kostroma Dmitry of Pereslavl Andrey of Gorodets Mikhail of Tver Yuri of Moscow Dmitry the Terrible Eyes Alexander of Tver Ivan I Simeon the Proud Ivan II the Fair Dmitry of Suzdal Dmitry of the Don Vasily I Vasily II the Blind Ivan III the Great Vasily III Ivan IV Tsars of all Russia Ivan IV the Terrible Feodor I Irina Boris Feodor II False Dmitry I Vasili IV Vladislav Michael Alexis Feodor III Peter I and Ivan V (co-rulers) Ivan IV the Terrible Feodor I Irina Boris Feodor II False Dmitry I Vasili IV Vladislav Michael Alexis Feodor III Peter I and Ivan V (co-rulers) Emperors of all Russia Peter I the Great Catherine I Peter II Anna Ivan VI Elizabeth Peter III Catherine II the Great Paul I Alexander I Nicholas I Alexander II the Liberator Alexander III the Peacemaker Nicholas II Peter I the Great Catherine I Peter II Anna Ivan VI Elizabeth Peter III Catherine II the Great Paul I Alexander I Nicholas I Alexander II the Liberator Alexander III the Peacemaker Nicholas II v t e Tsareviches of Russia v t e 1st generation ( Rurikids ) Dmitry Ivanovich (1552) Ivan Ivanovich Feodor I Ivanovich Dmitry Ivanovich (1582) Dmitry Ivanovich (1552) Ivan Ivanovich Feodor I Ivanovich Dmitry Ivanovich (1582) 2nd generation (Rurikids) Ivan Dmitriyevich (pretendent, murdered at the age of three) Ivan Dmitriyevich (pretendent, murdered at the age of three) 1st generation ( Godunovs ) Feodor II Borisovich Feodor II Borisovich 1st generation ( Romanovs ) Alexei I Romanov Alexei I Romanov 2nd generation (Romanovs) Dmitry Alexeyevich Alexei Alekseyevich Feodor III Alekseyevich Simeon Alexeyevich Ivan V Alekseyevich Peter I Alekseyevich Dmitry Alexeyevich Alexei Alekseyevich Feodor III Alekseyevich Simeon Alexeyevich Ivan V Alekseyevich Peter I Alekseyevich 3rd generation (Romanovs) Alexei Petrovich Peter Petrovich Alexei Petrovich Peter Petrovich Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF 2 2 GND FAST WorldCat National United States Italy Czech Republic Netherlands Latvia Sweden Poland Vatican Israel United States Italy Czech Republic Netherlands Latvia Sweden Poland Vatican Israel People Deutsche Biographie DDB Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Yale LUX IdRef Yale LUX 1557 births 1598 deaths 16th-century Russian monarchs Candidates for the Polish elective throne Eastern Orthodox royal saints from Russia Russian royalty and nobility with disabilities Tsars of Russia Daniilovichi family Tsareviches of Russia Sons of princes regnant Royalty from Moscow Articles with Greek-language sources (el) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Russian-language text This page was last edited on 10 November 2025, at 04:18 (UTC) . 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Title: Thinking with Map: Reinforced Parallel Map-Augmented Agent for Geolocalization Abstract: The image geolocalization task aims to predict the location where an image was taken anywhere on Earth using visual clues. Existing large vision-language model (LVLM) approaches leverage world knowledge, chain-of-thought reasoning, and agentic capabilities, but overlook a common strategy used by humans -- using maps. In this work, we first equip the model \textit{Thinking with Map} ability and formulate it as an agent-in-the-map loop. We develop a two-stage optimization scheme for it, including agentic reinforcement learning (RL) followed by parallel test-time scaling (TTS). The RL strengthens the agentic capability of model to improve sampling efficiency, and the parallel TTS enables the model to explore multiple candidate paths before making the final prediction, which is crucial for geolocalization. To evaluate our method on up-to-date and in-the-wild images, we further present MAPBench, a comprehensive geolocalization training and evaluation benchmark composed entirely of real-world images. Experimental results show that our method outperforms existing open- and closed-source models on most metrics, specifically improving Acc@500m from 8.0\% to 22.1\% compared to \textit{Gemini-3-Pro} with Google Search/Map grounded mode. Subjects: Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (cs.CV) ; Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI); Computation and Language (cs.CL) Cite as: arXiv:2601.05432 [cs.CV] (or arXiv:2601.05432v1 [cs.CV] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite (pending registration) Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . 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Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero 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List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh 10,000+ Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu 1,000+ Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof 500+ Bambara Wayuu Bambara Wayuu List of Wikimedia wikis v t e Wikimedia Foundation v t e People Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Abstract Wikipedia Other Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia Other IdRef MusicBrainz label IdRef MusicBrainz label Wikipedia 2001 establishments in the United States Creative Commons-licensed websites Free-content websites Internet properties established in 2001 Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Multilingual websites Wikis Online encyclopedias Social information processing Wikimedia projects Pages using the Phonos extension Pages including recorded pronunciations Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1: unfit URL CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Use American English from September 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from October 2025 Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2024 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2025 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013 Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from January 2026 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Prezydent Albanii 2022 Bajram Begaj 2022 Bajram Begaj Premier Albanii 2013 Edi Rama 2013 Edi Rama Prezydent Algierii 2019 Abdelmadjid Tebboune 2019 Abdelmadjid Tebboune Premier Algierii 2025 Sifi Ghrieb (p.o.) 2025 Sifi Ghrieb (p.o.) Współksiążęta Andory 2025 Josep-Lluís Serrano Pentinat 2017 Emmanuel Macron 2025 Josep-Lluís Serrano Pentinat 2017 Emmanuel Macron Premier Andory 2019 Xavier Espot Zamora 2019 Xavier Espot Zamora Prezydent Angoli 2017 João Lourenço 2017 João Lourenço Premier Antigui i Barbudy 2014 Gaston Browne 2014 Gaston Browne Król Arabii Saudyjskiej 2015 Salman ibn Abd al-Aziz Al Su’ud 2015 Salman ibn Abd al-Aziz Al Su’ud Prezydent Argentyny 2023 Javier Milei 2023 Javier Milei Prezydent Armenii 2022 Wahagn Chaczaturian 2022 Wahagn Chaczaturian Premier Armenii 2018 Nikol Paszinian 2018 Nikol Paszinian Premier Australii 2022 Anthony Albanese 2022 Anthony Albanese Prezydent Austrii 2017 Alexander Van der Bellen 2017 Alexander Van der Bellen Kanclerz Austrii 2025 Christian Stocker 2025 Christian Stocker Prezydent Azerbejdżanu 2003 İlham Əliyev 2003 İlham Əliyev Premier Azerbejdżanu 2019 Əli Əsədov 2019 Əli Əsədov Premier Bahamów 2021 Philip Davis 2021 Philip Davis Król Bahrajnu 2002 Hamad ibn Isa Al Chalifa 2002 Hamad ibn Isa Al Chalifa Premier Bahrajnu 2020 Salman ibn Hamad ibn Isa Al Chalifa 2020 Salman ibn Hamad ibn Isa Al Chalifa Prezydent Bangladeszu 2023 Shahabuddin Chuppu 2023 Shahabuddin Chuppu Premier Bangladeszu 2024 Muhammad Yunus 2024 Muhammad Yunus Prezydent Barbadosu 2025 Jeffrey Bostic 2025 Jeffrey Bostic Premier Barbadosu 2018 Mia Mottley 2018 Mia Mottley Król Belgów 2013 Filip I 2013 Filip I Premier Belgii 2025 Bart De Wever 2025 Bart De Wever Premier Belize 2020 Juan Antonio Briceño 2020 Juan Antonio Briceño Prezydent Beninu 2016 Patrice Talon 2016 Patrice Talon Król Bhutanu 2006 Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck 2006 Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck Premier Bhutanu 2024 Tshering Tobgay 2024 Tshering Tobgay Prezydent Białorusi 1994 Alaksandr Łukaszenka 1994 Alaksandr Łukaszenka Premier Białorusi 2025 Alaksandr Turczyn 2025 Alaksandr Turczyn Prezydent Boliwii 2025 Rodrigo Paz Pereira 2025 Rodrigo Paz Pereira Przewodniczący Prezydium Bośni i Hercegowiny 2025 Željko Komšić 2025 Željko Komšić Premier Bośni i Hercegowiny 2023 Borjana Krišto 2023 Borjana Krišto Prezydent Botswany 2024 Duma Boko 2024 Duma Boko Prezydent Brazylii 2023 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2023 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva Sułtan Brunei 1967 Hassanal Bolkiah 1967 Hassanal Bolkiah Prezydent Bułgarii 2017 Rumen Radew 2017 Rumen Radew Premier Bułgarii 2025 Rosen Żelazkow 2025 Rosen Żelazkow Przewodniczący Ruchu na rzecz Ochrony i Odbudowy Burkina Faso 2022 Ibrahim Traoré 2022 Ibrahim Traoré Prezydent Burundi 2020 Evariste Ndayishimiye 2020 Evariste Ndayishimiye Premier Burundi 2025 Nestor Ntahontuye 2025 Nestor Ntahontuye Prezydent Chile 2022 Gabriel Boric 2022 Gabriel Boric Przewodniczący ChRL 2013 Xi Jinping 2013 Xi Jinping Premier Chin 2023 Li Qiang 2023 Li Qiang Prezydent Chorwacji 2020 Zoran Milanović 2020 Zoran Milanović Premier Chorwacji 2016 Andrej Plenković 2016 Andrej Plenković Prezydent Cypru 2023 Nikos Christodulidis 2023 Nikos Christodulidis Prezydent Cypru Północnego 2025 Tufan Erhürman 2025 Tufan Erhürman Przewodniczący Tymczasowej Rady Wojskowej Czadu 2021 Mahamat Déby Itno 2021 Mahamat Déby Itno Premier Czadu 2024 Allamaye Halina 2024 Allamaye Halina Prezydent Czarnogóry 2023 Jakov Milatović 2023 Jakov Milatović Premier Czarnogóry 2023 Milojko Spajić 2023 Milojko Spajić Prezydent Czech 2023 Petr Pavel 2023 Petr Pavel Premier Czech 2025 Andrej Babiš 2025 Andrej Babiš Król Danii 2024 Fryderyk X 2024 Fryderyk X Premier Danii 2019 Mette Frederiksen 2019 Mette Frederiksen Prezydent DR Konga 2019 Félix Tshisekedi 2019 Félix Tshisekedi Premier DR Konga 2024 Judith Tuluka 2024 Judith Tuluka Dalajlama 1940 Tenzin Gjaco 1940 Tenzin Gjaco Prezydent Dominikany 2020 Luis Abinader 2020 Luis Abinader Prezydent Dominiki 2023 Sylvanie Burton 2023 Sylvanie Burton Premier Dominiki 2004 Roosevelt Skerrit 2004 Roosevelt Skerrit Prezydent Dżibuti 1999 Ismail Omar Guelleh 1999 Ismail Omar Guelleh Premier Dżibuti 2013 Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed 2013 Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed Prezydent Egiptu 2014 Abd al-Fattah as-Sisi 2014 Abd al-Fattah as-Sisi Premier Egiptu 2018 Mustafa Madbuli 2018 Mustafa Madbuli Prezydent Ekwadoru 2023 Daniel Noboa 2023 Daniel Noboa Prezydent Erytrei 1993 Isajas Afewerki 1993 Isajas Afewerki Prezydent Estonii 2021 Alar Karis 2021 Alar Karis Premier Estonii 2024 Kristen Michal 2024 Kristen Michal Król Eswatini 2018 Ntombi (współpanująca) 2018 Mswati III 2018 Ntombi (współpanująca) 2018 Mswati III Premier Eswatini 2023 Russell Dlamini 2023 Russell Dlamini Prezydent Etiopii 2024 Taye Atske Selassie 2024 Taye Atske Selassie Premier Etiopii 2018 Abiy Ahmed Ali 2018 Abiy Ahmed Ali Przew. Komisji Europejskiej 2019 Ursula von der Leyen ( Niemcy ) 2019 Ursula von der Leyen ( Niemcy ) Przew. Rady Europejskiej 2024 António Costa ( Portugalia ) 2024 António Costa ( Portugalia ) Prezydent Fidżi 2024 Naiqama Lalabalavu 2024 Naiqama Lalabalavu Premier Fidżi 2022 Sitiveni Rabuka 2022 Sitiveni Rabuka Prezydent Filipin 2022 Ferdinand Marcos Jr. 2022 Ferdinand Marcos Jr. Prezydent Finlandii 2024 Alexander Stubb 2024 Alexander Stubb Premier Finlandii 2023 Petteri Orpo 2023 Petteri Orpo Prezydent Francji 2017 Emmanuel Macron 2017 Emmanuel Macron Premier Francji 2025 Sébastien Lecornu 2025 Sébastien Lecornu Prezydent Gabonu 2023 Brice Clotaire Oligui Nguema 2023 Brice Clotaire Oligui Nguema Prezydent Gambii 2017 Adama Barrow 2017 Adama Barrow Prezydent Ghany 2025 John Dramani Mahama 2025 John Dramani Mahama Prezydent Grecji 2025 Konstandinos Tasulas 2025 Konstandinos Tasulas Premier Grecji 2023 Kiriakos Mitsotakis 2023 Kiriakos Mitsotakis Premier Grenady 2022 Dickon Mitchell 2022 Dickon Mitchell Prezydent Gruzji 2024 Micheil Kawelaszwili 2024 Micheil Kawelaszwili Premier Gruzji 2024 Irakli Kobachidze 2024 Irakli Kobachidze Prezydent Gujany 2020 Irfaan Ali 2020 Irfaan Ali Premier Gujany 2020 Mark Phillips 2020 Mark Phillips Prezydent Gwatemali 2024 Bernardo Arévalo 2024 Bernardo Arévalo Prezydent Gwinei 2021 Mamady Doumbouya (p.o.) 2021 Mamady Doumbouya (p.o.) Premier Gwinei 2024 Bah Oury 2024 Bah Oury Prezydent Gwinei Bissau 2025 Horta Inta-A Na Man 2025 Horta Inta-A Na Man Premier Gwinei Bissau 2025 Ilídio Vieira Té 2025 Ilídio Vieira Té Prezydent Gwinei Równikowej 1979 Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo 1979 Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo Premier Gwinei Równikowej 2024 Manuel Osa Nsue Nsua 2024 Manuel Osa Nsue Nsua Prezydent Haiti 2024 Prezydencka Rada Przejściowa 2024 Prezydencka Rada Przejściowa Premier Haiti 2024 Alix Didier Fils-Aimé (p.o.) 2024 Alix Didier Fils-Aimé (p.o.) Król Hiszpanii 2014 Filip VI 2014 Filip VI Premier Hiszpanii 2018 Pedro Sánchez 2018 Pedro Sánchez Król Holandii 2013 Wilhelm-Aleksander 2013 Wilhelm-Aleksander Premier Holandii 2024 Dick Schoof 2024 Dick Schoof Prezydent Hondurasu 2022 Xiomara Castro 2022 Xiomara Castro Najwyższy przywódca Iranu 1989 Ali Chamenei 1989 Ali Chamenei Prezydent Iranu 2024 Masud Pezeszkian 2024 Masud Pezeszkian Prezydent Iraku 2022 Abdul Latif Raszid 2022 Abdul Latif Raszid Premier Iraku 2022 Muhammad Szija as-Sudani 2022 Muhammad Szija as-Sudani Prezydent Indii 2022 Draupadi Murmu 2022 Draupadi Murmu Premier Indii 2014 Narendra Modi 2014 Narendra Modi Prezydent Indonezji 2024 Prabowo Subianto 2024 Prabowo Subianto Prezydent Irlandii 2025 Catherine Connolly 2025 Catherine Connolly Premier Irlandii 2025 Micheál Martin 2025 Micheál Martin Prezydent Islandii 2024 Halla Tómasdóttir 2024 Halla Tómasdóttir Premier Islandii 2024 Kristrún Frostadóttir 2024 Kristrún Frostadóttir Prezydent Izraela 2021 Jicchak Herzog 2021 Jicchak Herzog Premier Izraela 2022 Binjamin Netanjahu 2022 Binjamin Netanjahu Premier Jamajki 2016 Andrew Holness 2016 Andrew Holness Cesarz Japonii 2019 Naruhito 2019 Naruhito Premier Japonii 2025 Sanae Takaichi 2025 Sanae Takaichi Prezydent Jemenu 2022 Raszad al-Alimi 2022 Raszad al-Alimi Król Jordanii 1999 Abd Allah II 1999 Abd Allah II Premier Jordanii 2024 Dżafar Hassan 2024 Dżafar Hassan Król Kambodży 2004 Norodom Sihamoni 2004 Norodom Sihamoni Premier Kambodży 2023 Hun Manet 2023 Hun Manet Prezydent Kamerunu 1982 Paul Biya 1982 Paul Biya Premier Kamerunu 2019 Joseph Ngute 2019 Joseph Ngute Premier Kanady 2025 Mark Carney 2025 Mark Carney Emir Kataru 2013 Tamim ibn Hamad 2013 Tamim ibn Hamad Premier Kataru 2023 Muhammad ibn Abdul Rahman Al Sani 2023 Muhammad ibn Abdul Rahman Al Sani Prezydent Kazachstanu 2019 Kasym-Żomart Tokajew 2019 Kasym-Żomart Tokajew Premier Kazachstanu 2024 Ołżas Biektienow 2024 Ołżas Biektienow Prezydent Kenii 2022 William Ruto 2022 William Ruto Prezydent Kirgistanu 2021 Sadyr Dżaparow 2021 Sadyr Dżaparow Przewodniczący Gabinetu Ministrów Kirgistanu 2024 Adyłbek Kasymalijew 2024 Adyłbek Kasymalijew Prezydent Kiribati 2016 Taneti Maamau 2016 Taneti Maamau Prezydent Kolumbii 2022 Gustavo Petro 2022 Gustavo Petro Prezydent Konga 1997 Denis Sassou-Nguesso 1997 Denis Sassou-Nguesso Premier Konga 2021 Anatole Collinet Makosso 2021 Anatole Collinet Makosso Patriarcha Konstantynopola 1991 Bartłomiej I 1991 Bartłomiej I Prezydent Korei Południowej 2025 Lee Jae-myung 2025 Lee Jae-myung Premier Korei Południowej 2025 Kim Min-seok 2025 Kim Min-seok Przewodniczący Komisji Spraw Państwowych KRLD 2019 Kim Dzong Un 2019 Kim Dzong Un Najwyższy Przywódca KRLD 2011 Kim Dzong Un 2011 Kim Dzong Un Premier KRLD 2024 Pak Thae-song 2024 Pak Thae-song Prezydent Kosowa 2021 Vjosa Osmani 2021 Vjosa Osmani Premier Kosowa 2021 Albin Kurti 2021 Albin Kurti Prezydent Kostaryki 2022 Rodrigo Chaves Robles 2022 Rodrigo Chaves Robles Prezydent Kuby 2019 Miguel Díaz-Canel 2019 Miguel Díaz-Canel Premier Kuby 2019 Manuel Marrero Cruz 2019 Manuel Marrero Cruz Emir Kuwejtu 2023 Miszal 2023 Miszal Premier Kuwejtu 2024 Ahmad al-Abdullah al-Sabah 2024 Ahmad al-Abdullah al-Sabah Prezydent Laosu 2021 Thongloun Sisoulith 2021 Thongloun Sisoulith Król Lesotho 1996 Letsie III 1996 Letsie III Premier Lesotho 2022 Sam Matekane 2022 Sam Matekane Prezydent Libanu 2025 Joseph Khalil Aoun 2025 Joseph Khalil Aoun Premier Libanu 2025 Nawaf Salam 2025 Nawaf Salam Prezydent Liberii 2024 Joseph Boakai 2024 Joseph Boakai Przywódca Libii 2021 Muhammad al-Manfi 2021 Muhammad al-Manfi Premier Libii 2021 Abd al-Hamid ad-Dubajba 2021 Abd al-Hamid ad-Dubajba Książę Liechtensteinu 1989 Jan Adam II 1989 Jan Adam II Premier Liechtensteinu 2025 Brigitte Haas 2025 Brigitte Haas Prezydent Litwy 2019 Gitanas Nausėda 2019 Gitanas Nausėda Premier Litwy 2025 Inga Ruginienė 2025 Inga Ruginienė Wielki książę Luksemburga 2025 Wilhelm V 2025 Wilhelm V Premier Luksemburga 2023 Luc Frieden 2023 Luc Frieden Prezydent Łotwy 2023 Edgars Rinkēvičs 2023 Edgars Rinkēvičs Premier Łotwy 2023 Evika Siliņa 2023 Evika Siliņa Prezydent Macedonii Północnej 2024 Gordana Siłjanowska-Dawkowa 2024 Gordana Siłjanowska-Dawkowa Premier Macedonii Północnej 2024 Hristijan Mickoski 2024 Hristijan Mickoski Prezydent Madagaskaru 2025 Michael Randrianirina 2025 Michael Randrianirina Premier Madagaskaru 2025 Herintsalama Rajaonarivelo 2025 Herintsalama Rajaonarivelo Prezydent Malawi 2025 Peter Mutharika 2025 Peter Mutharika Prezydent Malediwów 2023 Mohamed Muizzu 2023 Mohamed Muizzu Król Malezji 2024 Ibrahim ibni Almarhum 2024 Ibrahim ibni Almarhum Premier Malezji 2022 Anwar Ibrahim 2022 Anwar Ibrahim Prezydent Mali 2021 Assimi Goita (p.o.) 2021 Assimi Goita (p.o.) Premier Mali 2024 Abdoulaye Maïga (p.o.) 2024 Abdoulaye Maïga (p.o.) Prezydent Malty 2024 Myriam Spiteri Debono 2024 Myriam Spiteri Debono Premier Malty 2020 Robert Abela 2020 Robert Abela Król Maroka 1999 Muhammad VI 1999 Muhammad VI Premier Maroka 2021 Aziz Achannusz 2021 Aziz Achannusz Prezydent Mauretanii 2019 Muhammad wuld al-Ghazwani 2019 Muhammad wuld al-Ghazwani Premier Mauretanii 2024 Moctar wuld Diay 2024 Moctar wuld Diay Prezydent Mauritiusa 2024 Dharam Gokhool 2024 Dharam Gokhool Premier Mauritiusa 2024 Navin Ramgoolam 2024 Navin Ramgoolam Prezydent Meksyku 2024 Claudia Sheinbaum 2024 Claudia Sheinbaum Prezydent Mikronezji 2023 Wesley Simina 2023 Wesley Simina Prezydent Mjanmy 2024 Min Aung Hlaing (p.o.) 2024 Min Aung Hlaing (p.o.) Premier Mjanmy 2025 Nyo Saw 2025 Nyo Saw Prezydent Mołdawii 2020 Maia Sandu 2020 Maia Sandu Premier Mołdawii 2025 Alexandru Munteanu 2025 Alexandru Munteanu Książę Monako 2005 Albert II 2005 Albert II Minister stanu Monako 2025 Christophe Mirmand 2025 Christophe Mirmand Prezydent Mongolii 2021 Uchnaagijn Chürelsüch 2021 Uchnaagijn Chürelsüch Premier Mongolii 2025 Gombojavyn Zandanshatar 2025 Gombojavyn Zandanshatar Prezydent Mozambiku 2025 Daniel Chapo 2025 Daniel Chapo Premier Mozambiku 2025 Maria Benvinda Levy 2025 Maria Benvinda Levy Prezydent Naddniestrza 2016 Wadim Krasnosielski 2016 Wadim Krasnosielski Prezydent Namibii 2025 Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah 2025 Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah Premier Namibii 2025 Elijah Ngurare 2025 Elijah Ngurare Sekretarz generalny NATO 2024 Mark Rutte ( Holandia ) 2024 Mark Rutte ( Holandia ) Prezydent Nauru 2023 David Adeang 2023 David Adeang Prezydent Nepalu 2023 Ram Chandra Poudel 2023 Ram Chandra Poudel Premier Nepalu 2025 Sushila Karki (p.o.) 2025 Sushila Karki (p.o.) Prezydent Niemiec 2017 Frank-Walter Steinmeier 2017 Frank-Walter Steinmeier Kanclerz Niemiec 2025 Friedrich Merz 2025 Friedrich Merz Prezydent Nigru 2023 Hassoumi Massaoudou (p.o.) 2023 Abdourahamane Tchiani 2023 Hassoumi Massaoudou (p.o.) 2023 Abdourahamane Tchiani Premier Nigru 2023 Ali Lamine Zeine 2023 Ali Lamine Zeine Prezydent Nigerii 2023 Bola Tinubu 2023 Bola Tinubu Prezydent Nikaragui 2025 Daniel Ortega i Rosario Murillo 2025 Daniel Ortega i Rosario Murillo Król Norwegii 1991 Harald V 1991 Harald V Premier Norwegii 2021 Jonas Gahr Støre 2021 Jonas Gahr Støre Premier Nowej Zelandii 2023 Christopher Luxon 2023 Christopher Luxon Prezydent Osetii Południowej 2022 Ałan Gagłojew 2022 Ałan Gagłojew Sułtan Omanu 2020 Hajsam ibn Tarik Al Sa’id 2020 Hajsam ibn Tarik Al Sa’id Sekretarz generalny ONZ 2017 António Guterres ( Portugalia ) 2017 António Guterres ( Portugalia ) Prezydent Pakistanu 2024 Asif Ali Zardari 2024 Asif Ali Zardari Premier Pakistanu 2024 Shehbaz Sharif 2024 Shehbaz Sharif Prezydent Palau 2021 Surangel Whipps Jr. 2021 Surangel Whipps Jr. Prezydent Palestyny 2013 Mahmud Abbas 2013 Mahmud Abbas Premier Palestyny 2024 Muhammad Mustafa 2024 Muhammad Mustafa Prezydent Panamy 2024 José Raúl Mulino 2024 José Raúl Mulino Papież 2025 Leon XIV 2025 Leon XIV Premier Papui-Nowej Gwinei 2019 James Marape 2019 James Marape Prezydent Paragwaju 2023 Santiago Peña 2023 Santiago Peña Prezydent Peru 2025 José Jerí 2025 José Jerí Premier Peru 2025 Ernesto Álvarez Miranda 2025 Ernesto Álvarez Miranda Prezydent Południowej Afryki 2018 Cyril Ramaphosa 2018 Cyril Ramaphosa Prezydent Portugalii 2016 Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa 2016 Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa Premier Portugalii 2024 Luís Montenegro 2024 Luís Montenegro Sekretarz generalny Rady Europy 2024 Alain Berset ( Szwajcaria ) 2024 Alain Berset ( Szwajcaria ) Prezydent Republiki Środkowoafrykańskiej 2016 Faustin-Archange Touadéra 2016 Faustin-Archange Touadéra Premier Republiki Środkowoafrykańskiej 2022 Félix Moloua 2022 Félix Moloua Prezydent Republiki Zielonego Przylądka 2021 José Maria Neves 2021 José Maria Neves Premier Republiki Zielonego Przylądka 2016 Ulisses Correia e Silva 2016 Ulisses Correia e Silva Prezydent Rosji 2012 Władimir Putin 2012 Władimir Putin Premier Rosji 2020 Michaił Miszustin 2020 Michaił Miszustin Prezydent Rumunii 2025 Nicușor Dan 2025 Nicușor Dan Premier Rumunii 2025 Ilie Bolojan 2025 Ilie Bolojan Prezydent Rwandy 2000 Paul Kagame 2000 Paul Kagame Premier Rwandy 2025 Justin Nsengiyumva 2025 Justin Nsengiyumva Premier Saint Kitts i Nevis 2022 Terrance Drew 2022 Terrance Drew Premier Saint Lucia 2021 Philip Pierre 2021 Philip Pierre Premier Saint Vincent i Grenadyn 2025 Godwin Friday 2025 Godwin Friday Prezydent Salwadoru 2024 Nayib Bukele 2024 Nayib Bukele O le Ao o le Malo Samoa 2017 Tuimalealiʻifano Vaʻaletoa Sualauvi II 2017 Tuimalealiʻifano Vaʻaletoa Sualauvi II Premier Samoa 2025 Laʻauli Leuatea Schmidt 2025 Laʻauli Leuatea Schmidt Kapitanowie Regenci San Marino 2025 Denise Bronzetti Italo Righi 2025 Denise Bronzetti Italo Righi Sekretarz Stanu do spraw Politycznych i Zagranicznych San Marino 2020 Luca Beccari 2020 Luca Beccari Prezydent Senegalu 2024 Bassirou Diomaye Faye 2024 Bassirou Diomaye Faye Premier Senegalu 2024 Ousmane Sonko 2024 Ousmane Sonko Prezydent Serbii 2017 Aleksandar Vučić 2017 Aleksandar Vučić Premier Serbii 2025 Đuro Macut 2025 Đuro Macut Prezydent Seszeli 2025 Patrick Herminie 2025 Patrick Herminie Prezydent Sierra Leone 2018 Julius Maada Bio 2018 Julius Maada Bio Premier Sierra Leone 2023 David Moinina Sengeh 2023 David Moinina Sengeh Prezydent Singapuru 2023 Tharman Shanmugaratnam 2023 Tharman Shanmugaratnam Premier Singapuru 2024 Lawrence Wong 2024 Lawrence Wong Prezydent Słowacji 2024 Peter Pellegrini 2024 Peter Pellegrini Premier Słowacji 2023 Robert Fico 2023 Robert Fico Prezydent Słowenii 2022 Nataša Pirc Musar 2022 Nataša Pirc Musar Premier Słowenii 2022 Robert Golob 2022 Robert Golob Prezydent Somalii 2022 Hassan Sheikh Mohamud 2022 Hassan Sheikh Mohamud Premier Somalii 2022 Hamza Abdi Barre 2022 Hamza Abdi Barre Prezydent Sri Lanki 2024 Anura Kumara Dissanayake 2024 Anura Kumara Dissanayake Premier Sri Lanki 2024 Harini Amarasuriya 2024 Harini Amarasuriya Przewodniczący Rady Suwerennej Sudanu 2019 Abd al-Fattah Abd ar-Rahman al-Burhan 2019 Abd al-Fattah Abd ar-Rahman al-Burhan Premier Sudanu 2025 Kamil Idris 2025 Kamil Idris Prezydent Sudanu Południowego 2011 Salva Kiir Mayardit 2011 Salva Kiir Mayardit Prezydent Surinamu 2025 Jennifer Geerlings-Simons 2025 Jennifer Geerlings-Simons Prezydent Syrii 2025 Ahmad asz-Szara 2025 Ahmad asz-Szara Prezydent Szwajcarii 2026 Guy Parmelin 2026 Guy Parmelin Król Szwecji 1973 Karol XVI Gustaw 1973 Karol XVI Gustaw Premier Szwecji 2022 Ulf Kristersson 2022 Ulf Kristersson Prezydent Tadżykistanu 1994 Emomali Rahmon 1994 Emomali Rahmon Premier Tadżykistanu 2013 Kohir Rasulzoda 2013 Kohir Rasulzoda Król Tajlandii 2016 Maha Vajiralongkorn 2016 Maha Vajiralongkorn Premier Tajlandii 2025 Anutin Charnvirakul 2025 Anutin Charnvirakul Prezydent Tajwanu 2024 Lai Ching-te 2024 Lai Ching-te Prezydent Tanzanii 2021 Samia Suluhu 2021 Samia Suluhu Premier Tanzanii 2025 Mwigulu Nchemba 2025 Mwigulu Nchemba Prezydent Timoru Wschodniego 2022 José Ramos-Horta 2022 José Ramos-Horta Premier Timoru Wschodniego 2023 Xanana Gusmão 2023 Xanana Gusmão Prezydent Togo 2025 Jean-Lucien Savi de Tové 2025 Jean-Lucien Savi de Tové Premier Togo 2025 Faure Gnassingbé 2025 Faure Gnassingbé Król Tonga 2012 Tupou VI 2012 Tupou VI Premier Tonga 2025 Fatafehi Fakafānua 2025 Fatafehi Fakafānua Prezydent Trynidadu i Tobago 2023 Christine Kangaloo 2023 Christine Kangaloo Premier Trynidadu i Tobago 2025 Kamla Persad-Bissessar 2025 Kamla Persad-Bissessar Prezydent Tunezji 2019 Kais Saied 2019 Kais Saied Premier Tunezji 2025 Sara az-Zafarani 2025 Sara az-Zafarani Prezydent Turcji 2014 Recep Tayyip Erdoğan 2014 Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Prezydent Turkmenistanu 2022 Serdar Berdimuhamedow 2022 Serdar Berdimuhamedow Prezydent Ugandy 1986 Yoweri Museveni 1986 Yoweri Museveni Premier Ugandy 2021 Robinah Nabbanja 2021 Robinah Nabbanja Prezydent Ukrainy 2019 Wołodymyr Zełenski 2019 Wołodymyr Zełenski Premier Ukrainy 2025 Julija Swyrydenko 2025 Julija Swyrydenko Prezydent Urugwaju 2025 Yamandú Orsi 2025 Yamandú Orsi Prezydent USA 2025 Donald Trump 2025 Donald Trump Prezydent Uzbekistanu 2016 Shavkat Mirziyoyev 2016 Shavkat Mirziyoyev Premier Uzbekistanu 2016 Abdulla Aripov 2016 Abdulla Aripov Prezydent Vanuatu 2022 Nikenike Vurobaravu 2022 Nikenike Vurobaravu Premier Vanuatu 2025 Jotham Napat 2025 Jotham Napat Prezydent Wenezueli 2013 Nicolás Maduro 2026 2026 Delcy Rodríguez (p.o.) 2013 Nicolás Maduro 2026 2026 Delcy Rodríguez (p.o.) Prezydent Węgier 2024 Tamás Sulyok 2024 Tamás Sulyok Premier Węgier 2010 Viktor Orbán 2010 Viktor Orbán Monarcha Wielkiej Brytanii 2022 Karol III 2022 Karol III Premier Wielkiej Brytanii 2024 Keir Starmer 2024 Keir Starmer Prezydent Wietnamu 2024 Lương Cường 2024 Lương Cường Premier Wietnamu 2021 Phạm Minh Chính 2021 Phạm Minh Chính Prezydent Włoch 2015 Sergio Mattarella 2015 Sergio Mattarella Premier Włoch 2022 Giorgia Meloni 2022 Giorgia Meloni Prezydent WKS 2010 Alassane Ouattara 2010 Alassane Ouattara Premier WKS 2023 Robert Beugré Mambé 2023 Robert Beugré Mambé Prezydent Wysp Marshalla 2024 Hilda Heine 2024 Hilda Heine Prezydent Wysp Świętego Tomasza i Książęcej 2021 Carlos Vila Nova 2021 Carlos Vila Nova Premier Wysp Świętego Tomasza i Książęcej 2025 Américo Ramos 2025 Américo Ramos Prezydent Zambii 2021 Hakainde Hichilema 2021 Hakainde Hichilema Prezydent Zimbabwe 2017 Emmerson Mnangagwa 2017 Emmerson Mnangagwa Prezydent ZEA 2022 Muhammad ibn Zajid Al Nahajjan 2022 Muhammad ibn Zajid Al Nahajjan Premier ZEA 2006 Muhammad ibn Raszid al-Maktum 2006 Muhammad ibn Raszid al-Maktum Pn Wt Śr Cz Pt Sb Nd 1 1 2 3 4 2 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 4 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 5 26 27 28 29 30 31 Pn Wt Śr Cz Pt Sb Nd 5 1 6 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 8 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 9 23 24 25 26 27 28 Pn Wt Śr Cz Pt Sb Nd 9 1 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 12 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 13 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 14 30 31 Pn Wt Śr Cz Pt Sb Nd 14 1 2 3 4 5 15 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 16 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 17 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 18 27 28 29 30 Pn Wt Śr Cz Pt Sb Nd 18 1 2 3 19 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 21 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Pn Wt Śr Cz Pt Sb Nd 23 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 24 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 25 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 26 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 27 29 30 Pn Wt Śr Cz Pt Sb Nd 27 1 2 3 4 5 28 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 29 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 30 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 31 27 28 29 30 31 Pn Wt Śr Cz Pt Sb Nd 31 1 2 32 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 33 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 34 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 35 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 36 31 Pn Wt Śr Cz Pt Sb Nd 36 1 2 3 4 5 6 37 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 38 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 39 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 40 28 29 30 Pn Wt Śr Cz Pt Sb Nd 40 1 2 3 4 41 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 42 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 43 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 44 26 27 28 29 30 31 Pn Wt Śr Cz Pt Sb Nd 44 1 45 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 46 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 47 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 48 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 49 30 Pn Wt Śr Cz Pt Sb Nd 49 1 2 3 4 5 6 50 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 51 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 52 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 53 28 29 30 31 Rok 2026 / MMXXVI stulecia: XX wiek ~ XXI wiek ~ XXII wiek dziesięciolecia: 1990–1999 • 2000–2009 • 2010–2019 • 2020–2029 lata: 2016 « 2021 « 2022 « 2023 « 2024 « 2025 « 2026 » 2027 » 2028 » 2029 » 2030 » 2031 Rok 2026 ogłoszono Rokiem Błogosławionej Matki Elżbiety Róży Czackiej (w 150. rocznicę urodzin, Polska) [ 1 ] Rokiem Józefa Czapskiego (w 130. rocznicę urodzin, Polska) [ 2 ] Rokiem Ignacego Daszyńskiego (w 160. rocznicę jego urodzin i 90. rocznicę śmierci, Polska) [ 3 ] Rokiem Mieczysława Fogga (w 125. rocznicę urodzin, Polska) [ 4 ] Rokiem Jerzego Giedroycia (w 120. rocznicę urodzin, Polska) [ 5 ] Rokiem Stanisława Staszica (w 200. rocznicę śmierci, Polska) [ 6 ] Rokiem Andrzeja Wajdy (w 100. rocznicę urodzin oraz 10. rocznicę śmierci, Polska) [ 7 ] Rokiem Miasta Gdyni (w 100. rocznicę nadania praw miejskich, Polska) [ 8 ] Rokiem Polskiego Radia (w 100. rocznicę utworzenia, Polska) [ 9 ] Rokiem Profilaktyki Zdrowotnej (Polska) [ 10 ] Rokiem Robotniczych Protestów Czerwca 1976 (w 50. rocznicę wydarzeń z 25 czerwca 1976 r. w Radomiu, Ursusie i Płocku; Polska) [ 11 ] Międzynarodowym Rokiem Kobiet Rolniczek (ONZ) [ 12 ] Międzynarodowym Rokiem Ochrony Pastwisk i Pasterzy (ONZ) [ 13 ] Międzynarodowym Rokiem Wolontariuszy na rzecz Zrównoważonego Rozwoju (ONZ) [ 14 ] Jubileuszowym Rokiem Świętym w Kościele Katolickim pod hasłem „Pielgrzymi nadziei” (papież Franciszek/Leon XIV) [ 15 ] Wydarzenia w Polsce Styczeń 1 stycznia : Branice , Janów , Janów Podlaski , Małkinia Górna , Stanisławów i Staroźreby uzyskały status miasta [ 16 ] . gmina wiejska Nowe Miasto Lubawskie zmieniła nazwę na Bratian [ 16 ] . zaczęły obowiązywać zmiany w zasadach ortografii obowiązujących w polszczyźnie ogłoszone przez Radę Języka Polskiego 10 maja 2024 [ 17 ] z późniejszymi zmianami [ 18 ] . po skończeniu trzymiesięcznego okresu przejściowego, wszystkie zwrotne opakowania napojów zostają objęte systemem kaucyjnym [ 19 ] . Branice , Janów , Janów Podlaski , Małkinia Górna , Stanisławów i Staroźreby uzyskały status miasta [ 16 ] . gmina wiejska Nowe Miasto Lubawskie zmieniła nazwę na Bratian [ 16 ] . zaczęły obowiązywać zmiany w zasadach ortografii obowiązujących w polszczyźnie ogłoszone przez Radę Języka Polskiego 10 maja 2024 [ 17 ] z późniejszymi zmianami [ 18 ] . po skończeniu trzymiesięcznego okresu przejściowego, wszystkie zwrotne opakowania napojów zostają objęte systemem kaucyjnym [ 19 ] . Wydarzenia na świecie Styczeń 1 stycznia : Cypr objął prezydencję w Radzie Unii Europejskiej [ 20 ] . Bułgaria przystąpiła do strefy euro [ 21 ] . Guy Parmelin objął urząd prezydenta Szwajcarii , a Ignazio Cassis – wiceprezydenta Szwajcarii [ 22 ] . pożar baru w Crans-Montanie [ 23 ] . Cypr objął prezydencję w Radzie Unii Europejskiej [ 20 ] . Bułgaria przystąpiła do strefy euro [ 21 ] . Guy Parmelin objął urząd prezydenta Szwajcarii , a Ignazio Cassis – wiceprezydenta Szwajcarii [ 22 ] . pożar baru w Crans-Montanie [ 23 ] . 3 stycznia : Stany Zjednoczone ostrzelały kilkanaście celów na terenie Wenezueli. prezydent Wenezueli Nicolás Maduro i jego żona Cilia Flores zostali schwytani przez amerykańskich żołnierzy [ 24 ] . Stany Zjednoczone ostrzelały kilkanaście celów na terenie Wenezueli. prezydent Wenezueli Nicolás Maduro i jego żona Cilia Flores zostali schwytani przez amerykańskich żołnierzy [ 24 ] . 6 stycznia – zamknięciem Drzwi Świętych w Bazylice św. Piotra na Watykanie przez papieża Leona XIV zakończył się Jubileusz 2025 roku [ 25 ] [ 26 ] . 7 stycznia – zabójstwo Renée Good (inne języki) przez funkcjonariusza ICE spowodowało falę protestów w Stanach Zjednoczonych [ 27 ] [ 28 ] . Spodziewane wydarzenia 5 lutego – przestanie obowiązywać New START . 11 marca – José Antonio Kast , chilijski konserwatysta, obejmie urząd prezydenta Chile [ 29 ] . 12 kwietnia – Wybory parlamentarne (inne języki) na Węgrzech [ 30 ] 12 maja – 16 maja : w Wiedniu odbędzie się 70. Konkurs Piosenki Eurowizji 6 czerwca : w Erywaniu odbędzie się 22. Konkurs Eurowizji dla Młodych Muzyków 2026 1 lipca – Irlandia obejmie prezydencję w Radzie Unii Europejskiej [ 31 ] . 23 lipca – kończy się kadencja Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich Marcina Wiącka 3 listopada – wybory do Kongresu Stanów Zjednoczonych (inne języki) [ 32 ] . 19 listopada – światowa premiera gry Grand Theft Auto VI . 18 grudnia – premiera filmu Avengers: Doomsday [ 33 ] . Nieznana data dzienna najwcześniej w lutym – Orion CM-003 z czworgiem astronautów na pokładzie, dokona przelotu wokół Księżyca . Artemis 2 będzie pierwszą od 1972 załogową misją kosmiczną poza orbitę okołoziemską [ 34 ] . w Turcji odbędzie się 39. szczyt NATO [ 35 ] . Generatory łazika Curiosity skończą dostarczać ciepło i prąd. Grudzień – szczyt grupy G20 w Miami ( USA ) [ 36 ] Zaplanowane wydarzenia sportowe Mistrzostwa Świata w Piłce Nożnej 2026 odbędą się w Ameryce Północnej ( Stany Zjednoczone , Kanada , Meksyk ) [ 37 ] Zimowe Igrzyska Olimpijskie 2026 [ 38 ] Mistrzostwa Europy w piłce ręcznej mężcyzn 2026 Mistrzostwa Europy w piłce ręcznej kobiet 2026 Mistrzostwa Europy w siatkówce mężczyzn 2026 Mistrzostwa Europy w siatkówce kobiet 2026 Mistrzostwa Europy w Łyżwiarstwie Szybkim na Dystansach 2026 Mistrzostwa Europy w Lekkoatletyce 2026 Zmarli Zdarzenia astronomiczne 17 lutego – obrączkowe zaćmienie Słońca widoczne nad Antarktydą [ 39 ] 3 marca – całkowite zaćmienie Księżyca widoczne we wschodniej Azji, Australii, Pacyfiku i Amerykach (niewidoczne w Polsce) [ 40 ] 12 sierpnia – całkowite zaćmienie Słońca , w Polsce będzie widoczne jako głębokie zaćmienie częściowe tuż przed zachodem Słońca (Słońce zajdzie zaćmione) [ 41 ] [ 42 ] . 28 sierpnia – głębokie częściowe zaćmienie Księżyca , widoczne w Polsce (Księżyc zajdzie częściowo zaćmiony) [ 43 ] . Święta ruchome Chrześcijaństwo: Tłusty czwartek : 12 lutego [ 44 ] Ostatki : 17 lutego Popielec : 18 lutego Niedziela Palmowa : 29 marca Wielki Czwartek : 2 kwietnia Wielki Piątek : 3 kwietnia Wielka Sobota : 4 kwietnia Wielkanoc : 5 kwietnia Poniedziałek Wielkanocny : 6 kwietnia Wniebowstąpienie Pańskie : 17 maja Zesłanie Ducha Świętego : 24 maja Boże Ciało : 4 czerwca Inne: Pamiątka śmierci Jezusa Chrystusa : 2 kwietnia Przypisy ↑ Uchwała Senatu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 14 maja 2025 r. w sprawie ustanowienia roku 2026 Rokiem Błogosławionej Matki Elżbiety Róży Czackiej – prekursorki polskiej tyflologii ( M.P. z 2025 r. poz. 460 ). ↑ Uchwała Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 26 września 2025 r. w sprawie ustanowienia roku 2026 Rokiem Józefa Czapskiego ( M.P. z 2025 r. poz. 1058 ). ↑ Uchwała Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 26 września 2025 r. w sprawie ustanowienia roku 2026 Rokiem Ignacego Daszyńskiego ( M.P. z 2025 r. poz. 1074 ). ↑ Uchwała Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 26 września 2025 r. w sprawie ustanowienia roku 2026 Rokiem Mieczysława Fogga ( M.P. z 2025 r. poz. 1059 ). ↑ Uchwała Senatu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 14 maja 2025 r. o ustanowieniu roku 2026 Rokiem Jerzego Giedroycia ( M.P. z 2025 r. poz. 496 ). ↑ Uchwała Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 26 września 2025 r. w sprawie ustanowienia roku 2026 Rokiem Stanisława Staszica ( M.P. z 2025 r. poz. 1057 ). ↑ Uchwała Senatu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 14 maja 2025 r. w sprawie ustanowienia roku 2026 Rokiem Andrzeja Wajdy ( M.P. z 2025 r. poz. 461 ). ↑ Uchwała Senatu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 14 maja 2025 r. w sprawie ustanowienia roku 2026 Rokiem Miasta Gdyni ( M.P. z 2025 r. poz. 462 ). ↑ Uchwała Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 26 września 2025 r. w sprawie ustanowienia roku 2026 Rokiem Polskiego Radia ( M.P. z 2025 r. poz. 1074 ). ↑ Uchwała Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 26 września 2025 r. w sprawie ustanowienia roku 2026 Rokiem Profilaktyki Zdrowotnej ( M.P. z 2025 r. poz. 1069 ). ↑ Uchwała Senatu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 14 maja 2025 r. w sprawie ustanowienia roku 2026 Rokiem Robotniczych Protestów Czerwca 1976 ( M.P. z 2025 r. poz. 496 ). ↑ Shivam , UN Declares 2026 as International Year of the Woman Farmer [online], adda247, 18 czerwca 2025 [dostęp 2025-07-05] ( ang. ) . ↑ UN names 2026 as the International Year of Rangelands and Pastoralists | FAO [online], fao.org [dostęp 2025-07-05] . ↑ un, UN General Assembly Proclaims 2026 as the International Year of Volunteers for Sustainable Development; [online], United Nations’ Volunteers, 23 grudnia 2023 [dostęp 2025-07-05] ( ang. ) . ↑ Bulla [online], iubilaeum2025.va [dostęp 2025-07-05] . ↑ a b Dz.U. 2025 poz. 1046 [online], isap.sejm.gov.pl [dostęp 2025-11-15] . ↑ Komunikat RJP z dnia 10 maja 2024 roku . Rada Języka Polskiego . [dostęp 2025-11-02]. ( pol. ) . ↑ Komunikat Rady Języka Polskiego przy Prezydium PAN z dnia 7 listopada 2025 r. . Rada Języka Polskiego . [dostęp 2025-11-18]. ( pol. ) . ↑ Zmiany w systemie kaucyjnym. Koniec okresu przejściowego . TVN24. [dostęp 2026-01-01]. ( pol. ) . ↑ Cyprus’ EU presidency ‘flagship event’ for EBU-CyBC [online], cyprus-mail.com, 4 lipca 2024 [dostęp 2024-07-22] ( ang. ) . ↑ Bułgaria w strefie euro od 2026 roku: sukces władz w cieniu obaw społecznych [online], osw.waw.pl, 10 lipca 2025 [dostęp 2025-10-12] . ↑ S.W. S.W. I. S.W. S.W. , Guy Parmelin mit Rekordresultat zum Bundespräsidenten gewählt [online], SWI swissinfo.ch, 10 grudnia 2025 [dostęp 2026-01-01] ( niem. ) . ↑ Eksplozja w kurorcie w Szwajcarii. Nowe informacje. Jest więcej ofiar . wiadomosci.onet.pl. [dostęp 2026-01-01]. ↑ Wenezuela oskarża USA o atak. Stan wyjątkowy w kraju [RELACJA NA ŻYWO] [online], WP Wiadomości, 3 stycznia 2026 [dostęp 2026-01-03] . ↑ Rok Jubileuszowy 2025 – najważniejsze informacje . ekai.pl. [dostęp 2024-12-25]. ↑ Papież zamknął Drzwi Święte Bazyliki św. Piotra - zakończył się Jubileusz Nadziei . vaticannews.va. [dostęp 2026-01-06]. ↑ Eryk E. Kryński Eryk E. , Masowe protesty w USA. Amerykanie wyszli na ulice [online], WP Wiadomości, 10 stycznia 2026 [dostęp 2026-01-12] . ↑ Tiffany T. Wertheimer Tiffany T. , Renee Nicole Good: Who was the woman killed by ICE in Minneapolis? [online], www.bbc.com, 9 stycznia 2026 [dostęp 2026-01-12] ( ang. ) . ↑ "Najostrzejszy zwrot w prawo". Nowy prezydent w kraju Ameryki Południowej . wydarzenia.interia.pl. [dostęp 2025-12-15]. ↑ Ketrin Jochecova: Viktor Orban walczy o przetrwanie. Prezydent Węgier ogłosił termin wyborów . Onet.pl, 2026-01-13. [dostęp 2026-01-13]. ↑ Houses of the H.t. Oireachtas Houses of the H.t. , EU Presidency – Thursday, 7 Mar 2024 – Parliamentary Questions (33rd Dáil) – Houses of the Oireachtas [online], oireachtas.ie, 7 marca 2024 [dostęp 2024-07-22] ( ang. ) . ↑ United States House of Representatives elections, 2026 [online], Ballotpedia [dostęp 2024-07-22] ( ang. ) . ↑ Avengers: Doomsday | Film | 2026 . 2025-11-10. [dostęp 2025-11-13]. ↑ NASA Accelerates Artemis 2 by Two Months [online], 22 marca 2025 [dostęp 2025-04-11] ( ang. ) . ↑ Daily Sabah with D.S. Agencies Daily Sabah with D.S. , Türkiye to host NATO summit in 2026 [online], Daily Sabah, 11 lipca 2024 [dostęp 2024-07-22] ( ang. ) . ↑ Polska dołączy do szczytu G20 w Miami. Rubio potwierdza. "Zajmie należne jej miejsce" . PAP , 2025-12-04. [dostęp 2026-01-02]. ↑ USA, Meksyk i Kanada zorganizują mistrzostwa świata w 2026 roku MŚ – Mundial [online], sport.pl [dostęp 2020-05-11] ( pol. ) . ↑ Niech żyje Barcelona . [dostęp 2008-12-29]. ↑ EclipseWise - Annular Solar Eclipse of 2026 Feb 17 [online], eclipsewise.com [dostęp 2026-01-03] . ↑ EclipseWise - Total Lunar Eclipse of 2026 Mar 03 [online], eclipsewise.com [dostęp 2026-01-03] . ↑ Anka Skalik: Nadchodzi spektakularne zaćmienie Słońca. Pierwsze takie od 27 lat . Wp.pl, 2024-08-26. [dostęp 2026-01-02]. ↑ EclipseWise - Total Solar Eclipse of 2026 Aug 12 [online], eclipsewise.com [dostęp 2026-01-03] . ↑ EclipseWise - Partial Lunar Eclipse of 2026 Aug 28 [online], eclipsewise.com [dostęp 2026-01-03] . ↑ Data świąt ruchomych [online] [dostęp 2018-05-28] . Zobacz multimedia związane z tematem: 2026 XXI wiek Aktualne Artykuły z propozycjami tłumaczeń Tę stronę ostatnio edytowano 15 sty 2026, 18:14. Tekst udostępniany na licencji Creative Commons: uznanie autorstwa, na tych samych warunkach , z możliwością obowiązywania dodatkowych ograniczeń. Zobacz szczegółowe informacje o warunkach korzystania . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early years 2 American Revolution Toggle American Revolution subsection 2.1 Invasion of Canada 2.2 11th Virginia Regiment and Morgan's Riflemen 2.3 Saratoga 2.3.1 Freeman's Farm 2.3.2 Bemis Heights 2.4 New Jersey and retirement 2.5 Southern Campaign 2.5.1 Battle of Cowpens 2.1 Invasion of Canada 2.2 11th Virginia Regiment and Morgan's Riflemen 2.3 Saratoga 2.3.1 Freeman's Farm 2.3.2 Bemis Heights 2.3.1 Freeman's Farm 2.3.2 Bemis Heights 2.4 New Jersey and retirement 2.5 Southern Campaign 2.5.1 Battle of Cowpens 2.5.1 Battle of Cowpens 3 Later life 4 Legacy 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Daniel Morgan العربية Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español Français 한국어 हिन्दी Italiano עברית مصرى 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Русский Slovenščina Suomi 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Daniel Morgan Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Virginia 's 1st district In office March 4, 1797 – March 3, 1799 Preceded by Robert Rutherford Succeeded by Robert Page Personal details Born 6 July 1736 Hunterdon County , Province of New Jersey, British America Died July 6, 1802 (1802-07-06) (aged 66) Winchester , Virginia, U.S. Resting place Mount Hebron Cemetery , Winchester, Virginia, U.S. Party Federalist Spouse Abigail Curry [ 1 ] Occupation Soldier Military service Allegiance United States Branch/service Continental Army United States Army Years of service 1775–1783; 1794 Rank Brigadier general Battles/wars .mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url(" 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px} American Revolutionary War Invasion of Canada Battle of Saratoga Battle of Freeman's Farm Battle of Bemis Heights Battle of Cowpens Whiskey Rebellion American Revolutionary War Invasion of Canada Battle of Saratoga Battle of Freeman's Farm Battle of Bemis Heights Battle of Cowpens Invasion of Canada Battle of Saratoga Battle of Freeman's Farm Battle of Bemis Heights Battle of Cowpens Whiskey Rebellion Daniel Morgan (July 6, 1736 – July 6, 1802) was an American pioneer, soldier, and politician from Virginia . One of the most respected battlefield tacticians of the American Revolutionary War of 1775–1783, he later commanded troops during the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion of 1791–1794. Born in New Jersey to James and Eleanor Morgan, a Welsh family, Morgan settled in Winchester, Virginia . He became an officer of the Virginia militia and recruited a company of riflemen at the start of the Revolutionary War. Early in the war, Morgan served in Benedict Arnold 's expedition to Quebec and in the Saratoga campaign . He also served in the Philadelphia campaign before resigning from the army in 1779. Morgan returned to the army after the Battle of Camden , and led the Continental Army to victory in the Battle of Cowpens . After the war, Morgan retired from the army again and developed a large estate. He was recalled to duty in 1794 to help suppress the Whiskey Rebellion, and commanded a portion of the army that remained in Western Pennsylvania after the rebellion. A member of the Federalist Party , Morgan twice ran for the United States House of Representatives , winning election to the House in 1796. He retired from Congress in 1799 and died in 1802. Early years Daniel Morgan is believed to have been born in the community of New Hampton in Lebanon Township, New Jersey . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] All four of his grandparents were Welsh immigrants who lived in Pennsylvania. [ 4 ] Morgan's parents were born in Pennsylvania and then later moved to New Jersey together. Morgan was the fifth of seven children of James Morgan (1702–1782) and Eleanor Lloyd (1706–1748). When Morgan was 17, he left home following a fight with his father. After working at odd jobs in Pennsylvania , he moved to the Shenandoah Valley . He finally settled on the Virginia frontier, near what is now Winchester, Virginia . [ 5 ] He worked clearing land, running a sawmill, and as a teamster . [ 5 ] In a little more than two years, he saved enough to buy his own team. [ 6 ] With multiple extra wagons, this operation quickly expanded into a thriving business. [ 5 ] Morgan served as a civilian teamster during the French and Indian War [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] with Daniel Boone , sometimes said to be his cousin. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] During the retreat from Fort Duquesne ( Pittsburgh ), he was punished with 500 lashes (a usually fatal sentence) for attacking an officer. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Morgan thus acquired a disdain for British authorities and their treatment of provincials. [ 5 ] Later, when he led troops, he banned flogging. [ 5 ] He continued as a wagoner, which much of the profits initially being spent on alcohol, gambling, and female company, and resulted in several appearances before a Virginia magistrate, for charges from assault, through the burning down of a neighbours tobacco shed, to horse theft. Though he earned enough to purchase a house, between Winchester and Battletown , with 225 acres of land, and ten slaves, by 1774. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] He would meet Abigail Curry, who would teach him to read and write, and by who he would have two daughters, Nancy and Betsy, and later marry. [ 5 ] Morgan later served as a rifleman in the provincial forces assigned to protect the western settlements from French-backed Indian raids. He led a force that relieved Fort Edwards during its siege and successfully directed the defence afterward. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] He served in Dunmore's War , taking part in raids on Shawnee villages in the Ohio Country . American Revolution After the American Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the Continental Congress created the Continental Army in June 1775. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] They called for the formation of 10 rifle companies [ 6 ] [ 7 ] from the middle colonies to support the Siege of Boston , [ 5 ] and late in June 1775, Virginia agreed to send two. [ 7 ] Morgan was chosen by a unanimous vote by the Committee of Frederick County to form one of these companies and become its commander. [ 6 ] Morgan recruited 96 men [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] in 10 days [ 6 ] and assembled them at Winchester on July 14. This was even larger than authorized strength. [ 5 ] His company of marksmen was nicknamed " Morgan's Riflemen ". Another company was raised from Shepherdstown by his rival, Hugh Stephenson. Stephenson's company initially planned to meet Morgan's company in Winchester but found them gone. Morgan marched his men 600 miles (970 km) to Boston, Massachusetts in 21 days, arriving on August 6, 1775. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Locals called it the "Bee-Line March", noting that Stephenson somehow marched his men 600 miles from their meeting point at Morgan's Spring, in 24 days, so they arrived at Cambridge on Friday, August 11, 1775. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] The long rifles used were more accurate and had a longer range than other firearms at that time – 300 yards (270 m) as compared to 80 yards (73 m) for standard smooth-bore muskets – but took much longer to load. [ 5 ] As they were handmade, calibres varied, requiring differently sized bullets. [ 5 ] When his men were done training Morgan used them as snipers, shooting mostly British officers who thought they were out of range; sometimes they killed 10 British in a day. [ 5 ] This caused great outrage within and without the British army; amongst others, Washington disapproved of this way of war , and when gunpowder began to run out he forbade Morgan to fight in such a manner. [ 5 ] Invasion of Canada In June that year, the Continental Congress authorized an invasion of Canada . [ 16 ] Colonel Benedict Arnold convinced General Washington to start an eastern offensive in support of Montgomery 's invasion. Washington agreed to dispatch three companies from his forces at Boston, provided they agreed. Every company at Boston volunteered, and a lottery was used to choose who should go. Morgan's company was one of them. Benedict Arnold selected Captain Morgan to lead the three companies as a battalion. Arnold's expedition set out from Fort Western on September 25, with Morgan leading the advance party. [ 17 ] The Arnold Expedition [ 18 ] started with about 1,050 men; by the time they reached Quebec on November 9, that had been reduced to 675. [ 19 ] When Montgomery's men arrived, they launched a joint assault. The Battle of Quebec began in a blizzard on the morning of December 31. The Patriots attacked in two pincers, commanded by Montgomery and Arnold. Arnold attacked against the lower city from the north, but he suffered a leg wound early in the battle. Morgan took command of the force, and he successfully overcame the first rampart and entered the city. Montgomery's force initiated their attack as the blizzard became severe, and Montgomery and many of his troops, except for Aaron Burr , were killed or wounded in the first British volley. With Montgomery down, his attack faltered. British General Carleton consequently was able to lead hundreds of the Quebec militia in the encirclement of the second attack. Carleton was also able to move his cannons and men to the first barricade, behind Morgan's force. Divided and subject to fire from all sides, Morgan's troops gradually surrendered. Morgan handed his sword to a French-Canadian priest, refusing to give it to Carleton in formal surrender. Morgan thus became one of the 372 men captured, and he remained a prisoner of war until he was exchanged in January 1777. 11th Virginia Regiment and Morgan's Riflemen When he rejoined Washington early in 1777, Morgan was surprised to learn he had been promoted to colonel for his bravery at Quebec. He was ordered to raise and command a new infantry regiment, the 11th Virginia Regiment of the Continental Line. On June 13, 1777, Washington also gave Morgan command of the Provisional Rifle Corps , a light infantry force of 500 riflemen chosen from Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia regiments of the Continental Army. Morgan simultaneously led the 11th Virginia Regiment, his permanent unit, and this provisional unit. Washington wrote the following letter to Morgan on August 16, 1777: "Sir: After you receive this, you will march, as soon as possible, with the corps under your command, to Peekskill, taking with you all the baggage belonging to it. When you arrive there, you will take directions from General Putnam, who, I expect, will have vessels provided to carry you to Albany. The approach of the enemy in that quarter has made a further reinforcement necessary, and I know of no corps so likely to check their progress, in proportion to its number, as that under your command. I have great dependence on you, your officers and men, and I am persuaded you will do honor to yourselves, and essential service to your country..... I am, sir, your most obedient servant George Washington." Many were from his own 11th Regiment, including his friend Captain Gabriel Long, and Long's best snipers, including Corporals John Gassaway, Duncan MacDonald and Private Peter Carland. After their victory at Saratoga, Washington sent them to harass General William Howe 's rearguard, and Morgan did so during their entire withdrawal across New Jersey . Saratoga A detachment of Morgan's regiment, commanded by Morgan, was reassigned to the army's Northern Department and on Aug 30 he joined General Horatio Gates to aid in resisting Burgoyne's offensive. He is prominently depicted in the painting of the Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga by John Trumbull . [ 20 ] Freeman's Farm Morgan led his regiment, with the added support of Henry Dearborn 's 300-man New Hampshire infantry, as the advance to the main forces. On September 19, at Freeman's Farm , they ran into the advance of General Simon Fraser's wing of Burgoyne's force. Every officer in the British advance party died in the first exchange, and the advance guard retreated. Morgan's men charged without orders, but the charge fell apart when they ran into the main column led by General Hamilton . Benedict Arnold arrived, and he and Morgan managed to reform the unit. As the British began to form on the fields at Freeman's farm, Morgan's men continued to break these formations with accurate rifle fire from the woods on the far side of the field. They were joined by another seven regiments from Bemis Heights. For the rest of the afternoon, American fire held the British in check, but repeated American charges were repelled by British bayonets. Bemis Heights Burgoyne's next offensive resulted in the Battle of Bemis Heights on Oct. 7. Morgan was assigned command of the left (or western) flank of the American position. The British plan was to turn that flank, using an advance by 1,500 men. This brought Morgan's brigade once again up against General Fraser's forces. Daniel Morgan's sharpshooters were ordered to specifically shoot British officers and their Native American Guides. In order to cause maximum confusion and disorder among British Troops. [ 21 ] Passing through the Canadian loyalists, Morgan's Virginia sharpshooters got the British light infantry trapped in a crossfire between themselves and Dearborn's regiment. Although the light infantry broke, General Fraser was trying to rally them, encouraging his men to hold their positions when Benedict Arnold arrived. Arnold spotted him and called to Morgan: "That man on the grey horse is a host unto himself and must be disposed of — direct the attention of some of the sharpshooters amongst your riflemen to him!" Morgan reluctantly ordered Fraser shot by a sniper, and Timothy Murphy obliged him. With Fraser mortally wounded, the British light infantry fell back into and through the redoubts occupied by Burgoyne's main force. Morgan was one of those who then followed Arnold's lead to turn a counter-attack from the British middle. Burgoyne retired to his starting positions, but about 500 men poorer for the effort. That night, he withdrew to the village of Saratoga , New York (renamed Schuylerville in honor of Philip Schuyler ) about eight miles to the northwest. During the next week, as Burgoyne dug in, Morgan and his men moved to his north. Their ability to cut up any patrols sent in their direction convinced the British that retreat was not possible. New Jersey and retirement After Saratoga, Morgan's unit rejoined Washington's main army, near Philadelphia . Throughout 1778 he hit British columns and supply lines in New Jersey but was not involved in any major battles. He was not involved in the Battle of Monmouth but actively pursued the withdrawing British forces and captured many prisoners and supplies. When the Virginia Line was reorganized on September 14, 1778, Morgan became the colonel of the 7th Virginia Regiment . Throughout this period, Morgan became increasingly dissatisfied with the army and the Congress. He had never been politically active or cultivated a relationship with the Congress. As a result, he was repeatedly passed over for promotion to brigadier , favor going to men with less combat experience but better political connections. While still a colonel with Washington, he had temporarily commanded Weedon's brigade and felt himself ready for the position. Besides this frustration, his legs and back aggravated him from the abuse taken during the Quebec Expedition. He was finally allowed to resign on June 30, 1779, and returned home to Winchester. Being ordered by General George Washington , in the summer and fall of 1779, Morgan and his riflemen were part of Sullivan's Expedition into the Southern Tier and Finger Lakes regions of New York. In June 1780, he was urged to re-enter the service by General Gates but declined. Gates was taking command in the Southern Department, and Morgan felt that being outranked by so many militia officers would limit his usefulness. After Gates' disaster at the Battle of Camden , Morgan thrust all other considerations aside, and went to join the Southern command at Hillsborough, North Carolina . Southern Campaign He met Gates at Hillsborough, and was given command of the light infantry corps on Oct. 2. At last, on October 13, 1780, Morgan received his promotion to brigadier general. Morgan met his new Department Commander, Nathanael Greene , on December 3, 1780, at Charlotte, North Carolina . Greene did not change his command assignment, but did give him new orders. Greene had decided to split his army and annoy the enemy in order to buy time to rebuild his force. He gave Morgan's command of about 600 men the job of foraging and enemy harassment in the backcountry of South Carolina , while avoiding direct battle. [ 22 ] When this strategy became apparent, the British General Cornwallis sent Colonel Banastre Tarleton 's British Legion to track him down. Morgan talked with militia who had fought Tarleton. Morgan decided to disobey orders and provoke a battle. Battle of Cowpens Morgan chose to make his stand at Cowpens, South Carolina . On the morning of January 17, 1781, they met Tarleton in the Battle of Cowpens. Morgan had been joined by militia forces under Andrew Pickens and William Washington 's dragoons. Tarleton's legion was supplemented with the light infantry from several regiments of regulars. Morgan's plan took advantage of Tarleton's tendency for quick action and his disdain for the militia, [ 23 ] as well as the longer range and accuracy of his Virginia riflemen. The marksmen were positioned to the front, followed by the militia, with the regulars at the hilltop. The first two units were to withdraw as soon as they were seriously threatened, but after inflicting damage. This would invite a premature charge from the British. The tactic resulted in a double envelopment . As the British forces approached, the Americans, with their backs turned to the British, reloaded their muskets. When the British got close to the Americans, the latter turned and fired at point-blank range. In less than an hour, Tarleton's 1,076 men suffered 110 killed and 830 captured; 200 prisoners of war were wounded. The British Legion, among the best units in Cornwallis's army, was effectively destroyed. Archibald McArthur, the captured commander of a battalion of the 71st Regiment of Foot , said after the battle that he "was an officer before Tarleton was born; that the best troops in the service were put under 'that boy' to be sacrificed". [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Cornwallis had lost not only Tarleton's legion but also his light infantry, losses that limited his speed of reaction for the rest of the campaign. For his actions, Virginia gave Morgan land and an estate that had been abandoned by a Tory. The damp and chill of the campaign had aggravated his sciatica to the point that he was in constant pain; on February 10, he returned to his Virginia farm. [ 23 ] In July 1781, Morgan briefly joined Lafayette to pursue Banastre Tarleton once more, this time in Virginia, but they were unsuccessful. [ 26 ] Later life Morgan resigned his commission after serving six-and-a-half years, and at 46 returned home to Frederick County. He was admitted as an original member of the Society of the Cincinnati in the state of Virginia. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] He turned his attention to investing in land rather than clearing it, and eventually built an estate of more than 250,000 acres (1,000 km 2 ). As part of his settling down in 1782, he joined the Presbyterian Church and, using Hessian prisoners of war, built a new house near Winchester, Virginia. He named the home Saratoga after his victory in New York. The Congress awarded him a gold medal in 1790 to commemorate his victory at Cowpens. [ 29 ] In 1794, he was briefly recalled to national service to help suppress the Whiskey Rebellion , and the same year, he was promoted to major general. Serving under General "Light-Horse Harry" Lee , Morgan led one wing of the militia army into Western Pennsylvania . [ 30 ] The massive show of force brought an end to the protests without a shot being fired. After the uprising had been suppressed, Morgan commanded the remnant of the army that remained until 1795 in Pennsylvania, some 1,200 militiamen, one of whom was Meriwether Lewis . [ 31 ] Morgan ran for election to the US House of Representatives twice as a Federalist. He lost in 1794, but won in 1796 with 70% of the vote by defeating Democratic-Republican Robert Rutherford . Morgan served a single term from 1797 to 1799. He died on his birthday at his daughter's home in Winchester on July 6, 1802. He was buried in Old Stone Presbyterian Church graveyard. The body was moved to the Mount Hebron Cemetery in Winchester, Virginia, after the American Civil War . His wife, Abigail, died in 1816 and was buried in Logan County, Kentucky . Legacy Daniel Morgan Parkinson , militia officer, official and entrepreneur of frontier Wisconsin , was the son of Morgan's sister Mary, and was named after his famous uncle. [ 32 ] In 1820 Virginia named a new county— Morgan County —in his honor. (It is now in West Virginia .) The states of Alabama , Georgia , Illinois , Indiana , Kentucky , Missouri , Ohio , and Tennessee followed their example. The North Carolina city of Morganton is also named after Morgan, as well as the Kentucky city of Morganfield (originally Morgan's Field) which was founded in 1811 on land which was part of a Revolutionary War land grant to Daniel Morgan. Morgan actually never saw the land, but his daughter's cousin-in-law, [ 33 ] Presley O'Bannon , the "Hero of Derna" in the Barbary War, acquired the land, drew up a plan for the town and donated the land for the streets and public square. In 1881 (on the occasion of the hundredth anniversary of the Battle of Cowpens), a statue of Morgan was placed in the central town square of Spartanburg , South Carolina . It is located in Morgan Square and remains in place today. In late 1951, an attempt was made to reinter Morgan's body in Cowpens, South Carolina , but the Frederick-Winchester Historical Society blocked the move by securing an injunction in circuit court. The event was pictured by a staged photo that appeared in Life magazine . [ 34 ] In 1973, the home Saratoga was declared a National Historic Landmark . Fort Morgan is a historic masonry pentagonal bastion fort at the mouth of Mobile Bay , Alabama , United States. Morgan and his actions served as one of the key sources for the fictional character of Benjamin Martin in The Patriot , a motion picture released in 2000. There is a street named after him in Lebanon Township, Hunterdon County, New Jersey. A statue of Morgan was erected at the McConnelsville library, in Morgan County, Ohio in 2017. [ 35 ] In Winchester, Virginia , a middle school is named in his honor. [ 36 ] The Daniel Morgan House at Winchester was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2013. [ 37 ] In the early 1780s, Morgan joined efforts with Col. Nathaniel Burwell to build a water-powered mill in Millwood, Virginia . The Burwell-Morgan Mill is open as a museum and is one of the oldest, most original operational grist mills in the country. A statue of Morgan is on the west face of the Saratoga Monument in Schuylerville, New York . [ 38 ] References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Higginbotham, Don (1979). Daniel Morgan . UNC Press Books. p. 11 . ISBN 978-0-8078-1386-7 . ^ "Major General Daniel Morgan Historical Marker" . www.hmdb.org . ^ "Lebanon Township, New Jersey Revolutionary War Sites | Lebanon Township Historic Sites" . www.revolutionarywarnewjersey.com . ^ Edward Morgan Log House Archived July 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine , Genealogy, accessed November 12, 2011. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Swisher, James Kenneth (2019). Daniel Morgan : an inexplicable hero . [Virginia Beach, Virginia]. ISBN 978-1-63393-750-5 . OCLC 1083137885 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ a b c d e f g Graham, James (1859). The life of General Daniel Morgan : of the Virginia line of the Army of the United States, with portions of his correspondence . University of California Libraries. New York : Derby & Jackson. ^ a b c d e f Morgan, Richard L. (2001). General Daniel Morgan: Reconsidered Hero . North Carolina Humanities Council. Morganton (N.C.): Burke County Historical Society. ^ Wallace, Paul A. W. (2007). Daniel Boone in Pennsylvania . Diane Publishing Inc. ISBN 9781422314975 – via Google Books. ^ Robert Morgan says although Boone reportedly claimed Morgan as a cousin, historians have been unable to confirm it. Morgan, Robert (2007). Boone: A Biography . Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-56512-455-4 . ^ Higginbotham pp. 13–15 ^ "Frontiersman Daniel Morgan" . Warfare History Network . Retrieved October 11, 2024 . ^ "e-WV | Bee Line March" . ^ McCullough, David . 1776 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005) p. 38 ^ McGraw, Eliza (July 15, 2025). "How a Relentless, 484-Mile March From Virginia to Massachusetts Fueled the Legend of the Dashing Frontier Rifleman" . Smithsonian Magazine . ^ "Clio - Welcome" . Clio . ^ Graham, James (1859). Daniel Morgan : of the Virginia line of the Army of the United States, with portions of his correspondence . p. 56. ^ Peckham, Howard H. The War for Independence: A Military History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958) p. 30 ^ Historians have never reached a consensus on the use of a standard name for this epic journey ^ Morgan, Richard (2001). General Daniel Morgan: Reconsidered Hero . p. 13. ^ "Key to the Surrender of General Burgoyne" . Retrieved February 2, 2008 . ^ Yost, Russell (February 16, 2012). "Daniel Morgan - The Most Innovative General of the Revolution" . The History Junkie . Retrieved November 5, 2023 . ^ Golway, Terry. Washington's General: Nathanael Greene and the Triumph of the American Revolution (New York: Henry Holt & Company, 2005) p. 241 ^ a b Golway, p. 248 ^ Golway, pp. 245-248 ^ Buchanan, John. The Road to Guilford Courthouse: The American Revolution in the Carolinas . John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1997, ISBN 0-471-16402-X , p. 326 ^ Peckham, p. 167 ^ "Officers Represented in the Society of the Cincinnati" . The American Revolution Institute of the Society of the Cincinnati . Retrieved March 19, 2021 . ^ Metcalf, Bryce (1938). Original Members and Other Officers Eligible to the Society of the Cincinnati , 1783-1938: With the Institution, Rules of Admission, and Lists of the Officers of the General and State Societies Strasburg, VA: Shenandoah Publishing House, Inc., p. 229. ^ Len Barcousky (March 22, 2009). "Eyewitness 1818: No jail could hold this Pittsburgh thief" . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Retrieved August 25, 2011 . ^ Higginbotham, pp. 189–91. ^ Higginbotham, pp. 193–98. ^ Tenney, Horace Addison & David Atwood. Memorial Record of the Fathers of Wisconsin: Containing Sketches of the Lives and Career of the Members of the Constitutional Conventions of 1846 and 1847-8. With a History of Early Settlement in Wisconsin Madison: David Atwood, 1880; pp. 124-25 ^ Gaffney, Mailing Address: Cowpens National Battlefield 338 New Pleasant Road; Us, SC 29341 Phone:461-2828 Contact. "Daniel Morgan - Cowpens National Battlefield (U.S. National Park Service)" . www.nps.gov . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( link ) ^ "Who Will Get the General's Body?: Two Southern Towns Battle Over Grave of Daniel Morgan, Herow of Cowpens." Life , Vol. 31, No. 10 (September 3, 1951), pp. 53–54, 56, and 59. ^ "Morgan County unveils new statue" . www.whiznews.com . 2017. Archived from the original on February 18, 2019 . Retrieved September 30, 2020 . ^ "Daniel Morgan Middle School - Winchester Public Schools" . Archived from the original on January 28, 2013. ^ "National Register of Historic Places Listings" (PDF) . Weekly List of Actions Taken on Properties: 2/04/13 through 2/08/13 . National Park Service. February 15, 2013. Archived from the original on February 2, 2014 . Retrieved February 2, 2014 . ^ "Saratoga National Historical Park" . Revolutionary Day . Archived from the original on August 10, 2015 . Retrieved July 7, 2015 . Further reading Babits, Lawrence E. A Devil of a Whipping: The Battle of Cowpens . University of North Carolina Press, 1998. ISBN 0-8078-2434-8 . Bodie, Idella. The Old Waggoner (Juvenile nonfiction). Sandlapper Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-87844-165-4 Calahan, North. Daniel Morgan: Ranger of the Revolution . AMS Press, 1961; ISBN 0-404-09017-6 Graham, James, The Life of General Daniel Morgan of the Virginia Line of the Army of the United States: with portions of his correspondence . Zebrowski Historical Publishing, 1859; ISBN 1-880484-06-4 Higginbotham, Don . Daniel Morgan: Revolutionary Rifleman . University of North Carolina Press, 1961. ISBN 0-8078-1386-9 Ketcham, Richard M. Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War . John Macrae/Holt Paperbacks, 1999. ISBN 9780805061239 . LaCrosse Jr., Richard B. Revolutionary Rangers: Daniel Morgan's Riflemen and Their Role on the Northern Frontier, 1778–1783 . Heritage Books, 2002. ISBN 0-7884-2052-6 . Zambone, Albert Louis, Daniel Morgan: A Revolutionary Life. Yardley, PA: Westholme Publishing, 2018. External links United States Congress. "Daniel Morgan (id: M000946)" . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . Nomination form for Saratoga to the National Historic Register Burwell-Morgan Mill Web site "Daniel Morgan Graduate School of National Security" . dmgs.org . August 28, 2020. Archived from the original on August 3, 2022 . Retrieved December 22, 2024 . The Society of the Cincinnati The American Revolution Institute .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e United States representatives from Virginia's 1st congressional district v t e White Rutherford Morgan Page Smith J. Jackson McKinley Wilson J. Jackson Pindall E. Jackson Newton Loyall Newton Loyall Mallory Holleman Mallory Atkinson Millson Bayly Garnett Segar Ayer Critcher Sener Douglas Beale Garrison Mayo Garrison Croxton Browne Jones Bland Robeson Downing Trible Bateman Davis Wittman White Rutherford Morgan Page Smith J. Jackson McKinley Wilson J. Jackson Pindall E. Jackson Newton Loyall Newton Loyall Mallory Holleman Mallory Atkinson Millson Bayly Garnett Segar Ayer Critcher Sener Douglas Beale Garrison Mayo Garrison Croxton Browne Jones Bland Robeson Downing Trible Bateman Davis Wittman All Virginia districts: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 · 18 · 19 · 20 · 21 · 22 · 23 · at-large 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 · 18 · 19 · 20 · 21 · 22 · 23 · at-large Biography Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States Israel United States Israel People US Congress US Congress Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Yale LUX Bryce Metcalf, Bryce Original Members and Other Officers Eligible to the Society of the Cincinnati, 1783-1938: With the Institution, Rules of Admission, and Lists of the Officers of the General and State Societies (Strasburg, Va.: Shenandoah Publishing House, Inc., 1938), page 108. 1730s births 1802 deaths American people of Welsh descent American Presbyterians American Revolutionary War prisoners of war held by Great Britain Congressional Gold Medal recipients Continental Army generals Continental Army officers from Virginia People from Bethlehem Township, New Jersey Politicians from Winchester, Virginia People of Virginia in the French and Indian War People from colonial Virginia Federalist Party United States representatives from Virginia People from Boyce, Virginia Burials at Mount Hebron Cemetery (Winchester, Virginia) Military personnel from Hunterdon County, New Jersey United States representatives who owned slaves 18th-century United States representatives Candidates in the 1794 United States elections Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: location missing publisher CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use mdy dates from November 2020 Commons category link from Wikidata CS1: unfit URL This page was last edited on 15 December 2025, at 02:58 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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ISSN 2573-0142 . ^ Petroni, Fabio; Broscheit, Samuel; Piktus, Aleksandra; Lewis, Patrick; Izacard, Gautier; Hosseini, Lucas; Dwivedi-Yu, Jane; Lomeli, Maria; Schick, Timo; Bevilacqua, Michele; Mazaré, Pierre-Emmanuel; Joulin, Armand; Grave, Edouard; Riedel, Sebastian (2023). "Improving Wikipedia verifiability with AI" . Nature Machine Intelligence . 5 (10): 1142– 1148. arXiv : 2207.06220 . doi : 10.1038/s42256-023-00726-1 . ^ Heart Internet. "Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface" . Archived from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 21, 2000). "The next generation of online encyclopedias" . CNN . Archived from the original on August 14, 2004 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rubin, Harriet (May 31, 1998). "The Hitchhikers Guide to the New Economy" . Fast Company . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedia of Life" . National Museum of Natural History . Smithsonian . 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Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . 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Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. 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Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource 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NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 4 Nobel Prizes 5 References 6 Further reading 1945 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century 20th century 21st century 19th century 20th century 21st century Decades 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s Years 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1945 by topic Subject Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American British Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American American British British By country Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Lists of leaders Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Birth and death categories Births Deaths Births Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments Disestablishments Establishments Disestablishments Works category Works Introductions Works Introductions v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1945 MCMXLV Ab urbe condita 2698 Armenian calendar 1394 ԹՎ ՌՅՂԴ Assyrian calendar 6695 Baháʼí calendar 101–102 Balinese saka calendar 1866–1867 Bengali calendar 1351–1352 Berber calendar 2895 British Regnal year 9 Geo. 6 – 10 Geo. 6 Buddhist calendar 2489 Burmese calendar 1307 Byzantine calendar 7453–7454 Chinese calendar 甲申 年 (Wood Monkey ) 4642 or 4435 — to — 乙酉年 (Wood Rooster ) 4643 or 4436 Coptic calendar 1661–1662 Discordian calendar 3111 Ethiopian calendar 1937–1938 Hebrew calendar 5705–5706 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 2001–2002 - Shaka Samvat 1866–1867 - Kali Yuga 5045–5046 Holocene calendar 11945 Igbo calendar 945–946 Iranian calendar 1323–1324 Islamic calendar 1364–1365 Japanese calendar Shōwa 20 (昭和２０年) Javanese calendar 1875–1876 Juche calendar 34 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days Korean calendar 4278 Minguo calendar ROC 34 民國34年 Nanakshahi calendar 477 Thai solar calendar 2488 Tibetan calendar ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood- Monkey ) 2071 or 1690 or 918 — to — ཤིང་མོ་བྱ་ལོ་ (female Wood- Bird ) 2072 or 1691 or 919 1945 ( MCMXLV ) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar , the 1945th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 945th year of the 2nd millennium , the 45th year of the 20th century , and the 6th year of the 1940s decade. A turning point [ 1 ] in human history , 1945 marked the end of World War II , ending with the defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan by the United States and the Soviet Union in the world of two superpowers which has led the beginning of the Cold War (1945–1991). It is also the year the Nazi concentration camps were liberated and the only year in which atomic weapons have been used in warfare . Events World War II will be abbreviated as "WWII" January January 1 – WWII: Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. January 6 – WWII: A German offensive recaptures Esztergom , Hungary from the Soviets. January 9 – WWII: American and Australian troops land at Lingayen Gulf on western coast of the largest Philippine island of Luzon , occupied by Japan since 1942. January 12 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German Army . [ 3 ] January 13 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive , to eliminate German forces in East Prussia . January 16 – WWII: Adolf Hitler takes residence in the Führerbunker in Berlin. [ 4 ] January 17 WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] January 18 – The Holocaust : The SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp . Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributed. January 19 – The Holocaust : Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto ; only 877 Jews of the initial population of 164,000 remain at this time. [ 6 ] January 20 – Germany begins the Evacuation of East Prussia . January 21 – 22 (night) – At the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing , collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing between 140 and 150 people. January 23 – WWII: Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . January 24 – WWII: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton , nine OSS men, and four SOE agents are executed by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp under Hitler's Commando Order of 1942, which stipulates the immediate execution of all captured Allied commandos or saboteurs without trial, even those in proper uniforms. Morton is the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during the war. January 25 – WWII: Hitler appoints Heinrich Himmler as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania , despite Himmler's lack of military experience. [ 7 ] January 26 – WWII: 19-year-old U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Audie Murphy sees action at Holtzwihr , France, for which is awarded the Medal of Honor . January 27 The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] January 30 – WWII: MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. January 31 – WWII: The Battle of Hill 170 in the Burma Campaign ends with the British 3rd Commando Brigade defeating the Imperial Japanese Army 54th Division , causing the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army to withdraw from the Arakan Peninsula. February February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid 's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut , announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin . [ 9 ] February 3 – WWII: Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. February 4 – 11 – WWII: President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta Conference . February 7 – WWII: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila . February 8 – The Alaska Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945, championed by charismatic native leader Elizabeth Peratrovich , is passed by the territorial Senate, after the legislature defeated a previous bill in 1943. February 9 Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. February 10 – WWII: German troopship SS General von Steuben is sunk by the Soviet submarine S-13 ; 3,608 drown. [ 10 ] February 10 – 20 – WWII: Operation Kita : The Imperial Japanese Navy returns "Completion Force", containing both its Ise -class battleships , safely from Singapore to Kure in Japan despite Allied attacks. February 12 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others. [ 11 ] February 13 – WWII: The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. February 16 – WWII: The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. February 18 – March 5 – WWII: American and Brazilian troops kick off Operation Encore in Northern Italy, a successful limited action in the Northern Apennines that prepares for the western portion of the Allied Spring offensive . [ 12 ] February 19 – 20 – 980 (actual figure is disputed) [ 13 ] Japanese soldiers die as a result of being attacked by long saltwater crocodiles in Ramree, Burma . [ 14 ] February 19 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima – About 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo Jima . February 21 – The last V-2 rocket is launched from Peenemünde . February 22 – WWII: Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. February 23 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . February 24 – Egyptian premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is assassinated in Parliament after declaring war on Germany and Japan. February 27 – The Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyed. February 28 – In Bucharest , a violent demonstration takes place, during which the Bolşevic group opens fire on the army and protesters. In response, Andrei Y. Vishinsky , USSR vice commissioner of foreign affairs and president of the Allied Control Commission for Romania , travels to Bucharest to compel Nicolae Rădescu to resign as premier. March March 1 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives what will be his last address to a joint session of the United States Congress , reporting on the Yalta Conference . March 2 Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] March 3 – WWII: Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. March 4 In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] March 5 – WWII: Brazilian troops take Castelnuovo ( Vergato ), in the last operations of the Allied Operation Encore . March 6 A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. March 7 WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] March 8 Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . March 9 – 10 – WWII: Bombing of Tokyo : USAAF B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan, with incendiary bombs , killing 100,000 citizens in the firebombing. It is the single most destructive conventional air attack of the war. March 11 The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] March 12 – WWII: Swinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation Hannibal . March 15 – 31 – WWII: The Soviet Red Army carries out the Upper Silesian Offensive . March 15 – The 17th Academy Awards ceremony is held, broadcast via radio in the United States for the first time. Best Picture goes to Going My Way . March 16 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. March 17 – WWII: Kobe , Japan is fire-bombed by 331 B-29 bombers, killing over 8,000 people. March 18 – WWII: The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] March 19 – WWII: Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. March 20 – WWII: Hitler dismisses Heinrich Himmler from his military command. [ 3 ] March 21 – WWII: British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. March 22 The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . March 24 WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . March 26 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistance, although there are Japanese holdouts here until 1949. March 27 – WWII: The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . March 29 WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . March 30 – WWII: The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . April April 1 – WWII: Battle of Okinawa : The Tenth United States Army lands on Okinawa . April 4 – WWII: American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. April 6 – WWII: Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. April 7 – WWII: The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . April 8 – The SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp ; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guards. April 9 WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . April 10 – WWII: Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] April 11 – Buchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army . April 12 Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . April 14 – WWII: The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam April 15 – WWII: The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . April 16 – WWII: The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. April 17 – WWII: Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. April 18 – American war correspondent Ernie Pyle is killed by Japanese machine gun fire on the island of Ie Shima off Okinawa . April 19 – Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Carousel , a musical play based on Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom , opens on Broadway , and becomes their second long-running stage classic. It includes the standard " You'll Never Walk Alone ". April 20 – WWII: On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] April 22 – WWII: Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. April 23 – WWII: Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. April 24 – WWII: Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . April 25 Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. April 25 – 26 – WWII: The last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command , the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro Lancasters . April 26 – WWII: Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . April 27 The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] April 28 The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . April 29 At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . April 30 – WWII: Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . May May – Interpol (being headquartered in Berlin) effectively ceases to exist (it is recreated on June 3 , 1946 ). May 1 – WWII: Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. May 2 – WWII: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. May 3 – WWII: The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] May 4 – WWII: German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] May 5 – WWII: Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. May 6 WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] May 6 – 7 – The government of the Independent State of Croatia , the Nazi-affiliated fascist puppet state established in occupied Yugoslavia , flees Zagreb for a location near Klagenfurt in Austria, but is captured in the Bleiburg repatriations that then leads to mass executions. [ 45 ] May 7 – WWII: At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. May 8 – WWII: Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] May 8 – 29 – Sétif and Guelma massacre : in Algeria , thousands die as French troops and released Italian POWs kill an estimated 6,000 to 40,000 Algerian citizens. May 9 – WWII: The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . May 10 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Sark ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops and leaving them under the orders of Dame Sibyl Hathaway . May 12 Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. May 14 – 15 – WWII: Battle of Poljana : The last battle of the War in Europe is fought at Poljana near Slovenj Gradec , Slovenia . May 15 – WWII: Surrender at Bleiburg – Retreating troops of the Croatian Armed Forces of the former puppet Independent State of Croatia (intermingled with fleeing civilians) attempt to surrender to the British Army at Bleiburg , but are directed to surrender to Yugoslav Partisans , who open fire on them. The remainder, after orders are given by Tito , are force-marched through Croatia and Serbia , interned or massacred, with thousands dying. [ 49 ] May 16 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Alderney ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops, the civilian population having been evacuated. May 18 – WWII: Operation Unthinkable – British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly requests his military chiefs of staff to consider a plan for British, American and reactivated German forces to attack the Soviet Red Army on July 1 to preserve the independence of Poland. The operation is ruled militarily unfeasible. [ 50 ] May 23 The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. May 28 – U.S.-born Irish-raised William Joyce (" Lord Haw-Haw ") is captured on the German border. He is later charged in London with high treason for his earlier English-language wartime broadcasts from German radio, convicted, and then hanged in January 1946. May 29 German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. May 30 – The Iranian government demands that all Soviet and British troops leave the country. June June 1 – The British take over Lebanon and Syria . June 5 – The Allied Control Council , the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes power. June 7 – King Haakon VII of Norway returns to Norway five years to the day after leaving for exile in Britain. June 11 William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] June 12 – The Yugoslav Army leaves Trieste , leaving the New Zealand Army in control. June 21 – WWII: The Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972 . June 24 – WWII: A victory parade is held in Red Square in Moscow. June 25 – Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second president of Ireland . June 26 – The United Nations Charter is signed in San Francisco. June 29 – Czechoslovakia cedes Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union . June 30 – John von Neumann 's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC is distributed, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer, with stored-program and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory ( von Neumann architecture ). July July 1 WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . July 2 – The 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion breaks out in Burao and Erigavo in British Somaliland , led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader. [ 52 ] July 4 – Brazilian cruiser Bahia is sunk by an accidentally induced explosion, killing more than 300 and stranding the survivors in shark-infested waters. July 5 The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. July 6 – 7 – Schio massacre : 54 prisoners, mostly fascist sympathisers, are killed by members of the Italian resistance movement in Schio . July 8 – WWII: Harry S. Truman is informed that Japan will talk peace if it can retain the reign of the Emperor. [ 51 ] July 12 – Ben Chifley is elected leader of the Labor Party , and consequently becomes the 16th Prime Minister of Australia , defeating Frank Forde as well as Norman Makin and H.V. Evatt . As a result, Forde becomes the shortest-serving prime minister in Australian history; nevertheless, he retains his post as deputy leader. July 14 – WWII: Italy declares war on Japan. July 16 The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. July 17 – August 2 – WWII: Potsdam Conference – At Potsdam , the three main Allied leaders hold their final summit of the war. President Truman officially informs Stalin that the U.S. has a powerful new weapon. July 21 – WWII: President Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against Japan. [ 51 ] July 23 – WWII: French marshal Philippe Pétain , who headed the Vichy government during WWII, goes on trial for treason. July 26 Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] July 27 – WWII: Bombing of Aomori – Two USAAF B-29s drop a total of 60,000 leaflets on the city of Aomori , Japan, warning civilians of an air raid and urging them to leave immediately. The city was firebombed the next day, killing more than 1,700 people. July 28 WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] July 29 The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. July 30 – WWII: Heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis is hit and sunk by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-58 in the Philippine Sea . Some 900 survivors jump into the sea and are adrift for up to four days. Nearly 600 die before help arrives. Captain Charles B. McVay III of the cruiser is later court-martialed and convicted; in 2000, he is posthumously exonerated. [ 55 ] August August 6 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Hiroshima : United States Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay drops a uranium-235 atomic bomb , codenamed " Little Boy ", on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. local time, resulting in between 90,000 and 146,000 deaths. August 7 – U.S. President Harry Truman announces the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, while he is returning from the Potsdam Conference aboard the U.S. Navy heavy cruiser USS Augusta (CA-31) , in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. August 8 The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. August 9 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] August 10 – WWII: Japan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the Emperor". August 11 WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. August 11 – 25 – Soviet troops complete the occupation of Sakhalin . August 13 – The Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to discuss the founding of the country of Israel . August 14 – WWII: Emperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace . At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT ), U.S. president Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrender. August 15 WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . August 17 Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . August 18 – WWII: Death of Subhas Chandra Bose : Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose is killed as a result of his overloaded Japanese plane crashing in Japanese Taiwan . August 19 – Chinese Civil War : Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the Nationalists . August 22 – Kim Il Sung as the guerilla fighter returned to the Soviet-occupied capital Pyongyang after the Red Army entered the northern peninsula of Korea . August 23 – Soviet–Japanese War : Joseph Stalin orders the detention of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union . August 25 – Bảo Đại abdicates as Emperor of Vietnam , ending 2,000 years of dynastic and monarchic rule in the country and 143 years of the Nguyễn dynasty , Paris marked the first anniversary of liberation from Nazi rule by the French Resistance as a momentous event at the Battle of Normandy against Dietrich von Choltitz . August 30 – WWII: Vietnam 's capital Hanoi is taken by the Viet Minh , which ends the French occupation in what becomes North Vietnam , and thus the southern provinces become South Vietnam . This ends the August Revolution . August 31 WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] September September 2 – World War II ends: Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] September 4 – WWII: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island , after hearing word of their country's surrender. September 5 Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. September 8 U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] September 9 Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] September 10 – Vidkun Quisling is sentenced to death for being a Nazi collaborator in Norway. [ 59 ] September 11 Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. September 12 Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. September 18 Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . September 20 – Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru demand that all British troops depart India. September 24 – Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia : The Topoľčany pogrom is carried out in Czechoslovakia. October October – Arthur C. Clarke puts forward the idea of a geosynchronous communications satellite , in a Wireless World magazine article. October 1 – 15 – Operation Backfire : Three A4 rockets are launched near Cuxhaven , in a demonstration to Allied forces. October 2 – George Albert Smith becomes president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . October 4 – The Partizan Belgrade sports club is founded in Belgrade , Serbia . October 5 – Hollywood Black Friday : A strike by the Set Decorator's Union in Hollywood results in a riot. October 8 – 15 – Hadamar Trial: Personnel of the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre , now in the American zone of Allied-occupied Germany , are the first to be tried for systematic extermination in Nazi Germany . October 9 – Former prime minister Pierre Laval is sentenced to death, for collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France . [ 59 ] October 10 – The Nazi Party is dissolved by the Allied Powers. October 14 – Czechoslovakia : A new provisional national assembly is elected, Kim Il Sung made his first major public appearance in Pyongyang as the celebration of liberation where he was officially introduced to the public by the Soviet authorities as a national hero, a legendary guerrilla fighter and leader. [ 59 ] October 15 – 21 – The Fifth Pan-African Congress is held in Manchester . October 16 – The Food and Agriculture Organization is established at a meeting in Quebec City , as a specialized agency of the United Nations , Syngman Rhee returned to the southern peninsula of Korea as he arrived in Seoul by becoming a prominent figure under the U.S. occupation. October 17 – A massive number of people, headed for the General Confederation of Labour (Argentina) , gather in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires to demand Juan Perón 's release. This is known to the Peronists as the Día de la lealtad ( Loyalty Day ) and considered the founding day of Peronism . October 18 – Isaías Medina Angarita , president of Venezuela , is overthrown by a military coup . [ 59 ] October 19 – Members of the Indonesian People's Army attack Anglo-Dutch forces in Indonesia . [ 59 ] October 20 – Mongolians vote for independence from China. [ 59 ] October 21 – Women's suffrage : Women are allowed to vote in the French Legislative Election for the first time. October 22 – Rómulo Betancourt is named provisional president of Venezuela . [ 59 ] October 24 The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] October 25 WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. October 27 – November 20 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia fight British and British Indian troops in Surabaya . October 29 Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. October 30 – The undivided country of India joins the United Nations . November November 1 International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . November 5 – Colombia joins the United Nations . November 6 – Indonesians reject an offer of autonomy from the Dutch . [ 59 ] November 7 – South Africa and Mexico both joined the United Nations . November 9 – Soo Bahk Do and Moo Duk Kwan martial arts are founded in Korea . November 10 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Following the killing of British officer Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby on October 30, the British Indian Army (in support of its allied Dutch colonial administration) begins an advance on Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies against Indonesian nationalists; although most of the city is retaken in 3 days of heavy fighting, the strength of the resistance leads to today being celebrated as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) in Indonesia. November 11 – 1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election : Marshal Josip Broz Tito and the People's Front win a decisive majority (90%) in the Yugoslavian Assembly. [ 59 ] November 15 Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] November 16 Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. November 18 – The Tudeh party starts a bloodless coup, and will form Azerbaijan within days. Soviet troops prevent Iranian troops from getting involved. November 20 – The Nuremberg trials begin: Trials against 22 Nazis for war crimes of World War II start at the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg . [ 59 ] November 26 – U.S. ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigns after he is unable to broker a deal between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Tse-tung . [ 59 ] November 28 The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] November 29 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. December December 1 – German general Anton Dostler is executed by firing squad in Italy for the war crime of ordering the summary execution of captured U.S. commandos. The U.S. military tribunal which has tried him has not accepted his plea of " superior orders ", setting a precedent for future Allied war crimes trials . [ 63 ] December 2 General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. December 3 – Communist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil War . December 4 – The United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7. December 5 – Flight 19 of United States Navy Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers disappears on a training exercise from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale . December 9 – American General George S. Patton is involved in a car accident in Germany, resulting in his death on December 21. December 21 – Iraq joins the United Nations . December 27 – Twenty-one nations ratify the articles creating the World Bank . [ 64 ] Date unknown A team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (led by Charles D. Coryell ) discovers chemical element 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the periodic table , which they will name promethium . [ 65 ] Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947. The Australian government introduces an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to encourage the immigration of British subjects, at a fare of £ 10, hence they become known as " Ten Pound Poms ". [ 66 ] The first geothermal milk pasteurization is done in Klamath Falls, Oregon , United States. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January January 1 Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver January 3 – Stephen Stills , American rock singer-songwriter ( Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young ) January 4 Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate January 5 Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist January 7 Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) January 10 – Sir Rod Stewart , British rock singer January 12 – André Bicaba , Burkinabé sprinter January 14 – Einar Hákonarson , Icelandic painter January 15 Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family January 17 – Javed Akhtar , Indian political activist, poet, lyricist and screenwriter January 20 – Robert Olen Butler , American writer January 21 Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor January 24 – Subhash Ghai , Indian film director, producer and screenwriter January 25 – Leigh Taylor-Young , American actress January 26 Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) January 27 – Harold Cardinal , Cree political leader, writer and lawyer (d. 2005 ) January 28 Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) January 29 Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) January 31 – Joseph Kosuth , American artist February February 1 – Yasuhiro Takai , Japanese professional baseball player (d. 2019 ) February 3 Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer February 4 – John P. Jumper , United States Air Force general February 5 – Sarah Weddington , American attorney (d. 2021 ) February 6 – Bob Marley , Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981 ) February 7 – Gerald Davies , Welsh rugby player February 9 Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] February 10 – Koo Bon-moo , South Korean business executive (d. 2018 ) February 12 Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist February 13 – Simon Schama , English historian [ 68 ] February 14 Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein February 15 – Douglas Hofstadter , American cognitive scientist February 17 – Brenda Fricker , Irish actress [ 69 ] February 18 – Hashem Mahameed , Israeli politician (d. 2018 ) February 22 – Oliver , American singer ( Good Morning Starshine ) (d. 2000 ) February 24 – Barry Bostwick , American actor February 25 – Roy Saari , American swimmer (d. 2008 ) February 26 – Marta Kristen , Norwegian actress ( Lost In Space ) February 27 – Carl Anderson , American singer, actor ( Jesus Christ Superstar ) (d. 2004 ) February 28 Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) March March 1 – Dirk Benedict , American actor March 3 – George Miller , Australian film director March 4 Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player March 7 – Arthur Lee , American musician (d. 2006 ) March 8 Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter March 9 Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer March 10 – Nobuhiko Higashikuni , Japanese Imperial prince (d. 2019 ) March 13 Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician March 14 – Michael Martin Murphey , American country singer-songwriter March 16 – Douglas Ahlstedt , American tenor March 17 Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) March 18 Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist March 20 Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach March 21 – Charles Greene , American Olympic athlete (d. 2022 ) March 26 – Mikhail Voronin , Russian gymnast (d. 2004 ) March 27 – Władysław Stachurski , Polish football player, manager (d. 2013 ) March 28 Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress March 29 Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) March 30 – Eric Clapton , English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter [ 71 ] March 31 Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] April April 2 – Linda Hunt , American actress [ 74 ] April 4 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit , French political activist [ 75 ] April 5 Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) April 12 – Lee Jong-wook , South Korean Director-General of the World Health Organization (d. 2006 ) April 13 Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) April 14 Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa April 20 – Naftali Temu , Kenyan Olympic long-distance runner (d. 2003 ) April 21 – Ana Lúcia Torre , Brazilian actress April 24 – Larry Tesler , American computer scientist (cut, copy, paste) (d. 2020 ) April 25 – Björn Ulvaeus , Swedish rock songwriter ( ABBA ) April 29 – Tammi Terrell , African-American soul singer (d. 1970 ) April 30 – Lara Saint Paul , Eritrean-born Italian singer (d. 2018 ) May May 1 – Rita Coolidge , American pop singer May 2 – Bianca Jagger , Nicaraguan social activist [ 76 ] May 3 – Jeffrey C. Hall , American geneticist and chronobiologist, Nobel Prize laureate May 4 David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist May 6 – Bob Seger , American rock singer May 7 – Robin Strasser , American actress May 8 – Keith Jarrett , American musician [ 77 ] May 9 – Jupp Heynckes , German footballer and manager May 11 Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist May 13 – Tammam Salam , 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon May 14 – Yochanan Vollach , Israeli footballer and president of Maccabi Haifa, CEO May 15 – Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza , heir to the Portuguese crown May 17 – Tony Roche , Australian tennis player May 19 – Pete Townshend , English rock guitarist, lyricist ( The Who ) May 20 – Anton Zeilinger , Austrian quantum physicist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 78 ] May 21 Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut May 22 – Victoria Wyndham , American actress ( Another World ) May 23 Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer May 24 – Priscilla Presley , American actress, businesswoman May 28 Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) May 29 Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) May 30 Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) May 31 Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire June June 1 – Frederica von Stade , American mezzo-soprano June 2 – Jon Peters , American film producer June 3 – Hale Irwin , American professional golfer June 4 – Anthony Braxton , American composer and musical instrumentalist June 5 John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) June 6 – David Dukes , American actor (d. 2000 ) June 7 – Wolfgang Schüssel , Chancellor of Austria June 9 – Nike Wagner , German woman of the theater June 10 – Benny Gallagher , Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist, half of duo Gallagher and Lyle June 11 – Adrienne Barbeau , American actress, television personality and author ( Maude ) June 12 – Pat Jennings , Northern Irish footballer June 14 – Jörg Immendorff , German painter June 15 Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) June 16 Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician June 17 P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist June 19 Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient June 20 – Anne Murray , Canadian singer June 21 Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter June 22 Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) June 23 Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer June 24 George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician June 25 Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army June 26 – Paul Chun , Hong Kong actor June 27 Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School June 28 Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) June 29 – Chandrika Kumaratunga , 5th President of Sri Lanka June 30 Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician July July 1 Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) July 2 – Linda Warren , American author July 3 – Thomas Mapfumo , Zimbabwean musician July 4 Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist July 5 Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor July 6 – Burt Ward , American actor ( Batman ) July 7 Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer July 8 – Micheline Calmy-Rey , Swiss Federal Councilor July 9 Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer July 10 Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) July 11 – Richard Wesley , American playwright, screenwriter July 12 Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player July 14 – Antun Vujić , Croatian politician, philosopher, political analyst, lexicographer and author July 15 Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) July 16 Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter July 17 Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia July 19 Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician July 20 Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat July 21 John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman July 23 – Edie McClurg , American actress July 24 – Azim Premji , Indian businessman July 26 Helen Mirren , British actress Helen Mirren , British actress July 28 – Jim Davis , American cartoonist ( Garfield ) July 30 Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) August August 1 – Douglas Osheroff , American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate August 4 – Alan Mulally , American businessman, CEO of the Ford Motor Company August 5 – Loni Anderson , American actress ( WKRP in Cincinnati ) (d. 2025 ) August 8 – Julie Anne Robinson , British theatre, television, film director and producer August 9 – Posy Simmonds , English cartoonist August 12 Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) August 14 Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer August 15 Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] August 17 – Katri Helena , Finnish singer August 19 – Ian Gillan , English rock singer ( Deep Purple ) August 22 David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) August 24 – Vincent K. "Vince" McMahon , American professional wrestling promoter, chairman and CEO of WWE August 25 – Daniel Hulet , Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011 ) August 26 – Tom Ridge , American politician August 27 – Marianne Sägebrecht , German film actress August 29 Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete August 31 Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor September September 1 – Mustafa Balel , Turkish writer September 5 K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) September 6 – Victor Ramahatra , 5th Prime Minister of Madagascar September 7 – Jacques Lemaire , Canadian ice hockey coach September 8 Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player September 10 – José Feliciano , Puerto Rican-American singer (" Feliz Navidad ") September 11 – Franz Beckenbauer , German footballer and manager (d. 2024 ) September 12 – Richard Thaler , American economist September 14 – Benjamin Harjo Jr. , Native American artist September 15 – Jessye Norman , American soprano (d. 2019 ) September 16 – Pat Stevens , American voice actress (d. 2010 ) September 17 Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor September 18 John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) September 19 - Randolph Mantooth , American actor September 21 Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet September 22 – Gonzaguinha , Brazilian singer, composer (d. 1991 ) September 24 – John Rutter , English choral composer, conductor September 26 – Bryan Ferry , English singer-songwriter and musician ( Roxy Music ) September 27 – Jack Goldstein , Canadian artist (d. 2003 ) September 29 – Nadezhda Chizhova , Russian athlete September 30 Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter October October 1 Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India October 2 Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") October 3 – Viktor Saneyev , Soviet athlete and Olympic champion (d. 2022 ) October 6 – Ivan Graziani , Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1997 ) October 9 Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) October 12 Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) October 18 Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer October 19 Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) October 22 – Yvan Ponton , Canadian actor, sportscaster October 23 – Kim Larsen , Danish rock musician (d. 2018 ) October 24 Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science October 25 Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor October 26 Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) October 27 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) October 29 Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress October 30 – Henry Winkler , American actor, producer and director ( Happy Days ) November November 3 – Gerd Müller , German footballer (d. 2021 ) November 5 – Jacques Lanctôt , Canadian terrorist November 7 Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer November 8 – Joseph James DeAngelo , American serial killer and serial rapist November 9 – Charlie Robinson , African-American actor (d. 2021 ) November 10 – Madeleine Juneau , Canadian museologist November 11 – Daniel Ortega , 58th and 62nd President of Nicaragua November 12 – Neil Young , Canadian singer-songwriter, musician November 15 – Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Norwegian-born rock singer ( ABBA ) November 17 Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria November 18 Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka November 21 – Goldie Hawn , American actress Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician November 22 – Kari Tapio , Finnish singer (d. 2010 ) November 23 – Dennis Nilsen , Scottish serial killer (d. 2018 ) [ 87 ] November 24 – Nuruddin Farah , Somali novelist November 25 – Mary Jo Deschanel , American actress November 26 – John McVie , English rock musician ( Fleetwood Mac ) November 27 Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) November 30 Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) December December 1 Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer December 2 – Tex Watson , American multiple murderer, 'Manson Family' member December 3 – Bozhidar Dimitrov , Bulgarian historian, politician and polemicist (d. 2018 ) December 4 – Geoff Emerick , English recording engineer (d. 2018 ) December 7 – Clive Russell , English actor December 8 – Julie Heldman , American tennis player [ 89 ] December 10 – John Ankerberg , American Christian television host, author and speaker December 11 – Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor December 12 René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) December 15 Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor December 16 – Patti Deutsch , American voice actress (d. 2017 ) December 17 – Ernie Hudson , African-American actor December 18 – Carolyn Wood , American professional swimmer December 19 – Elaine Joyce , American actress, game show panelist December 20 Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) December 21 – Mari Lill , Estonian actress December 22 – Diane Sawyer , American news journalist December 23 – Donald A. Ritchie , American historian December 24 Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer December 25 – Noel Redding , English musician (d. 2003 ) [ 91 ] December 29 – Birendra of Nepal , King of Nepal (d. 2001 ) December 30 – Davy Jones , English-born pop singer, actor ( The Monkees ) (d. 2012 ) December 31 Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Deaths January January 2 – Sir Bertram Ramsay , British admiral (b. 1883 ) January 3 – Edgar Cayce , American mystic (b. 1877 ) January 4 – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno , 3-time President of Costa Rica (b. 1859 ) January 6 Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) January 7 Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) January 9 – Jüri Uluots , 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1890 ) January 10 – Pēteris Juraševskis , 8th Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1872 ) January 12 – Teresio Olivelli , Italian Roman Catholic soldier and venerable (b. 1916 ) January 15 – Pedro Abad Santos , Filipino politician, brother of José Abad Santos (b. 1876 ) January 16 – José Fabella , Filipino physician (b. 1888 ) January 19 Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) January 20 – Federico Pedrocchi , Italian artist, writer (killed on active service) (b. 1907 ) January 21 Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) January 22 – Else Lasker-Schüler , German poet, author (b. 1869 ) January 23 Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) January 29 – Hans Conrad Leipelt , Austrian member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany (executed) (b. 1921 ) January 30 Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) January 31 – Eddie Slovik , American soldier (executed for desertion) (b. 1920 ) [ 96 ] February February (or March) – Anne Frank , German-born Jewish diarist, writer (typhus in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp ) (b. 1929 ) [ 97 ] February 1 Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) February 2 Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) February 3 – Roland Freisler , Nazi German judge (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 5 Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) February 6 – Robert Brasillach , French writer (executed) (b. 1909 ) [ 98 ] February 8 – Robert Mallet-Stevens , French architect, designer (b. 1886 ) February 11 – Al Dubin , Swiss-born American songwriter (b. 1891 ) February 13 – Maria Orosa , Filipino technologist, chemist, humanitarian and WWII heroine (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 16 – Otto Kittel , German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1917 ) [ 99 ] February 18 – Ivan Chernyakhovsky , Soviet general (died of wounds) (b. 1906 ) February 19 – John Basilone , American war hero (killed in action) (b. 1916 ) February 21 – Eric Liddell , British Olympic athlete (in internment camp) (b. 1902 ) February 22 – Sara Josephine Baker , American physician (b. 1873 ) February 23 José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] February 24 – Josef Mayr-Nusser , Italian Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1910 ) February 25 – Mário de Andrade , Brazilian writer, photographer (b. 1893 ) February 26 – Millard Harmon , American general (b. 1888 ) [ 101 ] March March 2 – Emily Carr , Canadian painter (b. 1871 ) March 3 Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) March 4 Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) March 5 – George Alan Vasey , Australian general (killed in military aircraft accident) (b. 1895 ) March 12 – Friedrich Fromm , German Nazi official (executed) (b. 1888 ) March 14 – Francisco Braga , Brazilian composer (b. 1868 ) March 15 – Sava Caracaș , Romanian general (b. 1890 ) March 18 – William Grover-Williams , British/French racing driver, war hero (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 104 ] March 19 – Marcel Callo , French Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (in concentration camp) (b. 1921 ) March 20 – Lord Alfred Douglas , English poet (b. 1870 ) March 22 Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) March 23 – Élisabeth de Rothschild , French WWII heroine (b. 1902 ) March 26 David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) March 27 – Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil , Turkish author (b. 1867 ) March 29 – Ferenc Csik , Hungarian swimmer (air raid victim) (b. 1913 ) March 30 – Maurice Rose , American general (killed in action) (b. 1899 ) [ 105 ] March 31 Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) April April 7 Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) April 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] April 10 Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] April 11 – Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard , British colonial administrator (b. 1858 ) April 12 – Franklin D. Roosevelt , American political leader and statesman, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882 ) April 13 – Ernst Cassirer , German philosopher (b. 1874 ) April 15 – Joachim Albrecht Eggeling , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1884 ) April 18 Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) April 21 Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) April 22 – Käthe Kollwitz , German artist (b. 1867 ) April 23 – Klaus Bonhoeffer , German resistance fighter, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1901 ) April 24 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz , German SS Reichsphysician (suicide) (b. 1899 ) April 28 Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) April 29 – Achille Starace , Italian Fascist politician (executed) (b. 1889 ) April 30 Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) May May 1 Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) May 2 Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) May 3 – Mario Blasich , Italian physician, politician (b. 1878 ) May 4 – Fedor von Bock , German field marshal (killed in action) (b. 1880 ) [ 108 ] May 6 – Xhem Hasa , Albanian nationalist (assassinated) (b. 1908 ) May 7 – Vladimir Boyarsky , Soviet army officer (executed) (b. 1901 ) May 8 Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 9 – Gustav Becking , German musicologist (b. 1894 ) May 10 – Konrad Henlein , Sudeten German Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 11 Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] May 14 Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) May 15 Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) May 16 – Kaju Sugiura , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1896 ) May 18 – William Joseph Simmons , American founder of the second Ku Klux Klan (b. 1880 ) May 19 – Philipp Bouhler , German Nazi leader and general (suicide) (b. 1899 ) May 21 – Prince Kan'in Kotohito , Japanese prince, member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (b. 1865 ) May 23 – Heinrich Himmler , German politician, Reichsführer-SS (suicide) (b. 1900 ) May 24 – Robert Ritter von Greim , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1892 ) May 25 Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] May 31 Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) June June 4 – Georg Kaiser , German dramatist (b. 1878 ) June 7 – Kitaro Nishida , Japanese philosopher (b. 1870 ) June 8 Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) June 11 – Lurana W. Sheldon , American author and editor (b. 1862 ) June 13 – Minoru Ōta , Japanese admiral (suicide) (b. 1891 ) June 15 Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) June 16 Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) June 18 Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) June 20 Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) June 22 Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) June 24 – José Gutiérrez Solana , Spanish painter (b. 1886 ) June 27 – Emil Hácha , 3rd President of Czechoslovakia , State President of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1872 ) June 30 Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) July July 1 – Félix Evaristo Mejía , Dominican diplomat, educator and writer (b. 1866 ) July 2 – Óscar R. Benavides , Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, politician and President of Peru (b. 1876 ) July 5 – John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885 ) July 7 – Peter To Rot , Papuan Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1912 ) July 9 – Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti , Italian politician, diplomat (b. 1876 ) July 12 Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) July 13 – Alla Nazimova , Russian-born American actress (b. 1879 ) July 17 – Ernst Busch , German field marshal, as prisoner of war (b. 1885 ) July 20 – Paul Valéry , French poet (b. 1871 ) July 24 – Arnold von Winckler , German general (b. 1856 ) July 25 – Malin Craig , United States Army general (b. 1875 ) July 28 – Margot Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith (b. 1864 ) July 29 – Maria Pierina De Micheli , Italian Roman Catholic religious sister, mystic and blessed (b. 1890 ) July 31 – Artemio Ricarte , Filipino general (b. 1866 ) August August 1 – Blas Cabrera Felipe , Spanish physicist (b. 1878 ) August 2 – Pietro Mascagni , Italian composer (b. 1863 ) August 3 – Roman Kochanowski , Polish painter, illustrator (b. 1857 ) August 4 – Gerhard Gentzen , German mathematician and logician (starvation in prison camp) (b. 1909 ) August 5 – Nat Jaffe , American swing jazz pianist (b. 1918 ) August 7 – Jacques Vaillant de Guélis , British/French WWII hero (injuries received in automobile accident) (b. 1907 ) August 8 – Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane , French flatulist (b. 1857 ) August 9 Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) August 10 – Robert H. Goddard , American rocket scientist (b. 1882 ) August 12 – Karl Leisner , German Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1915 ) August 15 Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) August 16 – Takijirō Ōnishi , Japanese admiral (ritual suicide) (b. 1891 ) August 18 Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) August 24 – Shizuichi Tanaka , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1887 ) August 25 – Willis Augustus Lee , American admiral, Olympic shooter (b. 1888 ) August 26 Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) August 27 – Blessed María Pilar Izquierdo Albero , Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed (b. 1906 ) August 29 – Fritz Pfleumer , German engineer, inventor (b. 1881 ) August 30 – Florencio Harmodio Arosemena , 6th President of Panama (b. 1872 ) August 31 Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) September September 6 Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) September 9 – Aage Bertelsen , Danish painter (b. 1873 ) September 12 – Hajime Sugiyama , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1880 ) September 15 Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) September 16 – John McCormack , Irish tenor (b. 1884 ) September 18 José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) September 20 Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) September 24 – Hans Geiger , German physicist, inventor (b. 1882 ) September 26 Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) October October 1 – Walter Bradford Cannon , American physiologist (b. 1871 ) [ 119 ] October 6 – Leonardo Conti , German physician, Nazi officer (suicide) (b. 1900 ) October 8 – Felix Salten , Austrian author (b. 1869 ) [ 120 ] October 10 – Joseph Darnand , Vichy French politician (executed) (b. 1897 ) October 12 – Dmytro Antonovych , Soviet politician (b. 1877 ) October 13 – Milton S. Hershey , American chocolate tycoon (b. 1857 ) October 15 – Pierre Laval , French politician, 2-time Prime Minister of France (executed) (b. 1883 ) [ 59 ] October 18 – Frederick Hovey , American tennis player (b. 1868 ) October 19 Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) October 21 Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] October 24 Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) October 25 – Robert Ley , German Nazi politician (suicide) (b. 1890 ) October 26 Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) October 30 – Xian Xinghai , Chinese composer (b. 1905 ) October 31 Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) November November 8 – August von Mackensen , German field marshal (b. 1849 ) November 11 – Jerome Kern , American composer (b. 1885 ) [ 123 ] November 13 – Sir Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair , British admiral (b. 1865 ) [ 124 ] November 16 – Sigurður Eggerz , Minister for Iceland during World War I and 2nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1875 ) November 17 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1882 ) November 20 – Francis William Aston , British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877 ) November 21 Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] November 23 – Charles Coborn , British singer (b. 1852 ) November 27 – Josep Maria Sert , Spanish Catalan muralist (b. 1874 ) November 28 – Dwight F. Davis , American tennis player (b. 1879 ) November 30 – Shigeru Honjō , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1876 ) December December 1 – Anton Dostler , German general (executed) (b. 1891 ) December 4 Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] December 5 – Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1864 ) December 8 – Gabriellino D'Annunzio , Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1886 ) December 12 – Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1868 ) December 13 Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) December 14 – Forrester Harvey , Irish actor (b. 1884 ) December 16 Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) December 19 – Leonard F. Wing , American general and politician (b. 1893 ) [ 129 ] December 21 – George S. Patton , American general (injuries from automobile accident) (b. 1885 ) [ 130 ] December 22 – Otto Neurath , Austrian philosopher, political economist (b. 1892 ) December 26 Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) December 28 – Theodore Dreiser , American novelist (b. 1871 ) [ 131 ] Nobel Prizes Physics – Wolfgang Pauli Chemistry – Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Physiology or Medicine – Sir Alexander Fleming , Ernst Chain , Howard Florey Literature – Gabriela Mistral Peace – Cordell Hull References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What Was 1945 a Turning Point - 1377 Words | Bartleby" . ^ Girbig, Werner (1975). 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January 6, 2024. ^ "LIEUTENANT GENERAL MILLARD F. HARMON" . Air Force . [ dead link ] ^ Hill, Alec (1979). " 'Chauvel, Sir Henry George (Harry) (1865–1945)' " . Australian Dictionary of Biography . National Centre of Biography, Australian National University . ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7 . ISSN 1833-7538 . OCLC 70677943 . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . ^ "Preview unavailable" . ProQuest . ProQuest 107039613 . ^ "Casualty Details | CWGC" . www.cwgc.org . Retrieved March 8, 2021 . ^ MG Maurice Rose ^ "Georg Elser" . www.gdw-berlin.de . Retrieved January 4, 2025 . ^ "Ontdek amateurschilder, drukker, fotograaf Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman" . rkd.nl . ^ Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945 . London: Allen Lane. p. 750. ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . ^ Wallace, Sam (January 25, 2020). "The imperishable story of Julius Hirsch: the great goalscorer murdered at Auschwitz who adorns Stamford Bridge mural" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. ^ Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (November 3, 2009). Danger's Hour: The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot Who Crippled Her . Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-6081-7 . ^ "AAFA Bio - Kenneth J. Alford" . ^ "Ishii Kikujiro | Biography & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . March 15, 2024. ^ "Boris Galerkin" . TheFreeDictionary.com . ^ Harry Hillman Taken by Death, Cumberland News , August 10, 1945 ^ Firoz Alam (October 1, 2009). Subhas Chandra Bose . Sahni Publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-7564-242-3 . ^ Fildes, P. (February 13, 1956). "Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer, 1858-1945" . Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 2 (2): 237– 247. doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1956.0016 . S2CID 73380545 . ^ .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} Stevens, Halsey. 2018. " Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer ". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018). ^ "Kaupisch, Leonhard" (in German). lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ "Dr. W.B. Cannon, 73, Neurologist, Dead. Harvard Psychology Professor for 36 Years Noted for His Work on Traumatic Shock Became Professor in 1906" . New York Times . October 2, 1945 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 . ^ "Felix Salten | Austrian novelist | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . September 2, 2023. ^ "Felicija Bortkevičienė" . www.vle.lt . ^ Franklin Carmichael ^ Hugh Fordin, Stephen Sondheim (1995). Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II . Da Capo Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-306-80668-1 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ [Sinclair, Sir Edwyn Sinclair Alexander-, of Freswick (1865–1945)] ^ Billy Altman, Laughter's Gentle Soul: The Life of Robert Benchley . (New York City: W. W. Norton , 1997. ISBN 0-393-03833-5 ) Pages 352–362 ^ Inge, Tonette Bond. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture , ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William R. Ferris. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 884. ^ FC, Celtic. "Jimmy Quinn" . Celtic FC . ^ Siegman, Joseph (2020). Jewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496222121 . ^ Wing, Leonard Fish ^ Axelrod, Alan (2006), Patton: A Biography , London : Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 168– 9, ISBN 978-1-4039-7139-5 ^ Theodore Dreiser Recalled . Clemson University Press. 2017. p. 311. ISBN 9781942954446 . Further reading Ian Buruma . Year Zero: A History of 1945 (Penguin Press; 2013) 368 pages; covers liberation, revenge, decolonization, and the rise of the United Nations. excerpt International News Service, It Happened In 1945 The Essential Year Book (1946) Keith Lowe. Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (2012) excerpt and text search McDannald, A. H. ed. The Americana Annual 1946 (1946) events of 1945 online ; encyclopedia yearbook global coverage in 950pp Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, 4 vol., encyclopedia yearbook online v t e Events by month v t e 1949 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1948 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1947 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1946 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1945 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1944 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1943 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1942 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1941 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1940 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1945 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2022 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with dead external links from February 2023 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with dead external links from March 2025 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from August 2019 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 01:14 (UTC) . 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Kezdőlap Tartalom Kiemelt szócikkek Friss változtatások Lap találomra Tudakozó Speciális lapok Kezdőknek Segítség Közösségi portál Kapcsolatfelvétel Adományok Fiók létrehozása Bejelentkezés Adományok Fiók létrehozása Bejelentkezés Tartalomjegyzék Bevezető 1 Események A(z) Események alszakasz kinyitása/becsukása 1.1 Politikai események 1.2 Tudományos és gazdasági események 1.3 Kulturális események 1.3.1 Irodalmi, színházi és filmes események 1.3.2 Zenei események 1.4 Sportesemények 1.5 Egyéb események 1.1 Politikai események 1.2 Tudományos és gazdasági események 1.3 Kulturális események 1.3.1 Irodalmi, színházi és filmes események 1.3.2 Zenei események 1.3.1 Irodalmi, színházi és filmes események 1.3.2 Zenei események 1.4 Sportesemények 1.5 Egyéb események 2 Születések 3 Halálozások 4 Ünnepek, emléknapok, világnapok 5 Jegyzetek Január 17. 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Kapcsolódó változtatások Fájl feltöltése Hivatkozás erre a változatra Lapinformációk Hogyan hivatkozz erre a lapra? Rövidített URL készítése QR-kód letöltése Könyv készítése Letöltés PDF-ként Nyomtatható változat Wikimédia Commons Wikidata-adatlap Változat állapota Ez a lap egy ellenőrzött változata Pontosság ellenőrzött << Január >> H K Sze Cs P Szo V 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2026 Január 17. az év 17. napja a Gergely-naptár szerint. Az évből még 348 ( szökőévekben 349) nap van hátra. Névnapok : Antal , Antónia + Anton , Antos , Aszter , Leonetta , Oros , Rexana , Roxán , Roxána , Rozalinda , Toni , Uros Események Politikai események 395 – A Római Birodalom I. (Nagy) Theodosius római császár halálával kettészakad keleti- és nyugati birodalmakra. 1377 – A pápa visszahelyezi székhelyét Avignonból Rómába . 1840 – Mexikói föderalista földbirtokosok létrehozzák a Rio Grande-i Köztársaságot . 1849 – A gálfalvi ütközet . [ 1 ] 1852 – Nagy-Britannia elismeri a búr Transvaal államot Dél-Afrikában . 1910 – Megalakul a második Khuen-Héderváry -kormány. 1917 – Thomas Woodrow Wilson amerikai elnök, aki közvetíteni próbál az antant és a központi hatalmak között, megkapja az antant békefeltételeit tartalmazó jegyzéket. 1945 – Felszabadul a budapesti gettó . 1945 – A szovjet Vörös Hadsereg elfoglalja Varsót . 1977 – Portugáliában a NATO ellenőrzése alá helyezik a szárazföldi erőket. 1991 – Megindul a „ Sivatagi Vihar hadművelet ” (Operation Desert Storm) a Kuvaitot megszállva tartó Irak ellen. Válaszul Szaddám Huszein Scud rakétákkal támadja az Egyesült Államokkal együttműködő Szaúd-Arábiát és Izraelt . 2008 – Csalással, hivatali visszaéléssel és megvesztegetéssel vádolja meg Traian Băsescu román államfő Adrian Năstase egykori kormányfőt, valamint nyolc volt és hivatalban levő minisztert. Tudományos és gazdasági események 1773 – James Cook kapitány Resolution és Adventure nevű hajói, az Antarktisz felé közeledve, első európai hajókként áthaladnak a déli sarkkörön (a déli szélesség 66° 36'-én, a keleti hosszúság 38° 14'-énél). 1912 – Robert Scott kapitány másodikként éri el a Déli-sarkot , a norvég Roald Amundsen egy hónappal megelőzi. 1966 - Palomaresre ( Spanyolország ), egy andalúziai kis halászfalura három hidrogénbomba hullott. A bombákat szállító amerikai B–52-es repülőgép a levegőben összeütközött egy tankergéppel. Az ütközés következtében három hidrogénbomba hullott le a település közelében, amelyekből kettőnek a hagyományos gyújtószerkezete fel is robbant. A detonáció hatására a bombákban lévő radioaktív anyag két négyzetkilométernyi területen szóródott szét, érintve lakott területeket, erdőket és paradicsomültetvényeket is. 1994 – Teljessé válik az amerikai GPS helyzetmeghatározó rendszer. Kulturális események Irodalmi, színházi és filmes események 2013 - Magyarországon bemutatják az életműdíjas Quentin Tarantino Django elszabadul című filmjét. Zenei események Sportesemények 1954 – Formula–1-es argentin nagydíj , Buenos Aires - Győztes: Juan Manuel Fangio ( Maserati ) 2008 – A Norvégiában megrendezett 8. férfi kézilabda-Európa-bajnokság nyitónapján – a C csoport második mérkőzésén – a magyar együttes 35‑28-ra veri Spanyolországot . Egyéb események 1914 – Az Osztrák–Magyar Monarchia vízre bocsátja a Szent István csatahajót. 1957 – Bevezetik a lottót Magyarországon . 1995 - A Richter-skála szerinti 7,3-es erősségű földrengés rázza meg Kóbe városát és környékét Japánban , több mint 6400 ember halálát és 300 000 ember otthonának pusztulását okozva. 2002 – Kitör a Kongói Demokratikus Köztársaság területén található Nyiragongo vulkán, körülbelül 400 000 embert kell kitelepíteni. 2007 – A Kyrill nevű orkán 225 kilométeres óránkénti széllel eléri Európát és súlyos károkat okoz az Északi-tenger partvidékén, illetve egész Közép-Európában. 2008 – A British Airways légitársaság Pekingből Londonba tartó Boeing 777 -es járata kényszerleszállást hajt végre Heathrow repülőtéren, jóval a leszállópálya előtt. Születések 1463 – III. Frigyes szász választófejedelem († 1525 ) 1706 – Benjamin Franklin amerikai író , tudós, államférfi († 1790 ) 1729 – Baranyi László magyar királyi testőr, városi tanácsos († 1796 ) 1798 – Auguste Comte francia filozófus († 1857 ) 1822 – Anne Brontë angol írónő († 1849 ) 1828 – Reményi Ede zeneszerző, hegedűművész († 1898 ) 1837 – Vaszilij Radlov Oroszországban működött német származású nyelvész, turkológus, folklorista († 1918 ) 1847 – Nyikolaj Jegorovics Zsukovszkij orosz mérnök († 1921 ) 1855 – Alpár Ignác magyar műépítész († 1928 ) 1863 – Konsztantyin Sztanyiszlavszkij orosz színházi rendező († 1938 ) 1863 – David Lloyd George brit politikus, 1916 – 22 -ig az Egyesült Királyság hadügyminisztere, miniszterelnöke († 1945 ) 1881 – Oláh Gábor magyar költő, író († 1942 ) 1881 – Mátéffy Viktor magyar katolikus pap, pápai prelátus, országgyűlési képviselő († 1948 ) 1882 – Gebauer Ernő magyar festőművész († 1962 ) 1889 – Ralph Fowler brit fizikus és csillagász († 1944 ) 1890 – Dr. Durkó Antal gimnáziumi tanár, múzeumigazgató († 1978 ) 1891 – Walter Eucken , német közgazdász († 1950 ) 1894 – Szőnyi István Kossuth-díjas magyar festőművész és grafikus, érdemes- és kiváló művész († 1960 ) 1895 – Mécs László magyar költő († 1978 ) 1899 – Al Capone az amerikai gengszter († 1947 ) 1899 – Amsel Ignác magyar labdarúgó († 1974 ) 1900 – Eduardo Cubells spanyol labdarúgó († 1964 ) 1910 – Dombi József magyar művészettörténész, tanár, iskolaigazgató, szakíró († 1990 ) 1914 – Harkányi Ödön magyar színész († 2002 ) 1915 – Benedek István magyar orvos, író , művelődéstörténész († 1996 ) 1922 – Bakos Ferenc magyar nyelvész († 1996 ) 1924 – Czabarka György Balázs Béla-díjas magyar operatőr, érdemes- és kiváló művész , a Magyar Televízió örökös tagja († 2009 ) 1924 – John Riseley-Prichard brit autóversenyző († 1993 ) 1927 – Eartha Kitt amerikai színésznő, énekesnő, kabarettista († 2008 ) 1931 – James Earl Jones amerikai színész († 2024 ) 1933 – Shari Lewis amerikai hasbeszélő, színésznő († 1998 ) 1934 – Hatlaczky Ferenc építészmérnök, világbajnok kajakozó, olimpiai ezüstérmes († 1986 ) 1940 – XIX. Nerszész Péter örmény katolikus pátriárka († 2015 ) 1942 – Muhammad Ali (er. neve Cassius Clay) amerikai ökölvívó , profi nehézsúlyú világbajnok († 2016 ) 1944 – Françoise Hardy francia énekesnő († 2024 ) 1945 – Carlo De Mejo , olasz színész († 2015 ) 1946 – Apró Ernő magyar bábművész, színész 1949 – Andy Kaufman amerikai humorista és színész , († 1984 ) 1950 – Cristina Galbó , spanyol színésznő 1952 – Rangos Katalin Prima Primissima díjas magyar újságíró, egyetemi tanár. 1953 – Roberto Canessa uruguayi gyermekkardiológus, politikus, az 1972 októberi andoki légiszerencsétlenség egyik túlélője 1955 – Szikra József magyar színész, a Győri Nemzeti Színház örökös tagja 1955 – Karikó Katalin Nobel- és Széchenyi-díjas magyar kutatóbiológus 1958 – Agnès Mellon francia opera-énekesnő [ 2 ] 1959 – Andrea Clausen német színésznő 1959 – Susanna Hoffs amerikai zenész, énekes 1962 – Jim Carrey kanadai színész 1969 – Tijs Verwest holland lemezlovas 1971 – Papp Ferenc zenész 1971 – Richard Burns angol raliversenyző 1972 – Rafał Trzaskowski , lengyel politikus, Varsó főpolgármestere 1978 – Mandula Petra magyar teniszezőnő 1979 – Bill May világbajnok amerikai szinkronúszó 1981 – Ngozi Monu nigériai úszó 1982 – Murányi Zita magyar író , költő , újságíró 1984 – Calvin Harris skót énekes, szövegíró, DJ és producer. 1985 – Simone Simons holland énekesnő 1985 – Robert Stănescu román tornász 1988 – Tóth Gabriella magyar énekesnő 1993 – Lang Ádám magyar válogatott labdarúgó Halálozások 395 – I. (Nagy) Theodosius római császár (* 347 ) 1468 – Szkander bég albán hadvezér, törökverő nemzeti hős (* 1405 ) 1634 [ 3 ] – Szenczi Molnár Albert nyelvtudós , zsoltárköltő, műfordító , református lelkész, filozófus , egyházi író (* 1574 ) 1738 – Jean-François Dandrieu francia zeneszerző, (* 1684 ) 1751 – Tomaso Albinoni itáliai barokk zeneszerző, hegedűművész (* 1671 ) 1823 – Zacharias Werner német költő (* 1768 ) 1868 – Gyenes Mihály ügyvéd, városi mérnök, (* 1800 ) 1869 – Alekszandr Szergejevics Dargomizsszkij orosz zeneszerző (* 1813 ) 1893 – Rutherford B. Hayes , az Amerikai Egyesült Államok 19. elnöke , (* 1822 ) 1897 – Vajda János magyar költő (* 1827 ) 1911 – Francis Galton angol polihisztor, felfedező, feltaláló, antropológus, földrajztudós, meteorológus (* 1822 ) 1938 – William Henry Pickering amerikai csillagász (* 1858 ) 1941 – Huszár Mihály magyar katolikus esperes-plébános, országgyűlési képviselő (* 1874 ) 1947 – Czóbel Minka magyar költőnő (* 1855 ) 1969 – Grażyna Bacewicz lengyel hegedűművész , zeneszerző és pedagógus (* 1909 ) 1974 – Glancz Sándor négyszeres világbajnok magyar asztaliteniszező (* 1908 ) 1982 – Varlam Tyihonovics Salamov komi (zürjén) származású orosz író. (* 1907 ) 1993 – Vámos Imre magyar író , újságíró (* 1927 ) 1997 – Fogarassy Mária Jászai Mari-díjas magyar színésznő, érdemes művész (* 1919 ) 1998 – Simon Kázmér magyar színész, a Győri Nemzeti Színház örökös tagja (* 1936 ) 2000 – Carl Forberg amerikai autóversenyző (* 1911 ) 2002 – Camilo José Cela Nobel-díjas spanyol író (* 1916 ) 2008 – Bobby Fischer amerikai sakkozó (* 1943 ) 2008 – Tony Dean brit autóversenyző (* 1932 ) 2014 – Harmath Andrea magyar színésznő (* ?) 2016 – Földesi Margit magyar történész (* 1961 ) 2018 – Tálas Ernő magyar operaénekes (* 1926 ) 2021 – Sas József Jászai Mari-díjas magyar humorista, színész, érdemes és kiváló művész (* 1939 ) Ünnepek, emléknapok, világnapok Nagy Szent Antal ünnepe a katolikus egyházban: Szent Antal a háziállatok védőszentje Jegyzetek ↑ 21. Magyarország 1848/49. évi függetlenségi harcának katonai története. Huszadik fejezet. Bem erdélyi hadjárata Dévára történt visszavonulásáig. 1849. január elejétől február elejéig. A gálfalvi ütközet (1849. január 17-én) . In Bánlaky József : A magyar nemzet hadtörténelme. Budapest: Grill. 1928–1942. ↑ [1] ↑ Korábbi forrásokban 1633 szerepel a halálozás éveként; a Magyar életrajzi lexikon 1639. január 17-ét tüntet fel, Herepei János kutatásai azonban ezt a dátumot teszik a legvalószínűbbé, lásd Herepei János : Szenczi Molnár Albert halála ideje. Erdélyi Múzeum , XXXVIII. évf. 10–12. sz. (1933) 468. o. Sablon:Az év napjai és hónapjai m v sz Az év napjai és hónapjai m v sz Január 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Február 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Március 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Április 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Május 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Június 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Július 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Augusztus 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Szeptember 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Október 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 November 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 December 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Kapcsolódó dátumok Január 0. Február 30. Február 31. Március 0. Január 0. Február 30. Február 31. Március 0. Kultúraportál Történelemportál Január napjai A lap utolsó módosítása: 2024. december 15., 12:55 A lap szövege Creative Commons Nevezd meg! – Így add tovább! 4.0 licenc alatt van; egyes esetekben más módon is felhasználható. Részletekért lásd a felhasználási feltételeket . Adatvédelmi irányelvek A Wikipédiáról Jogi nyilatkozat Magatartási kódex Fejlesztők Statisztikák Sütinyilatkozat Mobil nézet
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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 2,391 results for author: Wang, M Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10543 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL Defending Large Language Models Against Jailbreak Attacks via In-Decoding Safety-Awareness Probing Authors: Yinzhi Zhao , Ming Wang , Shi Feng , Xiaocui Yang , Daling Wang , Yifei Zhang Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have achieved impressive performance across natural language tasks and are increasingly deployed in real-world applications. Despite extensive safety alignment efforts, recent studies show that such alignment is often shallow and remains vulnerable to jailbreak attacks. Existing defense mechanisms, including decoding-based constraints and post-hoc content detectors, st… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have achieved impressive performance across natural language tasks and are increasingly deployed in real-world applications. Despite extensive safety alignment efforts, recent studies show that such alignment is often shallow and remains vulnerable to jailbreak attacks. Existing defense mechanisms, including decoding-based constraints and post-hoc content detectors, struggle against sophisticated jailbreaks, often intervening robust detection or excessively degrading model utility. In this work, we examine the decoding process of LLMs and make a key observation: even when successfully jailbroken, models internally exhibit latent safety-related signals during generation. However, these signals are overridden by the model's drive for fluent continuation, preventing timely self-correction or refusal. Building on this observation, we propose a simple yet effective approach that explicitly surfaces and leverages these latent safety signals for early detection of unsafe content during decoding. Experiments across diverse jailbreak attacks demonstrate that our approach significantly enhances safety, while maintaining low over-refusal rates on benign inputs and preserving response quality. Our results suggest that activating intrinsic safety-awareness during decoding offers a promising and complementary direction for defending against jailbreak attacks. Code is available at: △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10543 [ pdf , ps , other ] Defending Large Language Models Against Jailbreak Attacks via In-Decoding Safety-Awareness Probing Authors: Yinzhi Zhao , Ming Wang , Shi Feng , Xiaocui Yang , Daling Wang , Yifei Zhang Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have achieved impressive performance across natural language tasks and are increasingly deployed in real-world applications. Despite extensive safety alignment efforts, recent studies show that such alignment is often shallow and remains vulnerable to jailbreak attacks. Existing defense mechanisms, including decoding-based constraints and post-hoc content detectors, st… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have achieved impressive performance across natural language tasks and are increasingly deployed in real-world applications. Despite extensive safety alignment efforts, recent studies show that such alignment is often shallow and remains vulnerable to jailbreak attacks. Existing defense mechanisms, including decoding-based constraints and post-hoc content detectors, struggle against sophisticated jailbreaks, often intervening robust detection or excessively degrading model utility. In this work, we examine the decoding process of LLMs and make a key observation: even when successfully jailbroken, models internally exhibit latent safety-related signals during generation. However, these signals are overridden by the model's drive for fluent continuation, preventing timely self-correction or refusal. Building on this observation, we propose a simple yet effective approach that explicitly surfaces and leverages these latent safety signals for early detection of unsafe content during decoding. Experiments across diverse jailbreak attacks demonstrate that our approach significantly enhances safety, while maintaining low over-refusal rates on benign inputs and preserving response quality. Our results suggest that activating intrinsic safety-awareness during decoding offers a promising and complementary direction for defending against jailbreak attacks. Code is available at: △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10104 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI MathDoc: Benchmarking Structured Extraction and Active Refusal on Noisy Mathematics Exam Papers Authors: Chenyue Zhou , Jiayi Tuo , Shitong Qin , Wei Dai , Mingxuan Wang , Ziwei Zhao , Duoyang Li , Shiyang Su , Yanxi Lu , Yanbiao Ma Abstract : The automated extraction of structured questions from paper-based mathematics exams is fundamental to intelligent education, yet remains challenging in real-world settings due to severe visual noise. Existing benchmarks mainly focus on clean documents or generic layout analysis, overlooking both the structural integrity of mathematical problems and the ability of models to actively reject incomple… ▽ More The automated extraction of structured questions from paper-based mathematics exams is fundamental to intelligent education, yet remains challenging in real-world settings due to severe visual noise. Existing benchmarks mainly focus on clean documents or generic layout analysis, overlooking both the structural integrity of mathematical problems and the ability of models to actively reject incomplete inputs. We introduce MathDoc, the first benchmark for document-level information extraction from authentic high school mathematics exam papers. MathDoc contains \textbf{3,609} carefully curated questions with real-world artifacts and explicitly includes unrecognizable samples to evaluate active refusal behavior. We propose a multi-dimensional evaluation framework covering stem accuracy, visual similarity, and refusal capability. Experiments on SOTA MLLMs, including Qwen3-VL and Gemini-2.5-Pro, show that although end-to-end models achieve strong extraction performance, they consistently fail to refuse illegible inputs, instead producing confident but invalid outputs. These results highlight a critical gap in current MLLMs and establish MathDoc as a benchmark for assessing model reliability under degraded document conditions. Our project repository is available at \href{ repository} △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10104 [ pdf , ps , other ] MathDoc: Benchmarking Structured Extraction and Active Refusal on Noisy Mathematics Exam Papers Authors: Chenyue Zhou , Jiayi Tuo , Shitong Qin , Wei Dai , Mingxuan Wang , Ziwei Zhao , Duoyang Li , Shiyang Su , Yanxi Lu , Yanbiao Ma Abstract : The automated extraction of structured questions from paper-based mathematics exams is fundamental to intelligent education, yet remains challenging in real-world settings due to severe visual noise. Existing benchmarks mainly focus on clean documents or generic layout analysis, overlooking both the structural integrity of mathematical problems and the ability of models to actively reject incomple… ▽ More The automated extraction of structured questions from paper-based mathematics exams is fundamental to intelligent education, yet remains challenging in real-world settings due to severe visual noise. Existing benchmarks mainly focus on clean documents or generic layout analysis, overlooking both the structural integrity of mathematical problems and the ability of models to actively reject incomplete inputs. We introduce MathDoc, the first benchmark for document-level information extraction from authentic high school mathematics exam papers. MathDoc contains \textbf{3,609} carefully curated questions with real-world artifacts and explicitly includes unrecognizable samples to evaluate active refusal behavior. We propose a multi-dimensional evaluation framework covering stem accuracy, visual similarity, and refusal capability. Experiments on SOTA MLLMs, including Qwen3-VL and Gemini-2.5-Pro, show that although end-to-end models achieve strong extraction performance, they consistently fail to refuse illegible inputs, instead producing confident but invalid outputs. These results highlight a critical gap in current MLLMs and establish MathDoc as a benchmark for assessing model reliability under degraded document conditions. Our project repository is available at \href{ repository} △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10031 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI doi 10.1145/3770854.3783959 FilDeep: Learning Large Deformations of Elastic-Plastic Solids with Multi-Fidelity Data Authors: Jianheng Tang , Shilong Tao , Zhe Feng , Haonan Sun , Menglu Wang , Zhanxing Zhu , Yunhuai Liu Abstract : The scientific computation of large deformations in elastic-plastic solids is crucial in various manufacturing applications. Traditional numerical methods exhibit several inherent limitations, prompting Deep Learning (DL) as a promising alternative. The effectiveness of current DL techniques typically depends on the availability of high-quantity and high-accuracy datasets, which are yet difficult… ▽ More The scientific computation of large deformations in elastic-plastic solids is crucial in various manufacturing applications. Traditional numerical methods exhibit several inherent limitations, prompting Deep Learning (DL) as a promising alternative. The effectiveness of current DL techniques typically depends on the availability of high-quantity and high-accuracy datasets, which are yet difficult to obtain in large deformation problems. During the dataset construction process, a dilemma stands between data quantity and data accuracy, leading to suboptimal performance in the DL models. To address this challenge, we focus on a representative application of large deformations, the stretch bending problem, and propose FilDeep, a Fidelity-based Deep Learning framework for large Deformation of elastic-plastic solids. Our FilDeep aims to resolve the quantity-accuracy dilemma by simultaneously training with both low-fidelity and high-fidelity data, where the former provides greater quantity but lower accuracy, while the latter offers higher accuracy but in less quantity. In FilDeep, we provide meticulous designs for the practical large deformation problem. Particularly, we propose attention-enabled cross-fidelity modules to effectively capture long-range physical interactions across MF data. To the best of our knowledge, our FilDeep presents the first DL framework for large deformation problems using MF data. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our FilDeep consistently achieves state-of-the-art performance and can be efficiently deployed in manufacturing. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted in Proceedings of the 32nd ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining V.1 (KDD '26) arXiv:2601.10031 [ pdf , ps , other ] FilDeep: Learning Large Deformations of Elastic-Plastic Solids with Multi-Fidelity Data Authors: Jianheng Tang , Shilong Tao , Zhe Feng , Haonan Sun , Menglu Wang , Zhanxing Zhu , Yunhuai Liu Abstract : The scientific computation of large deformations in elastic-plastic solids is crucial in various manufacturing applications. Traditional numerical methods exhibit several inherent limitations, prompting Deep Learning (DL) as a promising alternative. The effectiveness of current DL techniques typically depends on the availability of high-quantity and high-accuracy datasets, which are yet difficult… ▽ More The scientific computation of large deformations in elastic-plastic solids is crucial in various manufacturing applications. Traditional numerical methods exhibit several inherent limitations, prompting Deep Learning (DL) as a promising alternative. The effectiveness of current DL techniques typically depends on the availability of high-quantity and high-accuracy datasets, which are yet difficult to obtain in large deformation problems. During the dataset construction process, a dilemma stands between data quantity and data accuracy, leading to suboptimal performance in the DL models. To address this challenge, we focus on a representative application of large deformations, the stretch bending problem, and propose FilDeep, a Fidelity-based Deep Learning framework for large Deformation of elastic-plastic solids. Our FilDeep aims to resolve the quantity-accuracy dilemma by simultaneously training with both low-fidelity and high-fidelity data, where the former provides greater quantity but lower accuracy, while the latter offers higher accuracy but in less quantity. In FilDeep, we provide meticulous designs for the practical large deformation problem. Particularly, we propose attention-enabled cross-fidelity modules to effectively capture long-range physical interactions across MF data. To the best of our knowledge, our FilDeep presents the first DL framework for large deformation problems using MF data. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our FilDeep consistently achieves state-of-the-art performance and can be efficiently deployed in manufacturing. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted in Proceedings of the 32nd ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining V.1 (KDD '26) arXiv:2601.09434 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.MA SC-MAS: Constructing Cost-Efficient Multi-Agent Systems with Edge-Level Heterogeneous Collaboration Authors: Di Zhao , Longhui Ma , Siwei Wang , Miao Wang , Yi Kong Abstract : Large Language Model (LLM)-based Multi-Agent Systems (MAS) enhance complex problem solving through multi-agent collaboration, but often incur substantially higher costs than single-agent systems. Recent MAS routing methods aim to balance performance and overhead by dynamically selecting agent roles and language models. However, these approaches typically rely on a homogeneous collaboration mode, w… ▽ More Large Language Model (LLM)-based Multi-Agent Systems (MAS) enhance complex problem solving through multi-agent collaboration, but often incur substantially higher costs than single-agent systems. Recent MAS routing methods aim to balance performance and overhead by dynamically selecting agent roles and language models. However, these approaches typically rely on a homogeneous collaboration mode, where all agents follow the same interaction pattern, limiting collaboration flexibility across different roles. Motivated by Social Capital Theory, which emphasizes that different roles benefit from distinct forms of collaboration, we propose SC-MAS, a framework for constructing heterogeneous and cost-efficient multi-agent systems. SC-MAS models MAS as directed graphs, where edges explicitly represent pairwise collaboration strategies, allowing different agent pairs to interact through tailored communication patterns. Given an input query, a unified controller progressively constructs an executable MAS by selecting task-relevant agent roles, assigning edge-level collaboration strategies, and allocating appropriate LLM backbones to individual agents. Experiments on multiple benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of SC-MAS. In particular, SC-MAS improves accuracy by 3.35% on MMLU while reducing inference cost by 15.38%, and achieves a 3.53% accuracy gain with a 12.13% cost reduction on MBPP. These results validate the feasibility of SC-MAS and highlight the effectiveness of heterogeneous collaboration in multi-agent systems. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09434 [ pdf , ps , other ] SC-MAS: Constructing Cost-Efficient Multi-Agent Systems with Edge-Level Heterogeneous Collaboration Authors: Di Zhao , Longhui Ma , Siwei Wang , Miao Wang , Yi Kong Abstract : Large Language Model (LLM)-based Multi-Agent Systems (MAS) enhance complex problem solving through multi-agent collaboration, but often incur substantially higher costs than single-agent systems. Recent MAS routing methods aim to balance performance and overhead by dynamically selecting agent roles and language models. However, these approaches typically rely on a homogeneous collaboration mode, w… ▽ More Large Language Model (LLM)-based Multi-Agent Systems (MAS) enhance complex problem solving through multi-agent collaboration, but often incur substantially higher costs than single-agent systems. Recent MAS routing methods aim to balance performance and overhead by dynamically selecting agent roles and language models. However, these approaches typically rely on a homogeneous collaboration mode, where all agents follow the same interaction pattern, limiting collaboration flexibility across different roles. Motivated by Social Capital Theory, which emphasizes that different roles benefit from distinct forms of collaboration, we propose SC-MAS, a framework for constructing heterogeneous and cost-efficient multi-agent systems. SC-MAS models MAS as directed graphs, where edges explicitly represent pairwise collaboration strategies, allowing different agent pairs to interact through tailored communication patterns. Given an input query, a unified controller progressively constructs an executable MAS by selecting task-relevant agent roles, assigning edge-level collaboration strategies, and allocating appropriate LLM backbones to individual agents. Experiments on multiple benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of SC-MAS. In particular, SC-MAS improves accuracy by 3.35% on MMLU while reducing inference cost by 15.38%, and achieves a 3.53% accuracy gain with a 12.13% cost reduction on MBPP. These results validate the feasibility of SC-MAS and highlight the effectiveness of heterogeneous collaboration in multi-agent systems. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09240 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV eess.IV DeTracker: Motion-decoupled Vehicle Detection and Tracking in Unstabilized Satellite Videos Authors: Jiajun Chen , Jing Xiao , Shaohan Cao , Yuming Zhu , Liang Liao , Jun Pan , Mi Wang Abstract : Satellite videos provide continuous observations of surface dynamics but pose significant challenges for multi-object tracking (MOT), especially under unstabilized conditions where platform jitter and the weak appearance of tiny objects jointly degrade tracking performance. To address this problem, we propose DeTracker, a joint detection-and-tracking framework tailored for unstabilized satellite v… ▽ More Satellite videos provide continuous observations of surface dynamics but pose significant challenges for multi-object tracking (MOT), especially under unstabilized conditions where platform jitter and the weak appearance of tiny objects jointly degrade tracking performance. To address this problem, we propose DeTracker, a joint detection-and-tracking framework tailored for unstabilized satellite videos. DeTracker introduces a Global--Local Motion Decoupling (GLMD) module that explicitly separates satellite platform motion from true object motion through global alignment and local refinement, leading to improved trajectory stability and motion estimation accuracy. In addition, a Temporal Dependency Feature Pyramid (TDFP) module is developed to perform cross-frame temporal feature fusion, enhancing the continuity and discriminability of tiny-object representations. We further construct a new benchmark dataset, SDM-Car-SU, which simulates multi-directional and multi-speed platform motions to enable systematic evaluation of tracking robustness under varying motion perturbations. Extensive experiments on both simulated and real unstabilized satellite videos demonstrate that DeTracker significantly outperforms existing methods, achieving 61.1% MOTA on SDM-Car-SU and 47.3% MOTA on real satellite video data. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09240 [ pdf , ps , other ] DeTracker: Motion-decoupled Vehicle Detection and Tracking in Unstabilized Satellite Videos Authors: Jiajun Chen , Jing Xiao , Shaohan Cao , Yuming Zhu , Liang Liao , Jun Pan , Mi Wang Abstract : Satellite videos provide continuous observations of surface dynamics but pose significant challenges for multi-object tracking (MOT), especially under unstabilized conditions where platform jitter and the weak appearance of tiny objects jointly degrade tracking performance. To address this problem, we propose DeTracker, a joint detection-and-tracking framework tailored for unstabilized satellite v… ▽ More Satellite videos provide continuous observations of surface dynamics but pose significant challenges for multi-object tracking (MOT), especially under unstabilized conditions where platform jitter and the weak appearance of tiny objects jointly degrade tracking performance. To address this problem, we propose DeTracker, a joint detection-and-tracking framework tailored for unstabilized satellite videos. DeTracker introduces a Global--Local Motion Decoupling (GLMD) module that explicitly separates satellite platform motion from true object motion through global alignment and local refinement, leading to improved trajectory stability and motion estimation accuracy. In addition, a Temporal Dependency Feature Pyramid (TDFP) module is developed to perform cross-frame temporal feature fusion, enhancing the continuity and discriminability of tiny-object representations. We further construct a new benchmark dataset, SDM-Car-SU, which simulates multi-directional and multi-speed platform motions to enable systematic evaluation of tracking robustness under varying motion perturbations. Extensive experiments on both simulated and real unstabilized satellite videos demonstrate that DeTracker significantly outperforms existing methods, achieving 61.1% MOTA on SDM-Car-SU and 47.3% MOTA on real satellite video data. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09172 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG BalDRO: A Distributionally Robust Optimization based Framework for Large Language Model Unlearning Authors: Pengyang Shao , Naixin Zhai , Lei Chen , Yonghui Yang , Fengbin Zhu , Xun Yang , Meng Wang Abstract : As Large Language Models (LLMs) increasingly shape online content, removing targeted information from well-trained LLMs (also known as LLM unlearning) has become critical for web governance. A key challenge lies in sample-wise imbalance within the forget set: different samples exhibit widely varying unlearning difficulty, leading to asynchronous forgetting where some knowledge remains insufficient… ▽ More As Large Language Models (LLMs) increasingly shape online content, removing targeted information from well-trained LLMs (also known as LLM unlearning) has become critical for web governance. A key challenge lies in sample-wise imbalance within the forget set: different samples exhibit widely varying unlearning difficulty, leading to asynchronous forgetting where some knowledge remains insufficiently erased while others become over-forgotten. To address this, we propose BalDRO, a novel and efficient framework for balanced LLM unlearning. BalDRO formulates unlearning as a min-sup process: an inner step identifies a worst-case data distribution that emphasizes hard-to-unlearn samples, while an outer step updates model parameters under this distribution. We instantiate BalDRO via two efficient variants: BalDRO-G, a discrete GroupDRO-based approximation focusing on high-loss subsets, and BalDRO-DV, a continuous Donsker-Varadhan dual method enabling smooth adaptive weighting within standard training pipelines. Experiments on TOFU and MUSE show that BalDRO significantly improves both forgetting quality and model utility over existing methods, and we release code for reproducibility. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09172 [ pdf , ps , other ] BalDRO: A Distributionally Robust Optimization based Framework for Large Language Model Unlearning Authors: Pengyang Shao , Naixin Zhai , Lei Chen , Yonghui Yang , Fengbin Zhu , Xun Yang , Meng Wang Abstract : As Large Language Models (LLMs) increasingly shape online content, removing targeted information from well-trained LLMs (also known as LLM unlearning) has become critical for web governance. A key challenge lies in sample-wise imbalance within the forget set: different samples exhibit widely varying unlearning difficulty, leading to asynchronous forgetting where some knowledge remains insufficient… ▽ More As Large Language Models (LLMs) increasingly shape online content, removing targeted information from well-trained LLMs (also known as LLM unlearning) has become critical for web governance. A key challenge lies in sample-wise imbalance within the forget set: different samples exhibit widely varying unlearning difficulty, leading to asynchronous forgetting where some knowledge remains insufficiently erased while others become over-forgotten. To address this, we propose BalDRO, a novel and efficient framework for balanced LLM unlearning. BalDRO formulates unlearning as a min-sup process: an inner step identifies a worst-case data distribution that emphasizes hard-to-unlearn samples, while an outer step updates model parameters under this distribution. We instantiate BalDRO via two efficient variants: BalDRO-G, a discrete GroupDRO-based approximation focusing on high-loss subsets, and BalDRO-DV, a continuous Donsker-Varadhan dual method enabling smooth adaptive weighting within standard training pipelines. Experiments on TOFU and MUSE show that BalDRO significantly improves both forgetting quality and model utility over existing methods, and we release code for reproducibility. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09120 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI Adaptive Multi-Stage Patent Claim Generation with Unified Quality Assessment Authors: Chen-Wei Liang , Bin Guo , Zhen-Yuan Wei , Mu-Jiang-Shan Wang Abstract : Current patent claim generation systems face three fundamental limitations: poor cross-jurisdictional generalization, inadequate semantic relationship modeling between claims and prior art, and unreliable quality assessment. We introduce a novel three-stage framework that addresses these challenges through relationship-aware similarity analysis, domain-adaptive claim generation, and unified qualit… ▽ More Current patent claim generation systems face three fundamental limitations: poor cross-jurisdictional generalization, inadequate semantic relationship modeling between claims and prior art, and unreliable quality assessment. We introduce a novel three-stage framework that addresses these challenges through relationship-aware similarity analysis, domain-adaptive claim generation, and unified quality assessment. Our approach employs multi-head attention with eight specialized heads for explicit relationship modeling, integrates curriculum learning with dynamic LoRA adapter selection across five patent domains, and implements cross-attention mechanisms between evaluation aspects for comprehensive quality assessment. Extensive experiments on USPTO HUPD dataset, EPO patent collections, and Patent-CE benchmark demonstrate substantial improvements: 7.6-point ROUGE-L gain over GPT-4o, 8.3\% BERTScore enhancement over Llama-3.1-8B, and 0.847 correlation with human experts compared to 0.623 for separate evaluation models. Our method maintains 89.4\% cross-jurisdictional performance retention versus 76.2\% for baselines, establishing a comprehensive solution for automated patent prosecution workflows. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 18 pages, 7 figures. Preprint MSC Class: 68T50; 68T05 ACM Class: I.2.7; H.3.3; I.2.11 arXiv:2601.09120 [ pdf , ps , other ] Adaptive Multi-Stage Patent Claim Generation with Unified Quality Assessment Authors: Chen-Wei Liang , Bin Guo , Zhen-Yuan Wei , Mu-Jiang-Shan Wang Abstract : Current patent claim generation systems face three fundamental limitations: poor cross-jurisdictional generalization, inadequate semantic relationship modeling between claims and prior art, and unreliable quality assessment. We introduce a novel three-stage framework that addresses these challenges through relationship-aware similarity analysis, domain-adaptive claim generation, and unified qualit… ▽ More Current patent claim generation systems face three fundamental limitations: poor cross-jurisdictional generalization, inadequate semantic relationship modeling between claims and prior art, and unreliable quality assessment. We introduce a novel three-stage framework that addresses these challenges through relationship-aware similarity analysis, domain-adaptive claim generation, and unified quality assessment. Our approach employs multi-head attention with eight specialized heads for explicit relationship modeling, integrates curriculum learning with dynamic LoRA adapter selection across five patent domains, and implements cross-attention mechanisms between evaluation aspects for comprehensive quality assessment. Extensive experiments on USPTO HUPD dataset, EPO patent collections, and Patent-CE benchmark demonstrate substantial improvements: 7.6-point ROUGE-L gain over GPT-4o, 8.3\% BERTScore enhancement over Llama-3.1-8B, and 0.847 correlation with human experts compared to 0.623 for separate evaluation models. Our method maintains 89.4\% cross-jurisdictional performance retention versus 76.2\% for baselines, establishing a comprehensive solution for automated patent prosecution workflows. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 18 pages, 7 figures. Preprint MSC Class: 68T50; 68T05 ACM Class: I.2.7; H.3.3; I.2.11 arXiv:2601.08705 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR cs.LG RMBRec: Robust Multi-Behavior Recommendation towards Target Behaviors Authors: Miaomiao Cai , Zhijie Zhang , Junfeng Fang , Zhiyong Cheng , Xiang Wang , Meng Wang Abstract : Multi-behavior recommendation faces a critical challenge in practice: auxiliary behaviors (e.g., clicks, carts) are often noisy, weakly correlated, or semantically misaligned with the target behavior (e.g., purchase), which leads to biased preference learning and suboptimal performance. While existing methods attempt to fuse these heterogeneous signals, they inherently lack a principled mechanism… ▽ More Multi-behavior recommendation faces a critical challenge in practice: auxiliary behaviors (e.g., clicks, carts) are often noisy, weakly correlated, or semantically misaligned with the target behavior (e.g., purchase), which leads to biased preference learning and suboptimal performance. While existing methods attempt to fuse these heterogeneous signals, they inherently lack a principled mechanism to ensure robustness against such behavioral inconsistency. In this work, we propose Robust Multi-Behavior Recommendation towards Target Behaviors (RMBRec), a robust multi-behavior recommendation framework grounded in an information-theoretic robustness principle. We interpret robustness as a joint process of maximizing predictive information while minimizing its variance across heterogeneous behavioral environments. Under this perspective, the Representation Robustness Module (RRM) enhances local semantic consistency by maximizing the mutual information between users' auxiliary and target representations, whereas the Optimization Robustness Module (ORM) enforces global stability by minimizing the variance of predictive risks across behaviors, which is an efficient approximation to invariant risk minimization. This local-global collaboration bridges representation purification and optimization invariance in a theoretically coherent way. Extensive experiments on three real-world datasets demonstrate that RMBRec not only outperforms state-of-the-art methods in accuracy but also maintains remarkable stability under various noise perturbations. For reproducibility, our code is available at △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08705 [ pdf , ps , other ] RMBRec: Robust Multi-Behavior Recommendation towards Target Behaviors Authors: Miaomiao Cai , Zhijie Zhang , Junfeng Fang , Zhiyong Cheng , Xiang Wang , Meng Wang Abstract : Multi-behavior recommendation faces a critical challenge in practice: auxiliary behaviors (e.g., clicks, carts) are often noisy, weakly correlated, or semantically misaligned with the target behavior (e.g., purchase), which leads to biased preference learning and suboptimal performance. While existing methods attempt to fuse these heterogeneous signals, they inherently lack a principled mechanism… ▽ More Multi-behavior recommendation faces a critical challenge in practice: auxiliary behaviors (e.g., clicks, carts) are often noisy, weakly correlated, or semantically misaligned with the target behavior (e.g., purchase), which leads to biased preference learning and suboptimal performance. While existing methods attempt to fuse these heterogeneous signals, they inherently lack a principled mechanism to ensure robustness against such behavioral inconsistency. In this work, we propose Robust Multi-Behavior Recommendation towards Target Behaviors (RMBRec), a robust multi-behavior recommendation framework grounded in an information-theoretic robustness principle. We interpret robustness as a joint process of maximizing predictive information while minimizing its variance across heterogeneous behavioral environments. Under this perspective, the Representation Robustness Module (RRM) enhances local semantic consistency by maximizing the mutual information between users' auxiliary and target representations, whereas the Optimization Robustness Module (ORM) enforces global stability by minimizing the variance of predictive risks across behaviors, which is an efficient approximation to invariant risk minimization. This local-global collaboration bridges representation purification and optimization invariance in a theoretically coherent way. Extensive experiments on three real-world datasets demonstrate that RMBRec not only outperforms state-of-the-art methods in accuracy but also maintains remarkable stability under various noise perturbations. For reproducibility, our code is available at △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08003 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.MA LLM Review: Enhancing Creative Writing via Blind Peer Review Feedback Authors: Weiyue Li , Mingxiao Song , Zhenda Shen , Dachuan Zhao , Yunfan Long , Yi Li , Yongce Li , Ruyi Yang , Mengyu Wang Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) often struggle with creative generation, and multi-agent frameworks that improve reasoning through interaction can paradoxically hinder creativity by inducing content homogenization. We introduce LLM Review, a peer-review-inspired framework implementing Blind Peer Review: agents exchange targeted feedback while revising independently, preserving divergent creative traj… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) often struggle with creative generation, and multi-agent frameworks that improve reasoning through interaction can paradoxically hinder creativity by inducing content homogenization. We introduce LLM Review, a peer-review-inspired framework implementing Blind Peer Review: agents exchange targeted feedback while revising independently, preserving divergent creative trajectories. To enable rigorous evaluation, we propose SciFi-100, a science fiction writing dataset with a unified framework combining LLM-as-a-judge scoring, human annotation, and rule-based novelty metrics. Experiments demonstrate that LLM Review consistently outperforms multi-agent baselines, and smaller models with our framework can surpass larger single-agent models, suggesting interaction structure may substitute for model scale. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08003 [ pdf , ps , other ] LLM Review: Enhancing Creative Writing via Blind Peer Review Feedback Authors: Weiyue Li , Mingxiao Song , Zhenda Shen , Dachuan Zhao , Yunfan Long , Yi Li , Yongce Li , Ruyi Yang , Mengyu Wang Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) often struggle with creative generation, and multi-agent frameworks that improve reasoning through interaction can paradoxically hinder creativity by inducing content homogenization. We introduce LLM Review, a peer-review-inspired framework implementing Blind Peer Review: agents exchange targeted feedback while revising independently, preserving divergent creative traj… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) often struggle with creative generation, and multi-agent frameworks that improve reasoning through interaction can paradoxically hinder creativity by inducing content homogenization. We introduce LLM Review, a peer-review-inspired framework implementing Blind Peer Review: agents exchange targeted feedback while revising independently, preserving divergent creative trajectories. To enable rigorous evaluation, we propose SciFi-100, a science fiction writing dataset with a unified framework combining LLM-as-a-judge scoring, human annotation, and rule-based novelty metrics. Experiments demonstrate that LLM Review consistently outperforms multi-agent baselines, and smaller models with our framework can surpass larger single-agent models, suggesting interaction structure may substitute for model scale. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07645 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL PlaM: Training-Free Plateau-Guided Model Merging for Better Visual Grounding in MLLMs Authors: Zijing Wang , Yongkang Liu , Mingyang Wang , Ercong Nie , Deyuan Chen , Zhengjie Zhao , Shi Feng , Daling Wang , Xiaocui Yang , Yifei Zhang , Hinrich Schütze Abstract : Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) rely on strong linguistic reasoning inherited from their base language models. However, multimodal instruction fine-tuning paradoxically degrades this text's reasoning capability, undermining multimodal performance. To address this issue, we propose a training-free framework to mitigate this degradation. Through layer-wise vision token masking, we reveal a… ▽ More Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) rely on strong linguistic reasoning inherited from their base language models. However, multimodal instruction fine-tuning paradoxically degrades this text's reasoning capability, undermining multimodal performance. To address this issue, we propose a training-free framework to mitigate this degradation. Through layer-wise vision token masking, we reveal a common three-stage pattern in multimodal large language models: early-modal separation, mid-modal alignment, and late-modal degradation. By analyzing the behavior of MLLMs at different stages, we propose a plateau-guided model merging method that selectively injects base language model parameters into MLLMs. Experimental results based on five MLLMs on nine benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of our method. Attention-based analysis further reveals that merging shifts attention from diffuse, scattered patterns to focused localization on task-relevant visual regions. Our repository is on △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: under review arXiv:2601.07645 [ pdf , ps , other ] PlaM: Training-Free Plateau-Guided Model Merging for Better Visual Grounding in MLLMs Authors: Zijing Wang , Yongkang Liu , Mingyang Wang , Ercong Nie , Deyuan Chen , Zhengjie Zhao , Shi Feng , Daling Wang , Xiaocui Yang , Yifei Zhang , Hinrich Schütze Abstract : Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) rely on strong linguistic reasoning inherited from their base language models. However, multimodal instruction fine-tuning paradoxically degrades this text's reasoning capability, undermining multimodal performance. To address this issue, we propose a training-free framework to mitigate this degradation. Through layer-wise vision token masking, we reveal a… ▽ More Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) rely on strong linguistic reasoning inherited from their base language models. However, multimodal instruction fine-tuning paradoxically degrades this text's reasoning capability, undermining multimodal performance. To address this issue, we propose a training-free framework to mitigate this degradation. Through layer-wise vision token masking, we reveal a common three-stage pattern in multimodal large language models: early-modal separation, mid-modal alignment, and late-modal degradation. By analyzing the behavior of MLLMs at different stages, we propose a plateau-guided model merging method that selectively injects base language model parameters into MLLMs. Experimental results based on five MLLMs on nine benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of our method. Attention-based analysis further reveals that merging shifts attention from diffuse, scattered patterns to focused localization on task-relevant visual regions. Our repository is on △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: under review arXiv:2601.07423 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL SAD: A Large-Scale Strategic Argumentative Dialogue Dataset Authors: Yongkang Liu , Jiayang Yu , Mingyang Wang , Yiqun Zhang , Ercong Nie , Shi Feng , Daling Wang , Kaisong Song , Hinrich Schütze Abstract : Argumentation generation has attracted substantial research interest due to its central role in human reasoning and decision-making. However, most existing argumentative corpora focus on non-interactive, single-turn settings, either generating arguments from a given topic or refuting an existing argument. In practice, however, argumentation is often realized as multi-turn dialogue, where speakers… ▽ More Argumentation generation has attracted substantial research interest due to its central role in human reasoning and decision-making. However, most existing argumentative corpora focus on non-interactive, single-turn settings, either generating arguments from a given topic or refuting an existing argument. In practice, however, argumentation is often realized as multi-turn dialogue, where speakers defend their stances and employ diverse argumentative strategies to strengthen persuasiveness. To support deeper modeling of argumentation dialogue, we present the first large-scale \textbf{S}trategic \textbf{A}rgumentative \textbf{D}ialogue dataset, SAD, consisting of 392,822 examples. Grounded in argumentation theories, we annotate each utterance with five strategy types, allowing multiple strategies per utterance. Unlike prior datasets, SAD requires models to generate contextually appropriate arguments conditioned on the dialogue history, a specified stance on the topic, and targeted argumentation strategies. We further benchmark a range of pretrained generative models on SAD and present in-depth analysis of strategy usage patterns in argumentation. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: under review arXiv:2601.07423 [ pdf , ps , other ] SAD: A Large-Scale Strategic Argumentative Dialogue Dataset Authors: Yongkang Liu , Jiayang Yu , Mingyang Wang , Yiqun Zhang , Ercong Nie , Shi Feng , Daling Wang , Kaisong Song , Hinrich Schütze Abstract : Argumentation generation has attracted substantial research interest due to its central role in human reasoning and decision-making. However, most existing argumentative corpora focus on non-interactive, single-turn settings, either generating arguments from a given topic or refuting an existing argument. In practice, however, argumentation is often realized as multi-turn dialogue, where speakers… ▽ More Argumentation generation has attracted substantial research interest due to its central role in human reasoning and decision-making. However, most existing argumentative corpora focus on non-interactive, single-turn settings, either generating arguments from a given topic or refuting an existing argument. In practice, however, argumentation is often realized as multi-turn dialogue, where speakers defend their stances and employ diverse argumentative strategies to strengthen persuasiveness. To support deeper modeling of argumentation dialogue, we present the first large-scale \textbf{S}trategic \textbf{A}rgumentative \textbf{D}ialogue dataset, SAD, consisting of 392,822 examples. Grounded in argumentation theories, we annotate each utterance with five strategy types, allowing multiple strategies per utterance. Unlike prior datasets, SAD requires models to generate contextually appropriate arguments conditioned on the dialogue history, a specified stance on the topic, and targeted argumentation strategies. We further benchmark a range of pretrained generative models on SAD and present in-depth analysis of strategy usage patterns in argumentation. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: under review arXiv:2601.07272 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV PALUM: Part-based Attention Learning for Unified Motion Retargeting Authors: Siqi Liu , Maoyu Wang , Bo Dai , Cewu Lu Abstract : Retargeting motion between characters with different skeleton structures is a fundamental challenge in computer animation. When source and target characters have vastly different bone arrangements, maintaining the original motion's semantics and quality becomes increasingly difficult. We present PALUM, a novel approach that learns common motion representations across diverse skeleton topologies by… ▽ More Retargeting motion between characters with different skeleton structures is a fundamental challenge in computer animation. When source and target characters have vastly different bone arrangements, maintaining the original motion's semantics and quality becomes increasingly difficult. We present PALUM, a novel approach that learns common motion representations across diverse skeleton topologies by partitioning joints into semantic body parts and applying attention mechanisms to capture spatio-temporal relationships. Our method transfers motion to target skeletons by leveraging these skeleton-agnostic representations alongside target-specific structural information. To ensure robust learning and preserve motion fidelity, we introduce a cycle consistency mechanism that maintains semantic coherence throughout the retargeting process. Extensive experiments demonstrate superior performance in handling diverse skeletal structures while maintaining motion realism and semantic fidelity, even when generalizing to previously unseen skeleton-motion combinations. We will make our implementation publicly available to support future research. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07272 [ pdf , ps , other ] PALUM: Part-based Attention Learning for Unified Motion Retargeting Authors: Siqi Liu , Maoyu Wang , Bo Dai , Cewu Lu Abstract : Retargeting motion between characters with different skeleton structures is a fundamental challenge in computer animation. When source and target characters have vastly different bone arrangements, maintaining the original motion's semantics and quality becomes increasingly difficult. We present PALUM, a novel approach that learns common motion representations across diverse skeleton topologies by… ▽ More Retargeting motion between characters with different skeleton structures is a fundamental challenge in computer animation. When source and target characters have vastly different bone arrangements, maintaining the original motion's semantics and quality becomes increasingly difficult. We present PALUM, a novel approach that learns common motion representations across diverse skeleton topologies by partitioning joints into semantic body parts and applying attention mechanisms to capture spatio-temporal relationships. Our method transfers motion to target skeletons by leveraging these skeleton-agnostic representations alongside target-specific structural information. To ensure robust learning and preserve motion fidelity, we introduce a cycle consistency mechanism that maintains semantic coherence throughout the retargeting process. Extensive experiments demonstrate superior performance in handling diverse skeletal structures while maintaining motion realism and semantic fidelity, even when generalizing to previously unseen skeleton-motion combinations. We will make our implementation publicly available to support future research. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07164 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG Offline Meta-Reinforcement Learning with Flow-Based Task Inference and Adaptive Correction of Feature Overgeneralization Authors: Min Wang , Xin Li , Mingzhong Wang , Hasnaa Bennis Abstract : Offline meta-reinforcement learning (OMRL) combines the strengths of learning from diverse datasets in offline RL with the adaptability to new tasks of meta-RL, promising safe and efficient knowledge acquisition by RL agents. However, OMRL still suffers extrapolation errors due to out-of-distribution (OOD) actions, compromised by broad task distributions and Markov Decision Process (MDP) ambiguity… ▽ More Offline meta-reinforcement learning (OMRL) combines the strengths of learning from diverse datasets in offline RL with the adaptability to new tasks of meta-RL, promising safe and efficient knowledge acquisition by RL agents. However, OMRL still suffers extrapolation errors due to out-of-distribution (OOD) actions, compromised by broad task distributions and Markov Decision Process (MDP) ambiguity in meta-RL setups. Existing research indicates that the generalization of the $Q$ network affects the extrapolation error in offline RL. This paper investigates this relationship by decomposing the $Q$ value into feature and weight components, observing that while decomposition enhances adaptability and convergence in the case of high-quality data, it often leads to policy degeneration or collapse in complex tasks. We observe that decomposed $Q$ values introduce a large estimation bias when the feature encounters OOD samples, a phenomenon we term ''feature overgeneralization''. To address this issue, we propose FLORA, which identifies OOD samples by modeling feature distributions and estimating their uncertainties. FLORA integrates a return feedback mechanism to adaptively adjust feature components. Furthermore, to learn precise task representations, FLORA explicitly models the complex task distribution using a chain of invertible transformations. We theoretically and empirically demonstrate that FLORA achieves rapid adaptation and meta-policy improvement compared to baselines across various environments. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07164 [ pdf , ps , other ] Offline Meta-Reinforcement Learning with Flow-Based Task Inference and Adaptive Correction of Feature Overgeneralization Authors: Min Wang , Xin Li , Mingzhong Wang , Hasnaa Bennis Abstract : Offline meta-reinforcement learning (OMRL) combines the strengths of learning from diverse datasets in offline RL with the adaptability to new tasks of meta-RL, promising safe and efficient knowledge acquisition by RL agents. However, OMRL still suffers extrapolation errors due to out-of-distribution (OOD) actions, compromised by broad task distributions and Markov Decision Process (MDP) ambiguity… ▽ More Offline meta-reinforcement learning (OMRL) combines the strengths of learning from diverse datasets in offline RL with the adaptability to new tasks of meta-RL, promising safe and efficient knowledge acquisition by RL agents. However, OMRL still suffers extrapolation errors due to out-of-distribution (OOD) actions, compromised by broad task distributions and Markov Decision Process (MDP) ambiguity in meta-RL setups. Existing research indicates that the generalization of the $Q$ network affects the extrapolation error in offline RL. This paper investigates this relationship by decomposing the $Q$ value into feature and weight components, observing that while decomposition enhances adaptability and convergence in the case of high-quality data, it often leads to policy degeneration or collapse in complex tasks. We observe that decomposed $Q$ values introduce a large estimation bias when the feature encounters OOD samples, a phenomenon we term ''feature overgeneralization''. To address this issue, we propose FLORA, which identifies OOD samples by modeling feature distributions and estimating their uncertainties. FLORA integrates a return feedback mechanism to adaptively adjust feature components. Furthermore, to learn precise task representations, FLORA explicitly models the complex task distribution using a chain of invertible transformations. We theoretically and empirically demonstrate that FLORA achieves rapid adaptation and meta-policy improvement compared to baselines across various environments. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06944 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI SketchJudge: A Diagnostic Benchmark for Grading Hand-drawn Diagrams with Multimodal Large Language Models Authors: Yuhang Su , Mei Wang , Yaoyao Zhong , Guozhang Li , Shixing Li , Yihan Feng , Hua Huang Abstract : While Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have achieved remarkable progress in visual understanding, they often struggle when faced with the unstructured and ambiguous nature of human-generated sketches. This limitation is particularly pronounced in the underexplored task of visual grading, where models should not only solve a problem but also diagnose errors in hand-drawn diagrams. Such diag… ▽ More While Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have achieved remarkable progress in visual understanding, they often struggle when faced with the unstructured and ambiguous nature of human-generated sketches. This limitation is particularly pronounced in the underexplored task of visual grading, where models should not only solve a problem but also diagnose errors in hand-drawn diagrams. Such diagnostic capabilities depend on complex structural, semantic, and metacognitive reasoning. To bridge this gap, we introduce SketchJudge, a novel benchmark tailored for evaluating MLLMs as graders of hand-drawn STEM diagrams. SketchJudge encompasses 1,015 hand-drawn student responses across four domains: geometry, physics, charts, and flowcharts, featuring diverse stylistic variations and distinct error types. Evaluations on SketchJudge demonstrate that even advanced MLLMs lag significantly behind humans, validating the benchmark's effectiveness in exposing the fragility of current vision-language alignment in symbolic and noisy contexts. All data, code, and evaluation scripts are publicly available at △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 8 pages for the main text (excluding references and the limitations section); 37 pages in total including appendices arXiv:2601.06944 [ pdf , ps , other ] SketchJudge: A Diagnostic Benchmark for Grading Hand-drawn Diagrams with Multimodal Large Language Models Authors: Yuhang Su , Mei Wang , Yaoyao Zhong , Guozhang Li , Shixing Li , Yihan Feng , Hua Huang Abstract : While Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have achieved remarkable progress in visual understanding, they often struggle when faced with the unstructured and ambiguous nature of human-generated sketches. This limitation is particularly pronounced in the underexplored task of visual grading, where models should not only solve a problem but also diagnose errors in hand-drawn diagrams. Such diag… ▽ More While Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have achieved remarkable progress in visual understanding, they often struggle when faced with the unstructured and ambiguous nature of human-generated sketches. This limitation is particularly pronounced in the underexplored task of visual grading, where models should not only solve a problem but also diagnose errors in hand-drawn diagrams. Such diagnostic capabilities depend on complex structural, semantic, and metacognitive reasoning. To bridge this gap, we introduce SketchJudge, a novel benchmark tailored for evaluating MLLMs as graders of hand-drawn STEM diagrams. SketchJudge encompasses 1,015 hand-drawn student responses across four domains: geometry, physics, charts, and flowcharts, featuring diverse stylistic variations and distinct error types. Evaluations on SketchJudge demonstrate that even advanced MLLMs lag significantly behind humans, validating the benchmark's effectiveness in exposing the fragility of current vision-language alignment in symbolic and noisy contexts. All data, code, and evaluation scripts are publicly available at △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 8 pages for the main text (excluding references and the limitations section); 37 pages in total including appendices arXiv:2601.06907 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Fine-grained Verbal Attack Detection via a Hierarchical Divide-and-Conquer Framework Authors: Quan Zheng , Yuanhe Tian , Ming Wang , Yan Song Abstract : In the digital era, effective identification and analysis of verbal attacks are essential for maintaining online civility and ensuring social security. However, existing research is limited by insufficient modeling of conversational structure and contextual dependency, particularly in Chinese social media where implicit attacks are prevalent. Current attack detection studies often emphasize genera… ▽ More In the digital era, effective identification and analysis of verbal attacks are essential for maintaining online civility and ensuring social security. However, existing research is limited by insufficient modeling of conversational structure and contextual dependency, particularly in Chinese social media where implicit attacks are prevalent. Current attack detection studies often emphasize general semantic understanding while overlooking user response relationships, hindering the identification of implicit and context-dependent attacks. To address these challenges, we present the novel "Hierarchical Attack Comment Detection" dataset and propose a divide-and-conquer, fine-grained framework for verbal attack recognition based on spatiotemporal information. The proposed dataset explicitly encodes hierarchical reply structures and chronological order, capturing complex interaction patterns in multi-turn discussions. Building on this dataset, the framework decomposes attack detection into hierarchical subtasks, where specialized lightweight models handle explicit detection, implicit intent inference, and target identification under constrained context. Extensive experiments on the proposed dataset and benchmark intention detection datasets show that smaller models using our framework significantly outperform larger monolithic models relying on parameter scaling, demonstrating the effectiveness of structured task decomposition. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 13pages, 5figures arXiv:2601.06907 [ pdf , ps , other ] Fine-grained Verbal Attack Detection via a Hierarchical Divide-and-Conquer Framework Authors: Quan Zheng , Yuanhe Tian , Ming Wang , Yan Song Abstract : In the digital era, effective identification and analysis of verbal attacks are essential for maintaining online civility and ensuring social security. However, existing research is limited by insufficient modeling of conversational structure and contextual dependency, particularly in Chinese social media where implicit attacks are prevalent. Current attack detection studies often emphasize genera… ▽ More In the digital era, effective identification and analysis of verbal attacks are essential for maintaining online civility and ensuring social security. However, existing research is limited by insufficient modeling of conversational structure and contextual dependency, particularly in Chinese social media where implicit attacks are prevalent. Current attack detection studies often emphasize general semantic understanding while overlooking user response relationships, hindering the identification of implicit and context-dependent attacks. To address these challenges, we present the novel "Hierarchical Attack Comment Detection" dataset and propose a divide-and-conquer, fine-grained framework for verbal attack recognition based on spatiotemporal information. The proposed dataset explicitly encodes hierarchical reply structures and chronological order, capturing complex interaction patterns in multi-turn discussions. Building on this dataset, the framework decomposes attack detection into hierarchical subtasks, where specialized lightweight models handle explicit detection, implicit intent inference, and target identification under constrained context. Extensive experiments on the proposed dataset and benchmark intention detection datasets show that smaller models using our framework significantly outperform larger monolithic models relying on parameter scaling, demonstrating the effectiveness of structured task decomposition. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 13pages, 5figures arXiv:2601.05870 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI IIB-LPO: Latent Policy Optimization via Iterative Information Bottleneck Authors: Huilin Deng , Hongchen Luo , Yue Zhu , Long Li , Zhuoyue Chen , Xinghao Zhao , Ming Li , Jihai Zhang , Mengchang Wang , Yang Cao , Yu Kang Abstract : Recent advances in Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) for Large Language Model (LLM) reasoning have been hindered by a persistent challenge: exploration collapse. The semantic homogeneity of random rollouts often traps models in narrow, over-optimized behaviors. While existing methods leverage policy entropy to encourage exploration, they face inherent limitations. Global entrop… ▽ More Recent advances in Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) for Large Language Model (LLM) reasoning have been hindered by a persistent challenge: exploration collapse. The semantic homogeneity of random rollouts often traps models in narrow, over-optimized behaviors. While existing methods leverage policy entropy to encourage exploration, they face inherent limitations. Global entropy regularization is susceptible to reward hacking, which can induce meaningless verbosity, whereas local token-selective updates struggle with the strong inductive bias of pre-trained models. To address this, we propose Latent Policy Optimization via Iterative Information Bottleneck (IIB-LPO), a novel approach that shifts exploration from statistical perturbation of token distributions to topological branching of reasoning trajectories. IIB-LPO triggers latent branching at high-entropy states to diversify reasoning paths and employs the Information Bottleneck principle both as a trajectory filter and a self-reward mechanism, ensuring concise and informative exploration. Empirical results across four mathematical reasoning benchmarks demonstrate that IIB-LPO achieves state-of-the-art performance, surpassing prior methods by margins of up to 5.3% in accuracy and 7.4% in diversity metrics. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05870 [ pdf , ps , other ] IIB-LPO: Latent Policy Optimization via Iterative Information Bottleneck Authors: Huilin Deng , Hongchen Luo , Yue Zhu , Long Li , Zhuoyue Chen , Xinghao Zhao , Ming Li , Jihai Zhang , Mengchang Wang , Yang Cao , Yu Kang Abstract : Recent advances in Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) for Large Language Model (LLM) reasoning have been hindered by a persistent challenge: exploration collapse. The semantic homogeneity of random rollouts often traps models in narrow, over-optimized behaviors. While existing methods leverage policy entropy to encourage exploration, they face inherent limitations. Global entrop… ▽ More Recent advances in Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) for Large Language Model (LLM) reasoning have been hindered by a persistent challenge: exploration collapse. The semantic homogeneity of random rollouts often traps models in narrow, over-optimized behaviors. While existing methods leverage policy entropy to encourage exploration, they face inherent limitations. Global entropy regularization is susceptible to reward hacking, which can induce meaningless verbosity, whereas local token-selective updates struggle with the strong inductive bias of pre-trained models. To address this, we propose Latent Policy Optimization via Iterative Information Bottleneck (IIB-LPO), a novel approach that shifts exploration from statistical perturbation of token distributions to topological branching of reasoning trajectories. IIB-LPO triggers latent branching at high-entropy states to diversify reasoning paths and employs the Information Bottleneck principle both as a trajectory filter and a self-reward mechanism, ensuring concise and informative exploration. Empirical results across four mathematical reasoning benchmarks demonstrate that IIB-LPO achieves state-of-the-art performance, surpassing prior methods by margins of up to 5.3% in accuracy and 7.4% in diversity metrics. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05414 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Large Language Models Are Bad Dice Players: LLMs Struggle to Generate Random Numbers from Statistical Distributions Authors: Minda Zhao , Yilun Du , Mengyu Wang Abstract : As large language models (LLMs) transition from chat interfaces to integral components of stochastic pipelines across domains like educational assessment and synthetic data construction, the ability to faithfully sample from specified probability distributions has become a functional requirement rather than a theoretical curiosity. We present the first large-scale, statistically powered audit of n… ▽ More As large language models (LLMs) transition from chat interfaces to integral components of stochastic pipelines across domains like educational assessment and synthetic data construction, the ability to faithfully sample from specified probability distributions has become a functional requirement rather than a theoretical curiosity. We present the first large-scale, statistically powered audit of native probabilistic sampling in frontier LLMs, benchmarking 11 models across 15 distributions. To disentangle failure modes, we employ a dual-protocol design: Batch Generation, where a model produces N=1000 samples within one response, and Independent Requests, comprising $N=1000$ stateless calls. We observe a sharp protocol asymmetry: batch generation achieves only modest statistical validity, with a 13% median pass rate, while independent requests collapse almost entirely, with 10 of 11 models passing none of the distributions. Beyond this asymmetry, we reveal that sampling fidelity degrades monotonically with distributional complexity and aggravates as the requested sampling horizon N increases. Finally, we demonstrate the propagation of these failures into downstream tasks: models fail to enforce uniform answer-position constraints in MCQ generation and systematically violate demographic targets in attribute-constrained text-to-image prompt synthesis. These findings indicate that current LLMs lack a functional internal sampler, necessitating the use of external tools for applications requiring statistical guarantees. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05414 [ pdf , ps , other ] Large Language Models Are Bad Dice Players: LLMs Struggle to Generate Random Numbers from Statistical Distributions Authors: Minda Zhao , Yilun Du , Mengyu Wang Abstract : As large language models (LLMs) transition from chat interfaces to integral components of stochastic pipelines across domains like educational assessment and synthetic data construction, the ability to faithfully sample from specified probability distributions has become a functional requirement rather than a theoretical curiosity. We present the first large-scale, statistically powered audit of n… ▽ More As large language models (LLMs) transition from chat interfaces to integral components of stochastic pipelines across domains like educational assessment and synthetic data construction, the ability to faithfully sample from specified probability distributions has become a functional requirement rather than a theoretical curiosity. We present the first large-scale, statistically powered audit of native probabilistic sampling in frontier LLMs, benchmarking 11 models across 15 distributions. To disentangle failure modes, we employ a dual-protocol design: Batch Generation, where a model produces N=1000 samples within one response, and Independent Requests, comprising $N=1000$ stateless calls. We observe a sharp protocol asymmetry: batch generation achieves only modest statistical validity, with a 13% median pass rate, while independent requests collapse almost entirely, with 10 of 11 models passing none of the distributions. Beyond this asymmetry, we reveal that sampling fidelity degrades monotonically with distributional complexity and aggravates as the requested sampling horizon N increases. Finally, we demonstrate the propagation of these failures into downstream tasks: models fail to enforce uniform answer-position constraints in MCQ generation and systematically violate demographic targets in attribute-constrained text-to-image prompt synthesis. These findings indicate that current LLMs lack a functional internal sampler, necessitating the use of external tools for applications requiring statistical guarantees. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04573 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.PL Lenses for Partially-Specified States (Extended Version) Authors: Kazutaka Matsuda , Minh Nguyen , Meng Wang Abstract : A bidirectional transformation is a pair of transformations satisfying certain well-behavedness properties: one maps source data into view data, and the other translates changes on the view back to the source. However, when multiple views share a source, an update on one view may affect the others, making it hard to maintain correspondence while preserving the user's update, especially when multip… ▽ More A bidirectional transformation is a pair of transformations satisfying certain well-behavedness properties: one maps source data into view data, and the other translates changes on the view back to the source. However, when multiple views share a source, an update on one view may affect the others, making it hard to maintain correspondence while preserving the user's update, especially when multiple views are changed at once. Ensuring these properties within a compositional framework is even more challenging. In this paper, we propose partial-state lenses, which allow source and view states to be partially specified to precisely represent the user's update intentions. These intentions are partially ordered, providing clear semantics for merging intentions of updates coming from multiple views and a refined notion of update preservation compatible with this merging. We formalize partial-state lenses, together with partial-specifiedness-aware well-behavedness that supports compositional reasoning and ensures update preservation. In addition, we demonstrate the utility of the proposed system through examples. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Extended version of our paper to appear in ESOP 2026 arXiv:2601.04573 [ pdf , ps , other ] Lenses for Partially-Specified States (Extended Version) Authors: Kazutaka Matsuda , Minh Nguyen , Meng Wang Abstract : A bidirectional transformation is a pair of transformations satisfying certain well-behavedness properties: one maps source data into view data, and the other translates changes on the view back to the source. However, when multiple views share a source, an update on one view may affect the others, making it hard to maintain correspondence while preserving the user's update, especially when multip… ▽ More A bidirectional transformation is a pair of transformations satisfying certain well-behavedness properties: one maps source data into view data, and the other translates changes on the view back to the source. However, when multiple views share a source, an update on one view may affect the others, making it hard to maintain correspondence while preserving the user's update, especially when multiple views are changed at once. Ensuring these properties within a compositional framework is even more challenging. In this paper, we propose partial-state lenses, which allow source and view states to be partially specified to precisely represent the user's update intentions. These intentions are partially ordered, providing clear semantics for merging intentions of updates coming from multiple views and a refined notion of update preservation compatible with this merging. We formalize partial-state lenses, together with partial-specifiedness-aware well-behavedness that supports compositional reasoning and ensures update preservation. In addition, we demonstrate the utility of the proposed system through examples. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Extended version of our paper to appear in ESOP 2026 arXiv:2601.04554 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR Exploring Recommender System Evaluation: A Multi-Modal User Agent Framework for A/B Testing Authors: Wenlin Zhang , Xiangyang Li , Qiyuan Ge , Kuicai Dong , Pengyue Jia , Xiaopeng Li , Zijian Zhang , Maolin Wang , Yichao Wang , Huifeng Guo , Ruiming Tang , Xiangyu Zhao Abstract : In recommender systems, online A/B testing is a crucial method for evaluating the performance of different models. However, conducting online A/B testing often presents significant challenges, including substantial economic costs, user experience degradation, and considerable time requirements. With the Large Language Models' powerful capacity, LLM-based agent shows great potential to replace trad… ▽ More In recommender systems, online A/B testing is a crucial method for evaluating the performance of different models. However, conducting online A/B testing often presents significant challenges, including substantial economic costs, user experience degradation, and considerable time requirements. With the Large Language Models' powerful capacity, LLM-based agent shows great potential to replace traditional online A/B testing. Nonetheless, current agents fail to simulate the perception process and interaction patterns, due to the lack of real environments and visual perception capability. To address these challenges, we introduce a multi-modal user agent for A/B testing (A/B Agent). Specifically, we construct a recommendation sandbox environment for A/B testing, enabling multimodal and multi-page interactions that align with real user behavior on online platforms. The designed agent leverages multimodal information perception, fine-grained user preferences, and integrates profiles, action memory retrieval, and a fatigue system to simulate complex human decision-making. We validated the potential of the agent as an alternative to traditional A/B testing from three perspectives: model, data, and features. Furthermore, we found that the data generated by A/B Agent can effectively enhance the capabilities of recommendation models. Our code is publicly available at △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04554 [ pdf , ps , other ] Exploring Recommender System Evaluation: A Multi-Modal User Agent Framework for A/B Testing Authors: Wenlin Zhang , Xiangyang Li , Qiyuan Ge , Kuicai Dong , Pengyue Jia , Xiaopeng Li , Zijian Zhang , Maolin Wang , Yichao Wang , Huifeng Guo , Ruiming Tang , Xiangyu Zhao Abstract : In recommender systems, online A/B testing is a crucial method for evaluating the performance of different models. However, conducting online A/B testing often presents significant challenges, including substantial economic costs, user experience degradation, and considerable time requirements. With the Large Language Models' powerful capacity, LLM-based agent shows great potential to replace trad… ▽ More In recommender systems, online A/B testing is a crucial method for evaluating the performance of different models. However, conducting online A/B testing often presents significant challenges, including substantial economic costs, user experience degradation, and considerable time requirements. With the Large Language Models' powerful capacity, LLM-based agent shows great potential to replace traditional online A/B testing. Nonetheless, current agents fail to simulate the perception process and interaction patterns, due to the lack of real environments and visual perception capability. To address these challenges, we introduce a multi-modal user agent for A/B testing (A/B Agent). Specifically, we construct a recommendation sandbox environment for A/B testing, enabling multimodal and multi-page interactions that align with real user behavior on online platforms. The designed agent leverages multimodal information perception, fine-grained user preferences, and integrates profiles, action memory retrieval, and a fatigue system to simulate complex human decision-making. We validated the potential of the agent as an alternative to traditional A/B testing from three perspectives: model, data, and features. Furthermore, we found that the data generated by A/B Agent can effectively enhance the capabilities of recommendation models. Our code is publicly available at △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04033 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Thinking with Frames: Generative Video Distortion Evaluation via Frame Reward Model Authors: Yuan Wang , Borui Liao , Huijuan Huang , Jinda Lu , Ouxiang Li , Kuien Liu , Meng Wang , Xiang Wang Abstract : Recent advances in video reward models and post-training strategies have improved text-to-video (T2V) generation. While these models typically assess visual quality, motion quality, and text alignment, they often overlook key structural distortions, such as abnormal object appearances and interactions, which can degrade the overall quality of the generative video. To address this gap, we introduce… ▽ More Recent advances in video reward models and post-training strategies have improved text-to-video (T2V) generation. While these models typically assess visual quality, motion quality, and text alignment, they often overlook key structural distortions, such as abnormal object appearances and interactions, which can degrade the overall quality of the generative video. To address this gap, we introduce REACT, a frame-level reward model designed specifically for structural distortions evaluation in generative videos. REACT assigns point-wise scores and attribution labels by reasoning over video frames, focusing on recognizing distortions. To support this, we construct a large-scale human preference dataset, annotated based on our proposed taxonomy of structural distortions, and generate additional data using a efficient Chain-of-Thought (CoT) synthesis pipeline. REACT is trained with a two-stage framework: ((1) supervised fine-tuning with masked loss for domain knowledge injection, followed by (2) reinforcement learning with Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) and pairwise rewards to enhance reasoning capability and align output scores with human preferences. During inference, a dynamic sampling mechanism is introduced to focus on frames most likely to exhibit distortion. We also present REACT-Bench, a benchmark for generative video distortion evaluation. Experimental results demonstrate that REACT complements existing reward models in assessing structutal distortion, achieving both accurate quantitative evaluations and interpretable attribution analysis. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04033 [ pdf , ps , other ] Thinking with Frames: Generative Video Distortion Evaluation via Frame Reward Model Authors: Yuan Wang , Borui Liao , Huijuan Huang , Jinda Lu , Ouxiang Li , Kuien Liu , Meng Wang , Xiang Wang Abstract : Recent advances in video reward models and post-training strategies have improved text-to-video (T2V) generation. While these models typically assess visual quality, motion quality, and text alignment, they often overlook key structural distortions, such as abnormal object appearances and interactions, which can degrade the overall quality of the generative video. To address this gap, we introduce… ▽ More Recent advances in video reward models and post-training strategies have improved text-to-video (T2V) generation. While these models typically assess visual quality, motion quality, and text alignment, they often overlook key structural distortions, such as abnormal object appearances and interactions, which can degrade the overall quality of the generative video. To address this gap, we introduce REACT, a frame-level reward model designed specifically for structural distortions evaluation in generative videos. REACT assigns point-wise scores and attribution labels by reasoning over video frames, focusing on recognizing distortions. To support this, we construct a large-scale human preference dataset, annotated based on our proposed taxonomy of structural distortions, and generate additional data using a efficient Chain-of-Thought (CoT) synthesis pipeline. REACT is trained with a two-stage framework: ((1) supervised fine-tuning with masked loss for domain knowledge injection, followed by (2) reinforcement learning with Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) and pairwise rewards to enhance reasoning capability and align output scores with human preferences. During inference, a dynamic sampling mechanism is introduced to focus on frames most likely to exhibit distortion. We also present REACT-Bench, a benchmark for generative video distortion evaluation. Experimental results demonstrate that REACT complements existing reward models in assessing structutal distortion, achieving both accurate quantitative evaluations and interpretable attribution analysis. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03507 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV REFA: Real-time Egocentric Facial Animations for Virtual Reality Authors: Qiang Zhang , Tong Xiao , Haroun Habeeb , Larissa Laich , Sofien Bouaziz , Patrick Snape , Wenjing Zhang , Matthew Cioffi , Peizhao Zhang , Pavel Pidlypenskyi , Winnie Lin , Luming Ma , Mengjiao Wang , Kunpeng Li , Chengjiang Long , Steven Song , Martin Prazak , Alexander Sjoholm , Ajinkya Deogade , Jaebong Lee , Julio Delgado Mangas , Amaury Aubel Abstract : We present a novel system for real-time tracking of facial expressions using egocentric views captured from a set of infrared cameras embedded in a virtual reality (VR) headset. Our technology facilitates any user to accurately drive the facial expressions of virtual characters in a non-intrusive manner and without the need of a lengthy calibration step. At the core of our system is a distillation… ▽ More We present a novel system for real-time tracking of facial expressions using egocentric views captured from a set of infrared cameras embedded in a virtual reality (VR) headset. Our technology facilitates any user to accurately drive the facial expressions of virtual characters in a non-intrusive manner and without the need of a lengthy calibration step. At the core of our system is a distillation based approach to train a machine learning model on heterogeneous data and labels coming form multiple sources, \eg synthetic and real images. As part of our dataset, we collected 18k diverse subjects using a lightweight capture setup consisting of a mobile phone and a custom VR headset with extra cameras. To process this data, we developed a robust differentiable rendering pipeline enabling us to automatically extract facial expression labels. Our system opens up new avenues for communication and expression in virtual environments, with applications in video conferencing, gaming, entertainment, and remote collaboration. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: CVPR 2024 Workshop arXiv:2601.03507 [ pdf , ps , other ] REFA: Real-time Egocentric Facial Animations for Virtual Reality Authors: Qiang Zhang , Tong Xiao , Haroun Habeeb , Larissa Laich , Sofien Bouaziz , Patrick Snape , Wenjing Zhang , Matthew Cioffi , Peizhao Zhang , Pavel Pidlypenskyi , Winnie Lin , Luming Ma , Mengjiao Wang , Kunpeng Li , Chengjiang Long , Steven Song , Martin Prazak , Alexander Sjoholm , Ajinkya Deogade , Jaebong Lee , Julio Delgado Mangas , Amaury Aubel Abstract : We present a novel system for real-time tracking of facial expressions using egocentric views captured from a set of infrared cameras embedded in a virtual reality (VR) headset. Our technology facilitates any user to accurately drive the facial expressions of virtual characters in a non-intrusive manner and without the need of a lengthy calibration step. At the core of our system is a distillation… ▽ More We present a novel system for real-time tracking of facial expressions using egocentric views captured from a set of infrared cameras embedded in a virtual reality (VR) headset. Our technology facilitates any user to accurately drive the facial expressions of virtual characters in a non-intrusive manner and without the need of a lengthy calibration step. At the core of our system is a distillation based approach to train a machine learning model on heterogeneous data and labels coming form multiple sources, \eg synthetic and real images. As part of our dataset, we collected 18k diverse subjects using a lightweight capture setup consisting of a mobile phone and a custom VR headset with extra cameras. To process this data, we developed a robust differentiable rendering pipeline enabling us to automatically extract facial expression labels. Our system opens up new avenues for communication and expression in virtual environments, with applications in video conferencing, gaming, entertainment, and remote collaboration. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: CVPR 2024 Workshop arXiv:2601.03444 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.HC Grading Scale Impact on LLM-as-a-Judge: Human-LLM Alignment Is Highest on 0-5 Grading Scale Authors: Weiyue Li , Minda Zhao , Weixuan Dong , Jiahui Cai , Yuze Wei , Michael Pocress , Yi Li , Wanyan Yuan , Xiaoyue Wang , Ruoyu Hou , Kaiyuan Lou , Wenqi Zeng , Yutong Yang , Yilun Du , Mengyu Wang Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used as automated evaluators, yet prior works demonstrate that these LLM judges often lack consistency in scoring when the prompt is altered. However, the effect of the grading scale itself remains underexplored. We study the LLM-as-a-judge problem by comparing two kinds of raters: humans and LLMs. We collect ratings from both groups on three scales an… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used as automated evaluators, yet prior works demonstrate that these LLM judges often lack consistency in scoring when the prompt is altered. However, the effect of the grading scale itself remains underexplored. We study the LLM-as-a-judge problem by comparing two kinds of raters: humans and LLMs. We collect ratings from both groups on three scales and across six benchmarks that include objective, open-ended subjective, and mixed tasks. Using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) to measure absolute agreement, we find that LLM judgments are not perfectly consistent across scales on subjective benchmarks, and that the choice of scale substantially shifts human-LLM agreement, even when within-group panel reliability is high. Aggregated over tasks, the grading scale of 0-5 yields the strongest human-LLM alignment. We further demonstrate that pooled reliability can mask benchmark heterogeneity and reveal systematic subgroup differences in alignment across gender groups, strengthening the importance of scale design and sub-level diagnostics as essential components of LLM-as-a-judge protocols. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03444 [ pdf , ps , other ] Grading Scale Impact on LLM-as-a-Judge: Human-LLM Alignment Is Highest on 0-5 Grading Scale Authors: Weiyue Li , Minda Zhao , Weixuan Dong , Jiahui Cai , Yuze Wei , Michael Pocress , Yi Li , Wanyan Yuan , Xiaoyue Wang , Ruoyu Hou , Kaiyuan Lou , Wenqi Zeng , Yutong Yang , Yilun Du , Mengyu Wang Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used as automated evaluators, yet prior works demonstrate that these LLM judges often lack consistency in scoring when the prompt is altered. However, the effect of the grading scale itself remains underexplored. We study the LLM-as-a-judge problem by comparing two kinds of raters: humans and LLMs. We collect ratings from both groups on three scales an… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used as automated evaluators, yet prior works demonstrate that these LLM judges often lack consistency in scoring when the prompt is altered. However, the effect of the grading scale itself remains underexplored. We study the LLM-as-a-judge problem by comparing two kinds of raters: humans and LLMs. We collect ratings from both groups on three scales and across six benchmarks that include objective, open-ended subjective, and mixed tasks. Using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) to measure absolute agreement, we find that LLM judgments are not perfectly consistent across scales on subjective benchmarks, and that the choice of scale substantially shifts human-LLM agreement, even when within-group panel reliability is high. Aggregated over tasks, the grading scale of 0-5 yields the strongest human-LLM alignment. We further demonstrate that pooled reliability can mask benchmark heterogeneity and reveal systematic subgroup differences in alignment across gender groups, strengthening the importance of scale design and sub-level diagnostics as essential components of LLM-as-a-judge protocols. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03267 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI OpenAI GPT-5 System Card Authors: Aaditya Singh , Adam Fry , Adam Perelman , Adam Tart , Adi Ganesh , Ahmed El-Kishky , Aidan McLaughlin , Aiden Low , AJ Ostrow , Akhila Ananthram , Akshay Nathan , Alan Luo , Alec Helyar , Aleksander Madry , Aleksandr Efremov , Aleksandra Spyra , Alex Baker-Whitcomb , Alex Beutel , Alex Karpenko , Alex Makelov , Alex Neitz , Alex Wei , Alexandra Barr , Alexandre Kirchmeyer , Alexey Ivanov , et al. (459 additional authors not shown) Abstract : This is the system card published alongside the OpenAI GPT-5 launch, August 2025. GPT-5 is a unified system with a smart and fast model that answers most questions, a deeper reasoning model for harder problems, and a real-time router that quickly decides which model to use based on conversation type, complexity, tool needs, and explicit intent (for example, if you say 'think hard about this' in… ▽ More This is the system card published alongside the OpenAI GPT-5 launch, August 2025. GPT-5 is a unified system with a smart and fast model that answers most questions, a deeper reasoning model for harder problems, and a real-time router that quickly decides which model to use based on conversation type, complexity, tool needs, and explicit intent (for example, if you say 'think hard about this' in the prompt). The router is continuously trained on real signals, including when users switch models, preference rates for responses, and measured correctness, improving over time. Once usage limits are reached, a mini version of each model handles remaining queries. This system card focuses primarily on gpt-5-thinking and gpt-5-main, while evaluations for other models are available in the appendix. The GPT-5 system not only outperforms previous models on benchmarks and answers questions more quickly, but -- more importantly -- is more useful for real-world queries. We've made significant advances in reducing hallucinations, improving instruction following, and minimizing sycophancy, and have leveled up GPT-5's performance in three of ChatGPT's most common uses: writing, coding, and health. All of the GPT-5 models additionally feature safe-completions, our latest approach to safety training to prevent disallowed content. Similarly to ChatGPT agent, we have decided to treat gpt-5-thinking as High capability in the Biological and Chemical domain under our Preparedness Framework, activating the associated safeguards. While we do not have definitive evidence that this model could meaningfully help a novice to create severe biological harm -- our defined threshold for High capability -- we have chosen to take a precautionary approach. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03267 [ pdf , ps , other ] OpenAI GPT-5 System Card Authors: Aaditya Singh , Adam Fry , Adam Perelman , Adam Tart , Adi Ganesh , Ahmed El-Kishky , Aidan McLaughlin , Aiden Low , AJ Ostrow , Akhila Ananthram , Akshay Nathan , Alan Luo , Alec Helyar , Aleksander Madry , Aleksandr Efremov , Aleksandra Spyra , Alex Baker-Whitcomb , Alex Beutel , Alex Karpenko , Alex Makelov , Alex Neitz , Alex Wei , Alexandra Barr , Alexandre Kirchmeyer , Alexey Ivanov , et al. (459 additional authors not shown) Abstract : This is the system card published alongside the OpenAI GPT-5 launch, August 2025. GPT-5 is a unified system with a smart and fast model that answers most questions, a deeper reasoning model for harder problems, and a real-time router that quickly decides which model to use based on conversation type, complexity, tool needs, and explicit intent (for example, if you say 'think hard about this' in… ▽ More This is the system card published alongside the OpenAI GPT-5 launch, August 2025. GPT-5 is a unified system with a smart and fast model that answers most questions, a deeper reasoning model for harder problems, and a real-time router that quickly decides which model to use based on conversation type, complexity, tool needs, and explicit intent (for example, if you say 'think hard about this' in the prompt). The router is continuously trained on real signals, including when users switch models, preference rates for responses, and measured correctness, improving over time. Once usage limits are reached, a mini version of each model handles remaining queries. This system card focuses primarily on gpt-5-thinking and gpt-5-main, while evaluations for other models are available in the appendix. The GPT-5 system not only outperforms previous models on benchmarks and answers questions more quickly, but -- more importantly -- is more useful for real-world queries. We've made significant advances in reducing hallucinations, improving instruction following, and minimizing sycophancy, and have leveled up GPT-5's performance in three of ChatGPT's most common uses: writing, coding, and health. All of the GPT-5 models additionally feature safe-completions, our latest approach to safety training to prevent disallowed content. Similarly to ChatGPT agent, we have decided to treat gpt-5-thinking as High capability in the Biological and Chemical domain under our Preparedness Framework, activating the associated safeguards. While we do not have definitive evidence that this model could meaningfully help a novice to create severe biological harm -- our defined threshold for High capability -- we have chosen to take a precautionary approach. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03261 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI DeepResearch-Slice: Bridging the Retrieval-Utilization Gap via Explicit Text Slicing Authors: Shuo Lu , Yinuo Xu , Jianjie Cheng , Lingxiao He , Meng Wang , Jian Liang Abstract : Deep Research agents predominantly optimize search policies to maximize retrieval probability. However, we identify a critical bottleneck: the retrieval-utilization gap, where models fail to use gold evidence even after it is retrieved, due to context blindness in noisy environments. To bridge this gap, we propose DeepResearch-Slice, a simple yet effective neuro-symbolic framework. Unlike implicit… ▽ More Deep Research agents predominantly optimize search policies to maximize retrieval probability. However, we identify a critical bottleneck: the retrieval-utilization gap, where models fail to use gold evidence even after it is retrieved, due to context blindness in noisy environments. To bridge this gap, we propose DeepResearch-Slice, a simple yet effective neuro-symbolic framework. Unlike implicit attention, our approach predicts precise span indices to perform a deterministic hard filter before reasoning. Extensive evaluations across six benchmarks show substantial robustness gains. Applying our method to frozen backbones yields a 73 percent relative improvement, from 19.1 percent to 33.0 percent, effectively mitigating noise without requiring parameter updates to the reasoning model. These results highlight the need for explicit grounding mechanisms in open-ended research. △ Less Submitted 16 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Ongoing work arXiv:2601.03261 [ pdf , ps , other ] DeepResearch-Slice: Bridging the Retrieval-Utilization Gap via Explicit Text Slicing Authors: Shuo Lu , Yinuo Xu , Jianjie Cheng , Lingxiao He , Meng Wang , Jian Liang Abstract : Deep Research agents predominantly optimize search policies to maximize retrieval probability. However, we identify a critical bottleneck: the retrieval-utilization gap, where models fail to use gold evidence even after it is retrieved, due to context blindness in noisy environments. To bridge this gap, we propose DeepResearch-Slice, a simple yet effective neuro-symbolic framework. Unlike implicit… ▽ More Deep Research agents predominantly optimize search policies to maximize retrieval probability. However, we identify a critical bottleneck: the retrieval-utilization gap, where models fail to use gold evidence even after it is retrieved, due to context blindness in noisy environments. To bridge this gap, we propose DeepResearch-Slice, a simple yet effective neuro-symbolic framework. Unlike implicit attention, our approach predicts precise span indices to perform a deterministic hard filter before reasoning. Extensive evaluations across six benchmarks show substantial robustness gains. Applying our method to frozen backbones yields a 73 percent relative improvement, from 19.1 percent to 33.0 percent, effectively mitigating noise without requiring parameter updates to the reasoning model. These results highlight the need for explicit grounding mechanisms in open-ended research. △ Less Submitted 16 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Ongoing work arXiv:2601.02762 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO Unified Meta-Representation and Feedback Calibration for General Disturbance Estimation Authors: Zihan Yang , Jindou Jia , Meng Wang , Yuhang Liu , Kexin Guo , Xiang Yu Abstract : Precise control in modern robotic applications is always an open issue due to unknown time-varying disturbances. Existing meta-learning-based approaches require a shared representation of environmental structures, which lack flexibility for realistic non-structural disturbances. Besides, representation error and the distribution shifts can lead to heavy degradation in prediction accuracy. This wor… ▽ More Precise control in modern robotic applications is always an open issue due to unknown time-varying disturbances. Existing meta-learning-based approaches require a shared representation of environmental structures, which lack flexibility for realistic non-structural disturbances. Besides, representation error and the distribution shifts can lead to heavy degradation in prediction accuracy. This work presents a generalizable disturbance estimation framework that builds on meta-learning and feedback-calibrated online adaptation. By extracting features from a finite time window of past observations, a unified representation that effectively captures general non-structural disturbances can be learned without predefined structural assumptions. The online adaptation process is subsequently calibrated by a state-feedback mechanism to attenuate the learning residual originating from the representation and generalizability limitations. Theoretical analysis shows that simultaneous convergence of both the online learning error and the disturbance estimation error can be achieved. Through the unified meta-representation, our framework effectively estimates multiple rapidly changing disturbances, as demonstrated by quadrotor flight experiments. See the project page for video, supplementary material and code: △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 8 pages, 10 figures arXiv:2601.02762 [ pdf , ps , other ] Unified Meta-Representation and Feedback Calibration for General Disturbance Estimation Authors: Zihan Yang , Jindou Jia , Meng Wang , Yuhang Liu , Kexin Guo , Xiang Yu Abstract : Precise control in modern robotic applications is always an open issue due to unknown time-varying disturbances. Existing meta-learning-based approaches require a shared representation of environmental structures, which lack flexibility for realistic non-structural disturbances. Besides, representation error and the distribution shifts can lead to heavy degradation in prediction accuracy. This wor… ▽ More Precise control in modern robotic applications is always an open issue due to unknown time-varying disturbances. Existing meta-learning-based approaches require a shared representation of environmental structures, which lack flexibility for realistic non-structural disturbances. Besides, representation error and the distribution shifts can lead to heavy degradation in prediction accuracy. This work presents a generalizable disturbance estimation framework that builds on meta-learning and feedback-calibrated online adaptation. By extracting features from a finite time window of past observations, a unified representation that effectively captures general non-structural disturbances can be learned without predefined structural assumptions. The online adaptation process is subsequently calibrated by a state-feedback mechanism to attenuate the learning residual originating from the representation and generalizability limitations. Theoretical analysis shows that simultaneous convergence of both the online learning error and the disturbance estimation error can be achieved. Through the unified meta-representation, our framework effectively estimates multiple rapidly changing disturbances, as demonstrated by quadrotor flight experiments. See the project page for video, supplementary material and code: △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 8 pages, 10 figures arXiv:2601.01993 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI MindChat: A Privacy-preserving Large Language Model for Mental Health Support Authors: Dong Xue , Jicheng Tu , Ming Wang , Xin Yan , Fangzhou Liu , Jie Hu Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have shown promise for mental health support, yet training such models is constrained by the scarcity and sensitivity of real counseling dialogues. In this article, we present MindChat, a privacy-preserving LLM for mental health support, together with MindCorpus, a synthetic multi-turn counseling dataset constructed via a multi-agent role-playing framework. To synthesi… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have shown promise for mental health support, yet training such models is constrained by the scarcity and sensitivity of real counseling dialogues. In this article, we present MindChat, a privacy-preserving LLM for mental health support, together with MindCorpus, a synthetic multi-turn counseling dataset constructed via a multi-agent role-playing framework. To synthesize high-quality counseling data, the developed dialogue-construction framework employs a dual closed-loop feedback design to integrate psychological expertise and counseling techniques through role-playing: (i) turn-level critique-and-revision to improve coherence and counseling appropriateness within a session, and (ii) session-level strategy refinement to progressively enrich counselor behaviors across sessions. To mitigate privacy risks under decentralized data ownership, we fine-tune the base model using federated learning with parameter-efficient LoRA adapters and incorporate differentially private optimization to reduce membership and memorization risks. Experiments on synthetic-data quality assessment and counseling capability evaluation show that MindCorpus improves training effectiveness and that MindChat is competitive with existing general and counseling-oriented LLM baselines under both automatic LLM-judge and human evaluation protocols, while exhibiting reduced privacy leakage under membership inference attacks. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 33 pages, 16 figures arXiv:2601.01993 [ pdf , ps , other ] MindChat: A Privacy-preserving Large Language Model for Mental Health Support Authors: Dong Xue , Jicheng Tu , Ming Wang , Xin Yan , Fangzhou Liu , Jie Hu Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have shown promise for mental health support, yet training such models is constrained by the scarcity and sensitivity of real counseling dialogues. In this article, we present MindChat, a privacy-preserving LLM for mental health support, together with MindCorpus, a synthetic multi-turn counseling dataset constructed via a multi-agent role-playing framework. To synthesi… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have shown promise for mental health support, yet training such models is constrained by the scarcity and sensitivity of real counseling dialogues. In this article, we present MindChat, a privacy-preserving LLM for mental health support, together with MindCorpus, a synthetic multi-turn counseling dataset constructed via a multi-agent role-playing framework. To synthesize high-quality counseling data, the developed dialogue-construction framework employs a dual closed-loop feedback design to integrate psychological expertise and counseling techniques through role-playing: (i) turn-level critique-and-revision to improve coherence and counseling appropriateness within a session, and (ii) session-level strategy refinement to progressively enrich counselor behaviors across sessions. To mitigate privacy risks under decentralized data ownership, we fine-tune the base model using federated learning with parameter-efficient LoRA adapters and incorporate differentially private optimization to reduce membership and memorization risks. Experiments on synthetic-data quality assessment and counseling capability evaluation show that MindCorpus improves training effectiveness and that MindChat is competitive with existing general and counseling-oriented LLM baselines under both automatic LLM-judge and human evaluation protocols, while exhibiting reduced privacy leakage under membership inference attacks. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 33 pages, 16 figures arXiv:2601.01950 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Face Normal Estimation from Rags to Riches Authors: Meng Wang , Wenjing Dai , Jiawan Zhang , Xiaojie Guo Abstract : Although recent approaches to face normal estimation have achieved promising results, their effectiveness heavily depends on large-scale paired data for training. This paper concentrates on relieving this requirement via developing a coarse-to-fine normal estimator. Concretely, our method first trains a neat model from a small dataset to produce coarse face normals that perform as guidance (called… ▽ More Although recent approaches to face normal estimation have achieved promising results, their effectiveness heavily depends on large-scale paired data for training. This paper concentrates on relieving this requirement via developing a coarse-to-fine normal estimator. Concretely, our method first trains a neat model from a small dataset to produce coarse face normals that perform as guidance (called exemplars) for the following refinement. A self-attention mechanism is employed to capture long-range dependencies, thus remedying severe local artifacts left in estimated coarse facial normals. Then, a refinement network is customized for the sake of mapping input face images together with corresponding exemplars to fine-grained high-quality facial normals. Such a logical function split can significantly cut the requirement of massive paired data and computational resource. Extensive experiments and ablation studies are conducted to demonstrate the efficacy of our design and reveal its superiority over state-of-the-art methods in terms of both training expense as well as estimation quality. Our code and models are open-sourced at: △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01950 [ pdf , ps , other ] Face Normal Estimation from Rags to Riches Authors: Meng Wang , Wenjing Dai , Jiawan Zhang , Xiaojie Guo Abstract : Although recent approaches to face normal estimation have achieved promising results, their effectiveness heavily depends on large-scale paired data for training. This paper concentrates on relieving this requirement via developing a coarse-to-fine normal estimator. Concretely, our method first trains a neat model from a small dataset to produce coarse face normals that perform as guidance (called… ▽ More Although recent approaches to face normal estimation have achieved promising results, their effectiveness heavily depends on large-scale paired data for training. This paper concentrates on relieving this requirement via developing a coarse-to-fine normal estimator. Concretely, our method first trains a neat model from a small dataset to produce coarse face normals that perform as guidance (called exemplars) for the following refinement. A self-attention mechanism is employed to capture long-range dependencies, thus remedying severe local artifacts left in estimated coarse facial normals. Then, a refinement network is customized for the sake of mapping input face images together with corresponding exemplars to fine-grained high-quality facial normals. Such a logical function split can significantly cut the requirement of massive paired data and computational resource. Extensive experiments and ablation studies are conducted to demonstrate the efficacy of our design and reveal its superiority over state-of-the-art methods in terms of both training expense as well as estimation quality. Our code and models are open-sourced at: △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01498 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL From Failure to Mastery: Generating Hard Samples for Tool-use Agents Authors: Bingguang Hao , Zengzhuang Xu , Yuntao Wen , Xinyi Xu , Yang Liu , Tong Zhao , Maolin Wang , Long Chen , Dong Wang , Yicheng Chen , Cunyin Peng , Xiangyu Zhao , Chenyi Zhuang , Ji Zhang Abstract : The advancement of LLM agents with tool-use capabilities requires diverse and complex training corpora. Existing data generation methods, which predominantly follow a paradigm of random sampling and shallow generation, often yield simple and homogeneous trajectories that fail to capture complex, implicit logical dependencies. To bridge this gap, we introduce HardGen, an automatic agentic pipeline… ▽ More The advancement of LLM agents with tool-use capabilities requires diverse and complex training corpora. Existing data generation methods, which predominantly follow a paradigm of random sampling and shallow generation, often yield simple and homogeneous trajectories that fail to capture complex, implicit logical dependencies. To bridge this gap, we introduce HardGen, an automatic agentic pipeline designed to generate hard tool-use training samples with verifiable reasoning. Firstly, HardGen establishes a dynamic API Graph built upon agent failure cases, from which it samples to synthesize hard traces. Secondly, these traces serve as conditional priors to guide the instantiation of modular, abstract advanced tools, which are subsequently leveraged to formulate hard queries. Finally, the advanced tools and hard queries enable the generation of verifiable complex Chain-of-Thought (CoT), with a closed-loop evaluation feedback steering the continuous refinement of the process. Extensive evaluations demonstrate that a 4B parameter model trained with our curated dataset achieves superior performance compared to several leading open-source and closed-source competitors (e.g., GPT-5.2, Gemini-3-Pro and Claude-Opus-4.5). Our code, models, and dataset will be open-sourced to facilitate future research. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01498 [ pdf , ps , other ] From Failure to Mastery: Generating Hard Samples for Tool-use Agents Authors: Bingguang Hao , Zengzhuang Xu , Yuntao Wen , Xinyi Xu , Yang Liu , Tong Zhao , Maolin Wang , Long Chen , Dong Wang , Yicheng Chen , Cunyin Peng , Xiangyu Zhao , Chenyi Zhuang , Ji Zhang Abstract : The advancement of LLM agents with tool-use capabilities requires diverse and complex training corpora. Existing data generation methods, which predominantly follow a paradigm of random sampling and shallow generation, often yield simple and homogeneous trajectories that fail to capture complex, implicit logical dependencies. To bridge this gap, we introduce HardGen, an automatic agentic pipeline… ▽ More The advancement of LLM agents with tool-use capabilities requires diverse and complex training corpora. Existing data generation methods, which predominantly follow a paradigm of random sampling and shallow generation, often yield simple and homogeneous trajectories that fail to capture complex, implicit logical dependencies. To bridge this gap, we introduce HardGen, an automatic agentic pipeline designed to generate hard tool-use training samples with verifiable reasoning. Firstly, HardGen establishes a dynamic API Graph built upon agent failure cases, from which it samples to synthesize hard traces. Secondly, these traces serve as conditional priors to guide the instantiation of modular, abstract advanced tools, which are subsequently leveraged to formulate hard queries. Finally, the advanced tools and hard queries enable the generation of verifiable complex Chain-of-Thought (CoT), with a closed-loop evaluation feedback steering the continuous refinement of the process. Extensive evaluations demonstrate that a 4B parameter model trained with our curated dataset achieves superior performance compared to several leading open-source and closed-source competitors (e.g., GPT-5.2, Gemini-3-Pro and Claude-Opus-4.5). Our code, models, and dataset will be open-sourced to facilitate future research. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00882 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.PL BALI: Branch-Aware Loop Invariant Inference with Large Language Models Authors: Mingxiu Wang , Jiawei Wang , Xiao Cheng Abstract : Loop invariants are fundamental for reasoning about the correctness of iterative algorithms. However, deriving suitable invariants remains a challenging and often manual task, particularly for complex programs. In this paper, we introduce BALI, a branch-aware framework that integrates large language models (LLMs) to enhance the inference and verification of loop invariants. Our approach combines a… ▽ More Loop invariants are fundamental for reasoning about the correctness of iterative algorithms. However, deriving suitable invariants remains a challenging and often manual task, particularly for complex programs. In this paper, we introduce BALI, a branch-aware framework that integrates large language models (LLMs) to enhance the inference and verification of loop invariants. Our approach combines automated reasoning with branch-aware static program analysis to improve both precision and scalability. Specifically, unlike prior LLM-only guess-and-check methods, BALI first verifies branch-sequence-level (path-level) clauses with SMT and then composes them into program-level invariants. We outline its key components, present preliminary results, and discuss future directions toward fully automated invariant discovery. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 4 pages, 1 figure, AAAI-26 Bridge Program B10: Making Embodied AI Reliable with Testing and Formal Verification arXiv:2601.00882 [ pdf , ps , other ] BALI: Branch-Aware Loop Invariant Inference with Large Language Models Authors: Mingxiu Wang , Jiawei Wang , Xiao Cheng Abstract : Loop invariants are fundamental for reasoning about the correctness of iterative algorithms. However, deriving suitable invariants remains a challenging and often manual task, particularly for complex programs. In this paper, we introduce BALI, a branch-aware framework that integrates large language models (LLMs) to enhance the inference and verification of loop invariants. Our approach combines a… ▽ More Loop invariants are fundamental for reasoning about the correctness of iterative algorithms. However, deriving suitable invariants remains a challenging and often manual task, particularly for complex programs. In this paper, we introduce BALI, a branch-aware framework that integrates large language models (LLMs) to enhance the inference and verification of loop invariants. Our approach combines automated reasoning with branch-aware static program analysis to improve both precision and scalability. Specifically, unlike prior LLM-only guess-and-check methods, BALI first verifies branch-sequence-level (path-level) clauses with SMT and then composes them into program-level invariants. We outline its key components, present preliminary results, and discuss future directions toward fully automated invariant discovery. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 4 pages, 1 figure, AAAI-26 Bridge Program B10: Making Embodied AI Reliable with Testing and Formal Verification arXiv:2601.00504 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.GR MotionPhysics: Learnable Motion Distillation for Text-Guided Simulation Authors: Miaowei Wang , Jakub Zadrożny , Oisin Mac Aodha , Amir Vaxman Abstract : Accurately simulating existing 3D objects and a wide variety of materials often demands expert knowledge and time-consuming physical parameter tuning to achieve the desired dynamic behavior. We introduce MotionPhysics, an end-to-end differentiable framework that infers plausible physical parameters from a user-provided natural language prompt for a chosen 3D scene of interest, removing the need fo… ▽ More Accurately simulating existing 3D objects and a wide variety of materials often demands expert knowledge and time-consuming physical parameter tuning to achieve the desired dynamic behavior. We introduce MotionPhysics, an end-to-end differentiable framework that infers plausible physical parameters from a user-provided natural language prompt for a chosen 3D scene of interest, removing the need for guidance from ground-truth trajectories or annotated videos. Our approach first utilizes a multimodal large language model to estimate material parameter values, which are constrained to lie within plausible ranges. We further propose a learnable motion distillation loss that extracts robust motion priors from pretrained video diffusion models while minimizing appearance and geometry inductive biases to guide the simulation. We evaluate MotionPhysics across more than thirty scenarios, including real-world, human-designed, and AI-generated 3D objects, spanning a wide range of materials such as elastic solids, metals, foams, sand, and both Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. We demonstrate that MotionPhysics produces visually realistic dynamic simulations guided by natural language, surpassing the state of the art while automatically determining physically plausible parameters. The code and project page are available at: △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: AAAI2026 Accepted arXiv:2601.00504 [ pdf , ps , other ] MotionPhysics: Learnable Motion Distillation for Text-Guided Simulation Authors: Miaowei Wang , Jakub Zadrożny , Oisin Mac Aodha , Amir Vaxman Abstract : Accurately simulating existing 3D objects and a wide variety of materials often demands expert knowledge and time-consuming physical parameter tuning to achieve the desired dynamic behavior. We introduce MotionPhysics, an end-to-end differentiable framework that infers plausible physical parameters from a user-provided natural language prompt for a chosen 3D scene of interest, removing the need fo… ▽ More Accurately simulating existing 3D objects and a wide variety of materials often demands expert knowledge and time-consuming physical parameter tuning to achieve the desired dynamic behavior. We introduce MotionPhysics, an end-to-end differentiable framework that infers plausible physical parameters from a user-provided natural language prompt for a chosen 3D scene of interest, removing the need for guidance from ground-truth trajectories or annotated videos. Our approach first utilizes a multimodal large language model to estimate material parameter values, which are constrained to lie within plausible ranges. We further propose a learnable motion distillation loss that extracts robust motion priors from pretrained video diffusion models while minimizing appearance and geometry inductive biases to guide the simulation. We evaluate MotionPhysics across more than thirty scenarios, including real-world, human-designed, and AI-generated 3D objects, spanning a wide range of materials such as elastic solids, metals, foams, sand, and both Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. We demonstrate that MotionPhysics produces visually realistic dynamic simulations guided by natural language, surpassing the state of the art while automatically determining physically plausible parameters. The code and project page are available at: △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: AAAI2026 Accepted arXiv:2601.00417 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI cs.CL cs.CV Deep Delta Learning Authors: Yifan Zhang , Yifeng Liu , Mengdi Wang , Quanquan Gu Abstract : The efficacy of deep residual networks is fundamentally predicated on the identity shortcut connection. While this mechanism effectively mitigates the vanishing gradient problem, it imposes a strictly additive inductive bias on feature transformations, thereby limiting the network's capacity to model complex state transitions. In this paper, we introduce Deep Delta Learning (DDL), a novel architec… ▽ More The efficacy of deep residual networks is fundamentally predicated on the identity shortcut connection. While this mechanism effectively mitigates the vanishing gradient problem, it imposes a strictly additive inductive bias on feature transformations, thereby limiting the network's capacity to model complex state transitions. In this paper, we introduce Deep Delta Learning (DDL), a novel architecture that generalizes the standard residual connection by modulating the identity shortcut with a learnable, data-dependent geometric transformation. This transformation, termed the Delta Operator, constitutes a rank-1 perturbation of the identity matrix, parameterized by a reflection direction vector $\mathbf{k}(\mathbf{X})$ and a gating scalar $β(\mathbf{X})$. We provide a spectral analysis of this operator, demonstrating that the gate $β(\mathbf{X})$ enables dynamic interpolation between identity mapping, orthogonal projection, and geometric reflection. Furthermore, we restructure the residual update as a synchronous rank-1 injection, where the gate acts as a dynamic step size governing both the erasure of old information and the writing of new features. This unification empowers the network to explicitly control the spectrum of its layer-wise transition operator, enabling the modeling of complex, non-monotonic dynamics while preserving the stable training characteristics of gated residual architectures. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project Page: arXiv:2601.00417 [ pdf , ps , other ] Deep Delta Learning Authors: Yifan Zhang , Yifeng Liu , Mengdi Wang , Quanquan Gu Abstract : The efficacy of deep residual networks is fundamentally predicated on the identity shortcut connection. While this mechanism effectively mitigates the vanishing gradient problem, it imposes a strictly additive inductive bias on feature transformations, thereby limiting the network's capacity to model complex state transitions. In this paper, we introduce Deep Delta Learning (DDL), a novel architec… ▽ More The efficacy of deep residual networks is fundamentally predicated on the identity shortcut connection. While this mechanism effectively mitigates the vanishing gradient problem, it imposes a strictly additive inductive bias on feature transformations, thereby limiting the network's capacity to model complex state transitions. In this paper, we introduce Deep Delta Learning (DDL), a novel architecture that generalizes the standard residual connection by modulating the identity shortcut with a learnable, data-dependent geometric transformation. This transformation, termed the Delta Operator, constitutes a rank-1 perturbation of the identity matrix, parameterized by a reflection direction vector $\mathbf{k}(\mathbf{X})$ and a gating scalar $β(\mathbf{X})$. We provide a spectral analysis of this operator, demonstrating that the gate $β(\mathbf{X})$ enables dynamic interpolation between identity mapping, orthogonal projection, and geometric reflection. Furthermore, we restructure the residual update as a synchronous rank-1 injection, where the gate acts as a dynamic step size governing both the erasure of old information and the writing of new features. This unification empowers the network to explicitly control the spectrum of its layer-wise transition operator, enabling the modeling of complex, non-monotonic dynamics while preserving the stable training characteristics of gated residual architectures. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project Page: arXiv:2601.00400 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Adaptive Causal Coordination Detection for Social Media: A Memory-Guided Framework with Semi-Supervised Learning Authors: Weng Ding , Yi Han , Mu-Jiang-Shan Wang Abstract : Detecting coordinated inauthentic behavior on social media remains a critical and persistent challenge, as most existing approaches rely on superficial correlation analysis, employ static parameter settings, and demand extensive and labor-intensive manual annotation. To address these limitations systematically, we propose the Adaptive Causal Coordination Detection (ACCD) framework. ACCD adopts a t… ▽ More Detecting coordinated inauthentic behavior on social media remains a critical and persistent challenge, as most existing approaches rely on superficial correlation analysis, employ static parameter settings, and demand extensive and labor-intensive manual annotation. To address these limitations systematically, we propose the Adaptive Causal Coordination Detection (ACCD) framework. ACCD adopts a three-stage, progressive architecture that leverages a memory-guided adaptive mechanism to dynamically learn and retain optimal detection configurations for diverse coordination scenarios. Specifically, in the first stage, ACCD introduces an adaptive Convergent Cross Mapping (CCM) technique to deeply identify genuine causal relationships between accounts. The second stage integrates active learning with uncertainty sampling within a semi-supervised classification scheme, significantly reducing the burden of manual labeling. The third stage deploys an automated validation module driven by historical detection experience, enabling self-verification and optimization of the detection outcomes. We conduct a comprehensive evaluation using real-world datasets, including the Twitter IRA dataset, Reddit coordination traces, and several widely-adopted bot detection benchmarks. Experimental results demonstrate that ACCD achieves an F1-score of 87.3\% in coordinated attack detection, representing a 15.2\% improvement over the strongest existing baseline. Furthermore, the system reduces manual annotation requirements by 68\% and achieves a 2.8x speedup in processing through hierarchical clustering optimization. In summary, ACCD provides a more accurate, efficient, and highly automated end-to-end solution for identifying coordinated behavior on social platforms, offering substantial practical value and promising potential for broad application. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 15 pages, 8 figures. Under review arXiv:2601.00400 [ pdf , ps , other ] Adaptive Causal Coordination Detection for Social Media: A Memory-Guided Framework with Semi-Supervised Learning Authors: Weng Ding , Yi Han , Mu-Jiang-Shan Wang Abstract : Detecting coordinated inauthentic behavior on social media remains a critical and persistent challenge, as most existing approaches rely on superficial correlation analysis, employ static parameter settings, and demand extensive and labor-intensive manual annotation. To address these limitations systematically, we propose the Adaptive Causal Coordination Detection (ACCD) framework. ACCD adopts a t… ▽ More Detecting coordinated inauthentic behavior on social media remains a critical and persistent challenge, as most existing approaches rely on superficial correlation analysis, employ static parameter settings, and demand extensive and labor-intensive manual annotation. To address these limitations systematically, we propose the Adaptive Causal Coordination Detection (ACCD) framework. ACCD adopts a three-stage, progressive architecture that leverages a memory-guided adaptive mechanism to dynamically learn and retain optimal detection configurations for diverse coordination scenarios. Specifically, in the first stage, ACCD introduces an adaptive Convergent Cross Mapping (CCM) technique to deeply identify genuine causal relationships between accounts. The second stage integrates active learning with uncertainty sampling within a semi-supervised classification scheme, significantly reducing the burden of manual labeling. The third stage deploys an automated validation module driven by historical detection experience, enabling self-verification and optimization of the detection outcomes. We conduct a comprehensive evaluation using real-world datasets, including the Twitter IRA dataset, Reddit coordination traces, and several widely-adopted bot detection benchmarks. Experimental results demonstrate that ACCD achieves an F1-score of 87.3\% in coordinated attack detection, representing a 15.2\% improvement over the strongest existing baseline. Furthermore, the system reduces manual annotation requirements by 68\% and achieves a 2.8x speedup in processing through hierarchical clustering optimization. In summary, ACCD provides a more accurate, efficient, and highly automated end-to-end solution for identifying coordinated behavior on social platforms, offering substantial practical value and promising potential for broad application. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 15 pages, 8 figures. Under review arXiv:2601.00296 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV TimeColor: Flexible Reference Colorization via Temporal Concatenation Authors: Bryan Constantine Sadihin , Yihao Meng , Michael Hua Wang , Matteo Jiahao Chen , Hang Su Abstract : Most colorization models condition only on a single reference, typically the first frame of the scene. However, this approach ignores other sources of conditional data, such as character sheets, background images, or arbitrary colorized frames. We propose TimeColor, a sketch-based video colorization model that supports heterogeneous, variable-count references with the use of explicit per-reference… ▽ More Most colorization models condition only on a single reference, typically the first frame of the scene. However, this approach ignores other sources of conditional data, such as character sheets, background images, or arbitrary colorized frames. We propose TimeColor, a sketch-based video colorization model that supports heterogeneous, variable-count references with the use of explicit per-reference region assignment. TimeColor encodes references as additional latent frames which are concatenated temporally, permitting them to be processed concurrently in each diffusion step while keeping the model's parameter count fixed. TimeColor also uses spatiotemporal correspondence-masked attention to enforce subject-reference binding in addition to modality-disjoint RoPE indexing. These mechanisms mitigate shortcutting and cross-identity palette leakage. Experiments on SAKUGA-42M under both single- and multi-reference protocols show that TimeColor improves color fidelity, identity consistency, and temporal stability over prior baselines. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Demo samples are available at: arXiv:2601.00296 [ pdf , ps , other ] TimeColor: Flexible Reference Colorization via Temporal Concatenation Authors: Bryan Constantine Sadihin , Yihao Meng , Michael Hua Wang , Matteo Jiahao Chen , Hang Su Abstract : Most colorization models condition only on a single reference, typically the first frame of the scene. However, this approach ignores other sources of conditional data, such as character sheets, background images, or arbitrary colorized frames. We propose TimeColor, a sketch-based video colorization model that supports heterogeneous, variable-count references with the use of explicit per-reference… ▽ More Most colorization models condition only on a single reference, typically the first frame of the scene. However, this approach ignores other sources of conditional data, such as character sheets, background images, or arbitrary colorized frames. We propose TimeColor, a sketch-based video colorization model that supports heterogeneous, variable-count references with the use of explicit per-reference region assignment. TimeColor encodes references as additional latent frames which are concatenated temporally, permitting them to be processed concurrently in each diffusion step while keeping the model's parameter count fixed. TimeColor also uses spatiotemporal correspondence-masked attention to enforce subject-reference binding in addition to modality-disjoint RoPE indexing. These mechanisms mitigate shortcutting and cross-identity palette leakage. Experiments on SAKUGA-42M under both single- and multi-reference protocols show that TimeColor improves color fidelity, identity consistency, and temporal stability over prior baselines. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Demo samples are available at: arXiv:2601.00202 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Knowledge Distillation for Temporal Knowledge Graph Reasoning with Large Language Models Authors: Wang Xing , Wei Song , Siyu Lin , Chen Wu , Zhesi Li , Man Wang Abstract : Reasoning over temporal knowledge graphs (TKGs) is fundamental to improving the efficiency and reliability of intelligent decision-making systems and has become a key technological foundation for future artificial intelligence applications. Despite recent progress, existing TKG reasoning models typically rely on large parameter sizes and intensive computation, leading to high hardware costs and en… ▽ More Reasoning over temporal knowledge graphs (TKGs) is fundamental to improving the efficiency and reliability of intelligent decision-making systems and has become a key technological foundation for future artificial intelligence applications. Despite recent progress, existing TKG reasoning models typically rely on large parameter sizes and intensive computation, leading to high hardware costs and energy consumption. These constraints hinder their deployment on resource-constrained, low-power, and distributed platforms that require real-time inference. Moreover, most existing model compression and distillation techniques are designed for static knowledge graphs and fail to adequately capture the temporal dependencies inherent in TKGs, often resulting in degraded reasoning performance. To address these challenges, we propose a distillation framework specifically tailored for temporal knowledge graph reasoning. Our approach leverages large language models as teacher models to guide the distillation process, enabling effective transfer of both structural and temporal reasoning capabilities to lightweight student models. By integrating large-scale public knowledge with task-specific temporal information, the proposed framework enhances the student model's ability to model temporal dynamics while maintaining a compact and efficient architecture. Extensive experiments on multiple publicly available benchmark datasets demonstrate that our method consistently outperforms strong baselines, achieving a favorable trade-off between reasoning accuracy, computational efficiency, and practical deployability. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00202 [ pdf , ps , other ] Knowledge Distillation for Temporal Knowledge Graph Reasoning with Large Language Models Authors: Wang Xing , Wei Song , Siyu Lin , Chen Wu , Zhesi Li , Man Wang Abstract : Reasoning over temporal knowledge graphs (TKGs) is fundamental to improving the efficiency and reliability of intelligent decision-making systems and has become a key technological foundation for future artificial intelligence applications. Despite recent progress, existing TKG reasoning models typically rely on large parameter sizes and intensive computation, leading to high hardware costs and en… ▽ More Reasoning over temporal knowledge graphs (TKGs) is fundamental to improving the efficiency and reliability of intelligent decision-making systems and has become a key technological foundation for future artificial intelligence applications. Despite recent progress, existing TKG reasoning models typically rely on large parameter sizes and intensive computation, leading to high hardware costs and energy consumption. These constraints hinder their deployment on resource-constrained, low-power, and distributed platforms that require real-time inference. Moreover, most existing model compression and distillation techniques are designed for static knowledge graphs and fail to adequately capture the temporal dependencies inherent in TKGs, often resulting in degraded reasoning performance. To address these challenges, we propose a distillation framework specifically tailored for temporal knowledge graph reasoning. Our approach leverages large language models as teacher models to guide the distillation process, enabling effective transfer of both structural and temporal reasoning capabilities to lightweight student models. By integrating large-scale public knowledge with task-specific temporal information, the proposed framework enhances the student model's ability to model temporal dynamics while maintaining a compact and efficient architecture. Extensive experiments on multiple publicly available benchmark datasets demonstrate that our method consistently outperforms strong baselines, achieving a favorable trade-off between reasoning accuracy, computational efficiency, and practical deployability. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2512.24885 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.GT cs.MA BEDA: Belief Estimation as Probabilistic Constraints for Performing Strategic Dialogue Acts Authors: Hengli Li , Zhaoxin Yu , Qi Shen , Chenxi Li , Mengmeng Wang , Tinglang Wu , Yipeng Kang , Yuxuan Wang , Song-Chun Zhu , Zixia Jia , Zilong Zheng Abstract : Strategic dialogue requires agents to execute distinct dialogue acts, for which belief estimation is essential. While prior work often estimates beliefs accurately, it lacks a principled mechanism to use those beliefs during generation. We bridge this gap by first formalizing two core acts Adversarial and Alignment, and by operationalizing them via probabilistic constraints on what an agent may ge… ▽ More Strategic dialogue requires agents to execute distinct dialogue acts, for which belief estimation is essential. While prior work often estimates beliefs accurately, it lacks a principled mechanism to use those beliefs during generation. We bridge this gap by first formalizing two core acts Adversarial and Alignment, and by operationalizing them via probabilistic constraints on what an agent may generate. We instantiate this idea in BEDA, a framework that consists of the world set, the belief estimator for belief estimation, and the conditional generator that selects acts and realizes utterances consistent with the inferred beliefs. Across three settings, Conditional Keeper Burglar (CKBG, adversarial), Mutual Friends (MF, cooperative), and CaSiNo (negotiation), BEDA consistently outperforms strong baselines: on CKBG it improves success rate by at least 5.0 points across backbones and by 20.6 points with GPT-4.1-nano; on Mutual Friends it achieves an average improvement of 9.3 points; and on CaSiNo it achieves the optimal deal relative to all baselines. These results indicate that casting belief estimation as constraints provides a simple, general mechanism for reliable strategic dialogue. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAMAS 2026 arXiv:2512.24885 [ pdf , ps , other ] BEDA: Belief Estimation as Probabilistic Constraints for Performing Strategic Dialogue Acts Authors: Hengli Li , Zhaoxin Yu , Qi Shen , Chenxi Li , Mengmeng Wang , Tinglang Wu , Yipeng Kang , Yuxuan Wang , Song-Chun Zhu , Zixia Jia , Zilong Zheng Abstract : Strategic dialogue requires agents to execute distinct dialogue acts, for which belief estimation is essential. While prior work often estimates beliefs accurately, it lacks a principled mechanism to use those beliefs during generation. We bridge this gap by first formalizing two core acts Adversarial and Alignment, and by operationalizing them via probabilistic constraints on what an agent may ge… ▽ More Strategic dialogue requires agents to execute distinct dialogue acts, for which belief estimation is essential. While prior work often estimates beliefs accurately, it lacks a principled mechanism to use those beliefs during generation. We bridge this gap by first formalizing two core acts Adversarial and Alignment, and by operationalizing them via probabilistic constraints on what an agent may generate. We instantiate this idea in BEDA, a framework that consists of the world set, the belief estimator for belief estimation, and the conditional generator that selects acts and realizes utterances consistent with the inferred beliefs. Across three settings, Conditional Keeper Burglar (CKBG, adversarial), Mutual Friends (MF, cooperative), and CaSiNo (negotiation), BEDA consistently outperforms strong baselines: on CKBG it improves success rate by at least 5.0 points across backbones and by 20.6 points with GPT-4.1-nano; on Mutual Friends it achieves an average improvement of 9.3 points; and on CaSiNo it achieves the optimal deal relative to all baselines. These results indicate that casting belief estimation as constraints provides a simple, general mechanism for reliable strategic dialogue. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAMAS 2026 arXiv:2512.24663 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Renormalization Group Guided Tensor Network Structure Search Authors: Maolin Wang , Bowen Yu , Sheng Zhang , Linjie Mi , Wanyu Wang , Yiqi Wang , Pengyue Jia , Xuetao Wei , Zenglin Xu , Ruocheng Guo , Xiangyu Zhao Abstract : Tensor network structure search (TN-SS) aims to automatically discover optimal network topologies and rank configurations for efficient tensor decomposition in high-dimensional data representation. Despite recent advances, existing TN-SS methods face significant limitations in computational tractability, structure adaptivity, and optimization robustness across diverse tensor characteristics. They… ▽ More Tensor network structure search (TN-SS) aims to automatically discover optimal network topologies and rank configurations for efficient tensor decomposition in high-dimensional data representation. Despite recent advances, existing TN-SS methods face significant limitations in computational tractability, structure adaptivity, and optimization robustness across diverse tensor characteristics. They struggle with three key challenges: single-scale optimization missing multi-scale structures, discrete search spaces hindering smooth structure evolution, and separated structure-parameter optimization causing computational inefficiency. We propose RGTN (Renormalization Group guided Tensor Network search), a physics-inspired framework transforming TN-SS via multi-scale renormalization group flows. Unlike fixed-scale discrete search methods, RGTN uses dynamic scale-transformation for continuous structure evolution across resolutions. Its core innovation includes learnable edge gates for optimization-stage topology modification and intelligent proposals based on physical quantities like node tension measuring local stress and edge information flow quantifying connectivity importance. Starting from low-complexity coarse scales and refining to finer ones, RGTN finds compact structures while escaping local minima via scale-induced perturbations. Extensive experiments on light field data, high-order synthetic tensors, and video completion tasks show RGTN achieves state-of-the-art compression ratios and runs 4-600$\times$ faster than existing methods, validating the effectiveness of our physics-inspired approach. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2512.24663 [ pdf , ps , other ] Renormalization Group Guided Tensor Network Structure Search Authors: Maolin Wang , Bowen Yu , Sheng Zhang , Linjie Mi , Wanyu Wang , Yiqi Wang , Pengyue Jia , Xuetao Wei , Zenglin Xu , Ruocheng Guo , Xiangyu Zhao Abstract : Tensor network structure search (TN-SS) aims to automatically discover optimal network topologies and rank configurations for efficient tensor decomposition in high-dimensional data representation. Despite recent advances, existing TN-SS methods face significant limitations in computational tractability, structure adaptivity, and optimization robustness across diverse tensor characteristics. They… ▽ More Tensor network structure search (TN-SS) aims to automatically discover optimal network topologies and rank configurations for efficient tensor decomposition in high-dimensional data representation. Despite recent advances, existing TN-SS methods face significant limitations in computational tractability, structure adaptivity, and optimization robustness across diverse tensor characteristics. They struggle with three key challenges: single-scale optimization missing multi-scale structures, discrete search spaces hindering smooth structure evolution, and separated structure-parameter optimization causing computational inefficiency. We propose RGTN (Renormalization Group guided Tensor Network search), a physics-inspired framework transforming TN-SS via multi-scale renormalization group flows. Unlike fixed-scale discrete search methods, RGTN uses dynamic scale-transformation for continuous structure evolution across resolutions. Its core innovation includes learnable edge gates for optimization-stage topology modification and intelligent proposals based on physical quantities like node tension measuring local stress and edge information flow quantifying connectivity importance. Starting from low-complexity coarse scales and refining to finer ones, RGTN finds compact structures while escaping local minima via scale-induced perturbations. Extensive experiments on light field data, high-order synthetic tensors, and video completion tasks show RGTN achieves state-of-the-art compression ratios and runs 4-600$\times$ faster than existing methods, validating the effectiveness of our physics-inspired approach. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2512.23676 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.CV Web World Models Authors: Jichen Feng , Yifan Zhang , Chenggong Zhang , Yifu Lu , Shilong Liu , Mengdi Wang Abstract : Language agents increasingly require persistent worlds in which they can act, remember, and learn. Existing approaches sit at two extremes: conventional web frameworks provide reliable but fixed contexts backed by databases, while fully generative world models aim for unlimited environments at the expense of controllability and practical engineering. In this work, we introduce the Web World Model… ▽ More Language agents increasingly require persistent worlds in which they can act, remember, and learn. Existing approaches sit at two extremes: conventional web frameworks provide reliable but fixed contexts backed by databases, while fully generative world models aim for unlimited environments at the expense of controllability and practical engineering. In this work, we introduce the Web World Model (WWM), a middle ground where world state and ``physics'' are implemented in ordinary web code to ensure logical consistency, while large language models generate context, narratives, and high-level decisions on top of this structured latent state. We build a suite of WWMs on a realistic web stack, including an infinite travel atlas grounded in real geography, fictional galaxy explorers, web-scale encyclopedic and narrative worlds, and simulation- and game-like environments. Across these systems, we identify practical design principles for WWMs: separating code-defined rules from model-driven imagination, representing latent state as typed web interfaces, and utilizing deterministic generation to achieve unlimited but structured exploration. Our results suggest that web stacks themselves can serve as a scalable substrate for world models, enabling controllable yet open-ended environments. Project Page: △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Project Page: arXiv:2512.23676 [ pdf , ps , other ] Web World Models Authors: Jichen Feng , Yifan Zhang , Chenggong Zhang , Yifu Lu , Shilong Liu , Mengdi Wang Abstract : Language agents increasingly require persistent worlds in which they can act, remember, and learn. Existing approaches sit at two extremes: conventional web frameworks provide reliable but fixed contexts backed by databases, while fully generative world models aim for unlimited environments at the expense of controllability and practical engineering. In this work, we introduce the Web World Model… ▽ More Language agents increasingly require persistent worlds in which they can act, remember, and learn. Existing approaches sit at two extremes: conventional web frameworks provide reliable but fixed contexts backed by databases, while fully generative world models aim for unlimited environments at the expense of controllability and practical engineering. In this work, we introduce the Web World Model (WWM), a middle ground where world state and ``physics'' are implemented in ordinary web code to ensure logical consistency, while large language models generate context, narratives, and high-level decisions on top of this structured latent state. We build a suite of WWMs on a realistic web stack, including an infinite travel atlas grounded in real geography, fictional galaxy explorers, web-scale encyclopedic and narrative worlds, and simulation- and game-like environments. Across these systems, we identify practical design principles for WWMs: separating code-defined rules from model-driven imagination, representing latent state as typed web interfaces, and utilizing deterministic generation to achieve unlimited but structured exploration. Our results suggest that web stacks themselves can serve as a scalable substrate for world models, enabling controllable yet open-ended environments. Project Page: △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Project Page: arXiv:2512.23628 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.LG Memorization in 3D Shape Generation: An Empirical Study Authors: Shu Pu , Boya Zeng , Kaichen Zhou , Mengyu Wang , Zhuang Liu Abstract : Generative models are increasingly used in 3D vision to synthesize novel shapes, yet it remains unclear whether their generation relies on memorizing training shapes. Understanding their memorization could help prevent training data leakage and improve the diversity of generated results. In this paper, we design an evaluation framework to quantify memorization in 3D generative models and study the… ▽ More Generative models are increasingly used in 3D vision to synthesize novel shapes, yet it remains unclear whether their generation relies on memorizing training shapes. Understanding their memorization could help prevent training data leakage and improve the diversity of generated results. In this paper, we design an evaluation framework to quantify memorization in 3D generative models and study the influence of different data and modeling designs on memorization. We first apply our framework to quantify memorization in existing methods. Next, through controlled experiments with a latent vector-set (Vecset) diffusion model, we find that, on the data side, memorization depends on data modality, and increases with data diversity and finer-grained conditioning; on the modeling side, it peaks at a moderate guidance scale and can be mitigated by longer Vecsets and simple rotation augmentation. Together, our framework and analysis provide an empirical understanding of memorization in 3D generative models and suggest simple yet effective strategies to reduce it without degrading generation quality. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23628 [ pdf , ps , other ] Memorization in 3D Shape Generation: An Empirical Study Authors: Shu Pu , Boya Zeng , Kaichen Zhou , Mengyu Wang , Zhuang Liu Abstract : Generative models are increasingly used in 3D vision to synthesize novel shapes, yet it remains unclear whether their generation relies on memorizing training shapes. Understanding their memorization could help prevent training data leakage and improve the diversity of generated results. In this paper, we design an evaluation framework to quantify memorization in 3D generative models and study the… ▽ More Generative models are increasingly used in 3D vision to synthesize novel shapes, yet it remains unclear whether their generation relies on memorizing training shapes. Understanding their memorization could help prevent training data leakage and improve the diversity of generated results. In this paper, we design an evaluation framework to quantify memorization in 3D generative models and study the influence of different data and modeling designs on memorization. We first apply our framework to quantify memorization in existing methods. Next, through controlled experiments with a latent vector-set (Vecset) diffusion model, we find that, on the data side, memorization depends on data modality, and increases with data diversity and finer-grained conditioning; on the modeling side, it peaks at a moderate guidance scale and can be mitigated by longer Vecsets and simple rotation augmentation. Together, our framework and analysis provide an empirical understanding of memorization in 3D generative models and suggest simple yet effective strategies to reduce it without degrading generation quality. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23472 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV MCI-Net: A Robust Multi-Domain Context Integration Network for Point Cloud Registration Authors: Shuyuan Lin , Wenwu Peng , Junjie Huang , Qiang Qi , Miaohui Wang , Jian Weng Abstract : Robust and discriminative feature learning is critical for high-quality point cloud registration. However, existing deep learning-based methods typically rely on Euclidean neighborhood-based strategies for feature extraction, which struggle to effectively capture the implicit semantics and structural consistency in point clouds. To address these issues, we propose a multi-domain context integratio… ▽ More Robust and discriminative feature learning is critical for high-quality point cloud registration. However, existing deep learning-based methods typically rely on Euclidean neighborhood-based strategies for feature extraction, which struggle to effectively capture the implicit semantics and structural consistency in point clouds. To address these issues, we propose a multi-domain context integration network (MCI-Net) that improves feature representation and registration performance by aggregating contextual cues from diverse domains. Specifically, we propose a graph neighborhood aggregation module, which constructs a global graph to capture the overall structural relationships within point clouds. We then propose a progressive context interaction module to enhance feature discriminability by performing intra-domain feature decoupling and inter-domain context interaction. Finally, we design a dynamic inlier selection method that optimizes inlier weights using residual information from multiple iterations of pose estimation, thereby improving the accuracy and robustness of registration. Extensive experiments on indoor RGB-D and outdoor LiDAR datasets show that the proposed MCI-Net significantly outperforms existing state-of-the-art methods, achieving the highest registration recall of 96.4\% on 3DMatch. Source code is available at △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23472 [ pdf , ps , other ] MCI-Net: A Robust Multi-Domain Context Integration Network for Point Cloud Registration Authors: Shuyuan Lin , Wenwu Peng , Junjie Huang , Qiang Qi , Miaohui Wang , Jian Weng Abstract : Robust and discriminative feature learning is critical for high-quality point cloud registration. However, existing deep learning-based methods typically rely on Euclidean neighborhood-based strategies for feature extraction, which struggle to effectively capture the implicit semantics and structural consistency in point clouds. To address these issues, we propose a multi-domain context integratio… ▽ More Robust and discriminative feature learning is critical for high-quality point cloud registration. However, existing deep learning-based methods typically rely on Euclidean neighborhood-based strategies for feature extraction, which struggle to effectively capture the implicit semantics and structural consistency in point clouds. To address these issues, we propose a multi-domain context integration network (MCI-Net) that improves feature representation and registration performance by aggregating contextual cues from diverse domains. Specifically, we propose a graph neighborhood aggregation module, which constructs a global graph to capture the overall structural relationships within point clouds. We then propose a progressive context interaction module to enhance feature discriminability by performing intra-domain feature decoupling and inter-domain context interaction. Finally, we design a dynamic inlier selection method that optimizes inlier weights using residual information from multiple iterations of pose estimation, thereby improving the accuracy and robustness of registration. Extensive experiments on indoor RGB-D and outdoor LiDAR datasets show that the proposed MCI-Net significantly outperforms existing state-of-the-art methods, achieving the highest registration recall of 96.4\% on 3DMatch. Source code is available at △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23328 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.CV CubeBench: Diagnosing Interactive, Long-Horizon Spatial Reasoning Under Partial Observations Authors: Huan-ang Gao , Zikang Zhang , Tianwei Luo , Kaisen Yang , Xinzhe Juan , Jiahao Qiu , Tianxing Chen , Bingxiang He , Hao Zhao , Hao Zhou , Shilong Liu , Mengdi Wang Abstract : Large Language Model (LLM) agents, while proficient in the digital realm, face a significant gap in physical-world deployment due to the challenge of forming and maintaining a robust spatial mental model. We identify three core cognitive challenges hindering this transition: spatial reasoning, long-horizon state tracking via mental simulation, and active exploration under partial observation. To i… ▽ More Large Language Model (LLM) agents, while proficient in the digital realm, face a significant gap in physical-world deployment due to the challenge of forming and maintaining a robust spatial mental model. We identify three core cognitive challenges hindering this transition: spatial reasoning, long-horizon state tracking via mental simulation, and active exploration under partial observation. To isolate and evaluate these faculties, we introduce CubeBench, a novel generative benchmark centered on the Rubik's Cube. CubeBench uses a three-tiered diagnostic framework that progressively assesses agent capabilities, from foundational state tracking with full symbolic information to active exploration with only partial visual data. Our experiments on leading LLMs reveal critical limitations, including a uniform 0.00% pass rate on all long-horizon tasks, exposing a fundamental failure in long-term planning. We also propose a diagnostic framework to isolate these cognitive bottlenecks by providing external solver tools. By analyzing the failure modes, we provide key insights to guide the development of more physically-grounded intelligent agents. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; v1 submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Webpage: arXiv:2512.23328 [ pdf , ps , other ] CubeBench: Diagnosing Interactive, Long-Horizon Spatial Reasoning Under Partial Observations Authors: Huan-ang Gao , Zikang Zhang , Tianwei Luo , Kaisen Yang , Xinzhe Juan , Jiahao Qiu , Tianxing Chen , Bingxiang He , Hao Zhao , Hao Zhou , Shilong Liu , Mengdi Wang Abstract : Large Language Model (LLM) agents, while proficient in the digital realm, face a significant gap in physical-world deployment due to the challenge of forming and maintaining a robust spatial mental model. We identify three core cognitive challenges hindering this transition: spatial reasoning, long-horizon state tracking via mental simulation, and active exploration under partial observation. To i… ▽ More Large Language Model (LLM) agents, while proficient in the digital realm, face a significant gap in physical-world deployment due to the challenge of forming and maintaining a robust spatial mental model. We identify three core cognitive challenges hindering this transition: spatial reasoning, long-horizon state tracking via mental simulation, and active exploration under partial observation. To isolate and evaluate these faculties, we introduce CubeBench, a novel generative benchmark centered on the Rubik's Cube. CubeBench uses a three-tiered diagnostic framework that progressively assesses agent capabilities, from foundational state tracking with full symbolic information to active exploration with only partial visual data. Our experiments on leading LLMs reveal critical limitations, including a uniform 0.00% pass rate on all long-horizon tasks, exposing a fundamental failure in long-term planning. We also propose a diagnostic framework to isolate these cognitive bottlenecks by providing external solver tools. By analyzing the failure modes, we provide key insights to guide the development of more physically-grounded intelligent agents. △ Less Submitted 1 January, 2026; v1 submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Webpage: arXiv:2512.22431 cs.AI cs.CL cs.FL Monadic Context Engineering Authors: Yifan Zhang , Yang Yuan , Mengdi Wang , Andrew Chi-Chih Yao Abstract : The proliferation of Large Language Models (LLMs) has catalyzed a shift towards autonomous agents capable of complex reasoning and tool use. However, current agent architectures are frequently constructed using imperative, ad hoc patterns. This results in brittle systems plagued by difficulties in state management, error handling, and concurrency. This paper introduces Monadic Context Engineering… ▽ More The proliferation of Large Language Models (LLMs) has catalyzed a shift towards autonomous agents capable of complex reasoning and tool use. However, current agent architectures are frequently constructed using imperative, ad hoc patterns. This results in brittle systems plagued by difficulties in state management, error handling, and concurrency. This paper introduces Monadic Context Engineering (MCE), a novel architectural paradigm leveraging the algebraic structures of Functors, Applicative Functors, and Monads to provide a formal foundation for agent design. MCE treats agent workflows as computational contexts where cross-cutting concerns, such as state propagation, short-circuiting error handling, and asynchronous execution, are managed intrinsically by the algebraic properties of the abstraction. We demonstrate how Monads enable robust sequential composition, how Applicatives provide a principled structure for parallel execution, and crucially, how Monad Transformers allow for the systematic composition of these capabilities. This layered approach enables developers to construct complex, resilient, and efficient AI agents from simple, independently verifiable components. We further extend this framework to describe Meta-Agents, which leverage MCE for generative orchestration, dynamically creating and managing sub-agent workflows through metaprogramming. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; v1 submitted 26 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: The authors have decided to withdraw this manuscript, as the ideas presented in the paper are not yet sufficiently mature and require further development and refinement arXiv:2512.22431 Monadic Context Engineering Authors: Yifan Zhang , Yang Yuan , Mengdi Wang , Andrew Chi-Chih Yao Abstract : The proliferation of Large Language Models (LLMs) has catalyzed a shift towards autonomous agents capable of complex reasoning and tool use. However, current agent architectures are frequently constructed using imperative, ad hoc patterns. This results in brittle systems plagued by difficulties in state management, error handling, and concurrency. This paper introduces Monadic Context Engineering… ▽ More The proliferation of Large Language Models (LLMs) has catalyzed a shift towards autonomous agents capable of complex reasoning and tool use. However, current agent architectures are frequently constructed using imperative, ad hoc patterns. This results in brittle systems plagued by difficulties in state management, error handling, and concurrency. This paper introduces Monadic Context Engineering (MCE), a novel architectural paradigm leveraging the algebraic structures of Functors, Applicative Functors, and Monads to provide a formal foundation for agent design. MCE treats agent workflows as computational contexts where cross-cutting concerns, such as state propagation, short-circuiting error handling, and asynchronous execution, are managed intrinsically by the algebraic properties of the abstraction. We demonstrate how Monads enable robust sequential composition, how Applicatives provide a principled structure for parallel execution, and crucially, how Monad Transformers allow for the systematic composition of these capabilities. This layered approach enables developers to construct complex, resilient, and efficient AI agents from simple, independently verifiable components. We further extend this framework to describe Meta-Agents, which leverage MCE for generative orchestration, dynamically creating and managing sub-agent workflows through metaprogramming. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; v1 submitted 26 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: The authors have decided to withdraw this manuscript, as the ideas presented in the paper are not yet sufficiently mature and require further development and refinement arXiv:2512.21881 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV q-bio.NC SLIM-Brain: A Data- and Training-Efficient Foundation Model for fMRI Data Analysis Authors: Mo Wang , Junfeng Xia , Wenhao Ye , Enyu Liu , Kaining Peng , Jianfeng Feng , Quanying Liu , Hongkai Wen Abstract : Foundation models are emerging as a powerful paradigm for fMRI analysis, but current approaches face a dual bottleneck of data- and training-efficiency. Atlas-based methods aggregate voxel signals into fixed regions of interest, reducing data dimensionality but discarding fine-grained spatial details, and requiring extremely large cohorts to train effectively as general-purpose foundation models.… ▽ More Foundation models are emerging as a powerful paradigm for fMRI analysis, but current approaches face a dual bottleneck of data- and training-efficiency. Atlas-based methods aggregate voxel signals into fixed regions of interest, reducing data dimensionality but discarding fine-grained spatial details, and requiring extremely large cohorts to train effectively as general-purpose foundation models. Atlas-free methods, on the other hand, operate directly on voxel-level information - preserving spatial fidelity but are prohibitively memory- and compute-intensive, making large-scale pre-training infeasible. We introduce SLIM-Brain (Sample-efficient, Low-memory fMRI Foundation Model for Human Brain), a new atlas-free foundation model that simultaneously improves both data- and training-efficiency. SLIM-Brain adopts a two-stage adaptive design: (i) a lightweight temporal extractor captures global context across full sequences and ranks data windows by saliency, and (ii) a 4D hierarchical encoder (Hiera-JEPA) learns fine-grained voxel-level representations only from the top-$k$ selected windows, while deleting about 70% masked patches. Extensive experiments across seven public benchmarks show that SLIM-Brain establishes new state-of-the-art performance on diverse tasks, while requiring only 4 thousand pre-training sessions and approximately 30% of GPU memory comparing to traditional voxel-level methods. △ Less Submitted 26 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: The code will be released after review arXiv:2512.21881 [ pdf , ps , other ] SLIM-Brain: A Data- and Training-Efficient Foundation Model for fMRI Data Analysis Authors: Mo Wang , Junfeng Xia , Wenhao Ye , Enyu Liu , Kaining Peng , Jianfeng Feng , Quanying Liu , Hongkai Wen Abstract : Foundation models are emerging as a powerful paradigm for fMRI analysis, but current approaches face a dual bottleneck of data- and training-efficiency. Atlas-based methods aggregate voxel signals into fixed regions of interest, reducing data dimensionality but discarding fine-grained spatial details, and requiring extremely large cohorts to train effectively as general-purpose foundation models.… ▽ More Foundation models are emerging as a powerful paradigm for fMRI analysis, but current approaches face a dual bottleneck of data- and training-efficiency. Atlas-based methods aggregate voxel signals into fixed regions of interest, reducing data dimensionality but discarding fine-grained spatial details, and requiring extremely large cohorts to train effectively as general-purpose foundation models. Atlas-free methods, on the other hand, operate directly on voxel-level information - preserving spatial fidelity but are prohibitively memory- and compute-intensive, making large-scale pre-training infeasible. We introduce SLIM-Brain (Sample-efficient, Low-memory fMRI Foundation Model for Human Brain), a new atlas-free foundation model that simultaneously improves both data- and training-efficiency. SLIM-Brain adopts a two-stage adaptive design: (i) a lightweight temporal extractor captures global context across full sequences and ranks data windows by saliency, and (ii) a 4D hierarchical encoder (Hiera-JEPA) learns fine-grained voxel-level representations only from the top-$k$ selected windows, while deleting about 70% masked patches. Extensive experiments across seven public benchmarks show that SLIM-Brain establishes new state-of-the-art performance on diverse tasks, while requiring only 4 thousand pre-training sessions and approximately 30% of GPU memory comparing to traditional voxel-level methods. △ Less Submitted 26 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: The code will be released after review arXiv:2512.20856 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG NVIDIA Nemotron 3: Efficient and Open Intelligence Authors: NVIDIA , : , Aaron Blakeman , Aaron Grattafiori , Aarti Basant , Abhibha Gupta , Abhinav Khattar , Adi Renduchintala , Aditya Vavre , Akanksha Shukla , Akhiad Bercovich , Aleksander Ficek , Aleksandr Shaposhnikov , Alex Kondratenko , Alexander Bukharin , Alexandre Milesi , Ali Taghibakhshi , Alisa Liu , Amelia Barton , Ameya Sunil Mahabaleshwarkar , Amir Klein , Amit Zuker , Amnon Geifman , Amy Shen , Anahita Bhiwandiwalla , et al. (334 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce the Nemotron 3 family of models - Nano, Super, and Ultra. These models deliver strong agentic, reasoning, and conversational capabilities. The Nemotron 3 family uses a Mixture-of-Experts hybrid Mamba-Transformer architecture to provide best-in-class throughput and context lengths of up to 1M tokens. Super and Ultra models are trained with NVFP4 and incorporate LatentMoE, a novel appro… ▽ More We introduce the Nemotron 3 family of models - Nano, Super, and Ultra. These models deliver strong agentic, reasoning, and conversational capabilities. The Nemotron 3 family uses a Mixture-of-Experts hybrid Mamba-Transformer architecture to provide best-in-class throughput and context lengths of up to 1M tokens. Super and Ultra models are trained with NVFP4 and incorporate LatentMoE, a novel approach that improves model quality. The two larger models also include MTP layers for faster text generation. All Nemotron 3 models are post-trained using multi-environment reinforcement learning enabling reasoning, multi-step tool use, and support granular reasoning budget control. Nano, the smallest model, outperforms comparable models in accuracy while remaining extremely cost-efficient for inference. Super is optimized for collaborative agents and high-volume workloads such as IT ticket automation. Ultra, the largest model, provides state-of-the-art accuracy and reasoning performance. Nano is released together with its technical report and this white paper, while Super and Ultra will follow in the coming months. We will openly release the model weights, pre- and post-training software, recipes, and all data for which we hold redistribution rights. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.20856 [ pdf , ps , other ] NVIDIA Nemotron 3: Efficient and Open Intelligence Authors: NVIDIA , : , Aaron Blakeman , Aaron Grattafiori , Aarti Basant , Abhibha Gupta , Abhinav Khattar , Adi Renduchintala , Aditya Vavre , Akanksha Shukla , Akhiad Bercovich , Aleksander Ficek , Aleksandr Shaposhnikov , Alex Kondratenko , Alexander Bukharin , Alexandre Milesi , Ali Taghibakhshi , Alisa Liu , Amelia Barton , Ameya Sunil Mahabaleshwarkar , Amir Klein , Amit Zuker , Amnon Geifman , Amy Shen , Anahita Bhiwandiwalla , et al. (334 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce the Nemotron 3 family of models - Nano, Super, and Ultra. These models deliver strong agentic, reasoning, and conversational capabilities. The Nemotron 3 family uses a Mixture-of-Experts hybrid Mamba-Transformer architecture to provide best-in-class throughput and context lengths of up to 1M tokens. Super and Ultra models are trained with NVFP4 and incorporate LatentMoE, a novel appro… ▽ More We introduce the Nemotron 3 family of models - Nano, Super, and Ultra. These models deliver strong agentic, reasoning, and conversational capabilities. The Nemotron 3 family uses a Mixture-of-Experts hybrid Mamba-Transformer architecture to provide best-in-class throughput and context lengths of up to 1M tokens. Super and Ultra models are trained with NVFP4 and incorporate LatentMoE, a novel approach that improves model quality. The two larger models also include MTP layers for faster text generation. All Nemotron 3 models are post-trained using multi-environment reinforcement learning enabling reasoning, multi-step tool use, and support granular reasoning budget control. Nano, the smallest model, outperforms comparable models in accuracy while remaining extremely cost-efficient for inference. Super is optimized for collaborative agents and high-volume workloads such as IT ticket automation. Ultra, the largest model, provides state-of-the-art accuracy and reasoning performance. Nano is released together with its technical report and this white paper, while Super and Ultra will follow in the coming months. We will openly release the model weights, pre- and post-training software, recipes, and all data for which we hold redistribution rights. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.20848 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG Nemotron 3 Nano: Open, Efficient Mixture-of-Experts Hybrid Mamba-Transformer Model for Agentic Reasoning Authors: NVIDIA , : , Aaron Blakeman , Aaron Grattafiori , Aarti Basant , Abhibha Gupta , Abhinav Khattar , Adi Renduchintala , Aditya Vavre , Akanksha Shukla , Akhiad Bercovich , Aleksander Ficek , Aleksandr Shaposhnikov , Alex Kondratenko , Alexander Bukharin , Alexandre Milesi , Ali Taghibakhshi , Alisa Liu , Amelia Barton , Ameya Sunil Mahabaleshwarkar , Amir Klein , Amit Zuker , Amnon Geifman , Amy Shen , Anahita Bhiwandiwalla , et al. (289 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present Nemotron 3 Nano 30B-A3B, a Mixture-of-Experts hybrid Mamba-Transformer language model. Nemotron 3 Nano was pretrained on 25 trillion text tokens, including more than 3 trillion new unique tokens over Nemotron 2, followed by supervised fine tuning and large-scale RL on diverse environments. Nemotron 3 Nano achieves better accuracy than our previous generation Nemotron 2 Nano while activa… ▽ More We present Nemotron 3 Nano 30B-A3B, a Mixture-of-Experts hybrid Mamba-Transformer language model. Nemotron 3 Nano was pretrained on 25 trillion text tokens, including more than 3 trillion new unique tokens over Nemotron 2, followed by supervised fine tuning and large-scale RL on diverse environments. Nemotron 3 Nano achieves better accuracy than our previous generation Nemotron 2 Nano while activating less than half of the parameters per forward pass. It achieves up to 3.3x higher inference throughput than similarly-sized open models like GPT-OSS-20B and Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking-2507, while also being more accurate on popular benchmarks. Nemotron 3 Nano demonstrates enhanced agentic, reasoning, and chat abilities and supports context lengths up to 1M tokens. We release both our pretrained Nemotron 3 Nano 30B-A3B Base and post-trained Nemotron 3 Nano 30B-A3B checkpoints on Hugging Face. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.20848 [ pdf , ps , other ] Nemotron 3 Nano: Open, Efficient Mixture-of-Experts Hybrid Mamba-Transformer Model for Agentic Reasoning Authors: NVIDIA , : , Aaron Blakeman , Aaron Grattafiori , Aarti Basant , Abhibha Gupta , Abhinav Khattar , Adi Renduchintala , Aditya Vavre , Akanksha Shukla , Akhiad Bercovich , Aleksander Ficek , Aleksandr Shaposhnikov , Alex Kondratenko , Alexander Bukharin , Alexandre Milesi , Ali Taghibakhshi , Alisa Liu , Amelia Barton , Ameya Sunil Mahabaleshwarkar , Amir Klein , Amit Zuker , Amnon Geifman , Amy Shen , Anahita Bhiwandiwalla , et al. (289 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present Nemotron 3 Nano 30B-A3B, a Mixture-of-Experts hybrid Mamba-Transformer language model. Nemotron 3 Nano was pretrained on 25 trillion text tokens, including more than 3 trillion new unique tokens over Nemotron 2, followed by supervised fine tuning and large-scale RL on diverse environments. Nemotron 3 Nano achieves better accuracy than our previous generation Nemotron 2 Nano while activa… ▽ More We present Nemotron 3 Nano 30B-A3B, a Mixture-of-Experts hybrid Mamba-Transformer language model. Nemotron 3 Nano was pretrained on 25 trillion text tokens, including more than 3 trillion new unique tokens over Nemotron 2, followed by supervised fine tuning and large-scale RL on diverse environments. Nemotron 3 Nano achieves better accuracy than our previous generation Nemotron 2 Nano while activating less than half of the parameters per forward pass. It achieves up to 3.3x higher inference throughput than similarly-sized open models like GPT-OSS-20B and Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking-2507, while also being more accurate on popular benchmarks. Nemotron 3 Nano demonstrates enhanced agentic, reasoning, and chat abilities and supports context lengths up to 1M tokens. We release both our pretrained Nemotron 3 Nano 30B-A3B Base and post-trained Nemotron 3 Nano 30B-A3B checkpoints on Hugging Face. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.20705 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR Anota: Identifying Business Logic Vulnerabilities via Annotation-Based Sanitization Authors: Meng Wang , Philipp Görz , Joschua Schilling , Keno Hassler , Liwei Guo , Thorsten Holz , Ali Abbasi Abstract : Detecting business logic vulnerabilities is a critical challenge in software security. These flaws come from mistakes in an application's design or implementation and allow attackers to trigger unintended application behavior. Traditional fuzzing sanitizers for dynamic analysis excel at finding vulnerabilities related to memory safety violations but largely fail to detect business logic vulnerabil… ▽ More Detecting business logic vulnerabilities is a critical challenge in software security. These flaws come from mistakes in an application's design or implementation and allow attackers to trigger unintended application behavior. Traditional fuzzing sanitizers for dynamic analysis excel at finding vulnerabilities related to memory safety violations but largely fail to detect business logic vulnerabilities, as these flaws require understanding application-specific semantic context. Recent attempts to infer this context, due to their reliance on heuristics and non-portable language features, are inherently brittle and incomplete. As business logic vulnerabilities constitute a majority (27/40) of the most dangerous software weaknesses in practice, this is a worrying blind spot of existing tools. In this paper, we tackle this challenge with ANOTA, a novel human-in-the-loop sanitizer framework. ANOTA introduces a lightweight, user-friendly annotation system that enables users to directly encode their domain-specific knowledge as lightweight annotations that define an application's intended behavior. A runtime execution monitor then observes program behavior, comparing it against the policies defined by the annotations, thereby identifying deviations that indicate vulnerabilities. To evaluate the effectiveness of ANOTA, we combine ANOTA with a state-of-the-art fuzzer and compare it against other popular bug finding methods compatible with the same targets. The results show that ANOTA+FUZZER outperforms them in terms of effectiveness. More specifically, ANOTA+FUZZER can successfully reproduce 43 known vulnerabilities, and discovered 22 previously unknown vulnerabilities (17 CVEs assigned) during the evaluation. These results demonstrate that ANOTA provides a practical and effective approach for uncovering complex business logic flaws often missed by traditional security testing techniques. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; v1 submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.20705 [ pdf , ps , other ] Anota: Identifying Business Logic Vulnerabilities via Annotation-Based Sanitization Authors: Meng Wang , Philipp Görz , Joschua Schilling , Keno Hassler , Liwei Guo , Thorsten Holz , Ali Abbasi Abstract : Detecting business logic vulnerabilities is a critical challenge in software security. These flaws come from mistakes in an application's design or implementation and allow attackers to trigger unintended application behavior. Traditional fuzzing sanitizers for dynamic analysis excel at finding vulnerabilities related to memory safety violations but largely fail to detect business logic vulnerabil… ▽ More Detecting business logic vulnerabilities is a critical challenge in software security. These flaws come from mistakes in an application's design or implementation and allow attackers to trigger unintended application behavior. Traditional fuzzing sanitizers for dynamic analysis excel at finding vulnerabilities related to memory safety violations but largely fail to detect business logic vulnerabilities, as these flaws require understanding application-specific semantic context. Recent attempts to infer this context, due to their reliance on heuristics and non-portable language features, are inherently brittle and incomplete. As business logic vulnerabilities constitute a majority (27/40) of the most dangerous software weaknesses in practice, this is a worrying blind spot of existing tools. In this paper, we tackle this challenge with ANOTA, a novel human-in-the-loop sanitizer framework. ANOTA introduces a lightweight, user-friendly annotation system that enables users to directly encode their domain-specific knowledge as lightweight annotations that define an application's intended behavior. A runtime execution monitor then observes program behavior, comparing it against the policies defined by the annotations, thereby identifying deviations that indicate vulnerabilities. To evaluate the effectiveness of ANOTA, we combine ANOTA with a state-of-the-art fuzzer and compare it against other popular bug finding methods compatible with the same targets. The results show that ANOTA+FUZZER outperforms them in terms of effectiveness. More specifically, ANOTA+FUZZER can successfully reproduce 43 known vulnerabilities, and discovered 22 previously unknown vulnerabilities (17 CVEs assigned) during the evaluation. These results demonstrate that ANOTA provides a practical and effective approach for uncovering complex business logic flaws often missed by traditional security testing techniques. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; v1 submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.19682 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL GenEnv: Difficulty-Aligned Co-Evolution Between LLM Agents and Environment Simulators Authors: Jiacheng Guo , Ling Yang , Peter Chen , Qixin Xiao , Yinjie Wang , Xinzhe Juan , Jiahao Qiu , Ke Shen , Mengdi Wang Abstract : Training capable Large Language Model (LLM) agents is critically bottlenecked by the high cost and static nature of real-world interaction data. We address this by introducing GenEnv, a framework that establishes a difficulty-aligned co-evolutionary game between an agent and a scalable, generative environment simulator. Unlike traditional methods that evolve models on static datasets, GenEnv insta… ▽ More Training capable Large Language Model (LLM) agents is critically bottlenecked by the high cost and static nature of real-world interaction data. We address this by introducing GenEnv, a framework that establishes a difficulty-aligned co-evolutionary game between an agent and a scalable, generative environment simulator. Unlike traditional methods that evolve models on static datasets, GenEnv instantiates a dataevolving: the simulator acts as a dynamic curriculum policy, continuously generating tasks specifically tailored to the agent's ``zone of proximal development''. This process is guided by a simple but effective $α$-Curriculum Reward, which aligns task difficulty with the agent's current capabilities. We evaluate GenEnv on five benchmarks, including API-Bank, ALFWorld, BFCL, Bamboogle, and TravelPlanner. Across these tasks, GenEnv improves agent performance by up to \textbf{+40.3\%} over 7B baselines and matches or exceeds the average performance of larger models. Compared to Gemini 2.5 Pro-based offline data augmentation, GenEnv achieves better performance while using 3.3$\times$ less data. By shifting from static supervision to adaptive simulation, GenEnv provides a data-efficient pathway for scaling agent capabilities. △ Less Submitted 22 December, 2025; v1 submitted 22 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Our codes are available at arXiv:2512.19682 [ pdf , ps , other ] GenEnv: Difficulty-Aligned Co-Evolution Between LLM Agents and Environment Simulators Authors: Jiacheng Guo , Ling Yang , Peter Chen , Qixin Xiao , Yinjie Wang , Xinzhe Juan , Jiahao Qiu , Ke Shen , Mengdi Wang Abstract : Training capable Large Language Model (LLM) agents is critically bottlenecked by the high cost and static nature of real-world interaction data. We address this by introducing GenEnv, a framework that establishes a difficulty-aligned co-evolutionary game between an agent and a scalable, generative environment simulator. Unlike traditional methods that evolve models on static datasets, GenEnv insta… ▽ More Training capable Large Language Model (LLM) agents is critically bottlenecked by the high cost and static nature of real-world interaction data. We address this by introducing GenEnv, a framework that establishes a difficulty-aligned co-evolutionary game between an agent and a scalable, generative environment simulator. Unlike traditional methods that evolve models on static datasets, GenEnv instantiates a dataevolving: the simulator acts as a dynamic curriculum policy, continuously generating tasks specifically tailored to the agent's ``zone of proximal development''. This process is guided by a simple but effective $α$-Curriculum Reward, which aligns task difficulty with the agent's current capabilities. We evaluate GenEnv on five benchmarks, including API-Bank, ALFWorld, BFCL, Bamboogle, and TravelPlanner. Across these tasks, GenEnv improves agent performance by up to \textbf{+40.3\%} over 7B baselines and matches or exceeds the average performance of larger models. Compared to Gemini 2.5 Pro-based offline data augmentation, GenEnv achieves better performance while using 3.3$\times$ less data. By shifting from static supervision to adaptive simulation, GenEnv provides a data-efficient pathway for scaling agent capabilities. △ Less Submitted 22 December, 2025; v1 submitted 22 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Our codes are available at arXiv:2512.19673 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI cs.CL Bottom-up Policy Optimization: Your Language Model Policy Secretly Contains Internal Policies Authors: Yuqiao Tan , Minzheng Wang , Shizhu He , Huanxuan Liao , Chengfeng Zhao , Qiunan Lu , Tian Liang , Jun Zhao , Kang Liu Abstract : Existing reinforcement learning (RL) approaches treat large language models (LLMs) as a single unified policy, overlooking their internal mechanisms. Understanding how policy evolves across layers and modules is therefore crucial for enabling more targeted optimization and raveling out complex reasoning mechanisms. In this paper, we decompose the language model policy by leveraging the intrinsic s… ▽ More Existing reinforcement learning (RL) approaches treat large language models (LLMs) as a single unified policy, overlooking their internal mechanisms. Understanding how policy evolves across layers and modules is therefore crucial for enabling more targeted optimization and raveling out complex reasoning mechanisms. In this paper, we decompose the language model policy by leveraging the intrinsic split of the Transformer residual stream and the equivalence between the composition of hidden states with the unembedding matrix and the resulting samplable policy. This decomposition reveals Internal Layer Policies, corresponding to contributions from individual layers, and Internal Modular Policies, which align with the self-attention and feed-forward network (FFN) components within each layer. By analyzing the entropy of internal policy, we find that: (a) Early layers keep high entropy for exploration, top layers converge to near-zero entropy for refinement, with convergence patterns varying across model series. (b) LLama's prediction space rapidly converges in the final layer, whereas Qwen-series models, especially Qwen3, exhibit a more human-like, progressively structured reasoning pattern. Motivated by these findings, we propose Bottom-up Policy Optimization (BuPO), a novel RL paradigm that directly optimizes the internal layer policy during early training. By aligning training objective at lower layer, BuPO reconstructs foundational reasoning capabilities and achieves superior performance. Extensive experiments on complex reasoning benchmarks demonstrates the effectiveness of our method. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 22 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Preprint. Our code is available at arXiv:2512.19673 [ pdf , ps , other ] Bottom-up Policy Optimization: Your Language Model Policy Secretly Contains Internal Policies Authors: Yuqiao Tan , Minzheng Wang , Shizhu He , Huanxuan Liao , Chengfeng Zhao , Qiunan Lu , Tian Liang , Jun Zhao , Kang Liu Abstract : Existing reinforcement learning (RL) approaches treat large language models (LLMs) as a single unified policy, overlooking their internal mechanisms. Understanding how policy evolves across layers and modules is therefore crucial for enabling more targeted optimization and raveling out complex reasoning mechanisms. In this paper, we decompose the language model policy by leveraging the intrinsic s… ▽ More Existing reinforcement learning (RL) approaches treat large language models (LLMs) as a single unified policy, overlooking their internal mechanisms. Understanding how policy evolves across layers and modules is therefore crucial for enabling more targeted optimization and raveling out complex reasoning mechanisms. In this paper, we decompose the language model policy by leveraging the intrinsic split of the Transformer residual stream and the equivalence between the composition of hidden states with the unembedding matrix and the resulting samplable policy. This decomposition reveals Internal Layer Policies, corresponding to contributions from individual layers, and Internal Modular Policies, which align with the self-attention and feed-forward network (FFN) components within each layer. By analyzing the entropy of internal policy, we find that: (a) Early layers keep high entropy for exploration, top layers converge to near-zero entropy for refinement, with convergence patterns varying across model series. (b) LLama's prediction space rapidly converges in the final layer, whereas Qwen-series models, especially Qwen3, exhibit a more human-like, progressively structured reasoning pattern. Motivated by these findings, we propose Bottom-up Policy Optimization (BuPO), a novel RL paradigm that directly optimizes the internal layer policy during early training. By aligning training objective at lower layer, BuPO reconstructs foundational reasoning capabilities and achieves superior performance. Extensive experiments on complex reasoning benchmarks demonstrates the effectiveness of our method. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 22 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Preprint. Our code is available at arXiv:2512.18832 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL From Word to World: Can Large Language Models be Implicit Text-based World Models? Authors: Yixia Li , Hongru Wang , Jiahao Qiu , Zhenfei Yin , Dongdong Zhang , Cheng Qian , Zeping Li , Pony Ma , Guanhua Chen , Heng Ji , Mengdi Wang Abstract : Agentic reinforcement learning increasingly relies on experience-driven scaling, yet real-world environments remain non-adaptive, limited in coverage, and difficult to scale. World models offer a potential way to improve learning efficiency through simulated experience, but it remains unclear whether large language models can reliably serve this role and under what conditions they meaningfully ben… ▽ More Agentic reinforcement learning increasingly relies on experience-driven scaling, yet real-world environments remain non-adaptive, limited in coverage, and difficult to scale. World models offer a potential way to improve learning efficiency through simulated experience, but it remains unclear whether large language models can reliably serve this role and under what conditions they meaningfully benefit agents. We study these questions in text-based environments, which provide a controlled setting to reinterpret language modeling as next-state prediction under interaction. We introduce a three-level framework for evaluating LLM-based world models: (i) fidelity and consistency, (ii) scalability and robustness, and (iii) agent utility. Across five representative environments, we find that sufficiently trained world models maintain coherent latent state, scale predictably with data and model size, and improve agent performance via action verification, synthetic trajectory generation, and warm-starting reinforcement learning. Meanwhile, these gains depend critically on behavioral coverage and environment complexity, delineating clear boundry on when world modeling effectively supports agent learning. △ Less Submitted 21 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.18832 [ pdf , ps , other ] From Word to World: Can Large Language Models be Implicit Text-based World Models? Authors: Yixia Li , Hongru Wang , Jiahao Qiu , Zhenfei Yin , Dongdong Zhang , Cheng Qian , Zeping Li , Pony Ma , Guanhua Chen , Heng Ji , Mengdi Wang Abstract : Agentic reinforcement learning increasingly relies on experience-driven scaling, yet real-world environments remain non-adaptive, limited in coverage, and difficult to scale. World models offer a potential way to improve learning efficiency through simulated experience, but it remains unclear whether large language models can reliably serve this role and under what conditions they meaningfully ben… ▽ More Agentic reinforcement learning increasingly relies on experience-driven scaling, yet real-world environments remain non-adaptive, limited in coverage, and difficult to scale. World models offer a potential way to improve learning efficiency through simulated experience, but it remains unclear whether large language models can reliably serve this role and under what conditions they meaningfully benefit agents. We study these questions in text-based environments, which provide a controlled setting to reinterpret language modeling as next-state prediction under interaction. We introduce a three-level framework for evaluating LLM-based world models: (i) fidelity and consistency, (ii) scalability and robustness, and (iii) agent utility. Across five representative environments, we find that sufficiently trained world models maintain coherent latent state, scale predictably with data and model size, and improve agent performance via action verification, synthetic trajectory generation, and warm-starting reinforcement learning. Meanwhile, these gains depend critically on behavioral coverage and environment complexity, delineating clear boundry on when world modeling effectively supports agent learning. △ Less Submitted 21 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.18706 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SD X-Talk: On the Underestimated Potential of Modular Speech-to-Speech Dialogue System Authors: Zhanxun Liu , Yifan Duan , Mengmeng Wang , Pengchao Feng , Haotian Zhang , Xiaoyu Xing , Yijia Shan , Haina Zhu , Yuhang Dai , Chaochao Lu , Xipeng Qiu , Lei Xie , Lan Wang , Nan Yan , Zilong Zheng , Ziyang Ma , Kai Yu , Xie Chen Abstract : We present X-Talk, an open-source framework that champions a decoupled, modular design for LLM-driven speech-to-speech (S2S) systems. While the dominant trend favors end-to-end (E2E) modeling to optimize information flow, these "omni-models" often struggle to balance the competing objectives of complex speech tasks within a single network. X-Talk challenges this paradigm by demonstrating that a sy… ▽ More We present X-Talk, an open-source framework that champions a decoupled, modular design for LLM-driven speech-to-speech (S2S) systems. While the dominant trend favors end-to-end (E2E) modeling to optimize information flow, these "omni-models" often struggle to balance the competing objectives of complex speech tasks within a single network. X-Talk challenges this paradigm by demonstrating that a systematically optimized cascaded pipeline can achieve sub-second latency without sacrificing modular flexibility. Our framework seamlessly integrates specialized front-end components (e.g., VAD, speech enhancement) and diverse understanding models (e.g., ASR, emotion, and environmental sound analysis) with LLM capabilities like retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) and tool use. By revitalizing the cascaded approach, X-Talk highlights the underestimated potential of modular S2S systems and provides a robust foundation for future research and applications. △ Less Submitted 21 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 14 pages arXiv:2512.18706 [ pdf , ps , other ] X-Talk: On the Underestimated Potential of Modular Speech-to-Speech Dialogue System Authors: Zhanxun Liu , Yifan Duan , Mengmeng Wang , Pengchao Feng , Haotian Zhang , Xiaoyu Xing , Yijia Shan , Haina Zhu , Yuhang Dai , Chaochao Lu , Xipeng Qiu , Lei Xie , Lan Wang , Nan Yan , Zilong Zheng , Ziyang Ma , Kai Yu , Xie Chen Abstract : We present X-Talk, an open-source framework that champions a decoupled, modular design for LLM-driven speech-to-speech (S2S) systems. While the dominant trend favors end-to-end (E2E) modeling to optimize information flow, these "omni-models" often struggle to balance the competing objectives of complex speech tasks within a single network. X-Talk challenges this paradigm by demonstrating that a sy… ▽ More We present X-Talk, an open-source framework that champions a decoupled, modular design for LLM-driven speech-to-speech (S2S) systems. While the dominant trend favors end-to-end (E2E) modeling to optimize information flow, these "omni-models" often struggle to balance the competing objectives of complex speech tasks within a single network. X-Talk challenges this paradigm by demonstrating that a systematically optimized cascaded pipeline can achieve sub-second latency without sacrificing modular flexibility. Our framework seamlessly integrates specialized front-end components (e.g., VAD, speech enhancement) and diverse understanding models (e.g., ASR, emotion, and environmental sound analysis) with LLM capabilities like retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) and tool use. By revitalizing the cascaded approach, X-Talk highlights the underestimated potential of modular S2S systems and provides a robust foundation for future research and applications. △ Less Submitted 21 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 14 pages arXiv:2512.18597 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.GR Commercial Vehicle Braking Optimization: A Robust SIFT-Trajectory Approach Authors: Zhe Li , Kun Cheng , Hanyue Mo , Jintao Lu , Ziwen Kuang , Jianwen Ye , Lixu Xu , Xinya Meng , Jiahui Zhao , Shengda Ji , Shuyuan Liu , Mengyu Wang Abstract : A vision-based trajectory analysis solution is proposed to address the "zero-speed braking" issue caused by inaccurate Controller Area Network (CAN) signals in commercial vehicle Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) systems during low-speed operation. The algorithm utilizes the NVIDIA Jetson AGX Xavier platform to process sequential video frames from a blind spot camera, employing self-adaptive Contr… ▽ More A vision-based trajectory analysis solution is proposed to address the "zero-speed braking" issue caused by inaccurate Controller Area Network (CAN) signals in commercial vehicle Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) systems during low-speed operation. The algorithm utilizes the NVIDIA Jetson AGX Xavier platform to process sequential video frames from a blind spot camera, employing self-adaptive Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization (CLAHE)-enhanced Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) feature extraction and K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN)-Random Sample Consensus (RANSAC) matching. This allows for precise classification of the vehicle's motion state (static, vibration, moving). Key innovations include 1) multiframe trajectory displacement statistics (5-frame sliding window), 2) a dual-threshold state decision matrix, and 3) OBD-II driven dynamic Region of Interest (ROI) configuration. The system effectively suppresses environmental interference and false detection of dynamic objects, directly addressing the challenge of low-speed false activation in commercial vehicle safety systems. Evaluation in a real-world dataset (32,454 video segments from 1,852 vehicles) demonstrates an F1-score of 99.96% for static detection, 97.78% for moving state recognition, and a processing delay of 14.2 milliseconds (resolution 704x576). The deployment on-site shows an 89% reduction in false braking events, a 100% success rate in emergency braking, and a fault rate below 5%. △ Less Submitted 21 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 5 figures,16 pages arXiv:2512.18597 [ pdf , ps , other ] Commercial Vehicle Braking Optimization: A Robust SIFT-Trajectory Approach Authors: Zhe Li , Kun Cheng , Hanyue Mo , Jintao Lu , Ziwen Kuang , Jianwen Ye , Lixu Xu , Xinya Meng , Jiahui Zhao , Shengda Ji , Shuyuan Liu , Mengyu Wang Abstract : A vision-based trajectory analysis solution is proposed to address the "zero-speed braking" issue caused by inaccurate Controller Area Network (CAN) signals in commercial vehicle Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) systems during low-speed operation. The algorithm utilizes the NVIDIA Jetson AGX Xavier platform to process sequential video frames from a blind spot camera, employing self-adaptive Contr… ▽ More A vision-based trajectory analysis solution is proposed to address the "zero-speed braking" issue caused by inaccurate Controller Area Network (CAN) signals in commercial vehicle Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) systems during low-speed operation. The algorithm utilizes the NVIDIA Jetson AGX Xavier platform to process sequential video frames from a blind spot camera, employing self-adaptive Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization (CLAHE)-enhanced Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) feature extraction and K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN)-Random Sample Consensus (RANSAC) matching. This allows for precise classification of the vehicle's motion state (static, vibration, moving). Key innovations include 1) multiframe trajectory displacement statistics (5-frame sliding window), 2) a dual-threshold state decision matrix, and 3) OBD-II driven dynamic Region of Interest (ROI) configuration. The system effectively suppresses environmental interference and false detection of dynamic objects, directly addressing the challenge of low-speed false activation in commercial vehicle safety systems. Evaluation in a real-world dataset (32,454 video segments from 1,852 vehicles) demonstrates an F1-score of 99.96% for static detection, 97.78% for moving state recognition, and a processing delay of 14.2 milliseconds (resolution 704x576). The deployment on-site shows an 89% reduction in false braking events, a 100% success rate in emergency braking, and a fault rate below 5%. △ Less Submitted 21 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 5 figures,16 pages 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Dimensions and planes of existence Toggle Dimensions and planes of existence subsection 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 2 Theoretical joint points Toggle Theoretical joint points subsection 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 3 The "problem of psychology" Toggle The "problem of psychology" subsection 3.1 Solution 3.1 Solution 4 Consciousness and human behavior 5 Toward the integration of human knowledge 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Tree of knowledge system العربية Español فارسی Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these messages ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The tree of knowledge ( ToK ) system is a new [ when? ] map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques , who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University . [ 1 ] The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [ 2 ] [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in Review of General Psychology . [ 3 ] Two special issues of the Journal of Clinical Psychology in December 2004 [ 4 ] and January 2005 [ 5 ] were devoted to the elaboration and evaluation of the model. In 2008, a special issue of Theory & Psychology [ 6 ] was devoted to the ToK System. In 2011, Henriques published A New Unified Theory of Psychology . That same year he also launched the blog Theory of Knowledge: A Unified Approach to Psychology and Philosophy on Psychology Today , which remains active. There is also a Theory Of Knowledge Society and discussion listserve that is devoted to discussing Henriques' work and other big picture viewpoints. In some ways, the ToK System reflects a fairly common hierarchy of nature and of the sciences that has been represented in one way or another since the time of Auguste Comte , who in the 19th century used a hierarchical conception of nature to argue for the existence of sociology. It also has clear parallels with Aristotle's conception of the scales of nature and the first four levels of the Great Chain of Being . Despite some overlap with a number of traditional schemes, the ToK System is properly thought of as a new theory of both ontic reality and our scientific knowledge of that reality. One of the most important and salient features of the Tree of Knowledge is how it represents reality as consisting of four different planes of existence. The theory is that, following Matter, Life, Mind and Culture each represent complex adaptive landscapes that are organized and mediated by novel emergent information processing and communication systems. Specifically, DNA/RNA store information that is processed by cells which then engage in intercellular communication to create the plane of existence called Life. Similarly, the brain and nervous system store and process information in animals which then engage in communication networks on the complex adaptive plane called Mind. Finally, linguistic storage and processing and communication between human beings generates the emergence of the Culture-Person plane of existence. The separable planes of existence or dimension of complexity argument is one of the most crucial aspects of the system. Many have argued nature is hierarchically leveled; for example, a list of such levels might be subatomic particles , atoms , molecules , cells , organ structures, multi-celled organisms, consciousness , and society is common. The ToK System embraces a view of nature as levels, but adds the notion that there are also separable dimensions of complexity . The difference becomes particularly clear in the extension of the ToK System into the Periodic Table of Behavior . The Periodic Table of Behavior (PTB) shows that natural science can be arranged in terms of the four fundamental dimensions (i.e., matter, life, mind, and culture) and three fundamental levels of analysis (i.e., part, whole, group). The PTB also demonstrates that behavior is a central concept in science. Epistemologically, natural scientists view the world via a third person behavioral lens. Ontologically, science is about mapping different kinds of behaviors that take place in nature at various levels and dimensions of analysis. The second central insight of the ToK System is that it shows how natural science is a particular kind of justification system that emerges out of Culture based on novel methods and specific epistemological commitments and assumptions (i.e., an exterior view point, quantification and experimentation). This epistemology and methodology functions to justify scientific ontology, which in turn maps the ontic reality. Specifically, the domains of the physical, biological, (basic) psychological and social sciences map the ontic dimensions of matter, life, mind and culture. The Periodic Table of Behavior further shows how science is a justification system that is arranged to map behavioral frequencies at different dimensions of complexity and levels of analysis. Dimensions and planes of existence This section relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. ( April 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Matter/Object — Physical sciences The dimension of matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with modern cosmology , matter is theorized to have emerged from a pure energy singularity at the Big Bang . Space and time were also born at such a point. Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics , chemistry , geology, astronomy ) describe the behavior of material objects. [ 3 ] Life/Organism — Biological sciences The dimension of life refers to organisms and their behaviors through time. Living objects are considered a unique subset of material objects. Just as quantum particles form the fundamental units of material complexity, genes are the fundamental units of living information. Although many questions about the emergence of life remain unanswered, in accordance with modern biology, the ToK posits that natural selection operating on genetic combinations through time is the unified theory of biology and forms the foundational understanding for the emergence of organic complexity. [ 3 ] Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition , in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science . [ 3 ] Henriques argues that comparative psychology , ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. Culture/Person — Human social sciences Culture in the ToK system refers to the set of sociolinguistic behaviors, which range from large scale nation states to individual human justifications for particular actions. Just as genetic information processing is associated with the Life dimension and neuronal information processing associated with the Mind dimension, symbolic information processing emerges with the Cultural dimension. [ 3 ] Henriques argues that human cognitive science, human psychology and the social sciences (i.e., anthropology, sociology, political science, and economics) work to map this domain. Theoretical joint points Quantum gravity Quantum gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science which are quantum mechanics , the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general relativity , the science of the macroscopic (e.g., galaxies ). Currently, these two great domains of science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything , yet progress is being made, most notably through string theory , loop quantum gravity , black hole thermodynamics and the study of the early universe. Some of the difficulties combining these two pillars of physical science are philosophical in nature and it is possible that the macro view of knowledge offered by the ToK may eventually aid in the construction of a coherent theory of quantum gravity. The reason the ToK might help is that it locates scientific knowledge in relationship to the physical universe. The modern synthesis The modern synthesis refers to the merger of genetics with natural selection which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s and offers a reasonably complete framework for understanding the emergence of biological complexity. Although there remain significant gaps in biological knowledge surrounding questions such as the origin of life and the emergence of sexual reproduction, the modern synthesis represents the most complete and well-substantiated joint point. Behavioral investment theory Behavioral investment theory (BIT) is a metatheoretical formulation for the mind, brain and animal behavioral sciences. Henriques proposes that it enables the merger of the selection science of behaviorism with the information science of cognitive neuroscience that has conceptual parallels with the modern synthesis. BIT posits that the nervous system evolved as an increasingly flexible computational control system that coordinates the behavioral expenditure of energy of the animal as a whole. Expenditure of behavioral energy is theorized to be computed on an investment value system built evolutionarily through natural selection operating on genetic combinations and ontogenetically through behavioral selection operating on neural combinations. As such, the current behavioral investments of the animal are conceptualized as the joint product of the two vectors of phylogeny and ontogeny . A unique element of BIT is that it finds a core of agreement and builds bridges between five brain-behavior paradigms: (1) cognitive science ; (2) behavioral science ; (3) evolutionary theory and genetics; (4) neuroscience; and (5) cybernetics / systems theory . David C. Geary noted the similarities between his "motive-to-control" hypothesis and Henriques' Behavioral Investment Theory, which were developed independently of each other. Furthermore, Geary suggested that his model "seem[ed] to fill in many of the proximate mechanisms and evolutionary pressures that define the life-mind joint point, and provided a framework for further development of the mind-culture joint point." [ 7 ] Justification systems theory The justification systems theory (JUST; formerly known as the justification hypothesis) posits that the evolution of language reached a tipping point with emergence of propositional claims. Specifically, propositional claims can be questioned, which generates the "question-answer" dynamic. This creates the problem of justification, which Henriques argues drives both the design of the human self-consciousness system as a mental organ of justification and gives rise to the evolution of the Culture-Person plane of existence. JUST is a novel proposal that allows for both the understanding of the evolution of culture and for identifying what makes humans distinct animals. A basic initial claim of JUST is that the process of justification is a crucial component of human mental behavior at both the individual and societal level. Unlike all other animals, humans everywhere ask for and give explanations for their actions. Arguments, debates, moral dictates, rationalizations, and excuses all involve the process of explaining why one's claims, thoughts or actions are warranted. In virtually every form of social exchange, from warfare to politics to family struggles to science, humans are constantly justifying their behavioral investments to themselves and others. JUST consists of three key postulates: The first is that the evolution of propositional language must have created the problem of justification, which involves three interlocking problems of deciphering what is (1) analytically true and what is (2) good for the group and (3) good for the individual. The second postulate is that the structure and functional design of human consciousness can be understood as a solution to the problem of justification. Specifically, the three domains of human consciousness that Henriques identifies in the Updated Tripartite Model of the (1) experiential; (2) private narrator; and (3) public narrator are directly consistent with adaptive pressures that arise from the logic of the problem of justification. This analysis deepens when one considers the dynamic relationships and filtering that takes place between these three domains. The third postulate is that culture can be understood as large scale justification systems that coordinate the behavior of human populations. Cultural systems are seen to evolve much in the same way as organisms do in biological evolution: there is a process of variation, selection and retention of belief systems. The "problem of psychology" The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework . The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are ignorant of different approaches. In most cases, individual psychologists have to determine for themselves which elements of which perspective to apply, and how to integrate them into their overall understanding. Henriques argues that the problem of psychology is a central feature of modern knowledge systems. In A New Unified Theory of Psychology , he described it as follows: The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The reason for psychology's fragmentation, according to the ToK System, is that there has been no meta-theoretical frame that allows scholars to agree on the basic questions that need to be addressed. As such, the different schools of thought in psychology are like the blind men who each grab a part of the elephant and proclaim they have discovered its true nature. With its novel depiction of evolving dimensions of complexity, the ToK allows scholars finally to see the elephant. In his 2003 Review of General Psychology paper, [ 8 ] Henriques used the ToK System with the attempt to clarify and align the views of B.F. Skinner and Sigmund Freud . These luminaries were chosen because when one considers their influence and historical opposition, it can readily be argued that they represent two schools of thought that are the most difficult to integrate. Henriques used the meta-perspective offered by the ToK to argue how one can retain the key insights from each school of thought, identify errors and points of confusion, and integrate the insights into a coherent whole. Cultural and personality psychologist, Michael Katzko, [ 10 ] however critiques Henriques' position on "the problem of psychology": There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] Solution The problem of psychology, according to the ToK, is its conceptual incoherence, which Henriques identifies by the following: When the various conceptions of psychology (e.g., behavioral, humanistic, cognitive) are viewed through the lens of the ToK System, psychology spans two different dimensions of complexity: the mental and the cultural. In other words, the discipline has historically spanned two fundamentally separate problems: If, as previously thought, nature simply consisted of levels of complexity, psychology would not be crisply defined in relationship to biology or the social sciences. And, indeed, it is frequently suggested that psychology exists in an amorphous space between biology and the social sciences. However, with its dimension of complexity depiction, the ToK System suggests that psychology can be crisply defined as the science of mind, which is the third dimension of complexity. Furthermore, because human behavior exists in the fourth dimension, psychology must be divided into two broad scientific domains of Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). [ 9 ] Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] In a similar vein, Scott O. Lilienfeld, who described Henriques' effort as "thoughtful", contended that psychology is "an inherently fuzzy concept that resists precise definition" and that "attempts to define psychology [would be] likely to hamper rather than foster consilience across disciplines". Lilienfield went on further to suggest that the scientist-practitioner gap in psychology lies not in definitional issues, but in different "epistemic attitudes" between these two groups. He stated that scientists have an epistemic attitude of empiricism , (where questions regarding human nature are settled by scientific evidence), and that practitioners have an epistemic attitude of romanticism , (where questions of human nature are settled by intuition). Lilienfeld suggested that the solution to the scientist-practitioner gulf isn't definitional, but in "train[ing] future clinical scientists to appreciate the proper places of romanticism and empiricism within science". [ 13 ] Consciousness and human behavior A frequent question and point of confusion in the ToK System is the definition and meaning of consciousness . As mentioned above, mind is not synonymous with consciousness. And, to understand consciousness from a ToK vantage point, it is crucial to recognize that the term is often ambiguous in its meaning. Two primary meanings are sentience , which is the capacity for mental experience and self-awareness , which is the capacity to be aware of one's awareness. Sentience is conceptualized as a "level 3" phenomenon, possessed by many animals other than humans and is defined as a "perceived" electro-neuro-chemical representation of animal-environment relations. The ingredient of neurological behavior that allows for the emergence of mental experience is considered the "hard" problem of consciousness and the ToK System does not address this question explicitly. In contrast, through the Justification Hypothesis (see below), the ToK System involves a very direct analysis of the other issue of consciousness, that of self-awareness . Another frequent question that is raised is "Where does individual human behavior fall on the ToK?" To analyze human behavior from the context of the ToK, one uses the ToK like a prism to separate the dimensions of behavior into physiochemical, biogenetic, neuropsychological and sociolinguistic. Thus if we imagine a conversation between a husband and wife as follows: Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” The words represent the sociolinguistic dimension and are understood as a function of justification. Justification systems are seen both at the level of individual, micro-social and societal (i.e., the context of justification in which men work and women stay at home). The actions of the husband and wife in terms of facial expression , body movement, etc. are seen as the mental dimension and are understood as a function of behavioral investment. The physiological make up of the organ systems and cells of each body is seen as the biogenetic dimension. Finally, the position, temperature, molecular make up is seen as the physiochemical dimension. Each of the more basic dimensions represent conditions of possibility that allow for the emergence of the higher dimension of process. Thus, insufficient oxygen disrupts organic processes which in turn renders neuropsychological and sociolinguistic processes impossible. Toward the integration of human knowledge As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience . Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In a 2008 article on the ToK, [ 14 ] Henriques cites Oliver Reiser 's 1958 call for unifying scientific knowledge that Henriques implies is similar in theme to the ToK: With its depiction of the dimensions of complexity and interlocking theoretical joint points, Henriques' believes that his ToK System offers new avenues that might allow scholars to meet Reiser’s call for academic synthesis. Henriques, like Reiser, believes that with a shared sense of purpose and a common background of explanation, people might yet be able to integrate bodies of knowledge into a unified interpretation of humanity, with humanity's place in nature and its potentialities for creating the good society. See also Tree of knowledge (philosophy) by René Descartes Tinbergen's four questions Behavioral repertoire Consilience Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Descriptive psychology General System Theory Psychological behaviorism Social meaning-making The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution – 1959 book by C. P. Snow Unified theory of cognition Unity of science Metasystem transition References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} " "About Me" section of the ToK System website" . Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 . Retrieved 3 January 2009 . ^ " "The Tree of Knowledge System" section of the 8 key ideas in the Unified Theory of Knowledge website" . Archived from the original on 2 July 2022 . Retrieved 2 July 2022 . ^ a b c d e Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 60, No 12" . Archived from the original on 3 March 2011 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 61, No 1" . Archived from the original on 16 December 2012 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Theory & Psychology - Volume 18, Number 6, Dec 01, 2008" . Sage Journals . ^ Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2003). The tree of knowledge system and the theoretical unification of psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. ^ Homepage of Michael Katzko ^ Katzko, M. W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology , 18, 817–828. Abstract ^ Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. ^ Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Final draft ^ Reiser, O.L. (1958). The integration of human knowledge. Boston: Porter Sargent. Bibliography Anchin, J.C. (2008). The critical role of the dialectic in viable metatheory: A commentary on Henriques' Tree of Knowledge System for integrating human knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 801–816. Full text Calhoun, L.G. (2004). The unification of psychology: A noble quest. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 60, 1283–1289. Abstract Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. Full text Gilbert, P. (2004). A much needed macro level view: A commentary on Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1223–1226. Full text Goertzen, J.R. (2008). On the possibility of unification: The reality and nature of the crisis in psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18, 829–852. Full text Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. Full text Hayes, S.C. (2004). Taxonomy as a contextualist views it. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1231–1236. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). A new vision for the field: Introduction to the second special issue on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61, 3–6. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). Toward a useful mass movement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 121–139. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. Full text Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Henriques, G.R. (2004). The development of the unified theory and the future of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 39, 16–21. Final draft Henriques, G.R., & Cobb, H.C. (2004). Introduction to the special issues on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1203–1205. Full text Henriques, G.R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Unified professional psychology: Implications for combined-integrated doctoral training programs. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1051–1063. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. Full text Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Henriques, G.R. (2002). The harmful dysfunction analysis and the differentiation between mental disorder and disease. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice , 1, 157–173. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2000). Depression: Disease or behavioral shutdown mechanism? Journal of Science and Health Policy, 1, 152–165. Full text Jones, R. (2005). From that dirty little science grows a Tree of Knowledge. The Madison, 1, 36–45. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 817–828. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2004). Psychology's dilemma: An institutional neurosis? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1237–1242. Full text Kihlstrom, J.F. (2004). Unity within psychology, and unity between science and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1243–1247. Full text Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. Full text Mayer, J.D. (2004). How does psychotherapy influence personality? A theoretical integration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1291–1315. Full text Presbury, J. (2004). Rooting the tree of knowledge: A response to Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1255–1258. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2008). Theoretical unification as a practical project: Kant and the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 757–777. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2005). Remythologizing culture: Narrativity, justification, and the politics of personalization. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 67–80. Full text Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rand, K.L., & Ilardi, S.S. (2005). Toward a consilient science of psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 7–20. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2008). Religion as a large-scale justification system: Does the Justification Hypothesis explain animistic attribution? Theory & Psychology, 18, 779–799. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2006). Durkheim's aphorism, the Justification Hypothesis, and the nature of social facts. Sociological Viewpoints, fall issue, 57–70. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2005). From mirror self-recognition to the looking glass self: Exploring the justification hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 47–65 . Full text Shealy, C.N. (2005). Justifying the justification hypothesis: Scientific-humanism, Equilintegration (EI) Theory, and the Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 81–106. Full text Slife, B. (2005). Testing the limits of Henriques' proposal: Wittgensteinian lessons and hermenuetic dialogue. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 107–120. Full text Stam, H.J. (2004). Unifying psychology: Epistemological act or disciplinary maneuver? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1259–1262. Full text Stanovich, K.E. (2004). Metarepresentation and the great cognitive divide: A commentary on Henriques' "Psychology Defined". Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1263–1266. Full text Stricker, G. (2004). The unification of psychology and psychological organizations. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1267–1269. Full text Vazire, S., & Robins, R.W. (2004). Beyond the Justification Hypothesis: A Broader Theory of the Evolution of Self-Consciousness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1271–1273. Full text Viney, W. (2004). Pluralism in the sciences is not easily dismissed. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1275–1278. Full text Yanchar, S.C. (2004). Some discontents with theoretical unification. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1279–1281. Full text External links The Official Tree of Knowledge Website Archived 6 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques at the Psychology Wiki This page uses content from the English-language version of Psychology Wiki . The original article was at Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques . The list of authors can be seen in the page history . The text of both The Psychology Wiki and Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.1 January 2 Scheduled events 3 See also 4 References 5 External links 2026 in science Беларуская Français 日本語 Română Русский Українська Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item List of years in science ( table ) … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The following scientific events occurred, or are scheduled to occur in 2026 . Events January 1 January – Researchers operating China’s Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) report the first experimental verification of a theorised density-free plasma operating regime, achieving stable electron densities approximately 1.3–1.65 times the Greenwald limit . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] 2 January – Researchers at the Vienna University of Technology and the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology demonstrate self-sustained superradiant microwave emission, produced by interacting spins in diamond , offering potential applications in quantum communication and sensing. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] 4–8 January – 247th Meeting of the American Astronomical Society [ 5 ] 5 January – NASA announces that it has awarded contracts to seven companies to study technologies for the Habitable Worlds Observatory , a next-generation telescope that could launch in the 2040s. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] 7 January – Astronomers using data from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory report that 2025 MN 45 has the fastest spin of any known asteroid larger than 0.5 km (0.31 mi) in diameter, completing one rotation every 1.88 minutes. [ 8 ] 13 January – The European Copernicus Climate Change Service reports that 2025 was the world's third hottest year on record (2024 was the hottest and 2023 the second hottest). In Antarctica, the average annual temperature was the warmest since measurements began and in the Arctic, it was the second highest. [ 9 ] 14 January Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Scheduled events NASA's first crewed lunar‑orbit mission in decades is slated for early 2026. [ 19 ] See also 2026 in spaceflight 2026 in Antarctica 2026 in climate change References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Liu, Jiaxing; Zhu, Ping; Escande, Dominique Franck; Liu, Wenbin; Xue, Shiwei; Lin, Xin; Tang, Panjun; Wang, Liang; Yan, Ning; Yang, Jinju; Duan, Yanmin; Jia, Kai; Wu, Zhenwei; Cheng, Yunxin; Zhang, Ling (2 January 2026). "Accessing the density-free regime with ECRH-assisted ohmic start-up on EAST" . Science Advances . 12 (1). doi : 10.1126/sciadv.adz3040 . ISSN 2375-2548 . PMC 12757026 . PMID 41477826 . ^ Mishra, Prabhat Ranjan (1 January 2026). "China's EAST Tokamak achieves stable operation at densities beyond limits" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ Kersten, Wenzel; de Zordo, Nikolaus; Diekmann, Oliver; Redchenko, Elena S.; Kanagin, Andrew N.; Angerer, Andreas; Munro, William J.; Nemoto, Kae; Mazets, Igor E.; Rotter, Stefan; Pohl, Thomas; Schmiedmayer, Jörg (2 January 2026). "Self-induced superradiant masing" . Nature Physics . doi : 10.1038/s41567-025-03123-0 . ISSN 1745-2473 . ^ Paleja, Ameya (2 January 2026). "First self-powered quantum microwave signal achieved in experiment" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 4 January 2026 . ^ "Calendar" . Secretary-General’s Scientific Advisory Board . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . ^ "NASA Selects Tech Proposals to Advance Search-for-Life Mission" . NASA . 5 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NASA seeks to accelerate development of Habitable Worlds Observatory" . Space News . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory Spots Record-Breaking Asteroid in Pre-Survey Observations" . Vera C. Rubin Observatory . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 11 January 2026 . ^ "Global Climate Highlights 2025" . copernicus.eu. 14 January 2025 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Yi, Difan; Liu, Qian; Chen, Shi; Dong, Chunlai; Feng, Huanbo; Gao, Chaosong; Huang, Wenqian; Jing, Xinmei; Kong, Lingquan; Li, Jin; Li, Peirong; Liang, Enwei; Ma, Ruiting; Su, Chenguang; Su, Liangliang (15 January 2026). "Direct observation of the Migdal effect induced by neutron bombardment" . Nature . 649 (8097): 580– 583. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09918-8 . ISSN 0028-0836 . ^ Nuo, Xu (16 January 2026). "New finding to help probe dark matter" . global.chinadaily.com.cn . Retrieved 16 January 2026 . ^ Communication, N. B. I. (15 January 2026). "Copenhagen researchers make the front page of Nature: Solving the mystery of the universe's 'little red dots' " . nbi.ku.dk . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Rusakov, V.; Watson, D.; Nikopoulos, G. P.; Brammer, G.; Gottumukkala, R.; Harvey, T.; Heintz, K. E.; Damgaard, R.; Sim, S. A.; Sneppen, A.; Vijayan, A. P.; Adams, N.; Austin, D.; Conselice, C. J.; Goolsby, C. M. (2026). "Little red dots as young supermassive black holes in dense ionized cocoons" . Nature . 649 (8097): 574– 579. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09900-4 . ISSN 1476-4687 . ^ "Ice from Swiss glacier is safely stored in Antarctica" . blue News . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antarctica ice sanctuary launched to preserve the cores of dying glaciers" . Yahoo News . 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Schneehöhle als Klima-Archiv der Erde: Erste Eisbohrkerne in Antarktis-Lagerstätte" . stern.de (in German). 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Stocker, Thomas (14 January 2026). "La première bibliothèque de carottes glaciaires en Antarctique pour protéger la mémoire climatique de l'humanité" . The Conversation . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antartide: nasce archivio mondiale ghiaccio con primi campioni da Alpi - Borsa Italiana" . www.borsaitaliana.it . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Artemis II 2026: NASA prepares first crewed mission to circle around the moon in 50 years, scheduled for February" . The Times of India . 25 September 2025. ISSN 0971-8257 . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: NoReGeo: Non-Reasoning Geometry Benchmark Abstract: We present NoReGeo, a novel benchmark designed to evaluate the intrinsic geometric understanding of large language models (LLMs) without relying on reasoning or algebraic computation. Unlike existing benchmarks that primarily assess models' proficiency in reasoning-based geometry-where solutions are derived using algebraic methods-NoReGeo focuses on evaluating whether LLMs can inherently encode spatial relationships and recognize geometric properties directly. Our benchmark comprises 2,500 trivial geometric problems spanning 25 categories, each carefully crafted to be solvable purely through native geometric understanding, assuming known object locations. We assess a range of state-of-the-art models on NoReGeo, including frontier models like GPT-4, observing that even the most advanced systems achieve an overall maximum of 65% accuracy in binary classification tasks. Further, our ablation experiments demonstrate that such geometric understanding does not emerge through fine-tuning alone, indicating that effective training for geometric comprehension requires a specialized approach from the outset. Our findings highlight a significant gap in current LLMs' ability to natively grasp geometric concepts, providing a foundation for future research toward models with true geometric cognition. Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10254 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10254v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite (pending registration) Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Four classical states Toggle Four classical states subsection 1.1 Solid 1.2 Liquid 1.3 Gas 1.4 Plasma 1.1 Solid 1.2 Liquid 1.3 Gas 1.4 Plasma 2 Phase transitions 3 Non-classical states Toggle Non-classical states subsection 3.1 Glass 3.2 Crystals with some degree of disorder 3.3 Liquid crystal states 3.4 Microphase separation 3.1 Glass 3.2 Crystals with some degree of disorder 3.3 Liquid crystal states 3.4 Microphase separation 4 Magnetically ordered states 5 Superfluids and condensates Toggle Superfluids and condensates subsection 5.1 Bose–Einstein condensates and superfluids 5.2 Superconductors and fermionic condensates 5.1 Bose–Einstein condensates and superfluids 5.2 Superconductors and fermionic condensates 6 High-energy states Toggle High-energy states subsection 6.1 Degenerate matter 6.2 Quark matter 6.3 Color-glass condensate 6.4 Very high energy states 6.1 Degenerate matter 6.2 Quark matter 6.3 Color-glass condensate 6.4 Very high energy states 7 Other proposed states Toggle Other proposed states subsection 7.1 Supersolid 7.2 String-net liquid 7.3 Superglass 7.4 Chain-melted state 7.5 Quantum Hall state 7.6 Photonic matter 7.1 Supersolid 7.2 String-net liquid 7.3 Superglass 7.4 Chain-melted state 7.5 Quantum Hall state 7.6 Photonic matter 8 See also 9 Notes and references 10 External links State of matter Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Буряад Català Чӑвашла Čeština ChiShona Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Lombard Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий Oromoo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Shqip සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Taqbaylit తెలుగు ไทย ትግርኛ Türkçe Українська اردو Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt 文言 West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Žemaitėška 中文 Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item In physics , a state of matter or phase of matter is one of the distinct forms in which matter can exist. Four states of matter are observable in everyday life: solid , liquid , gas , and plasma . Different states are distinguished by the ways the component particles ( atoms , molecules , ions and electrons ) are arranged, and how they behave collectively. In a solid, the particles are tightly packed and held in fixed positions, giving the material a definite shape and volume . In a liquid, the particles remain close together but can move past one another, allowing the substance to maintain a fixed volume while adapting to the shape of its container. In a gas, the particles are far apart and move freely, allowing the substance to expand and fill both the shape and volume of its container. Plasma is similar to a gas, but it also contains charged particles (ions and free electrons) that move independently and respond to electric and magnetic fields. Beyond the classical states of matter, a wide variety of additional states are known to exist. Some of these lie between the traditional categories; for example, liquid crystals exhibit properties of both solids and liquids. Others represent entirely different kinds of ordering. Magnetic states , for instance, do not depend on the spatial arrangement of atoms, but rather on the alignment of their intrinsic magnetic moments ( spins ). Even in a solid where atoms are fixed in position, the spins can organize in distinct ways, giving rise to magnetic states such as ferromagnetism or antiferromagnetism . Some states occur only under extreme conditions, such as Bose–Einstein condensates and Fermionic condensates (in extreme cold), neutron-degenerate matter (in extreme density), and quark–gluon plasma (at extremely high energy ). The term phase is sometimes used as a synonym for state of matter, but it is possible for a single compound to form different phases that are in the same state of matter. For example, ice is the solid state of water, but there are multiple phases of ice with different crystal structures , which are formed at different pressures and temperatures. Four classical states Solid In a solid, constituent particles (ions, atoms, or molecules) are closely packed together. The forces between particles are so strong that the particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate. As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, and a definite volume. Solids can only change their shape by an outside force, as when broken or cut. In crystalline solids , the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern. There are various different crystal structures , and the same substance can have more than one structure (or solid phase). For example, iron has a body-centred cubic structure at temperatures below 912 °C (1,674 °F), and a face-centred cubic structure between 912 and 1,394 °C (2,541 °F). Ice has fifteen known crystal structures, or fifteen solid phases, which exist at various temperatures and pressures. [ 1 ] Glasses and other non-crystalline, amorphous solids without long-range order are not thermal equilibrium ground states; therefore they are described below as nonclassical states of matter. Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting, and liquids can be transformed into solids by freezing. Solids can also change directly into gases through the process of sublimation , and gases can likewise change directly into solids through deposition . Liquid A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure. The volume is definite if the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is heated above its melting point , it becomes liquid, given that the pressure is higher than the triple point of the substance. Intermolecular (or interatomic or interionic) forces are still important, but the molecules have enough energy to move relative to each other and the structure is mobile. This means that the shape of a liquid is not definite but is determined by its container. The volume is usually greater than that of the corresponding solid, the best known exception being water , H 2 O. The highest temperature at which a given liquid can exist is its critical temperature . [ 2 ] Gas A gas is a compressible fluid. Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its container but it will also expand to fill the container. In a gas, the molecules have enough kinetic energy so that the effect of intermolecular forces is small (or zero for an ideal gas ), and the typical distance between neighboring molecules is much greater than the molecular size. A gas has no definite shape or volume, but occupies the entire container in which it is confined. A liquid may be converted to a gas by heating at constant pressure to the boiling point , or else by reducing the pressure at constant temperature. At temperatures below its critical temperature , a gas is also called a vapor , and can be liquefied by compression alone without cooling. A vapor can exist in equilibrium with a liquid (or solid), in which case the gas pressure equals the vapor pressure of the liquid (or solid). A supercritical fluid (SCF) is a gas whose temperature and pressure are above the critical temperature and critical pressure respectively. In this state, the distinction between liquid and gas disappears. A supercritical fluid has the physical properties of a gas, but its high density confers solvent properties in some cases, which leads to useful applications. For example, supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract caffeine in the manufacture of decaffeinated coffee. [ 3 ] Plasma A gas is usually converted to a plasma in one of two ways, either from a huge voltage difference between two points, or by exposing it to extremely high temperatures. Heating matter to high temperatures causes electrons to leave the atoms, resulting in the presence of free electrons. This creates a so-called partially ionized plasma. At very high temperatures, such as those present in stars, it is assumed that essentially all electrons are "free", and that a very high-energy plasma is essentially bare nuclei swimming in a sea of electrons. This forms the so-called fully ionized plasma. The plasma state is often misunderstood, and although not freely existing under normal conditions on Earth, it is quite commonly generated by either lightning , electric sparks , fluorescent lights , neon lights or in plasma televisions . The Sun's corona , some types of flame , and stars are all examples of illuminated matter in the plasma state. Plasma is by far the most abundant of the four fundamental states; 99% of all ordinary matter in the universe is plasma, as it composes all stars . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Phase transitions A state of matter is also characterized by phase transitions . A phase transition indicates a change in structure and can be recognized by an abrupt change in properties. A distinct state of matter can be defined as any set of states distinguished from any other set of states by a phase transition . Water can be said to have several distinct solid states. [ 7 ] The appearance of superconductivity is associated with a phase transition, so there are superconductive states. Likewise, ferromagnetic states are demarcated by phase transitions and have distinctive properties. When the change of state occurs in stages the intermediate steps are called mesophases . Such phases have been exploited by the introduction of liquid crystal technology. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] v t e To From Solid Liquid Gas Plasma Solid Melting Sublimation Liquid Freezing Vaporization Gas Deposition Condensation Ionization Plasma Recombination The state or phase of a given set of matter can change depending on pressure and temperature conditions, transitioning to other phases as these conditions change to favor their existence; for example, solid transitions to liquid with an increase in temperature. Near absolute zero , a substance exists as a solid . As heat is added to this substance it melts into a liquid at its melting point , boils into a gas at its boiling point , and if heated high enough would enter a plasma state in which the electrons are so energized that they leave their parent atoms. Forms of matter that are not composed of molecules and are organized by different forces can also be considered different states of matter. Superfluids (like Fermionic condensate ) and the quark–gluon plasma are examples. Non-classical states Glass Glass is a non-crystalline or amorphous solid material that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state. Glasses can be made of quite different classes of materials: inorganic networks (such as window glass, made of silicate plus additives), metallic alloys, ionic melts , aqueous solutions , molecular liquids, and polymers . Thermodynamically, a glass is in a metastable state with respect to its crystalline counterpart. The conversion rate, however, is practically zero. Crystals with some degree of disorder A plastic crystal is a molecular solid with long-range positional order but with constituent molecules retaining rotational freedom; in an orientational glass this degree of freedom is frozen in a quenched disordered state. Similarly, in a spin glass magnetic disorder is frozen. Liquid crystal states Liquid crystal states have properties intermediate between mobile liquids and ordered solids. Generally, they are able to flow like a liquid but exhibit long-range order. For example, the nematic phase consists of long rod-like molecules such as para-azoxyanisole , which is nematic in the temperature range 118–136 °C (244–277 °F). [ 10 ] In this state the molecules flow as in a liquid, but they all point in the same direction (within each domain) and cannot rotate freely. Like a crystalline solid, but unlike a liquid, liquid crystals react to polarized light. Other types of liquid crystals are described in the main article on these states. Several types have technological importance, for example, in liquid crystal displays . Microphase separation Copolymers can undergo microphase separation to form a diverse array of periodic nanostructures, as shown in the example of the styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer shown at right. Microphase separation can be understood by analogy to the phase separation between oil and water. Due to chemical incompatibility between the blocks, block copolymers undergo a similar phase separation. However, because the blocks are covalently bonded to each other, they cannot demix macroscopically as water and oil can, and so instead the blocks form nanometre-sized structures. Depending on the relative lengths of each block and the overall block topology of the polymer, many morphologies can be obtained, each its own phase of matter. Ionic liquids also display microphase separation. The anion and cation are not necessarily compatible and would demix otherwise, but electric charge attraction prevents them from separating. Their anions and cations appear to diffuse within compartmentalized layers or micelles instead of freely as in a uniform liquid. [ 11 ] Magnetically ordered states Transition metal atoms often have magnetic moments due to the net spin of electrons that remain unpaired and do not form chemical bonds. In some solids the magnetic moments on different atoms are ordered and can form a ferromagnet, an antiferromagnet or a ferrimagnet. In a ferromagnet —for instance, solid iron —the magnetic moment on each atom is aligned in the same direction (within a magnetic domain ). If the domains are also aligned, the solid is a permanent magnet , which is magnetic even in the absence of an external magnetic field . The magnetization disappears when the magnet is heated to the Curie point , which for iron is 768 °C (1,414 °F). An antiferromagnet has two networks of equal and opposite magnetic moments, which cancel each other out so that the net magnetization is zero. For example, in nickel(II) oxide (NiO), half the nickel atoms have moments aligned in one direction and half in the opposite direction. In a ferrimagnet , the two networks of magnetic moments are opposite but unequal, so that cancellation is incomplete and there is a non-zero net magnetization. An example is magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ), which contains Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ ions with different magnetic moments. A quantum spin liquid (QSL) is a disordered state in a system of interacting quantum spins which preserves its disorder to very low temperatures, unlike other disordered states. It is not a liquid in physical sense, but a solid whose magnetic order is inherently disordered. The name "liquid" is due to an analogy with the molecular disorder in a conventional liquid. A QSL is neither a ferromagnet , where magnetic domains are parallel, nor an antiferromagnet , where the magnetic domains are antiparallel; instead, the magnetic domains are randomly oriented. This can be realized e.g. by geometrically frustrated magnetic moments that cannot point uniformly parallel or antiparallel. When cooling down and settling to a state, the domain must "choose" an orientation, but if the possible states are similar in energy, one will be chosen randomly. Consequently, despite strong short-range order, there is no long-range magnetic order. Superfluids and condensates Bose–Einstein condensates and superfluids Bose–Einstein condensation was predicted in 1925 by Albert Einstein , based on the particle statistics developed by him and Satyendra Nath Bose . [ 12 ] Bose-Einstein condensation occurs when bosonic particles are cooled close to absolute zero , −273.15 °C (−459.67 °F). At a specific temperature, a large fraction of them suddenly occupies the same lowest energy quantum state . [ 12 ] The effect is termed condensation in analogy with the condensation of water, with which it shares some similarities. [ 13 ] In 1937, it was discovered that helium-4 , the most common isotope of helium , forms a superfluid below the lambda temperature of 2.17 K (−270.98 °C; −455.76 °F). The state is described as superfluid because it has zero viscosity and flows without friction. In this state it will attempt to "climb" out of its container. [ 14 ] It also has infinite thermal conductivity so that no temperature gradient can form in a superfluid. Placing a superfluid in a spinning container will result in quantized vortices . These properties are explained by the theory that helium-4 atoms form a Bose–Einstein condensate in the superfluid state. [ citation needed ] In the gas phase, the Bose–Einstein condensate remained an unverified theoretical prediction for many years. However in 1995, the research groups of Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman , of JILA at the University of Colorado at Boulder , produced the first such condensate experimentally with rubidium atoms. Independently of Cornell and Wieman, Wolfgang Ketterle also produced a Bose–Einstein condensate in a gas of sodium atoms in 1995. [ 13 ] Superconductors and fermionic condensates A fermionic condensate is similar to the Bose–Einstein condensate but composed of fermions . While the Pauli exclusion principle prevents individual fermions from occupying the same quantum state, pairs of fermions can combine to form composite particles that behave like bosons. These pairs can then occupy the same state, forming a condensate analogous to a Bose–Einstein condensate. Examples of fermionic condensates include superconductors and the superfluid phase of helium-3 , a rare isotope of helium. Fermionic condensate has also been observed in ultracold lithium-6 . [ 15 ] Superconductors are materials which have zero electrical resistivity , and therefore perfect conductivity. This is a distinct physical state which exists at low temperature, and the resistivity increases discontinuously to a finite value at a sharply defined transition temperature for each superconductor. [ 16 ] A superconductor also excludes all magnetic fields from its interior, a phenomenon known as the Meissner effect or perfect diamagnetism . [ 16 ] Superconducting magnets are used as electromagnets in magnetic resonance imaging machines. The phenomenon of superconductivity was discovered in 1911, and for 75 years was only known in some metals and metallic alloys at temperatures below 30 K. In 1986 so-called high-temperature superconductivity was discovered in certain ceramic oxides, and has now been observed in temperatures as high as 164 K. [ 17 ] High-energy states Degenerate matter Under extremely high pressure, as in the cores of dead stars, ordinary matter undergoes a transition to a series of exotic states of matter collectively known as degenerate matter , which are supported mainly by quantum mechanical effects. In physics, "degenerate" refers to two states that have the same energy and are thus interchangeable. Degenerate matter is supported by the Pauli exclusion principle , which prevents two fermionic particles from occupying the same quantum state. Unlike regular plasma, degenerate plasma expands little when heated, because there are simply no momentum states left. Consequently, degenerate stars collapse into very high densities. More massive degenerate stars are smaller, because the gravitational force increases, but pressure does not increase proportionally. Electron-degenerate matter is found inside white dwarf stars. Electrons remain bound to atoms but are able to transfer to adjacent atoms. Neutron-degenerate matter is found in neutron stars . Vast gravitational pressure compresses atoms so strongly that the electrons are forced to combine with protons via inverse beta-decay, resulting in a superdense conglomeration of neutrons. Normally free neutrons outside an atomic nucleus will decay with a half life of approximately 10 minutes, but in a neutron star, the decay is overtaken by inverse decay. Cold degenerate matter is also present in planets such as Jupiter and in the even more massive brown dwarfs , which are expected to have a core with metallic hydrogen . Because of the degeneracy, more massive brown dwarfs are not significantly larger. In metals, the electrons can be modeled as a degenerate gas moving in a lattice of non-degenerate positive ions. Quark matter In regular cold matter, quarks , fundamental particles of nuclear matter, are confined by the strong force into hadrons that consist of 2–4 quarks, such as protons and neutrons. Quark matter or quantum chromodynamical (QCD) matter is a group of phases where the strong force is overcome and quarks are deconfined and free to move. Quark matter phases occur at extremely high densities or temperatures, and there are no known ways to produce them in equilibrium in the laboratory; in ordinary conditions, any quark matter formed immediately undergoes radioactive decay. Strange matter is a type of quark matter that is suspected to exist inside some neutron stars close to the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit (approximately 2–3 solar masses ), although there is no direct evidence of its existence. In strange matter, part of the energy available manifests as strange quarks , a heavier analogue of the common down quark . It may be stable at lower energy states once formed, although this is not known. Quark–gluon plasma is a very high-temperature phase in which quarks become free and able to move independently, rather than being perpetually bound into particles, in a sea of gluons , subatomic particles that transmit the strong force that binds quarks together. This is analogous to the liberation of electrons from atoms in a plasma. This state is briefly attainable in extremely high-energy heavy ion collisions in particle accelerators , and allows scientists to observe the properties of individual quarks. Theories predicting the existence of quark–gluon plasma were developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s, [ 18 ] and it was detected for the first time in the laboratory at CERN in the year 2000. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] Unlike plasma, which flows like a gas, interactions within QGP are strong and it flows like a liquid. At high densities but relatively low temperatures, quarks are theorized to form a quark liquid whose nature is presently unknown. It forms a distinct color-flavor locked (CFL) phase at even higher densities. This phase is superconductive for color charge. These phases may occur in neutron stars but they are presently theoretical. Color-glass condensate Color-glass condensate is a type of matter theorized to exist in atomic nuclei traveling near the speed of light. According to Einstein's theory of relativity, a high-energy nucleus appears length contracted, or compressed, along its direction of motion. As a result, the gluons inside the nucleus appear to a stationary observer as a "gluonic wall" traveling near the speed of light. At very high energies, the density of the gluons in this wall is seen to increase greatly. Unlike the quark–gluon plasma produced in the collision of such walls, the color-glass condensate describes the walls themselves, and is an intrinsic property of the particles that can only be observed under high-energy conditions such as those at Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) and possibly at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) as well. Very high energy states Various theories predict new states of matter at very high energies. An unknown state has created the baryon asymmetry in the universe, but little is known about it. In string theory , a Hagedorn temperature is predicted for superstrings at about 10 30 K, where superstrings are copiously produced. At Planck temperature (10 32 K), gravity becomes a significant force between individual particles. No current theory can describe these states and they cannot be produced with any foreseeable experiment. However, these states are important in cosmology because the universe may have passed through these states in the Big Bang . Other proposed states Supersolid A supersolid is a spatially ordered material (that is, a solid or crystal) with superfluid properties. Similar to a superfluid, a supersolid is able to move without friction but retains a rigid shape. Although a supersolid is a solid, it exhibits so many characteristic properties different from other solids that many argue it is another state of matter. [ 21 ] String-net liquid In a string-net liquid, atoms have apparently unstable arrangement, like a liquid, but are still consistent in overall pattern, like a solid. When in a normal solid state, the atoms of matter align themselves in a grid pattern, so that the spin of any electron is the opposite of the spin of all electrons touching it. But in a string-net liquid, atoms are arranged in some pattern that requires some electrons to have neighbors with the same spin. This gives rise to curious properties, as well as supporting some unusual proposals about the fundamental conditions of the universe itself. Superglass A superglass is a phase of matter characterized, at the same time, by superfluidity and a frozen amorphous structure. Chain-melted state Metals, like potassium, in the chain-melted state appear to behave as liquids and solids at the same time. This is a result of being subjected to high temperature and pressure, leading the chains in the potassium to dissolve into a liquid while the crystals remain solid. [ 22 ] Quantum Hall state A quantum Hall state gives rise to quantized Hall voltage measured in the direction perpendicular to the current flow. A quantum spin Hall state is a theoretical phase that may pave the way for the development of electronic devices that dissipate less energy and generate less heat. Photonic matter Photonic matter is a phenomenon where photons interacting with a gas develop apparent mass, and can interact with each other, even forming photonic "molecules". The source of mass is the gas, which is massive. This is in contrast to photons moving in empty space, which have no rest mass , and cannot interact. See also Chemical equation § State of matter Classical element Condensed matter physics Cooling curve Hidden states of matter List of states of matter Supercooling Superheating Notes and references ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} M.A. Wahab (2005). Solid State Physics: Structure and Properties of Materials . Alpha Science. pp. 1– 3. ISBN 978-1-84265-218-3 . ^ F. White (2003). Fluid Mechanics . McGraw-Hill. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-07-240217-9 . ^ G. Turrell (1997). Gas Dynamics: Theory and Applications . John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3– 5. ISBN 978-0-471-97573-1 . ^ "Plasma, Plasma, Everywhere" . NASA Science . 7 September 1999. ^ Aschwanden, M. J. (2004). Physics of the Solar Corona. An Introduction . Praxis Publishing. ISBN 978-3-540-22321-4 . ^ Piel, Alexander (7 September 2017). Plasma Physics: An Introduction to Laboratory, Space, and Fusion Plasmas . Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-63427-2 . ^ M. Chaplin (20 August 2009). "Water phase Diagram" . Water Structure and Science . Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Retrieved 23 February 2010 . ^ D.L. Goodstein (1985). States of Matter . Dover Phoenix . ISBN 978-0-486-49506-4 . ^ A.P. Sutton (1993). Electronic Structure of Materials . Oxford Science Publications. pp. 10– 12. ISBN 978-0-19-851754-2 . ^ Shao, Y.; Zerda, T.W. (1998). "Phase Transitions of Liquid Crystal PAA in Confined Geometries". Journal of Physical Chemistry B . 102 (18): 3387– 3394. Bibcode : 1998JPCB..102.3387S . doi : 10.1021/jp9734437 . ^ Álvarez, V.H.; Dosil, N.; Gonzalez-Cabaleiro, R.; Mattedi, S.; Martin-Pastor, M.; Iglesias, M. & Navaza, J.M.: Brønsted Ionic Liquids for Sustainable Processes: Synthesis and Physical Properties. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data 55 (2010), Nr. 2, S. 625–632. doi : 10.1021/je900550v ^ a b Ketterle, Wolfgang (20 November 2002). "Nobel lecture: When atoms behave as waves: Bose-Einstein condensation and the atom laser" . Reviews of Modern Physics . 74 (4): 1131– 1151. Bibcode : 2002RvMP...74.1131K . doi : 10.1103/RevModPhys.74.1131 . ISSN 0034-6861 . ^ a b "Press release: The Nobel Prize in Physics 2001" . NobelPrize.org . Retrieved 25 May 2025 . ^ J.R. Minkel (20 February 2009). "Strange but True: Superfluid Helium Can Climb Walls" . Scientific American . Archived from the original on 19 March 2011 . Retrieved 23 February 2010 . ^ L. Valigra (22 June 2005). "MIT physicists create new form of matter" . MIT News . Archived from the original on 11 December 2013 . Retrieved 23 February 2010 . ^ a b White, Mary Anne (1999). Properties of Materials . Oxford University Press. pp. 254– 258. ISBN 0-19-511331-4 . ^ M. Tinkham (2004). Introduction to Superconductivity . Courier Dover . pp. 17– 23. ISBN 0486435032 . ^ Satz, H. (1981). Statistical Mechanics of Quarks and Hadrons: Proceedings of an International Symposium Held at the University of Bielefeld, F.R.G., August 24–31, 1980 . North-Holland. ISBN 978-0-444-86227-3 . ^ Heinz, Ulrich; Jacob, Maurice (16 February 2000). "Evidence for a New State of Matter: An Assessment of the Results from the CERN Lead Beam Programme". arXiv : nucl-th/0002042 . ^ Glanz, James (10 February 2000). "Particle Physicists Getting Closer To the Bang That Started It All" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 10 May 2020 . ^ G. Murthy; et al. (1997). "Superfluids and Supersolids on Frustrated Two-Dimensional Lattices". Physical Review B . 55 (5): 3104. arXiv : cond-mat/9607217 . Bibcode : 1997PhRvB..55.3104M . doi : 10.1103/PhysRevB.55.3104 . S2CID 119498444 . ^ Mann, Adam (8 April 2019). "Confirmed: New phase of matter is solid and liquid at same time" . National Geographic . Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 . Retrieved 13 November 2023 . External links Short videos demonstrating of States of Matter, solids, liquids and gases by Prof. J M Murrell, University of Sussex Archived 30 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine v t e States of matter ( list , timeline ) v t e State Solid Liquid Gas / Vapor Supercritical fluid Plasma Solid Liquid Gas / Vapor Supercritical fluid Plasma Low energy Bose–Einstein condensate Fermionic condensate Degenerate matter Quantum Hall Rydberg matter Strange matter Superfluid Supersolid Photonic molecule Bose–Einstein condensate Fermionic condensate Degenerate matter Quantum Hall Rydberg matter Strange matter Superfluid Supersolid Photonic molecule High energy QCD matter Quark–gluon plasma Color-glass condensate QCD matter Quark–gluon plasma Color-glass condensate Other states Colloid Crystal Liquid crystal Time crystal Quantum spin liquid Exotic matter Programmable matter Dark matter Antimatter Magnetically ordered Antiferromagnet Ferrimagnet Ferromagnet String-net liquid Superglass Colloid Crystal Liquid crystal Time crystal Quantum spin liquid Exotic matter Programmable matter Dark matter Antimatter Magnetically ordered Antiferromagnet Ferrimagnet Ferromagnet Antiferromagnet Ferrimagnet Ferromagnet String-net liquid Superglass Phase transitions Boiling Boiling point Condensation Critical line Critical point Crystallization Deposition Evaporation Flash evaporation Freezing Chemical ionization Ionization Lambda point Melting Melting point Recombination Regelation Saturated fluid Sublimation Supercooling Triple point Vaporization Vitrification Boiling Boiling point Condensation Critical line Critical point Crystallization Deposition Evaporation Flash evaporation Freezing Chemical ionization Ionization Lambda point Melting Melting point Recombination Regelation Saturated fluid Sublimation Supercooling Triple point Vaporization Vitrification Quantities Enthalpy of fusion Enthalpy of sublimation Enthalpy of vaporization Latent heat Latent internal energy Trouton's rule Volatility Enthalpy of fusion Enthalpy of sublimation Enthalpy of vaporization Latent heat Latent internal energy Trouton's rule Volatility Concepts Baryonic matter Binodal Compressed fluid Cooling curve Equation of state Leidenfrost effect Macroscopic quantum phenomena Mpemba effect Order and disorder (physics) Spinodal Superconductivity Superheated vapor Superheating Thermo-dielectric effect Baryonic matter Binodal Compressed fluid Cooling curve Equation of state Leidenfrost effect Macroscopic quantum phenomena Mpemba effect Order and disorder (physics) Spinodal Superconductivity Superheated vapor Superheating Thermo-dielectric effect v t e Condensed matter physics v t e States of matter Solid Liquid Gas Plasma Bose–Einstein condensate Fermionic condensate Fermi gas Supersolid Superfluid Luttinger liquid Time crystal Solid Liquid Gas Plasma Bose–Einstein condensate Fermionic condensate Fermi gas Supersolid Superfluid Luttinger liquid Time crystal Phase phenomena Order parameter Phase transition Spontaneous symmetry breaking Critical phenomena Order parameter Phase transition Spontaneous symmetry breaking Critical phenomena Electrons in solids Phenomena Hall effect Quantum Hall effect Spin Hall effect Quantum spin Hall effect Berry phase Aharonov–Bohm effect Josephson effect Kondo effect Theory Drude model Free electron model Nearly free electron model Bloch's theorem Fermi liquid theory electronic band structure Anderson localization BCS theory tight binding model Hubbard model Conduction Insulator Mott insulator Semiconductor Semimetal Conductor Superconductor Topological insulator Spin gapless semiconductor Couplings Thermoelectricity Piezoelectricity Ferroelectricity Flexoelectricity Electrostriction Phenomena Hall effect Quantum Hall effect Spin Hall effect Quantum spin Hall effect Berry phase Aharonov–Bohm effect Josephson effect Kondo effect Hall effect Quantum Hall effect Spin Hall effect Quantum spin Hall effect Berry phase Aharonov–Bohm effect Josephson effect Kondo effect Theory Drude model Free electron model Nearly free electron model Bloch's theorem Fermi liquid theory electronic band structure Anderson localization BCS theory tight binding model Hubbard model Drude model Free electron model Nearly free electron model Bloch's theorem Fermi liquid theory electronic band structure Anderson localization BCS theory tight binding model Hubbard model Conduction Insulator Mott insulator Semiconductor Semimetal Conductor Superconductor Topological insulator Spin gapless semiconductor Insulator Mott insulator Semiconductor Semimetal Conductor Superconductor Topological insulator Spin gapless semiconductor Couplings Thermoelectricity Piezoelectricity Ferroelectricity Flexoelectricity Electrostriction Thermoelectricity Piezoelectricity Ferroelectricity Flexoelectricity Electrostriction Magnetic phases Amorphous magnet Diamagnet Superdiamagnet Paramagnet Superparamagnet Ferromagnet Antiferromagnet Metamagnet Spin glass Amorphous magnet Diamagnet Superdiamagnet Paramagnet Superparamagnet Ferromagnet Antiferromagnet Metamagnet Spin glass Quasiparticles Anyon Bogoliubov quasiparticle Hole Exciton Magnon Phonon Pines' demon Plasmon Polariton Exciton-polariton Phonon polariton Polaron Anyon Bogoliubov quasiparticle Hole Exciton Magnon Phonon Pines' demon Plasmon Polariton Exciton-polariton Phonon polariton Exciton-polariton Phonon polariton Polaron Soft matter Amorphous solid Granular matter Liquid crystal Polymer Colloids Amorphous solid Granular matter Liquid crystal Polymer Colloids Quantum chemistry Density functional theory Time-dependent Strictly-correlated-electrons Hartree–Fock method Kohn–Sham equations Local density approximation Molecular orbital theory Valence bond theory Density functional theory Time-dependent Strictly-correlated-electrons Time-dependent Strictly-correlated-electrons Hartree–Fock method Kohn–Sham equations Local density approximation Molecular orbital theory Valence bond theory Category Commons Physics Portal Physics WikiProject Category Commons Physics Portal Physics WikiProject Authority control databases International GND GND National Czech Republic Latvia Czech Republic Latvia Condensed matter physics Engineering thermodynamics Phases of matter Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2025 Commons category link is on Wikidata Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from August 2019 This page was last edited on 8 December 2025, at 19:30 (UTC) . 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Account Dashboard Publications Account settings Log out Clipboard My Bibliography Collections Citation manager Save citation to file Email citation Add to Collections Create a new collection Add to an existing collection Add to My Bibliography My Bibliography Your saved search Yes No Create a file for external citation management software Your RSS Feed Full text links Actions Create a new collection Add to an existing collection Page navigation Title & authors Abstract MeSH terms Substances Supplementary concepts LinkOut - more resources Search in PubMed Search in NLM Catalog Add to Search Chinese Immune Multi-Omics Atlas Affiliations 1 State Key Laboratory of Genome and Multi-omics Technologies, BGI Research, Shenzhen, China. 2 Shenzhen Proof-of-Concept Center of Digital Cytopathology, BGI Research, Shenzhen, China. 3 Shanxi Medical University-BGI Collaborative Center for Future Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China. 4 BGI Research, Shenzhen, China. 5 College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. 6 State Key Laboratory of Genome and Multi-omics Technologies, BGI Research, Hangzhou, China. 7 Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Genome Read and Write, Shenzhen, China. 8 Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Transomics Biotechnologies, BGI Research, Shenzhen, China. 9 School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China. 10 BGI Research, Hangzhou, China. 11 School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. 12 Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Single-Cell Omics, BGI Research, Shenzhen, China. 13 Department of Surgery, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China. 14 College of Life Science, Northwest University, Shaanxi, China. 15 BGI, Shenzhen, China. 16 Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Environmental Microbial Genomics and Application, BGI Research, Shenzhen, China. 17 BGI Research, Wuhan, China. 18 MOE Key Laboratory of Coal Environmental Pathogenicity and Prevention, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China. 19 3DCStar lab, BGI, Shenzhen, China. 20 BGI Cell, Shenzhen, China. 21 Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Imaging and Interventional Medicine, Department of Radiology, Lishui Central Hospital, The fifth affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Lishui, China. 22 Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Hangzhou, China. 23 School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China. 24 Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore. 25 Department of Biomedical Informatics, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore. 26 Genome Institute of Singapore (GIS), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore. 27 Department of Oncology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China. 28 Key Laboratory of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China. 29 Institute of Computing Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. 30 Zhangzhou Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Zhangzhou, China. 31 Department of Ultrasound, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China. 32 Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China. 33 Key Laboratory of RNA Biology, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. 34 James D. Watson Institute of Genome Sciences, Hangzhou, China. 35 Ruijin Yangtze River Delta Health Institute, Wuxi Branch of Ruijin Hospital, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China. 36 School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China. PMID: 41505528 DOI: 10.1126/science.adt3130 Chinese Immune Multi-Omics Atlas Search in PubMed Search in NLM Catalog Add to Search Authors Affiliations 1 State Key Laboratory of Genome and Multi-omics Technologies, BGI Research, Shenzhen, China. 2 Shenzhen Proof-of-Concept Center of Digital Cytopathology, BGI Research, Shenzhen, China. 3 Shanxi Medical University-BGI Collaborative Center for Future Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China. 4 BGI Research, Shenzhen, China. 5 College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. 6 State Key Laboratory of Genome and Multi-omics Technologies, BGI Research, Hangzhou, China. 7 Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Genome Read and Write, Shenzhen, China. 8 Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Transomics Biotechnologies, BGI Research, Shenzhen, China. 9 School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China. 10 BGI Research, Hangzhou, China. 11 School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. 12 Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Single-Cell Omics, BGI Research, Shenzhen, China. 13 Department of Surgery, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China. 14 College of Life Science, Northwest University, Shaanxi, China. 15 BGI, Shenzhen, China. 16 Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Environmental Microbial Genomics and Application, BGI Research, Shenzhen, China. 17 BGI Research, Wuhan, China. 18 MOE Key Laboratory of Coal Environmental Pathogenicity and Prevention, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China. 19 3DCStar lab, BGI, Shenzhen, China. 20 BGI Cell, Shenzhen, China. 21 Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Imaging and Interventional Medicine, Department of Radiology, Lishui Central Hospital, The fifth affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Lishui, China. 22 Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Hangzhou, China. 23 School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China. 24 Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore. 25 Department of Biomedical Informatics, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore. 26 Genome Institute of Singapore (GIS), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore. 27 Department of Oncology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China. 28 Key Laboratory of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China. 29 Institute of Computing Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. 30 Zhangzhou Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Zhangzhou, China. 31 Department of Ultrasound, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China. 32 Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China. 33 Key Laboratory of RNA Biology, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. 34 James D. Watson Institute of Genome Sciences, Hangzhou, China. 35 Ruijin Yangtze River Delta Health Institute, Wuxi Branch of Ruijin Hospital, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China. 36 School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China. PMID: 41505528 DOI: 10.1126/science.adt3130 Abstract Human peripheral blood exhibits molecular and cellular heterogeneity across populations, yet the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We present the Chinese Immune Multi-Omics Atlas (CIMA), characterizing molecular variations linked to sex, age, and genetic variants through multi-omics analysis of more than 10 million circulating immune cells from 428 Chinese adults. CIMA established an enhancer-driven gene regulatory network comprising 237 robust regulons; identified 9600 eGenes and 52,361 caPeaks at cell type resolution; and revealed pleiotropic associations among immune-related disease risk loci, cis-expression quantitative trait loci (QTLs), and chromatin accessibility QTLs. Furthermore, the cell language model CIMA-CLM predicted chromatin accessibility and evaluated the effects of noncoding variants from chromatin sequences and gene expression. CIMA provides a comprehensive reference for immune-related disease research. PubMed Disclaimer MeSH terms Adult Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Age Factors Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Aged Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search China Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Chromatin / genetics Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search East Asian People* / genetics Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Enhancer Elements, Genetic Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Female Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Gene Regulatory Networks* Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Genetic Variation Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Humans Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Immune System Diseases* / genetics Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Male Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Middle Aged Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Multiomics* Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Quantitative Trait Loci Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Sex Factors Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Young Adult Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Substances Chromatin Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Supplementary concepts Chinese people Actions Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search Search in PubMed Search in MeSH Add to Search LinkOut - more resources Full Text Sources Atypon Full Text Sources Atypon Medical MedlinePlus Health Information Medical MedlinePlus Health Information Clipboard Email Save My Bibliography Collections Citation Manager NCBI Literature Resources MeSH PMC Bookshelf Disclaimer The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 4 Nobel Prizes 5 References 6 Further reading 1945 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century 20th century 21st century 19th century 20th century 21st century Decades 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s Years 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1945 by topic Subject Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American British Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American American British British By country Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Lists of leaders Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Birth and death categories Births Deaths Births Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments Disestablishments Establishments Disestablishments Works category Works Introductions Works Introductions v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1945 MCMXLV Ab urbe condita 2698 Armenian calendar 1394 ԹՎ ՌՅՂԴ Assyrian calendar 6695 Baháʼí calendar 101–102 Balinese saka calendar 1866–1867 Bengali calendar 1351–1352 Berber calendar 2895 British Regnal year 9 Geo. 6 – 10 Geo. 6 Buddhist calendar 2489 Burmese calendar 1307 Byzantine calendar 7453–7454 Chinese calendar 甲申 年 (Wood Monkey ) 4642 or 4435 — to — 乙酉年 (Wood Rooster ) 4643 or 4436 Coptic calendar 1661–1662 Discordian calendar 3111 Ethiopian calendar 1937–1938 Hebrew calendar 5705–5706 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 2001–2002 - Shaka Samvat 1866–1867 - Kali Yuga 5045–5046 Holocene calendar 11945 Igbo calendar 945–946 Iranian calendar 1323–1324 Islamic calendar 1364–1365 Japanese calendar Shōwa 20 (昭和２０年) Javanese calendar 1875–1876 Juche calendar 34 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days Korean calendar 4278 Minguo calendar ROC 34 民國34年 Nanakshahi calendar 477 Thai solar calendar 2488 Tibetan calendar ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood- Monkey ) 2071 or 1690 or 918 — to — ཤིང་མོ་བྱ་ལོ་ (female Wood- Bird ) 2072 or 1691 or 919 1945 ( MCMXLV ) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar , the 1945th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 945th year of the 2nd millennium , the 45th year of the 20th century , and the 6th year of the 1940s decade. A turning point [ 1 ] in human history , 1945 marked the end of World War II , ending with the defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan by the United States and the Soviet Union in the world of two superpowers which has led the beginning of the Cold War (1945–1991). It is also the year the Nazi concentration camps were liberated and the only year in which atomic weapons have been used in warfare . Events World War II will be abbreviated as "WWII" January January 1 – WWII: Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. January 6 – WWII: A German offensive recaptures Esztergom , Hungary from the Soviets. January 9 – WWII: American and Australian troops land at Lingayen Gulf on western coast of the largest Philippine island of Luzon , occupied by Japan since 1942. January 12 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German Army . [ 3 ] January 13 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive , to eliminate German forces in East Prussia . January 16 – WWII: Adolf Hitler takes residence in the Führerbunker in Berlin. [ 4 ] January 17 WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] January 18 – The Holocaust : The SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp . Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributed. January 19 – The Holocaust : Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto ; only 877 Jews of the initial population of 164,000 remain at this time. [ 6 ] January 20 – Germany begins the Evacuation of East Prussia . January 21 – 22 (night) – At the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing , collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing between 140 and 150 people. January 23 – WWII: Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . January 24 – WWII: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton , nine OSS men, and four SOE agents are executed by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp under Hitler's Commando Order of 1942, which stipulates the immediate execution of all captured Allied commandos or saboteurs without trial, even those in proper uniforms. Morton is the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during the war. January 25 – WWII: Hitler appoints Heinrich Himmler as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania , despite Himmler's lack of military experience. [ 7 ] January 26 – WWII: 19-year-old U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Audie Murphy sees action at Holtzwihr , France, for which is awarded the Medal of Honor . January 27 The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] January 30 – WWII: MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. January 31 – WWII: The Battle of Hill 170 in the Burma Campaign ends with the British 3rd Commando Brigade defeating the Imperial Japanese Army 54th Division , causing the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army to withdraw from the Arakan Peninsula. February February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid 's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut , announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin . [ 9 ] February 3 – WWII: Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. February 4 – 11 – WWII: President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta Conference . February 7 – WWII: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila . February 8 – The Alaska Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945, championed by charismatic native leader Elizabeth Peratrovich , is passed by the territorial Senate, after the legislature defeated a previous bill in 1943. February 9 Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. February 10 – WWII: German troopship SS General von Steuben is sunk by the Soviet submarine S-13 ; 3,608 drown. [ 10 ] February 10 – 20 – WWII: Operation Kita : The Imperial Japanese Navy returns "Completion Force", containing both its Ise -class battleships , safely from Singapore to Kure in Japan despite Allied attacks. February 12 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others. [ 11 ] February 13 – WWII: The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. February 16 – WWII: The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. February 18 – March 5 – WWII: American and Brazilian troops kick off Operation Encore in Northern Italy, a successful limited action in the Northern Apennines that prepares for the western portion of the Allied Spring offensive . [ 12 ] February 19 – 20 – 980 (actual figure is disputed) [ 13 ] Japanese soldiers die as a result of being attacked by long saltwater crocodiles in Ramree, Burma . [ 14 ] February 19 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima – About 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo Jima . February 21 – The last V-2 rocket is launched from Peenemünde . February 22 – WWII: Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. February 23 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . February 24 – Egyptian premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is assassinated in Parliament after declaring war on Germany and Japan. February 27 – The Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyed. February 28 – In Bucharest , a violent demonstration takes place, during which the Bolşevic group opens fire on the army and protesters. In response, Andrei Y. Vishinsky , USSR vice commissioner of foreign affairs and president of the Allied Control Commission for Romania , travels to Bucharest to compel Nicolae Rădescu to resign as premier. March March 1 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives what will be his last address to a joint session of the United States Congress , reporting on the Yalta Conference . March 2 Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] March 3 – WWII: Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. March 4 In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] March 5 – WWII: Brazilian troops take Castelnuovo ( Vergato ), in the last operations of the Allied Operation Encore . March 6 A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. March 7 WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] March 8 Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . March 9 – 10 – WWII: Bombing of Tokyo : USAAF B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan, with incendiary bombs , killing 100,000 citizens in the firebombing. It is the single most destructive conventional air attack of the war. March 11 The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] March 12 – WWII: Swinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation Hannibal . March 15 – 31 – WWII: The Soviet Red Army carries out the Upper Silesian Offensive . March 15 – The 17th Academy Awards ceremony is held, broadcast via radio in the United States for the first time. Best Picture goes to Going My Way . March 16 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. March 17 – WWII: Kobe , Japan is fire-bombed by 331 B-29 bombers, killing over 8,000 people. March 18 – WWII: The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] March 19 – WWII: Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. March 20 – WWII: Hitler dismisses Heinrich Himmler from his military command. [ 3 ] March 21 – WWII: British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. March 22 The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . March 24 WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . March 26 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistance, although there are Japanese holdouts here until 1949. March 27 – WWII: The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . March 29 WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . March 30 – WWII: The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . April April 1 – WWII: Battle of Okinawa : The Tenth United States Army lands on Okinawa . April 4 – WWII: American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. April 6 – WWII: Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. April 7 – WWII: The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . April 8 – The SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp ; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guards. April 9 WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . April 10 – WWII: Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] April 11 – Buchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army . April 12 Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . April 14 – WWII: The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam April 15 – WWII: The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . April 16 – WWII: The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. April 17 – WWII: Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. April 18 – American war correspondent Ernie Pyle is killed by Japanese machine gun fire on the island of Ie Shima off Okinawa . April 19 – Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Carousel , a musical play based on Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom , opens on Broadway , and becomes their second long-running stage classic. It includes the standard " You'll Never Walk Alone ". April 20 – WWII: On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] April 22 – WWII: Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. April 23 – WWII: Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. April 24 – WWII: Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . April 25 Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. April 25 – 26 – WWII: The last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command , the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro Lancasters . April 26 – WWII: Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . April 27 The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] April 28 The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . April 29 At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . April 30 – WWII: Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . May May – Interpol (being headquartered in Berlin) effectively ceases to exist (it is recreated on June 3 , 1946 ). May 1 – WWII: Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. May 2 – WWII: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. May 3 – WWII: The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] May 4 – WWII: German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] May 5 – WWII: Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. May 6 WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] May 6 – 7 – The government of the Independent State of Croatia , the Nazi-affiliated fascist puppet state established in occupied Yugoslavia , flees Zagreb for a location near Klagenfurt in Austria, but is captured in the Bleiburg repatriations that then leads to mass executions. [ 45 ] May 7 – WWII: At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. May 8 – WWII: Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] May 8 – 29 – Sétif and Guelma massacre : in Algeria , thousands die as French troops and released Italian POWs kill an estimated 6,000 to 40,000 Algerian citizens. May 9 – WWII: The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . May 10 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Sark ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops and leaving them under the orders of Dame Sibyl Hathaway . May 12 Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. May 14 – 15 – WWII: Battle of Poljana : The last battle of the War in Europe is fought at Poljana near Slovenj Gradec , Slovenia . May 15 – WWII: Surrender at Bleiburg – Retreating troops of the Croatian Armed Forces of the former puppet Independent State of Croatia (intermingled with fleeing civilians) attempt to surrender to the British Army at Bleiburg , but are directed to surrender to Yugoslav Partisans , who open fire on them. The remainder, after orders are given by Tito , are force-marched through Croatia and Serbia , interned or massacred, with thousands dying. [ 49 ] May 16 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Alderney ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops, the civilian population having been evacuated. May 18 – WWII: Operation Unthinkable – British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly requests his military chiefs of staff to consider a plan for British, American and reactivated German forces to attack the Soviet Red Army on July 1 to preserve the independence of Poland. The operation is ruled militarily unfeasible. [ 50 ] May 23 The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. May 28 – U.S.-born Irish-raised William Joyce (" Lord Haw-Haw ") is captured on the German border. He is later charged in London with high treason for his earlier English-language wartime broadcasts from German radio, convicted, and then hanged in January 1946. May 29 German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. May 30 – The Iranian government demands that all Soviet and British troops leave the country. June June 1 – The British take over Lebanon and Syria . June 5 – The Allied Control Council , the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes power. June 7 – King Haakon VII of Norway returns to Norway five years to the day after leaving for exile in Britain. June 11 William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] June 12 – The Yugoslav Army leaves Trieste , leaving the New Zealand Army in control. June 21 – WWII: The Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972 . June 24 – WWII: A victory parade is held in Red Square in Moscow. June 25 – Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second president of Ireland . June 26 – The United Nations Charter is signed in San Francisco. June 29 – Czechoslovakia cedes Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union . June 30 – John von Neumann 's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC is distributed, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer, with stored-program and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory ( von Neumann architecture ). July July 1 WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . July 2 – The 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion breaks out in Burao and Erigavo in British Somaliland , led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader. [ 52 ] July 4 – Brazilian cruiser Bahia is sunk by an accidentally induced explosion, killing more than 300 and stranding the survivors in shark-infested waters. July 5 The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. July 6 – 7 – Schio massacre : 54 prisoners, mostly fascist sympathisers, are killed by members of the Italian resistance movement in Schio . July 8 – WWII: Harry S. Truman is informed that Japan will talk peace if it can retain the reign of the Emperor. [ 51 ] July 12 – Ben Chifley is elected leader of the Labor Party , and consequently becomes the 16th Prime Minister of Australia , defeating Frank Forde as well as Norman Makin and H.V. Evatt . As a result, Forde becomes the shortest-serving prime minister in Australian history; nevertheless, he retains his post as deputy leader. July 14 – WWII: Italy declares war on Japan. July 16 The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. July 17 – August 2 – WWII: Potsdam Conference – At Potsdam , the three main Allied leaders hold their final summit of the war. President Truman officially informs Stalin that the U.S. has a powerful new weapon. July 21 – WWII: President Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against Japan. [ 51 ] July 23 – WWII: French marshal Philippe Pétain , who headed the Vichy government during WWII, goes on trial for treason. July 26 Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] July 27 – WWII: Bombing of Aomori – Two USAAF B-29s drop a total of 60,000 leaflets on the city of Aomori , Japan, warning civilians of an air raid and urging them to leave immediately. The city was firebombed the next day, killing more than 1,700 people. July 28 WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] July 29 The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. July 30 – WWII: Heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis is hit and sunk by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-58 in the Philippine Sea . Some 900 survivors jump into the sea and are adrift for up to four days. Nearly 600 die before help arrives. Captain Charles B. McVay III of the cruiser is later court-martialed and convicted; in 2000, he is posthumously exonerated. [ 55 ] August August 6 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Hiroshima : United States Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay drops a uranium-235 atomic bomb , codenamed " Little Boy ", on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. local time, resulting in between 90,000 and 146,000 deaths. August 7 – U.S. President Harry Truman announces the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, while he is returning from the Potsdam Conference aboard the U.S. Navy heavy cruiser USS Augusta (CA-31) , in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. August 8 The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. August 9 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] August 10 – WWII: Japan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the Emperor". August 11 WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. August 11 – 25 – Soviet troops complete the occupation of Sakhalin . August 13 – The Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to discuss the founding of the country of Israel . August 14 – WWII: Emperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace . At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT ), U.S. president Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrender. August 15 WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . August 17 Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . August 18 – WWII: Death of Subhas Chandra Bose : Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose is killed as a result of his overloaded Japanese plane crashing in Japanese Taiwan . August 19 – Chinese Civil War : Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the Nationalists . August 22 – Kim Il Sung as the guerilla fighter returned to the Soviet-occupied capital Pyongyang after the Red Army entered the northern peninsula of Korea . August 23 – Soviet–Japanese War : Joseph Stalin orders the detention of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union . August 25 – Bảo Đại abdicates as Emperor of Vietnam , ending 2,000 years of dynastic and monarchic rule in the country and 143 years of the Nguyễn dynasty , Paris marked the first anniversary of liberation from Nazi rule by the French Resistance as a momentous event at the Battle of Normandy against Dietrich von Choltitz . August 30 – WWII: Vietnam 's capital Hanoi is taken by the Viet Minh , which ends the French occupation in what becomes North Vietnam , and thus the southern provinces become South Vietnam . This ends the August Revolution . August 31 WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] September September 2 – World War II ends: Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] September 4 – WWII: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island , after hearing word of their country's surrender. September 5 Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. September 8 U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] September 9 Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] September 10 – Vidkun Quisling is sentenced to death for being a Nazi collaborator in Norway. [ 59 ] September 11 Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. September 12 Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. September 18 Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . September 20 – Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru demand that all British troops depart India. September 24 – Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia : The Topoľčany pogrom is carried out in Czechoslovakia. October October – Arthur C. Clarke puts forward the idea of a geosynchronous communications satellite , in a Wireless World magazine article. October 1 – 15 – Operation Backfire : Three A4 rockets are launched near Cuxhaven , in a demonstration to Allied forces. October 2 – George Albert Smith becomes president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . October 4 – The Partizan Belgrade sports club is founded in Belgrade , Serbia . October 5 – Hollywood Black Friday : A strike by the Set Decorator's Union in Hollywood results in a riot. October 8 – 15 – Hadamar Trial: Personnel of the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre , now in the American zone of Allied-occupied Germany , are the first to be tried for systematic extermination in Nazi Germany . October 9 – Former prime minister Pierre Laval is sentenced to death, for collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France . [ 59 ] October 10 – The Nazi Party is dissolved by the Allied Powers. October 14 – Czechoslovakia : A new provisional national assembly is elected, Kim Il Sung made his first major public appearance in Pyongyang as the celebration of liberation where he was officially introduced to the public by the Soviet authorities as a national hero, a legendary guerrilla fighter and leader. [ 59 ] October 15 – 21 – The Fifth Pan-African Congress is held in Manchester . October 16 – The Food and Agriculture Organization is established at a meeting in Quebec City , as a specialized agency of the United Nations , Syngman Rhee returned to the southern peninsula of Korea as he arrived in Seoul by becoming a prominent figure under the U.S. occupation. October 17 – A massive number of people, headed for the General Confederation of Labour (Argentina) , gather in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires to demand Juan Perón 's release. This is known to the Peronists as the Día de la lealtad ( Loyalty Day ) and considered the founding day of Peronism . October 18 – Isaías Medina Angarita , president of Venezuela , is overthrown by a military coup . [ 59 ] October 19 – Members of the Indonesian People's Army attack Anglo-Dutch forces in Indonesia . [ 59 ] October 20 – Mongolians vote for independence from China. [ 59 ] October 21 – Women's suffrage : Women are allowed to vote in the French Legislative Election for the first time. October 22 – Rómulo Betancourt is named provisional president of Venezuela . [ 59 ] October 24 The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] October 25 WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. October 27 – November 20 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia fight British and British Indian troops in Surabaya . October 29 Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. October 30 – The undivided country of India joins the United Nations . November November 1 International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . November 5 – Colombia joins the United Nations . November 6 – Indonesians reject an offer of autonomy from the Dutch . [ 59 ] November 7 – South Africa and Mexico both joined the United Nations . November 9 – Soo Bahk Do and Moo Duk Kwan martial arts are founded in Korea . November 10 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Following the killing of British officer Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby on October 30, the British Indian Army (in support of its allied Dutch colonial administration) begins an advance on Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies against Indonesian nationalists; although most of the city is retaken in 3 days of heavy fighting, the strength of the resistance leads to today being celebrated as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) in Indonesia. November 11 – 1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election : Marshal Josip Broz Tito and the People's Front win a decisive majority (90%) in the Yugoslavian Assembly. [ 59 ] November 15 Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] November 16 Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. November 18 – The Tudeh party starts a bloodless coup, and will form Azerbaijan within days. Soviet troops prevent Iranian troops from getting involved. November 20 – The Nuremberg trials begin: Trials against 22 Nazis for war crimes of World War II start at the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg . [ 59 ] November 26 – U.S. ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigns after he is unable to broker a deal between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Tse-tung . [ 59 ] November 28 The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] November 29 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. December December 1 – German general Anton Dostler is executed by firing squad in Italy for the war crime of ordering the summary execution of captured U.S. commandos. The U.S. military tribunal which has tried him has not accepted his plea of " superior orders ", setting a precedent for future Allied war crimes trials . [ 63 ] December 2 General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. December 3 – Communist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil War . December 4 – The United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7. December 5 – Flight 19 of United States Navy Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers disappears on a training exercise from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale . December 9 – American General George S. Patton is involved in a car accident in Germany, resulting in his death on December 21. December 21 – Iraq joins the United Nations . December 27 – Twenty-one nations ratify the articles creating the World Bank . [ 64 ] Date unknown A team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (led by Charles D. Coryell ) discovers chemical element 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the periodic table , which they will name promethium . [ 65 ] Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947. The Australian government introduces an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to encourage the immigration of British subjects, at a fare of £ 10, hence they become known as " Ten Pound Poms ". [ 66 ] The first geothermal milk pasteurization is done in Klamath Falls, Oregon , United States. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January January 1 Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver January 3 – Stephen Stills , American rock singer-songwriter ( Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young ) January 4 Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate January 5 Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist January 7 Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) January 10 – Sir Rod Stewart , British rock singer January 12 – André Bicaba , Burkinabé sprinter January 14 – Einar Hákonarson , Icelandic painter January 15 Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family January 17 – Javed Akhtar , Indian political activist, poet, lyricist and screenwriter January 20 – Robert Olen Butler , American writer January 21 Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor January 24 – Subhash Ghai , Indian film director, producer and screenwriter January 25 – Leigh Taylor-Young , American actress January 26 Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) January 27 – Harold Cardinal , Cree political leader, writer and lawyer (d. 2005 ) January 28 Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) January 29 Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) January 31 – Joseph Kosuth , American artist February February 1 – Yasuhiro Takai , Japanese professional baseball player (d. 2019 ) February 3 Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer February 4 – John P. Jumper , United States Air Force general February 5 – Sarah Weddington , American attorney (d. 2021 ) February 6 – Bob Marley , Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981 ) February 7 – Gerald Davies , Welsh rugby player February 9 Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] February 10 – Koo Bon-moo , South Korean business executive (d. 2018 ) February 12 Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist February 13 – Simon Schama , English historian [ 68 ] February 14 Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein February 15 – Douglas Hofstadter , American cognitive scientist February 17 – Brenda Fricker , Irish actress [ 69 ] February 18 – Hashem Mahameed , Israeli politician (d. 2018 ) February 22 – Oliver , American singer ( Good Morning Starshine ) (d. 2000 ) February 24 – Barry Bostwick , American actor February 25 – Roy Saari , American swimmer (d. 2008 ) February 26 – Marta Kristen , Norwegian actress ( Lost In Space ) February 27 – Carl Anderson , American singer, actor ( Jesus Christ Superstar ) (d. 2004 ) February 28 Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) March March 1 – Dirk Benedict , American actor March 3 – George Miller , Australian film director March 4 Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player March 7 – Arthur Lee , American musician (d. 2006 ) March 8 Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter March 9 Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer March 10 – Nobuhiko Higashikuni , Japanese Imperial prince (d. 2019 ) March 13 Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician March 14 – Michael Martin Murphey , American country singer-songwriter March 16 – Douglas Ahlstedt , American tenor March 17 Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) March 18 Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist March 20 Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach March 21 – Charles Greene , American Olympic athlete (d. 2022 ) March 26 – Mikhail Voronin , Russian gymnast (d. 2004 ) March 27 – Władysław Stachurski , Polish football player, manager (d. 2013 ) March 28 Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress March 29 Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) March 30 – Eric Clapton , English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter [ 71 ] March 31 Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] April April 2 – Linda Hunt , American actress [ 74 ] April 4 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit , French political activist [ 75 ] April 5 Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) April 12 – Lee Jong-wook , South Korean Director-General of the World Health Organization (d. 2006 ) April 13 Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) April 14 Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa April 20 – Naftali Temu , Kenyan Olympic long-distance runner (d. 2003 ) April 21 – Ana Lúcia Torre , Brazilian actress April 24 – Larry Tesler , American computer scientist (cut, copy, paste) (d. 2020 ) April 25 – Björn Ulvaeus , Swedish rock songwriter ( ABBA ) April 29 – Tammi Terrell , African-American soul singer (d. 1970 ) April 30 – Lara Saint Paul , Eritrean-born Italian singer (d. 2018 ) May May 1 – Rita Coolidge , American pop singer May 2 – Bianca Jagger , Nicaraguan social activist [ 76 ] May 3 – Jeffrey C. Hall , American geneticist and chronobiologist, Nobel Prize laureate May 4 David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist May 6 – Bob Seger , American rock singer May 7 – Robin Strasser , American actress May 8 – Keith Jarrett , American musician [ 77 ] May 9 – Jupp Heynckes , German footballer and manager May 11 Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist May 13 – Tammam Salam , 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon May 14 – Yochanan Vollach , Israeli footballer and president of Maccabi Haifa, CEO May 15 – Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza , heir to the Portuguese crown May 17 – Tony Roche , Australian tennis player May 19 – Pete Townshend , English rock guitarist, lyricist ( The Who ) May 20 – Anton Zeilinger , Austrian quantum physicist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 78 ] May 21 Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut May 22 – Victoria Wyndham , American actress ( Another World ) May 23 Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer May 24 – Priscilla Presley , American actress, businesswoman May 28 Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) May 29 Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) May 30 Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) May 31 Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire June June 1 – Frederica von Stade , American mezzo-soprano June 2 – Jon Peters , American film producer June 3 – Hale Irwin , American professional golfer June 4 – Anthony Braxton , American composer and musical instrumentalist June 5 John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) June 6 – David Dukes , American actor (d. 2000 ) June 7 – Wolfgang Schüssel , Chancellor of Austria June 9 – Nike Wagner , German woman of the theater June 10 – Benny Gallagher , Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist, half of duo Gallagher and Lyle June 11 – Adrienne Barbeau , American actress, television personality and author ( Maude ) June 12 – Pat Jennings , Northern Irish footballer June 14 – Jörg Immendorff , German painter June 15 Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) June 16 Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician June 17 P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist June 19 Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient June 20 – Anne Murray , Canadian singer June 21 Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter June 22 Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) June 23 Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer June 24 George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician June 25 Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army June 26 – Paul Chun , Hong Kong actor June 27 Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School June 28 Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) June 29 – Chandrika Kumaratunga , 5th President of Sri Lanka June 30 Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician July July 1 Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) July 2 – Linda Warren , American author July 3 – Thomas Mapfumo , Zimbabwean musician July 4 Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist July 5 Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor July 6 – Burt Ward , American actor ( Batman ) July 7 Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer July 8 – Micheline Calmy-Rey , Swiss Federal Councilor July 9 Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer July 10 Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) July 11 – Richard Wesley , American playwright, screenwriter July 12 Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player July 14 – Antun Vujić , Croatian politician, philosopher, political analyst, lexicographer and author July 15 Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) July 16 Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter July 17 Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia July 19 Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician July 20 Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat July 21 John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman July 23 – Edie McClurg , American actress July 24 – Azim Premji , Indian businessman July 26 Helen Mirren , British actress Helen Mirren , British actress July 28 – Jim Davis , American cartoonist ( Garfield ) July 30 Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) August August 1 – Douglas Osheroff , American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate August 4 – Alan Mulally , American businessman, CEO of the Ford Motor Company August 5 – Loni Anderson , American actress ( WKRP in Cincinnati ) (d. 2025 ) August 8 – Julie Anne Robinson , British theatre, television, film director and producer August 9 – Posy Simmonds , English cartoonist August 12 Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) August 14 Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer August 15 Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] August 17 – Katri Helena , Finnish singer August 19 – Ian Gillan , English rock singer ( Deep Purple ) August 22 David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) August 24 – Vincent K. "Vince" McMahon , American professional wrestling promoter, chairman and CEO of WWE August 25 – Daniel Hulet , Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011 ) August 26 – Tom Ridge , American politician August 27 – Marianne Sägebrecht , German film actress August 29 Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete August 31 Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor September September 1 – Mustafa Balel , Turkish writer September 5 K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) September 6 – Victor Ramahatra , 5th Prime Minister of Madagascar September 7 – Jacques Lemaire , Canadian ice hockey coach September 8 Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player September 10 – José Feliciano , Puerto Rican-American singer (" Feliz Navidad ") September 11 – Franz Beckenbauer , German footballer and manager (d. 2024 ) September 12 – Richard Thaler , American economist September 14 – Benjamin Harjo Jr. , Native American artist September 15 – Jessye Norman , American soprano (d. 2019 ) September 16 – Pat Stevens , American voice actress (d. 2010 ) September 17 Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor September 18 John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) September 19 - Randolph Mantooth , American actor September 21 Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet September 22 – Gonzaguinha , Brazilian singer, composer (d. 1991 ) September 24 – John Rutter , English choral composer, conductor September 26 – Bryan Ferry , English singer-songwriter and musician ( Roxy Music ) September 27 – Jack Goldstein , Canadian artist (d. 2003 ) September 29 – Nadezhda Chizhova , Russian athlete September 30 Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter October October 1 Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India October 2 Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") October 3 – Viktor Saneyev , Soviet athlete and Olympic champion (d. 2022 ) October 6 – Ivan Graziani , Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1997 ) October 9 Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) October 12 Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) October 18 Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer October 19 Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) October 22 – Yvan Ponton , Canadian actor, sportscaster October 23 – Kim Larsen , Danish rock musician (d. 2018 ) October 24 Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science October 25 Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor October 26 Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) October 27 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) October 29 Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress October 30 – Henry Winkler , American actor, producer and director ( Happy Days ) November November 3 – Gerd Müller , German footballer (d. 2021 ) November 5 – Jacques Lanctôt , Canadian terrorist November 7 Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer November 8 – Joseph James DeAngelo , American serial killer and serial rapist November 9 – Charlie Robinson , African-American actor (d. 2021 ) November 10 – Madeleine Juneau , Canadian museologist November 11 – Daniel Ortega , 58th and 62nd President of Nicaragua November 12 – Neil Young , Canadian singer-songwriter, musician November 15 – Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Norwegian-born rock singer ( ABBA ) November 17 Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria November 18 Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka November 21 – Goldie Hawn , American actress Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician November 22 – Kari Tapio , Finnish singer (d. 2010 ) November 23 – Dennis Nilsen , Scottish serial killer (d. 2018 ) [ 87 ] November 24 – Nuruddin Farah , Somali novelist November 25 – Mary Jo Deschanel , American actress November 26 – John McVie , English rock musician ( Fleetwood Mac ) November 27 Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) November 30 Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) December December 1 Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer December 2 – Tex Watson , American multiple murderer, 'Manson Family' member December 3 – Bozhidar Dimitrov , Bulgarian historian, politician and polemicist (d. 2018 ) December 4 – Geoff Emerick , English recording engineer (d. 2018 ) December 7 – Clive Russell , English actor December 8 – Julie Heldman , American tennis player [ 89 ] December 10 – John Ankerberg , American Christian television host, author and speaker December 11 – Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor December 12 René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) December 15 Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor December 16 – Patti Deutsch , American voice actress (d. 2017 ) December 17 – Ernie Hudson , African-American actor December 18 – Carolyn Wood , American professional swimmer December 19 – Elaine Joyce , American actress, game show panelist December 20 Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) December 21 – Mari Lill , Estonian actress December 22 – Diane Sawyer , American news journalist December 23 – Donald A. Ritchie , American historian December 24 Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer December 25 – Noel Redding , English musician (d. 2003 ) [ 91 ] December 29 – Birendra of Nepal , King of Nepal (d. 2001 ) December 30 – Davy Jones , English-born pop singer, actor ( The Monkees ) (d. 2012 ) December 31 Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Deaths January January 2 – Sir Bertram Ramsay , British admiral (b. 1883 ) January 3 – Edgar Cayce , American mystic (b. 1877 ) January 4 – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno , 3-time President of Costa Rica (b. 1859 ) January 6 Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) January 7 Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) January 9 – Jüri Uluots , 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1890 ) January 10 – Pēteris Juraševskis , 8th Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1872 ) January 12 – Teresio Olivelli , Italian Roman Catholic soldier and venerable (b. 1916 ) January 15 – Pedro Abad Santos , Filipino politician, brother of José Abad Santos (b. 1876 ) January 16 – José Fabella , Filipino physician (b. 1888 ) January 19 Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) January 20 – Federico Pedrocchi , Italian artist, writer (killed on active service) (b. 1907 ) January 21 Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) January 22 – Else Lasker-Schüler , German poet, author (b. 1869 ) January 23 Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) January 29 – Hans Conrad Leipelt , Austrian member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany (executed) (b. 1921 ) January 30 Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) January 31 – Eddie Slovik , American soldier (executed for desertion) (b. 1920 ) [ 96 ] February February (or March) – Anne Frank , German-born Jewish diarist, writer (typhus in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp ) (b. 1929 ) [ 97 ] February 1 Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) February 2 Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) February 3 – Roland Freisler , Nazi German judge (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 5 Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) February 6 – Robert Brasillach , French writer (executed) (b. 1909 ) [ 98 ] February 8 – Robert Mallet-Stevens , French architect, designer (b. 1886 ) February 11 – Al Dubin , Swiss-born American songwriter (b. 1891 ) February 13 – Maria Orosa , Filipino technologist, chemist, humanitarian and WWII heroine (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 16 – Otto Kittel , German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1917 ) [ 99 ] February 18 – Ivan Chernyakhovsky , Soviet general (died of wounds) (b. 1906 ) February 19 – John Basilone , American war hero (killed in action) (b. 1916 ) February 21 – Eric Liddell , British Olympic athlete (in internment camp) (b. 1902 ) February 22 – Sara Josephine Baker , American physician (b. 1873 ) February 23 José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] February 24 – Josef Mayr-Nusser , Italian Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1910 ) February 25 – Mário de Andrade , Brazilian writer, photographer (b. 1893 ) February 26 – Millard Harmon , American general (b. 1888 ) [ 101 ] March March 2 – Emily Carr , Canadian painter (b. 1871 ) March 3 Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) March 4 Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) March 5 – George Alan Vasey , Australian general (killed in military aircraft accident) (b. 1895 ) March 12 – Friedrich Fromm , German Nazi official (executed) (b. 1888 ) March 14 – Francisco Braga , Brazilian composer (b. 1868 ) March 15 – Sava Caracaș , Romanian general (b. 1890 ) March 18 – William Grover-Williams , British/French racing driver, war hero (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 104 ] March 19 – Marcel Callo , French Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (in concentration camp) (b. 1921 ) March 20 – Lord Alfred Douglas , English poet (b. 1870 ) March 22 Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) March 23 – Élisabeth de Rothschild , French WWII heroine (b. 1902 ) March 26 David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) March 27 – Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil , Turkish author (b. 1867 ) March 29 – Ferenc Csik , Hungarian swimmer (air raid victim) (b. 1913 ) March 30 – Maurice Rose , American general (killed in action) (b. 1899 ) [ 105 ] March 31 Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) April April 7 Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) April 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] April 10 Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] April 11 – Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard , British colonial administrator (b. 1858 ) April 12 – Franklin D. Roosevelt , American political leader and statesman, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882 ) April 13 – Ernst Cassirer , German philosopher (b. 1874 ) April 15 – Joachim Albrecht Eggeling , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1884 ) April 18 Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) April 21 Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) April 22 – Käthe Kollwitz , German artist (b. 1867 ) April 23 – Klaus Bonhoeffer , German resistance fighter, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1901 ) April 24 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz , German SS Reichsphysician (suicide) (b. 1899 ) April 28 Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) April 29 – Achille Starace , Italian Fascist politician (executed) (b. 1889 ) April 30 Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) May May 1 Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) May 2 Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) May 3 – Mario Blasich , Italian physician, politician (b. 1878 ) May 4 – Fedor von Bock , German field marshal (killed in action) (b. 1880 ) [ 108 ] May 6 – Xhem Hasa , Albanian nationalist (assassinated) (b. 1908 ) May 7 – Vladimir Boyarsky , Soviet army officer (executed) (b. 1901 ) May 8 Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 9 – Gustav Becking , German musicologist (b. 1894 ) May 10 – Konrad Henlein , Sudeten German Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 11 Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] May 14 Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) May 15 Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) May 16 – Kaju Sugiura , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1896 ) May 18 – William Joseph Simmons , American founder of the second Ku Klux Klan (b. 1880 ) May 19 – Philipp Bouhler , German Nazi leader and general (suicide) (b. 1899 ) May 21 – Prince Kan'in Kotohito , Japanese prince, member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (b. 1865 ) May 23 – Heinrich Himmler , German politician, Reichsführer-SS (suicide) (b. 1900 ) May 24 – Robert Ritter von Greim , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1892 ) May 25 Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] May 31 Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) June June 4 – Georg Kaiser , German dramatist (b. 1878 ) June 7 – Kitaro Nishida , Japanese philosopher (b. 1870 ) June 8 Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) June 11 – Lurana W. Sheldon , American author and editor (b. 1862 ) June 13 – Minoru Ōta , Japanese admiral (suicide) (b. 1891 ) June 15 Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) June 16 Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) June 18 Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) June 20 Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) June 22 Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) June 24 – José Gutiérrez Solana , Spanish painter (b. 1886 ) June 27 – Emil Hácha , 3rd President of Czechoslovakia , State President of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1872 ) June 30 Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) July July 1 – Félix Evaristo Mejía , Dominican diplomat, educator and writer (b. 1866 ) July 2 – Óscar R. Benavides , Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, politician and President of Peru (b. 1876 ) July 5 – John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885 ) July 7 – Peter To Rot , Papuan Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1912 ) July 9 – Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti , Italian politician, diplomat (b. 1876 ) July 12 Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) July 13 – Alla Nazimova , Russian-born American actress (b. 1879 ) July 17 – Ernst Busch , German field marshal, as prisoner of war (b. 1885 ) July 20 – Paul Valéry , French poet (b. 1871 ) July 24 – Arnold von Winckler , German general (b. 1856 ) July 25 – Malin Craig , United States Army general (b. 1875 ) July 28 – Margot Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith (b. 1864 ) July 29 – Maria Pierina De Micheli , Italian Roman Catholic religious sister, mystic and blessed (b. 1890 ) July 31 – Artemio Ricarte , Filipino general (b. 1866 ) August August 1 – Blas Cabrera Felipe , Spanish physicist (b. 1878 ) August 2 – Pietro Mascagni , Italian composer (b. 1863 ) August 3 – Roman Kochanowski , Polish painter, illustrator (b. 1857 ) August 4 – Gerhard Gentzen , German mathematician and logician (starvation in prison camp) (b. 1909 ) August 5 – Nat Jaffe , American swing jazz pianist (b. 1918 ) August 7 – Jacques Vaillant de Guélis , British/French WWII hero (injuries received in automobile accident) (b. 1907 ) August 8 – Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane , French flatulist (b. 1857 ) August 9 Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) August 10 – Robert H. Goddard , American rocket scientist (b. 1882 ) August 12 – Karl Leisner , German Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1915 ) August 15 Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) August 16 – Takijirō Ōnishi , Japanese admiral (ritual suicide) (b. 1891 ) August 18 Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) August 24 – Shizuichi Tanaka , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1887 ) August 25 – Willis Augustus Lee , American admiral, Olympic shooter (b. 1888 ) August 26 Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) August 27 – Blessed María Pilar Izquierdo Albero , Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed (b. 1906 ) August 29 – Fritz Pfleumer , German engineer, inventor (b. 1881 ) August 30 – Florencio Harmodio Arosemena , 6th President of Panama (b. 1872 ) August 31 Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) September September 6 Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) September 9 – Aage Bertelsen , Danish painter (b. 1873 ) September 12 – Hajime Sugiyama , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1880 ) September 15 Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) September 16 – John McCormack , Irish tenor (b. 1884 ) September 18 José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) September 20 Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) September 24 – Hans Geiger , German physicist, inventor (b. 1882 ) September 26 Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) October October 1 – Walter Bradford Cannon , American physiologist (b. 1871 ) [ 119 ] October 6 – Leonardo Conti , German physician, Nazi officer (suicide) (b. 1900 ) October 8 – Felix Salten , Austrian author (b. 1869 ) [ 120 ] October 10 – Joseph Darnand , Vichy French politician (executed) (b. 1897 ) October 12 – Dmytro Antonovych , Soviet politician (b. 1877 ) October 13 – Milton S. Hershey , American chocolate tycoon (b. 1857 ) October 15 – Pierre Laval , French politician, 2-time Prime Minister of France (executed) (b. 1883 ) [ 59 ] October 18 – Frederick Hovey , American tennis player (b. 1868 ) October 19 Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) October 21 Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] October 24 Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) October 25 – Robert Ley , German Nazi politician (suicide) (b. 1890 ) October 26 Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) October 30 – Xian Xinghai , Chinese composer (b. 1905 ) October 31 Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) November November 8 – August von Mackensen , German field marshal (b. 1849 ) November 11 – Jerome Kern , American composer (b. 1885 ) [ 123 ] November 13 – Sir Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair , British admiral (b. 1865 ) [ 124 ] November 16 – Sigurður Eggerz , Minister for Iceland during World War I and 2nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1875 ) November 17 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1882 ) November 20 – Francis William Aston , British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877 ) November 21 Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] November 23 – Charles Coborn , British singer (b. 1852 ) November 27 – Josep Maria Sert , Spanish Catalan muralist (b. 1874 ) November 28 – Dwight F. Davis , American tennis player (b. 1879 ) November 30 – Shigeru Honjō , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1876 ) December December 1 – Anton Dostler , German general (executed) (b. 1891 ) December 4 Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] December 5 – Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1864 ) December 8 – Gabriellino D'Annunzio , Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1886 ) December 12 – Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1868 ) December 13 Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) December 14 – Forrester Harvey , Irish actor (b. 1884 ) December 16 Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) December 19 – Leonard F. Wing , American general and politician (b. 1893 ) [ 129 ] December 21 – George S. Patton , American general (injuries from automobile accident) (b. 1885 ) [ 130 ] December 22 – Otto Neurath , Austrian philosopher, political economist (b. 1892 ) December 26 Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) December 28 – Theodore Dreiser , American novelist (b. 1871 ) [ 131 ] Nobel Prizes Physics – Wolfgang Pauli Chemistry – Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Physiology or Medicine – Sir Alexander Fleming , Ernst Chain , Howard Florey Literature – Gabriela Mistral Peace – Cordell Hull References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What Was 1945 a Turning Point - 1377 Words | Bartleby" . ^ Girbig, Werner (1975). Six Months to Oblivion: The Eclipse of the Luftwaffe Fighter Force Over the Western Front, 1944/45 . Schiffer Publishing . p. 74. ISBN 978-0-88740-348-4 . ^ a b Duffy, Christopher (1991). Red Storm on the Reich: The Soviet March on Germany, 1945 . Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22829-8 . ^ "Life in the Führerbunker: Hitler's final days" . Sky HISTORY TV channel . Retrieved September 2, 2025 . ^ Si (July 22, 2025). "Raoul Wallenberg – World War II hero" . sweden.se . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Abraham J. Peck (1997). "The Agony of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944" . The Chronicle of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944 by Lucjan Dobroszycki , and The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum , Washington D.C . The Simon Wiesenthal Center . Retrieved March 25, 2015 . ^ Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography . New York: Norton. p. 891. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6 . ^ Wolf's Lair from Battlefields WW2 ^ "Penicillin Pills May Replace Injection" . The Milwaukee Sentinel . February 16, 1945 . Retrieved May 22, 2012 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ "SS General von Steuben [+1945]" . WreckSite . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (1993). Significant tornadoes, 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events . St. Johnsbury, Vermont: Environmental Films. pp. 922– 925. ISBN 1-879362-03-1 . ^ Ernest F. Fisher Jr., The Mediterranean Theater of Operations: Cassino to the Alps (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1977), p. 425–434 ^ "Guinness World Records Website" . guinnessworldrecords.com . December 13, 2016. ^ Guinness Book of World Records . 2008. p. 137. ^ Battle of Manila Footnotes: Battle for Manila by Richard Connaughton , John Pimlott and Duncan Anderson (2002) Presidio Press ISBN 0-89141-771-0 pp 164–7 ^ Year by Year – 1945 . History International . ^ After The Battle #176 – The Allied Capture Of Trier ^ Air University Review . Department of the Air Force. 1976. p. 20. ^ 6. March 1945 - The U.S. Army occupies Cologne ^ Nohlen, Dieter ; Stöver, Philip, eds. (2010). Elections in Europe: A data handbook . Baden-Baden: Nomos. p. 1678. ISBN 978-3-8329-5609-7 . ^ "Proclamation No. 430, s. 1989 - DECLARING THE EIGHTEENTH DAY OF MARCH OF EVERY YEAR AS VICTORY DAY IN THE ISLANDS OF PANAY AND ROMBLON, INCLUDING THE CITIES OF ILOILO AND ROXAS" . Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines . Retrieved March 18, 2024 . ^ "Bombing Berlin: The Biggest Wartime Raid on Hitler's Capital" . The National WWII Museum - New Orleans . March 14, 2020 . Retrieved March 18, 2024 . ^ "Festung Kolberg 1945" (in Polish). Archived from the original on August 11, 2007 . Retrieved March 21, 2024 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link ) ^ Stanton, Shelby (2006). World War II Order of Battle: An Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from Battalion through Division, 1939-1946 (2nd ed.). Stackpole Books. pp. 57, 84. ^ After The Battle #187 – THE ALLIED CAPTURE OF HANNOVER ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes, 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events . St. Johnsbury, Vermont : The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. p. 919. ISBN 1-879362-03-1 . ^ "1945" . A WW2 Timeline . Worldwar-2.net. Archived from the original on April 28, 2012 . Retrieved November 7, 2012 . ^ Last Stand at Völkerschlachtdenkmal: The Battle of Leipzig, 1945 ^ Alexander, Kristen (September 1, 2004). " "Cleaning the Augean stables": the Morotai Mutiny?" . Sabretache . Military Historical Society of Australia. ^ Jones, Bill (1989). The Fatal Attraction of Adolf Hitler (Television documentary). BBC . Retrieved April 27, 2016 . ^ Ziemke, Earl F. (1969). Battle for Berlin: End of the Third Reich . Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II, Battle Book #6. Ballantine Books. ^ Smythe, John (1967). Bolo Whistler: The Life of General Sir Lashmer Whistler . London: Muller. ^ "War Diary for Friday, 27 April 1945" . Stone & Stone Books . Retrieved March 28, 2016 . ^ MacDonogh, Giles (2007). After the Reich: The Brutal History of the Allied Occupation . New York: Basic Books. p. 93. ^ Ernest F. Fisher Jr., The Mediterranean Theater of Operations: Cassino to the Alps (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1977), p. 524 ^ Duncan, George R. "Massacres and Atrocities of World War II" . Retrieved October 15, 2015 . ^ "Central Europe Campaign – 522nd Field Artillery Battalion" . Archived from the original on March 20, 2016 . Retrieved January 12, 2015 . Jewish prisoners from the outer Dachau camps were marched to Dachau, and then 70 miles south. Many of the Jewish marchers weighed less than 80 pounds. Shivering in their tattered striped uniforms, the "skeletons" marched 10 to 15 hours a day, passing more than a dozen Bavarian towns. If they stopped or fell behind, the SS guards shot them and left their corpses along the road. ^ Final Push To Hamburg ^ "Liberatione" . Lib.usc.edu. May 4, 1945. Archived from the original on April 14, 2016 . Retrieved January 16, 2012 . ^ "Befrielsen 1945 – Tidslinje" . Befrielsen1945.dk. January 2, 2012. Archived from the original on January 22, 2011 . Retrieved January 16, 2012 . ^ Waller, Derek (September 25, 2010). "U-Boats that Surrendered" . u-boat.net . Retrieved November 14, 2014 . ^ "Hungary: Recovery of Crown Jewels 1945" . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . ^ THE CITY OF SALZBURG IN 1945 ^ Liberation of Pilsen ^ Milcic, Allen. "Croatian Axis Forces in WWII" . Retrieved June 28, 2012 . ^ "Edward Kennedy, 58, Reporter Who Flashed '45 Surrender, Dies" . The New York Times . Associated Press. November 30, 1963 . Retrieved December 21, 2007 . ^ Killen, John (2003). The Luftwaffe: A History . Barnsley: Pen & Sword. pp. 299– 300. ISBN 978-1-78159-110-9 . ^ Colin F. Baxter; John Martin Carroll, eds. (2007). The American Military Tradition: From Colonial Times to the Present . Rowman & Littlefield. p. 181. ISBN 9780742544284 . ^ Bethell, Nicholas (1974). The Last Secret . London. ISBN 9780465038138 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Norton-Taylor, Richard (October 2, 1998). "Churchill plotted invasion of Russia". The Guardian . London. ^ a b c d e f "1945 – The Decision to Drop the Bomb" . NuclearFiles . Archived from the original on April 6, 2010. ^ Mohamed, Jama (2002). " 'The Evils of Locust Bait': Popular Nationalism during the 1945 Anti-Locust Control Rebellion in Colonial Somaliland" . Past & Present (174): 184– 216. doi : 10.1093/past/174.1.184 . ISSN 0031-2746 . JSTOR 3600720 . ^ "1945: Labour landslide buries Churchill" . BBC News . April 5, 2005. ^ "Accident North American B-25D-20 Mitchell 41-30577, 28 Jul 1945" . aviation-safety.net . Retrieved May 10, 2023 . ^ "USS Indianapolis sinking: 'You could see sharks circling' " . BBC News . Archived from the original on April 18, 2018 . Retrieved June 20, 2018 . ^ Glantz, LTC David M. (June 1983). Leavenworth Papers No. 8 - August Storm: Soviet Tactical and Operational Combat in Manchuria, 1945 (PDF) . Fort Leavenworth , KS: Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. p. 1. ISSN 0195-3451 . Retrieved September 26, 2023 . ^ Angier, R. B.; Boothe, J. H.; Hutchings, B. L.; Mowat, J. H.; Semb, J.; Stokstad, E. L. R.; Subbarow, Y.; Waller, C. W.; Cosulich, D. B.; Fahrenbach, M. J.; Hultquist, M. E.; Kuh, E.; Northey, E. H.; Seeger, D. R.; Sickels, J. P.; Smith Jr, J. M. (1945). "Synthesis of a Compound Identical with the L. Casei Factor Isolated from Liver". Science . 102 (2644): 227– 28. Bibcode : 1945Sci...102..227A . doi : 10.1126/science.102.2644.227 . PMID 17778509 . ^ Hoffbrand, A. V.; Weir, D. G. (2001). "The history of folic acid". British Journal of Haematology . 113 (3): 579– 589. doi : 10.1046/j.1365-2141.2001.02822.x . PMID 11380441 . S2CID 22925228 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Jessup, John E. (1989). A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945-1985 . New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-24308-5 . ^ Crichton, Gerald (February 1, 1946). "Review of events in Afghanistan, July-December 1945" . Foreign Office . ^ Myers, Brian Reynolds (December 16, 2023). "The Power to Mystify" . Sthele Press . Archived from the original on January 14, 2024 . Retrieved January 14, 2024 . Assertion that the emperor's surrender 'abruptly' ended Japan's occupation of the peninsula, which in fact continued in the southern part for more than three weeks? ^ "Amery sentenced to death: "A self-confessed traitor." ". The Times . No. 50312. November 29, 1945. p. 2. ^ Brennan, J. G.; Green, L. C. (1997). "The Case of General Dostler" . Naval War College Review . 50 (4): 115– 117. ISSN 0028-1484 . JSTOR 44638781 . ^ "75th Anniversary of World Bank Articles of Agreement Ratification" . World Bank . Retrieved May 5, 2022 . ^ "Discovery of Promethium" . Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review . 36 (1). 2003. Archived from the original on June 22, 2011 . Retrieved June 16, 2011 . ^ Hammerton, A. James; Thomson, Alistair (2005). 'Ten Pound Poms': Australia's Invisible Migrants . Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-719071321 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2016" . ^ William D. Rubinstein; Michael Jolles; Hilary L. Rubinstein (February 22, 2011). The Palgrave Dictionary of Anglo-Jewish History . Palgrave Macmillan. p. 868. ISBN 978-1-4039-3910-4 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ Chase's ... Calendar of Events . Contemporary Books. 2003. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-07-139098-9 . ^ "They planted an important seed for nanotechnology" (Press release). The Nobel Prize. October 4, 2023 . Retrieved October 7, 2023 . ^ Geoff Nicholson (1991). Big Noises: Rock Guitar in the 1990s . Quartet. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-7043-0145-0 . ^ "Profile of highlife legend Nana Ampadu" . GhanaWeb . September 30, 2021. Archived from the original on October 19, 2022 . Retrieved October 5, 2021 . ^ Avery, Laura (2004). Newsmakers . Gale Research. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7876-6806-8 . ISSN 0899-0417 . OCLC 17977680 . ^ Bauer, Pat (March 29, 2022). "Linda Hunt" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 21, 2023 . ^ Encyclopedia of Contemporary German Culture . Taylor & Francis. 2013. ISBN 9781136816109 . ^ Events, Chase's Calendar of; McGraw-Hill (2007). "Birthday: Bianca Jagger" . Chase's Calendar of Events . McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 9780071468183 . Retrieved August 5, 2025 . At the time of her marriage to Mick Jagger in 1971 it was reported that she was born in 1945, which is cited as her birth year by most published sources. The charitable organisations with which she has been associated have used 1950. ^ Colin Larkin , ed. (1997). The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music (Concise ed.). Virgin Books . p. 666/7. ISBN 1-85227-745-9 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2022" . Nobel Prize (Press release). The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . October 4, 2022 . Retrieved October 6, 2022 . ^ Ruggieri, Melissa. "Procol Harum singer Gary Brooker, the voice of 'A Whiter Shade of Pale,' dies at 76" . USA Today . Retrieved February 23, 2022 . ^ "Betty Stöve" . Women's Tennis Association. ^ Dagnino, Maruja. "Lali Armengol Argemi". In Transparencia Venezuela (ed.). 20 mujeres venezolanas del siglo XX (PDF) . pp. 68– 71. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 6, 2021 . Retrieved June 12, 2022 . ^ Anon (2017). "Henderson, Dr Richard" . Who's Who (online Oxford University Press ed.). Oxford: A & C Black. doi : 10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.19818 . (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ "Patrick Modiano" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 4, 2022 . ^ Easlea, Daryl (April 7, 2010). Talent Is An Asset: The Story Of Sparks . Omnibus Press. ISBN 9780857122377 – via Google Books. ^ "Khaleda Zia" . Britannica Presents 100 Women Trailblazers . February 25, 2020 . Retrieved July 27, 2021 . ^ "Obituary: John McAfee, antivirus software designer, dies aged 75" . The Times . June 24, 2021. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021 . Retrieved June 24, 2021 . ^ "Serial killer Dennis Nilsen dies in prison aged 72" . The Guardian . May 12, 2018 . Retrieved January 3, 2022 . ^ "Legacy Lyle Bien" . South Dakota Hall of Fame . Retrieved June 17, 2024 . ^ David J. Goldman (2014). Jewish Sports Stars; Athletic Heroes Past and Present ^ "Lemmy, Motörhead frontman – obituary" . The Daily Telegraph . December 29, 2015. Archived from the original on January 11, 2022 . Retrieved December 29, 2015 . ^ "Noel Redding" . The Guardian . May 15, 2003 . Retrieved May 4, 2022 . ^ "Vernon Wells" . Movies & TV Dept. The New York Times . 2014. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. ^ "Edith Frank" . July 6, 2010. Archived from the original on July 6, 2010 . Retrieved October 18, 2017 . ^ Lumsden, Herbert ^ "Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biografía" [Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biography] (in Spanish). Madrid : Real Academia de la Historia. 2022 . Retrieved January 4, 2026 . ^ Kimmelman, Benedict B. (September–October 1987). "The Example Of Private Slovik" . American Heritage Magazine . 38 (6) . Retrieved October 5, 2012 . ^ "One day they simply weren't there any more..." (PDF) . anne frank house . March 2015 . Retrieved April 11, 2015 . ^ Kaplan, Alice (2000). The Collaborator: The Trial and Execution of Robert Brasillach . University of Chicago Press. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-226-42414-9 . ^ Zabecki, David T. , ed. (2019). The German War Machine in World War II . Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio . ISBN 978-1-44-086918-1 . ^ "Aleksey Nikolayevich, Count Tolstoy | Soviet writer | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . January 6, 2024. ^ "LIEUTENANT GENERAL MILLARD F. HARMON" . Air Force . [ dead link ] ^ Hill, Alec (1979). " 'Chauvel, Sir Henry George (Harry) (1865–1945)' " . Australian Dictionary of Biography . National Centre of Biography, Australian National University . ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7 . ISSN 1833-7538 . OCLC 70677943 . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . ^ "Preview unavailable" . ProQuest . ProQuest 107039613 . ^ "Casualty Details | CWGC" . www.cwgc.org . Retrieved March 8, 2021 . ^ MG Maurice Rose ^ "Georg Elser" . www.gdw-berlin.de . Retrieved January 4, 2025 . ^ "Ontdek amateurschilder, drukker, fotograaf Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman" . rkd.nl . ^ Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945 . London: Allen Lane. p. 750. ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . ^ Wallace, Sam (January 25, 2020). "The imperishable story of Julius Hirsch: the great goalscorer murdered at Auschwitz who adorns Stamford Bridge mural" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. ^ Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (November 3, 2009). Danger's Hour: The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot Who Crippled Her . Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-6081-7 . ^ "AAFA Bio - Kenneth J. Alford" . ^ "Ishii Kikujiro | Biography & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . March 15, 2024. ^ "Boris Galerkin" . TheFreeDictionary.com . ^ Harry Hillman Taken by Death, Cumberland News , August 10, 1945 ^ Firoz Alam (October 1, 2009). Subhas Chandra Bose . Sahni Publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-7564-242-3 . ^ Fildes, P. (February 13, 1956). "Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer, 1858-1945" . Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 2 (2): 237– 247. doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1956.0016 . S2CID 73380545 . ^ .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} Stevens, Halsey. 2018. " Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer ". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018). ^ "Kaupisch, Leonhard" (in German). lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ "Dr. W.B. Cannon, 73, Neurologist, Dead. Harvard Psychology Professor for 36 Years Noted for His Work on Traumatic Shock Became Professor in 1906" . New York Times . October 2, 1945 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 . ^ "Felix Salten | Austrian novelist | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . September 2, 2023. ^ "Felicija Bortkevičienė" . www.vle.lt . ^ Franklin Carmichael ^ Hugh Fordin, Stephen Sondheim (1995). Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II . Da Capo Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-306-80668-1 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ [Sinclair, Sir Edwyn Sinclair Alexander-, of Freswick (1865–1945)] ^ Billy Altman, Laughter's Gentle Soul: The Life of Robert Benchley . (New York City: W. W. Norton , 1997. ISBN 0-393-03833-5 ) Pages 352–362 ^ Inge, Tonette Bond. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture , ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William R. Ferris. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 884. ^ FC, Celtic. "Jimmy Quinn" . Celtic FC . ^ Siegman, Joseph (2020). Jewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496222121 . ^ Wing, Leonard Fish ^ Axelrod, Alan (2006), Patton: A Biography , London : Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 168– 9, ISBN 978-1-4039-7139-5 ^ Theodore Dreiser Recalled . Clemson University Press. 2017. p. 311. ISBN 9781942954446 . Further reading Ian Buruma . Year Zero: A History of 1945 (Penguin Press; 2013) 368 pages; covers liberation, revenge, decolonization, and the rise of the United Nations. excerpt International News Service, It Happened In 1945 The Essential Year Book (1946) Keith Lowe. Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (2012) excerpt and text search McDannald, A. H. ed. The Americana Annual 1946 (1946) events of 1945 online ; encyclopedia yearbook global coverage in 950pp Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, 4 vol., encyclopedia yearbook online v t e Events by month v t e 1949 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1948 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1947 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1946 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1945 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1944 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1943 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1942 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1941 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1940 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1945 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2022 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with dead external links from February 2023 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with dead external links from March 2025 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from August 2019 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 01:14 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Biography Toggle Biography subsection 1.1 Early life and education 1.2 Career and interests 1.3 Death and legacy 1.1 Early life and education 1.2 Career and interests 1.3 Death and legacy 2 Writings Toggle Writings subsection 2.1 Books for adults 2.2 Books for children 2.3 Posthumous sequels 2.4 Critical analysis 2.1 Books for adults 2.2 Books for children 2.3 Posthumous sequels 2.4 Critical analysis 3 Illustrators 4 Awards 5 Published books Toggle Published books subsection 5.1 Novels 5.2 Publishers 5.1 Novels 5.2 Publishers 6 Adaptations Toggle Adaptations subsection 6.1 Films 6.2 Audiobooks 6.3 Television 6.1 Films 6.2 Audiobooks 6.3 Television 7 See also 8 References 9 External links John Bellairs العربية Deutsch Français Հայերեն Italiano مصرى 日本語 Polski Русский Volapük Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item John Bellairs Born John Anthony Bellairs ( 1938-01-17 ) January 17, 1938 Marshall, Michigan , U.S. Died March 8, 1991 (1991-03-08) (aged 53) Haverhill, Massachusetts , US Occupation Novelist Education University of Notre Dame (BA) University of Chicago (MA) Period 1966–1991 Genre Fantasy , horror , humor Notable works The House with a Clock in Its Walls , The Face in the Frost John Anthony Bellairs (January 17, 1938 – March 8, 1991) [ 1 ] was an American author best known for his fantasy novel The Face in the Frost and many Gothic mystery novels for children featuring the characters Lewis Barnavelt , Rose Rita Pottinger , Johnny Dixon , and Anthony Monday . Most of his books were illustrated by Edward Gorey . [ 2 ] At the time of his death, Bellairs' books had sold a quarter-million copies in hard cover and more than a million and a half copies in paperback. [ 3 ] Biography Early life and education Bellairs was born in Marshall, Michigan , the son of Virginia (Monk) and Frank Edward Bellairs, who ran a cigar store and bowling alley in Marshall. [ 4 ] He was raised a strict Roman Catholic and initially planned to become a priest. [ 5 ] His hometown inspired the fictional town of New Zebedee, Michigan, where he set his trilogy about Lewis Barnavelt and Rose Rita Pottinger. [ 6 ] Shy, overweight, and often bullied as a child, he had become a voracious reader and a self-described "bottomless pit of useless information" by the time he graduated from Marshall High School [ 7 ] and entered the University of Notre Dame in 1955. [ 8 ] Bellairs graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English magna cum laude from the University of Notre Dame in 1959. [ 9 ] At Notre Dame, he competed in the College Bowl and wrote a regular humor column for the student magazine Scholastic . [ 8 ] Bellairs went on to receive a Master of Arts degree in English from the University of Chicago in 1960. He received a Woodrow Wilson Fellowship in 1959. [ 10 ] Career and interests Bellairs taught English at the College of Saint Teresa (1963–65), Shimer College (1966–67), Emmanuel College (1968–69), and Merrimack College (1969–71) before turning full-time to writing in 1971. During the late 1960s, he spent six months living and writing in Bristol , United Kingdom , where he began writing The Face in the Frost . Bristol would later feature in his 1990 novel The Secret of the Underground Room . His personal interests included archaeology, architecture, history, Latin, baseball, kitschy antiques, bad poetry, visits to the UK, and trivia of all kinds. [ 1 ] His favorite authors included Charles Dickens , Henry James , M.R. James , Garrett Mattingly , and C. V. Wedgwood . [ 11 ] Alongside Christopher Tolkien , Bellairs was a guest of honor at the 18th Annual Mythopoeic Conference at Marquette University in 1987, hosted by the Mythopoeic Society . [ 12 ] Death and legacy Bellairs died suddenly of cardiovascular disease at his home in Haverhill, Massachusetts , on March 8, 1991, at the age of 53. [ 13 ] He was survived by his ex-wife, Priscilla (Braids) Bellairs, whom he had married on June 24, 1968, and their son Frank J. Bellairs. [ 1 ] Frank Bellairs died in Cambridge, Massachusetts , on August 19, 1999, at the age of 29. [ 14 ] Priscilla Bellairs lives in Newburyport . [ 15 ] In 1992, a historical marker was placed in front of the historic Cronin House in Bellairs's hometown of Marshall, Michigan. [ 16 ] Built in 1870 for local merchant Jeremiah Cronin, this imposing Italianate mansion with its 60-foot tower had inspired the titular house of his 1973 book . [ 7 ] Bellairs was inducted into the Haverhill Citizens Hall of Fame in 2000. [ 11 ] Writings Books for adults Bellairs' first published work, St. Fidgeta and Other Parodies (1966), is a collection of short stories satirizing the rites and rituals of Second Vatican Council -era Catholicism . The title story of St. Fidgeta grew out of humorous stories Bellairs made up and shared with friends while living in Chicago . After committing one such story to paper, he sent it to the Chicago-based Catholic magazine The Critic , which published the story in summer 1965. The following year, the hagiography of St. Fidgeta was supplemented by eleven other humorous stories, including an essay on lesser-known popes of antiquity, a cathedral constructed over the course of centuries, and a spoof letter from a modern-day Xavier Rynne about the escapades at the fictional Third Vatican Council. Library Journal hailed St. Fidgeta as "religious burlesque" that delivered "strokes of inspired foolishness." A writer for the National Catholic Reporter called it a "gem." [ 17 ] The Pedant and the Shuffly , his second book, is a short illustrated fable featuring the evil magician Snodrog (the titular pedant), who ensnares his victims with inescapable (and nonsensical) logic until the kindly sorcerer, Sir Bertram Crabtree-Gore, enlists the help of a magical Shuffly to defeat Snodrog. The book was originally published in 1968 and rereleased in 2001 [ 18 ] and 2009. [ 19 ] Bellairs undertook his third book, The Face in the Frost (1969), while living in Britain and after reading J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings . Bellairs said of his third book: " The Face in the Frost was an attempt to write in the Tolkien manner. I was much taken by The Lord of the Rings and wanted to do a modest work on those lines. In reading the latter book I was struck by the fact that Gandalf was not much of a person—just a good guy. So I gave Prospero, my wizard, most of my phobias and crotchets. It was simply meant as entertainment and any profundity will have to be read in." [ 20 ] " The Face in the Frost was an attempt to write in the Tolkien manner. I was much taken by The Lord of the Rings and wanted to do a modest work on those lines. In reading the latter book I was struck by the fact that Gandalf was not much of a person—just a good guy. So I gave Prospero, my wizard, most of my phobias and crotchets. It was simply meant as entertainment and any profundity will have to be read in." [ 20 ] Writing in 1973, Lin Carter described The Face in the Frost as one of the three best fantasy novels to appear since The Lord of the Rings . Carter stated that Bellairs was planning a sequel to The Face in the Frost at the time. [ 21 ] An unfinished sequel titled The Dolphin Cross was included in the anthology Magic Mirrors ( New England Science Fiction Association Press , 2009). [ 19 ] Books for children Bellairs's next novel was originally written as a contemporary adult fantasy. To improve the novel's marketability, his publisher suggested rewriting it as a young readers' book. The result was The House with a Clock in Its Walls (1973), which was named as one of The New York Times Outstanding Books of 1973 and nominated for other awards. [ 22 ] Following the success of The House with a Clock in Its Walls , Bellairs focused on writing Gothic fantasy adventures aimed at elementary and middle-school children. [ 23 ] "I write scary thrillers for kids because I have the imagination of a 10-year-old," remarked Bellairs. "I love haunted houses, ghosts, witches, mummies, incantations, secret rituals performed by the light of the waning moon, coffins, bones, cemeteries and enchanted objects." [ 3 ] Bellairs also wrote his hometown influenced his creative bent: “In my imagination I repeatedly walk up and down the streets of the beautiful old Michigan town where I grew up. It’s full of old Victorian mansions and history, and it would work on the creative mind of any kid.” [ 7 ] Writing for The New York Times , Marilyn Stasio characterized Bellairs' children's books as fast-paced, spooky adventures involving "believable and likeable" characters, generally a child and an older person (usually a "lovable eccentric") [ 24 ] who are friends and must go on adventures and solve a mystery involving supernatural elements such as ghosts and wicked sorcerers. Beyond these supernatural elements, Bellairs's novels evoked "a child's concern with comfort and security in his real world," addressing childhood fears of abandonment, loneliness, and bullying, as well as coming of age. [ 3 ] His stories are described as spooky but ultimately reassuring as the characters conquer evil through friendship. [ 24 ] The books have proved especially popular among middle-grade readers between the ages of 9 and 13 but also have significant young adult and adult readerships. [ 3 ] Posthumous sequels On his death in 1991, Bellairs left behind two unfinished manuscripts and two one-page synopses for future adventures. The Bellairs estate commissioned Brad Strickland to complete the two unfinished manuscripts and to write novels based on the two one-page outlines. These became The Ghost in the Mirror ; The Vengeance of the Witch-finder ; The Drum, the Doll, and the Zombie ; and The Doom of the Haunted Opera , respectively. Starting in 1996 with The Hand of the Necromancer , Strickland began writing his own stories based on the established characters. [ 11 ] Strickland announced in spring 2005 that new adventures of the Bellairs' characters were under way, following contract negotiations with the Bellairs' estate and a two-year absence since his last-published novel. The first of these new adventures was The House Where Nobody Lived , which was published on October 5, 2006. All told, thirteen sequels to Bellairs' books have been written by Strickland. [ 11 ] Critical analysis Critical attention has focused on The House With the Clock in Its Walls as exemplar of Bellairs' literary merit and style. Critics have argued that Bellairs wrestled with notions of masculinity, femininity, and queerness in his works. [ 22 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] Professor Gary D. Schmidt contended that Bellairs' Lewis Barnavelt and Rose Rita Pottinger trilogy traced the "emerging acceptance of self" by the two main characters, who struggled with internalized gender norms . [ 27 ] Elizabeth Wein analyzes Bellairs's use of the haunted house motif in The House With a Clock in Its Walls . [ 28 ] One of the most substantial academic treatments of Bellairs comes from Dawn Heinecken, professor of women's and gender studies at the University of Louisville . Heinecken situates Bellairs in 1970s-era anxieties about gender and changing discourses around masculinity, which were reflected in the era's children's literature. [ 22 ] Conservative critic William Kilpatrick observed of Bellairs that "While his books are quite frightening, they are well written and undergirded by a moral vision" and recommended them to parents who wish to expose their children to age-appropriate literature that both entertains and edifies. [ 29 ] English education instructor Randi Dickson suggested that Bellairs' oeuvre evidenced greater literary merit than the works of R. L. Stine , whose horror fiction appeals to a youthful demographic similar to Bellairs's. [ 30 ] Educators have used The House With the Clock in Its Walls as a case study for using storytelling techniques to draw in reluctant readers [ 31 ] and assigned The Curse of the Blue Figurine to students in a book club. [ 32 ] Bellairs' books have been translated into Czech, French, German, Japanese, Polish, and Spanish, among other languages. Illustrators Edward Gorey provided cover illustrations and frontispieces for all but three of Bellairs's 15 children's novels and continued to illustrate the Strickland novels until Gorey's death in 2000. The novel The Beast Under the Wizard's Bridge featured Gorey's last published artwork before his death. [ 33 ] Despite the strong association of the novels with Gorey's illustrations, Bellairs and Gorey never met and probably never even corresponded. [ 2 ] The Gorey covers are no longer in print, though some newer editions of the novels still contain interior Gorey illustrations. S. D. Schindler and Bart Goldman have created cover art for the Strickland books published since 2001. Marilyn Fitschen provided the covers and illustrations for Bellairs' first three books: St Fidgeta and Other Parodies , The Pedant and the Shuffly , and The Face in the Frost . Awards # Book Title Award Year 01 The House with a Clock in Its Walls American Library Association Children's Books of International Interest Award 1973 02 The House with a Clock in Its Walls New York Times Outstanding Books of 1973 Award 1973 03 The House with a Clock in Its Walls South Carolina Children's Book Award Nominee 1978–1979 04 The House with a Clock in Its Walls Michigan Young Readers Award Nominee 1980 05 The House with a Clock in Its Walls Maude Hart Lovelace Award Nominee (Minnesota) 1982 06 The Letter, the Witch, and the Ring South Carolina Children's Book Award Nominee 1979–1980 07 The Letter, the Witch, and the Ring Utah Children's Fiction Book Award 1981 08 The Treasure of Alpheus Winterborn Maud Hart Lovelace Award Nominee (Minnesota) 1983 09 The Curse of the Blue Figurine Utah Children's Fiction Book Award Nominee 1985 10 The Curse of the Blue Figurine Indian Paintbrush Book Award Nominee (Wyoming) 1986 11 The Curse of the Blue Figurine Virginia Young Readers Award, Middle School Division 1986–1987 12 The Curse of the Blue Figurine Read-Aloud Books Too Good to Miss List (Indiana Library Federation) 1990–1991 13 The Mummy, the Will, and the Crypt Iowa Teen Award Nominee 1985–1986 14 The Dark Secret of Weatherend Utah Children's Fiction Book Award Nominee 1987 15 The Eyes of the Killer Robot Rebecca Caudill Young Readers Book Award Nominee (Illinois) 1991 16 The Lamp from the Warlock's Tomb Edgar Allan Poe Award , Best Juvenile Division, Nominee 1989 17 The Specter from the Magician's Museum Georgia Author of the Year Award, Young Adult Division 1998 18 The Specter from the Magician's Museum New York Public Library "Best Books for the Teen Age" Awards Published books Novels # Title Month Year Series Chapters Pages Writer Illustrator 01 St. Fidgeta and Other Parodies Jun 1966 12 123 John Bellairs Marilyn Fitschen 02 The Pedant and the Shuffly Feb 1968 NA 79 John Bellairs Marilyn Fitschen 03 The Face in the Frost 1969 11 174 John Bellairs Marilyn Fitschen 04 The House with a Clock in Its Walls Jan 1973 Lewis Barnavelt 11 179 John Bellairs Edward Gorey 05 The Figure in the Shadows 1975 Lewis Barnavelt 13 155 John Bellairs Mercer Mayer 06 The Letter, the Witch, and the Ring Jan 1976 Lewis Barnavelt 13 188 John Bellairs Richard Egielski 07 The Treasure of Alpheus Winterborn May 1978 Anthony Monday 17 180 John Bellairs Judith Gwyn Brown 08 The Curse of the Blue Figurine May 1983 Johnny Dixon 12 200 John Bellairs Edward Gorey 09 The Mummy, the Will, and the Crypt Nov 1983 Johnny Dixon 16 168 John Bellairs Edward Gorey 10 The Dark Secret of Weatherend Jul 1984 Anthony Monday 15 182 John Bellairs Edward Gorey 11 The Spell of the Sorcerer's Skull Nov 1984 Johnny Dixon 11 170 John Bellairs Edward Gorey 12 The Revenge of the Wizard's Ghost Nov 1985 Johnny Dixon 15 147 John Bellairs Edward Gorey 13 The Eyes of the Killer Robot Oct 1986 Johnny Dixon 17 167 John Bellairs Edward Gorey 14 The Lamp from the Warlock's Tomb May 1988 Anthony Monday 14 168 John Bellairs Edward Gorey 15 The Trolley to Yesterday Jul 1989 Johnny Dixon 18 183 John Bellairs Edward Gorey 16 The Chessmen of Doom Nov 1989 Johnny Dixon 16 155 John Bellairs Edward Gorey 17 The Secret of the Underground Room Mar 1990 Johnny Dixon 13 127 John Bellairs Edward Gorey 18 The Mansion in the Mist Aug 1992 Anthony Monday 17 170 John Bellairs Edward Gorey 19 The Ghost in the Mirror Apr 1993 Lewis Barnavelt 13 169 coauthors† Edward Gorey 20 The Vengeance of the Witch-finder Sep 1993 Lewis Barnavelt 15 153 coauthors† Edward Gorey 21 The Drum, the Doll, and the Zombie Sep 1994 Johnny Dixon 15 153 coauthors† Edward Gorey 22 The Doom of the Haunted Opera Sep 1995 Lewis Barnavelt 16 153 coauthors† Edward Gorey 23 The Hand of the Necromancer Sep 1996 Johnny Dixon 18 168 Brad Strickland Edward Gorey 24 The Bell, the Book, and the Spellbinder Oct 1997 Johnny Dixon 16 149 Brad Strickland Edward Gorey 25 The Specter from the Magician's Museum Mar 1998 Lewis Barnavelt 16 149 Brad Strickland Edward Gorey 26 The Wrath of the Grinning Ghost Sep 1999 Johnny Dixon 15 166 Brad Strickland Edward Gorey 27 The Beast Under the Wizard's Bridge Sep 2000 Lewis Barnavelt 15 151 Brad Strickland Edward Gorey 28 The Tower at the End of the World Sep 2001 Lewis Barnavelt 15 146 Brad Strickland S. D. Schindler 29 The Whistle, the Grave, and the Ghost Aug 2003 Lewis Barnavelt 14 152 Brad Strickland S. D. Schindler 30 The House Where Nobody Lived Oct 2006 Lewis Barnavelt 18 173 Brad Strickland Bart Goldman 31 The Sign of the Sinister Sorcerer Oct 2008 Lewis Barnavelt 13 168 Brad Strickland Bart Goldman 32 The Stone, the Cipher, and the Shadows Aug 2023 Johnny Dixon 17 167 Brad Strickland Open Road Media Publishers # Title Amber Artist House Bantam Skylark/BDD Barnes & Noble Corgi Dell Yearling/BDD Dial/Penguin Editions du Rocher Editora Record Gallimard Jeunesse Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Heyne Macmillan Mythopoeic Press NESFA Press Puffin/Penguin Shueisha Publishing 01 St. Fidgeta and Other Parodies Y 02 The Pedant and the Shuffly Y Y 03 The Face in the Frost Y 04 The House with a Clock in Its Walls Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 05 The Figure in the Shadows Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 06 The Letter, the Witch, and the Ring Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 07 The Treasure of Alpheus Winterborn Y Y 08 The Curse of the Blue Figurine Y Y Y Y Y Y 09 The Mummy, the Will, and the Crypt Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 10 The Dark Secret of Weatherend Y Y Y 11 The Spell of the Sorcerer's Skull Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 12 The Revenge of the Wizard's Ghost Y Y Y Y Y 13 The Eyes of the Killer Robot Y Y Y Y 14 The Lamp from the Warlock's Tomb Y Y Y 15 The Trolley to Yesterday Y Y Y Y 16 The Chessmen of Doom Y Y Y 17 The Secret of the Underground Room Y Y Y 18 The Mansion in the Mist Y Y 19 The Ghost in the Mirror Y Y Y Y Y Y 20 The Vengeance of the Witch-finder Y Y Y Y Y Y 21 The Drum, the Doll, and the Zombie Y Y Y 22 The Doom of the Haunted Opera Y Y Y Y Y Y 23 The Hand of the Necromancer Y Y 24 The Bell, the Book, and the Spellbinder Y Y 25 The Specter from the Magician's Museum Y Y Y Y Y Y 26 The Wrath of the Grinning Ghost Y Y 27 The Beast Under the Wizard's Bridge Y Y Y Y Y Y 28 The Tower at the End of the World Y Y Y 29 The Whistle, the Grave, and the Ghost Y 30 The House Where Nobody Lived Y 31 The Sign of the Sinister Sorcerer Y 32 Magic Mirrors Y 33 The Best of John Bellairs Y 34 The Best of John Bellairs 2 Y Adaptations Films On November 18, 2011, Mythology Entertainment, founded by Brad Fischer , [ 34 ] co-president of production at Phoenix Pictures ; Laeta Kalogridis ; and James Vanderbilt announced that they hired Eric Kripke , creator of Supernatural and Revolution , to write and produce a feature film based on John Bellairs' work through a partnership with John's estate. "Jamie, Laeta and I are thrilled to launch Mythology Entertainment and to be partnering with Eric Kripke and the estate of John Bellairs for our first feature project,” Fischer said. “As a kid, Eric was inspired by Bellairs’ work and these books have stayed with him through the years…. As a company, we aspire to be a haven for artists and friends who believe in the power of myth and remember that feeling we all got as kids, when the lights went down and the images came up and anything was possible.” [ 35 ] “As a kid, Eric was inspired by Bellairs’ work and these books have stayed with him through the years…. As a company, we aspire to be a haven for artists and friends who believe in the power of myth and remember that feeling we all got as kids, when the lights went down and the images came up and anything was possible.” [ 35 ] The film adaptation of Bellairs' novel The House with a Clock in Its Walls stars Jack Black as Uncle Jonathan, Cate Blanchett as Mrs. Zimmerman, and Owen Vaccaro as Lewis Barnavelt, and was directed by Eli Roth . It was released on September 21, 2018. [ 36 ] Audiobooks # Title Year Publisher Narrator 01 The Face in the Frost 1995 Recorded Books George Guidall 02 The Ghost in the Mirror 1995 Recorded Books George Guidall 03 The House with a Clock in Its Walls 1995 Recorded Books George Guidall 04 The Lamp from the Warlock's Tomb 1995 Recorded Books Betty Low 05 The Mansion in the Mist 1995 Recorded Books Betty Low As of September 2022, Blackstone Publishing has re-issued Face In the Frost and all 12 Lewis Barnavelt books on CD and digital formats. Beginning in May 2022 and continuing until mid-2023, Blackstone commissioned audiobooks of the Johnny Dixon books, read by Johnny Heller. Television # TV program title Book title Producer Year 01 Once Upon a Midnight Scary The House with a Clock in Its Walls VideoGems 1979 02 The Clue According to Sherlock Holmes The Treasure of Alpheus Winterborn VideoGems 1980 03 The House with a Clock in Its Walls The House with a Clock in Its Walls Barr Films 1991 04 The Treasure of Alpheus Winterborn The Treasure of Alpheus Winterborn Barr Films 1991 See also Children's literature portal Speculative fiction portal Lewis Barnavelt (series) Johnny Dixon (series) Anthony Monday (series) List of horror fiction authors References ^ a b c .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Olendorf, Donna (1992). Something About the Author . Detroit: Gale Research. pp. 23– 25. ISBN 978-0-8103-2278-3 – via Internet Archive. ^ a b Domino, Matt (May 12, 2017). "Why the Link Between Edward Gorey and John Bellairs Remains Unbreakable" . The Millions . Retrieved August 29, 2021 . ^ a b c d Stasio, Marilyn (June 9, 1991). "CHILDREN'S BOOKS; Under the Spell Of Scary Stuff" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved September 5, 2021 . ^ Reginald, R. (September 2010). Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature Vol 2 . Wildside Press LLC. ISBN 9780941028776 . ^ Beal, Darlene. "John Bellairs Keeps Stories 'Real' " . The Observer . Vol. 39, no. 7. Northern Essex Community College . p. 6 . Retrieved January 8, 2024 . ^ MacNee, Marie J. (1995). Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror Writers . Vol. 1. New York: Gale Research. pp. 49– 52. ISBN 0810398664 . ^ a b c Hall, Kalea (September 18, 2018). "The House that Inspired 'House with a Clock in Its Walls' Comes to Life in Time for Movie" . Battle Creek Enquirer . Retrieved September 9, 2021 . ^ a b Dunne, Patrick (2011). "John Bellairs: Author of the Imaginary" . Notre Dame Magazine . Retrieved September 5, 2021 . ^ "John A. Bellairs, 53, A Children's Author" . The New York Times . March 14, 1991. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved August 29, 2021 . ^ "Press release" (PDF) . University of Notre Dame . March 15, 1959 . Retrieved August 28, 2021 . ^ a b c d "John Bellairs" . lookingglassreview.com . Retrieved August 29, 2021 . ^ Hyde, Paul (October 15, 1986). "Quenti Lambardillion" . Mythlore: A Journal of J.R.R. Tolkien, C.S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and Mythopoeic Literature . 13 (1): 33. ISSN 0146-9339 . ^ The Associated Press (March 14, 1991). "Obituary for John Bellairs" . New York Daily News . p. 92 . Retrieved January 2, 2024 . ^ "Obituary for Frank J. Bellairs" . The Boston Globe . August 22, 1999. p. 84 . Retrieved January 2, 2024 . ^ Shea, Jack (April 18, 2018). "Newburyport woman gets glimpse at film on late husband's book" . The Daily News of Newburyport . Retrieved August 29, 2021 . ^ Hahn, Daniel (2015). The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-19-174437-2 . OCLC 921452204 . ^ Washburn, Susanne (October 29, 2004). "The marvelous St. Fidgeta: Tales of a 7-year-old martyr are a gem of religious burlesque". National Catholic Reporter : 16– 17. ^ "The Mythopoeic Society - Mythopoeic Press, The Pedant and the Shuffly" . www.mythsoc.org . Retrieved August 31, 2021 . ^ a b "Magic Mirrors – NESFA" . Retrieved August 31, 2021 . ^ Commire, Anne (1971). Something About the Author . Vol. 2. Detroit: Gale Research. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-8103-0052-1 – via Internet Archive. ^ Lin Carter, Imaginary Worlds . New York: Ballantine/Random House, 1973, pp. 1165-67 (Cites Carter's correspondence with Bellairs). ^ a b c Heinecken, Dawn (2011). "Haunting Masculinity and Frightening Femininity: The Novels of John Bellairs" . Children's Literature in Education . 42 (2): 118– 131. doi : 10.1007/s10583-010-9127-7 . ISSN 1573-1693 . S2CID 144558619 . ^ Hedblad, Alan, ed. (1996). "John Bellairs". Children's Literature Review . New York: Gale Research. pp. 1– 29. ISBN 0810389517 . ISSN 0362-4145 – via Internet Archive . ^ a b Gardner, Craig Shaw (November 11, 1984). "Reading on the Edge of Your Seat" . The Washington Post . Retrieved September 8, 2021 . ^ Huskey, Melynda. "A Specter is Haunting New Zebedee: Reading John Bellairs as Queer-Kid Gothic" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on September 5, 2021 . Retrieved September 5, 2021 . ^ Skowera, Maciej (July 24, 2019). "Lewis Barnavelt and the Rainbow over New Zebedee: Queering The House with a Clock in Its Walls" . Dzieciństwo. Literatura i Kultura . 1 (1): 85– 108. doi : 10.32798/dlk.29 . ISSN 2657-9510 . ^ Schmidt, Gary D. (March 1, 1987). "See how they grow: Character development in children's series books" . Children's Literature in Education . 18 (1): 34– 44. doi : 10.1007/BF01135437 . ISSN 1573-1693 . S2CID 143265245 . ^ Wein, Elizabeth (2000). "Mystery in a House" . The Lion and the Unicorn . 24 (2): 248– 249. doi : 10.1353/uni.2000.0024 . ISSN 1080-6563 – via Project MUSE . ^ Kilpatrick, William (1994). Books that build character: A guide to teaching your child moral values through stories . New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-671-88423-9 . OCLC 937954417 . ^ Dickson, Randi (1998). "Horror: To Gratify, Not Edify" . Language Arts . 76 (2): 115– 122. doi : 10.58680/la199812 . ISSN 0360-9170 . JSTOR 41484083 . ^ Raymond, Kettel (1994). "Motivating the Reluctant Reader: Using the Storytelling Episode Model" . Storytelling World . 3 (1): 31– 33 – via ERIC . ^ Lewis, Mark A.; Zisselsberger, Margarita Gómez (2019). "Scaffolding and Inequitable Participation in Linguistically Diverse Book Clubs" . Reading Research Quarterly . 54 (2): 167– 186. doi : 10.1002/rrq.234 . ISSN 1936-2722 . S2CID 149462377 . ^ "Goreyography: West Wing: Seeking Gorey: Available from Amazon.com" . www.goreyography.com . Retrieved November 2, 2020 . ^ "Brad Fischer – Co-President, Production" . September 10, 2009. Archived from the original on March 17, 2012 . Retrieved June 17, 2012 . ^ Mike Fleming (November 18, 2011). "Phoenix Co-President Bradley Fischer Forms Mythology With Scribes Laeta Kalogridis And James Vanderbilt" . Deadline New York . Retrieved June 17, 2012 . ^ Lizzie Plaugic (March 27, 2018). "Watch the first trailer for The House with a Clock in its Walls" . The Verge . Retrieved March 27, 2018 . External links Bellairsia | blog | forum – celebrating John Bellairs John Bellairs at Find a Grave John Bellairs at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database John Bellairs at Library of Congress , with 42 library catalog records John Bellairs Papers at the University of Minnesota Libraries Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Portugal Netherlands Latvia Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Portugal Netherlands Latvia Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii People DDB DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Yale LUX 1938 births 1991 deaths 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American novelists American children's writers American fantasy writers American male novelists American young adult novelists Merrimack College faculty Notre Dame College of Arts and Letters alumni Novelists from Illinois Novelists from Massachusetts People from Haverhill, Massachusetts People from Marshall, Michigan Shimer College faculty University of Chicago alumni Writers of Gothic fiction Mythopoeic writers American satirical novelists Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use mdy dates from June 2013 This page was last edited on 14 August 2025, at 06:20 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Characteristics Toggle Characteristics subsection 1.1 Teeth 1.2 Other facial features 1.3 Size 1.4 Digits 1.5 Locomotion 1.6 Senses 1.7 Sexual dimorphism 1.1 Teeth 1.2 Other facial features 1.3 Size 1.4 Digits 1.5 Locomotion 1.6 Senses 1.7 Sexual dimorphism 2 Distribution and habitat 3 Behavior and life history Toggle Behavior and life history subsection 3.1 Feeding 3.2 Social behavior 3.3 Communication 3.3.1 Olfactory 3.3.2 Auditory 3.3.3 Visual 3.3.4 Tactile 3.4 Mating strategies 3.5 Birth and parenting 3.6 Intelligence 3.1 Feeding 3.2 Social behavior 3.3 Communication 3.3.1 Olfactory 3.3.2 Auditory 3.3.3 Visual 3.3.4 Tactile 3.3.1 Olfactory 3.3.2 Auditory 3.3.3 Visual 3.3.4 Tactile 3.4 Mating strategies 3.5 Birth and parenting 3.6 Intelligence 4 Evolutionary history 5 Classification 6 Interaction with humans Toggle Interaction with humans subsection 6.1 Conservation 6.2 Exploitation 6.2.1 Fur 6.2.2 Consumption 6.2.3 Animal testing 6.3 As pets 6.4 As pests and disease vectors 6.1 Conservation 6.2 Exploitation 6.2.1 Fur 6.2.2 Consumption 6.2.3 Animal testing 6.2.1 Fur 6.2.2 Consumption 6.2.3 Animal testing 6.3 As pets 6.4 As pests and disease vectors 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Toggle External links subsection 10.1 Zoology, osteology, comparative anatomy 10.2 Various 10.1 Zoology, osteology, comparative anatomy 10.2 Various Rodent Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ العربية Aragonés অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Ирон IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kotava Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Novial Occitan Oromoo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Перем коми Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Саха тыла Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taqbaylit Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Walon West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Žemaitėška 中文 Betawi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikispecies Wikidata item Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Rodent Temporal range: Late Paleocene – recent PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}} Capybara Springhare Golden-mantled ground squirrel North American beaver House mouse Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Mirorder: Simplicidentata Order: Rodentia Bowdich , 1821 Suborders .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Anomaluromorpha Castorimorpha Hystricomorpha (incl. Caviomorpha ) Myomorpha Sciuromorpha Anomaluromorpha Castorimorpha Hystricomorpha (incl. Caviomorpha ) Myomorpha Sciuromorpha Combined range of all rodent species (not including introduced populations) Rodents (from Latin rōdēns , 'gnawing') are mammals of the order Rodentia ( / r oʊ ˈ d ɛ n ( t ) ʃ ə / roh- DEN -shə or roh- DEN -chə ), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws . About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. They are native to all major land masses except for Antarctica , and several oceanic islands, though they have subsequently been introduced to most of these land masses by human activity. Rodents are extremely diverse in their ecology and lifestyles and can be found in almost every terrestrial habitat, including human-made environments. Species can be arboreal , fossorial (burrowing), saltatorial /ricochetal (leaping on their hind legs), or semiaquatic. However, all rodents share several morphological features, including having only a single upper and lower pair of ever-growing incisors. Well-known rodents include mice , rats , squirrels , prairie dogs , porcupines , beavers , guinea pigs , and hamsters . Once included with rodents, rabbits , hares , and pikas , which also have incisors that grow continuously, are now considered to be in a separate order, the Lagomorpha , distinguished by an extra pair of incisors. Both Rodentia and Lagomorpha are sister groups , sharing a single common ancestor and forming the clade of Glires . Most rodents are small animals with robust bodies, short limbs, and long tails. They use their sharp incisors to gnaw food, excavate burrows, and defend themselves. Most eat seeds or other plant material, but some have more varied diets. They tend to be social animals and many species live in societies with complex ways of communicating with each other. Mating among rodents can vary from monogamy , to polygyny , to promiscuity . Many have litters of underdeveloped, altricial young, while others are precocial (relatively well developed) at birth. The rodent fossil record dates back to the Paleocene of Asia . Rodents greatly diversified in the Eocene , as they spread across continents, sometimes even crossing oceans . Rodents reached both South America and Madagascar from Africa and, until the arrival of Homo sapiens , were the only terrestrial placental mammals to reach and colonize Australia. Rodents have been used as food, for clothing, as pets , and as laboratory animals in research. Some species, in particular, the brown rat , the black rat , and the house mouse , are serious pests , eating and spoiling food stored by humans and spreading diseases. Accidentally introduced species of rodents are often considered to be invasive and have caused the extinction of numerous species, such as island birds, the dodo being an example, previously isolated from land-based predators. Characteristics Teeth The distinguishing feature of the rodents is their pairs of continuously growing, razor-sharp, open-rooted incisors . [ 1 ] These incisors have thick layers of enamel on the front and little enamel on the back. [ 2 ] Because they do not stop growing, the animal must continue to wear them down so that they do not reach and pierce the skull. As the incisors grind against each other, the softer dentine on the rear of the teeth wears away, leaving the sharp enamel edge shaped like the blade of a chisel . [ 3 ] Rodent species have 12–28 teeth total, usually 22, with no canines. A gap, or diastema , occurs between the incisors and the cheek teeth in most species. This allows rodents to suck in and seal their mouth from inedible material. [ 1 ] Chinchillas and guinea pigs have a high-fiber diet; their molars have no roots and grow continuously like their incisors. [ 4 ] In many species, the molars are relatively large, intricately structured, and highly cusped or ridged. Rodent molars are well equipped to grind food into small particles. [ 1 ] The jaw musculature is strong. The lower jaw is thrust forward while gnawing and is pulled backwards during chewing. [ 2 ] Gnawing uses incisors and chewing uses molars, however, due to the cranial anatomy of rodents these feeding methods cannot be used at the same time and are considered to be mutually exclusive. [ 5 ] Among rodents, the masseter muscle plays a key role in chewing, making up 60% – 80% of the total muscle mass among masticatory muscles and reflects rodents' herbivorous diet. [ 6 ] The Sciuromorpha , such as the eastern grey squirrel , have a large deep masseter , making them efficient at biting with the incisors. The Myomorpha , such as the brown rat, have enlarged temporalis and masseter muscles, making them able to chew powerfully with their molars. [ 7 ] Other facial features In rodents, masseter muscles insert behind the eyes and contribute to eye boggling that occurs during gnawing, where the quick contraction and relaxation of the muscle causes the eyeballs to move up and down. [ 7 ] The Hystricomorpha , such as the guinea pig, have larger superficial masseter muscles and smaller deep masseter muscles than rats or squirrels, possibly making them less efficient at biting with the incisors, but their enlarged internal pterygoid muscles may allow them to move the jaw further sideways when chewing. [ 8 ] The cheek pouch is a specific morphological feature used for storing food and is evident in particular subgroups of rodents like kangaroo rats , hamsters, chipmunks and gophers which have two bags that may range from the mouth to the front of the shoulders. [ 9 ] True mice and rats do not contain this structure but their cheeks are elastic due to a high degree of musculature and innervation in the region. [ 10 ] Size While the largest species, the capybara , can weigh as much as 66 kg (146 lb), most rodents weigh less than 100 g (3.5 oz). Rodents have wide-ranging morphologies, but typically have squat bodies and short limbs. [ 1 ] Digits The fore limbs usually have five digits, including an opposable thumb, while the hind limbs have three to five digits. The elbow gives the forearms great flexibility. [ 3 ] The majority of species are plantigrade , walking on both the palms and soles of their feet, and have claw-like nails. The nails of burrowing species tend to be long and strong, while arboreal rodents have shorter, sharper nails. Rodenta, have nails on their first digit which they use in manual food handling. Such a nail combined with dexterous feeding movement with incisors which allow them to eat hard seeds and nuts, a niche that they presently dominate. This thumbnail is argued to be ancestrial with exceptions being linked to its replacement by claws in subterranean habits and for oral-only feeding. [ 11 ] Locomotion Rodent species use a wide variety of methods of locomotion including quadrupedal walking, running, burrowing, climbing, bipedal hopping ( kangaroo rats and hopping mice ), swimming and even gliding. [ 3 ] Scaly-tailed squirrels and flying squirrels , although not closely related, can both glide from tree to tree using parachute-like membranes that stretch from the fore to the hind limbs. [ 12 ] The agouti is fleet-footed and antelope -like, being digitigrade and having hoof-like nails. The majority of rodents have tails, which can be of many shapes and sizes. Some tails are prehensile , as in the Eurasian harvest mouse , and the fur on the tails can vary from bushy to completely bald. The tail is sometimes used for communication, as when beavers slap their tails on the water surface or house mice rattle their tails to indicate alarm. Some species have vestigial tails or no tails at all. [ 1 ] In some species, the tail is capable of regeneration if a part is broken off. [ 3 ] Senses Rodents generally have well-developed senses of smell , hearing, and vision. Nocturnal species often have enlarged eyes and some are sensitive to ultraviolet light. Many species have long, sensitive whiskers or vibrissae for touch or "whisking" . [ 14 ] Whisker action is mostly driven by the brain stem, which is itself provoked by the cortex. [ 14 ] However Legg et al. 1989 find an alternate circuit between the cortex and whiskers through the cerebellar circuits, and Hemelt & Keller 2008 the superior colliculus. [ 14 ] Some rodents have cheek pouches , which may be lined with fur. These can be turned inside out for cleaning. In many species, the tongue cannot reach past the incisors. Rodents have efficient digestive systems, absorbing nearly 80% of ingested energy. When eating cellulose , the food is softened in the stomach and passed to the cecum , where bacteria reduce it to its carbohydrate elements. The rodent then practices coprophagy , eating its own fecal pellets, so the nutrients can be absorbed by the gut. Rodents therefore often produce a hard and dry fecal pellet. [ 1 ] Horn et al. 2013 [ 15 ] makes the finding that rodents entirely lack the ability to vomit. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] In many species, the penis contains a bone, the baculum ; the testes can be located either abdominally or at the groin. [ 3 ] Sexual dimorphism Sexual dimorphism occurs in many rodent species. In some rodents, males are larger than females, while in others the reverse is true. Male-bias sexual dimorphism is typical for ground squirrels , kangaroo rats, solitary mole rats and pocket gophers ; it likely developed due to sexual selection and greater male–male combat. Female-bias sexual dimorphism exists among chipmunks and jumping mice . It is not understood why this pattern occurs, but in the case of yellow-pine chipmunks , males may have selected larger females due to their greater reproductive success. In some species, such as voles , sexual dimorphism can vary from population to population. In bank voles , females are typically larger than males, but male-bias sexual dimorphism occurs in alpine populations, possibly because of the lack of predators and greater competition between males. [ 20 ] Distribution and habitat One of the most widespread groups of mammals, rodents can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They are the only terrestrial placental mammals to have colonized Australia and New Guinea without human intervention. Humans have also allowed the animals to spread to many remote oceanic islands (e.g., the Polynesian rat ). [ 3 ] Rodents have adapted to almost every terrestrial habitat, from cold tundra (where they can live under snow) to hot deserts. Some species such as tree squirrels and New World porcupines are arboreal , while some, such as gophers , tuco-tucos , and mole rats, live almost completely underground, where they build complex burrow systems. Others dwell on the surface of the ground, but may have a burrow into which they can retreat. Beavers and muskrats are known for being semiaquatic, [ 1 ] but the rodent best adapted for aquatic life is probably the earless water rat from New Guinea. [ 21 ] Rodents have also thrived in human-created environments such as agricultural and urban areas . [ 22 ] Though some species are common pests for humans, rodents also play important ecological roles. [ 1 ] Some rodents are considered keystone species and ecosystem engineers in their respective habitats. In the Great Plains of North America, the burrowing activities of prairie dogs play important roles in soil aeration and nutrient redistribution, raising the organic content of the soil and increasing the absorption of water. They maintain these grassland habitats, [ 23 ] and some large herbivores such as bison and pronghorn prefer to graze near prairie dog colonies due to the increased nutritional quality of forage. [ 24 ] Extirpation of prairie dogs can also contribute to regional and local biodiversity loss , increased seed depredation, and the establishment and spread of invasive shrubs. [ 23 ] Burrowing rodents may eat the fruiting bodies of fungi and spread spores through their feces, thereby allowing the fungi to disperse and form symbiotic relationships with the roots of plants (which usually cannot thrive without them). As such, these rodents may play a role in maintaining healthy forests. [ 25 ] In many temperate regions, beavers play an essential hydrological role. When building their dams and lodges, beavers alter the paths of streams and rivers [ 26 ] and allow for the creation of extensive wetland habitats. One study found that engineering by beavers leads to a 33 percent increase in the number of herbaceous plant species in riparian areas . [ 27 ] Another study found that beavers increase wild salmon populations. [ 28 ] Meanwhile, some rodents are seen as pests , due to their wide range. [ 29 ] Behavior and life history Feeding Most rodents are herbivorous , feeding exclusively on plant material such as seeds, stems, leaves, flowers, and roots. Some are omnivorous and a few are predators. [ 2 ] The field vole is a typical herbivorous rodent and feeds on grasses, herbs, root tubers, moss, and other vegetation, and gnaws on bark during the winter. It occasionally eats invertebrates such as insect larvae. [ 30 ] The plains pocket gopher eats plant material found underground during tunneling, and also collects grasses, roots, and tubers in its cheek pouches and caches them in underground larder chambers. [ 31 ] The Texas pocket gopher avoids emerging onto the surface to feed by seizing the roots of plants with its jaws and pulling them downwards into its burrow. It also practices coprophagy. [ 32 ] The African pouched rat forages on the surface, gathering anything that might be edible into its capacious cheek pouches until its face bulges out sideways. It then returns to its burrow to sort through the material it has gathered and eats the nutritious items. [ 33 ] Agouti species are one of the few animal groups that can break open the large capsules of the Brazil nut fruit. Too many seeds are inside to be consumed in one meal, so the agouti carries some off and caches them. This helps dispersal of the seeds as any that the agouti fails to retrieve are distant from the parent tree when they germinate. Other nut-bearing trees tend to bear a glut of fruits in the autumn. These are too numerous to be eaten in one meal and squirrels gather and store the surplus in crevices and hollow trees. In desert regions, seeds are often available only for short periods. The kangaroo rat collects all it can find and stores them in larder chambers in its burrow. [ 33 ] A strategy for dealing with seasonal plenty is to eat as much as possible and store the surplus nutrients as fat. Marmots do this, and may be 50% heavier in the autumn than in the spring. They rely on their fat reserves during their long winter hibernation . [ 33 ] Beavers feed on the leaves, buds, and inner bark of growing trees, as well as aquatic plants. They store food for winter use by felling small trees and leafy branches in the autumn and immersing them in their pond, sticking the ends into the mud to anchor them. Here, they can access their food supply underwater even when their pond is frozen over. [ 34 ] Although rodents have been regarded traditionally as herbivores, most small rodents opportunistically include insects, worms, fungi, fish, or meat in their diets and a few have become specialized to rely on a diet of animal matter. A functional-morphological study of the rodent tooth system supports the idea that primitive rodents were omnivores rather than herbivores. Studies of the literature show that numerous members of the Sciuromorpha and Myomorpha, and a few members of the Hystricomorpha, have either included animal matter in their diets or been prepared to eat such food when offered it in captivity. Examination of the stomach contents of the North American white-footed mouse , normally considered to be herbivorous, showed 34% animal matter. [ 35 ] More specialized carnivores include the shrewlike rats of the Philippines, which feed on insects and soft-bodied invertebrates, and the rakali or Australian water-rat, which devours aquatic insects, fish, crustaceans, mussels, snails, frogs, birds' eggs, and water birds. [ 35 ] [ 36 ] The grasshopper mouse from dry regions of North America feeds on insects, scorpions, and other small mice, and only a small part of its diet is plant material. It has a chunky body with short legs and tail, but is agile and can easily overpower prey as large as itself. [ 37 ] Social behavior Rodents exhibit a wide range of types of social behavior ranging from the mammalian caste system of the naked mole-rat , [ 38 ] the extensive "town" of the colonial prairie dog , [ 39 ] through family groups to the independent, solitary life of the edible dormouse . Adult dormice may have overlapping feeding ranges, but they live in individual nests and feed separately, coming together briefly in the breeding season to mate. The pocket gopher is also a solitary animal outside the breeding season, each individual digging a complex tunnel system and maintaining a territory. [ 40 ] Larger rodents tend to live in family units where parents and their offspring live together until the young disperse. Beavers live in extended family units typically with a pair of adults, this year's kits, the previous year's offspring, and sometimes older young. [ 41 ] Brown rats usually live in small colonies with up to six females sharing a burrow and one male defending a territory around the burrow. At high population densities, this system breaks down and males show a hierarchical system of dominance with overlapping ranges. Female offspring remain in the colony while male young disperse. [ 42 ] The prairie vole is monogamous and forms a lifelong pair bond. Outside the breeding season, prairie voles live with others in small colonies. A male is not aggressive towards other males until he has mated, after which time he defends a territory, a female, and a nest against other males. The pair huddles together, grooms one another, and shares nesting and pup-raising responsibilities. [ 43 ] Among the most social of rodents are the ground squirrels, which typically form colonies based on female kinship, with males dispersing after weaning and becoming nomadic as adults. Cooperation in ground squirrels varies between species and typically includes making alarm calls, defending territories, sharing food, protecting nesting areas, and preventing infanticide. [ 44 ] The black-tailed prairie dog forms large towns that may cover many hectares. The burrows do not interconnect, but are excavated and occupied by territorial family groups known as coteries. A coterie often consists of an adult male, three or four adult females, several nonbreeding yearlings, and the current year's offspring. Individuals within coteries are friendly with each other, but hostile towards outsiders. [ 39 ] Perhaps the most extreme examples of colonial behavior in rodents are the eusocial naked mole rat and Damaraland mole rat . The naked mole rat lives completely underground and can form colonies of up to 80 individuals. Only one female and up to three males in the colony reproduce, while the rest of the members are smaller and sterile, and function as workers. Some individuals are of intermediate size. They help with the rearing of the young and can take the place of a reproductive if one dies. [ 38 ] The Damaraland mole rat is characterized by having a single reproductively active male and female in a colony where the remaining animals are not truly sterile, but become fertile only if they establish a colony of their own. [ 45 ] The naked mole-rat has a particularly long life-span for a small rodent, about 30 years, and the basis for this longevity has been investigated. [ 46 ] Naked mole-rats express DNA repair genes, including core genes in several DNA repair pathways, at a higher level than shorter-lived mice, and thus it was suggested that DNA repair acts as a longevity assurance system. [ 46 ] Communication Olfactory Rodents use scent marking in many social contexts including inter- and intra-species communication, the marking of trails and the establishment of territories. Their urine provides genetic information about individuals including the species, the sex and individual identity, and metabolic information on dominance, reproductive status and health. Compounds derived from the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are bound to several urinary proteins. The odor of a predator depresses scent-marking behavior. [ 47 ] Rodents are able to recognize close relatives by smell and this allows them to show nepotism (preferential behavior toward their kin) and also avoid inbreeding. This kin recognition is by olfactory cues from urine, feces and glandular secretions. The main assessment may involve the MHC, where the degree of relatedness of two individuals is correlated to the MHC genes they have in common. In non-kin communication, where more permanent odor markers are required, as at territorial borders, then non-volatile major urinary proteins (MUPs), which function as pheromone transporters, may also be used. MUPs may also signal individual identity, with each male house mouse ( Mus musculus ) excreting urine containing about a dozen genetically encoded MUPs. [ 48 ] House mice deposit urine, which contains pheromones, for territorial marking, individual and group recognition, and social organization. [ 49 ] Territorial beavers and red squirrels investigate and become familiar with the scents of their neighbors and respond less aggressively to intrusions by them than to those made by non-territorial "floaters" or strangers. This is known as the " dear enemy effect ". [ 50 ] [ 51 ] Auditory Many rodent species, particularly those that are diurnal and social, have a wide range of alarm calls that are emitted when they perceive threats. There are both direct and indirect benefits of doing this. A potential predator may stop when it knows it has been detected, or an alarm call can allow conspecifics or related individuals to take evasive action. [ 52 ] Several species, for example prairie dogs, have complex anti-predator alarm call systems. These species may have different calls for different predators (e.g. aerial predators or ground-based predators) and each call contains information about the nature of the precise threat. [ 53 ] The urgency of the threat is also conveyed by the acoustic properties of the call. [ 54 ] Social rodents have a wider range of vocalizations than do solitary species. Fifteen different call-types have been recognized in adult Kataba mole rats and four in juveniles. [ 55 ] Similarly, the common degu , another social, burrowing rodent, exhibits a wide array of communication methods and has an elaborate vocal repertoire comprising fifteen different categories of sound. [ 56 ] Ultrasonic calls play a part in social communication between dormice and are used when the individuals are out of sight of each other. [ 57 ] House mice use both audible and ultrasonic calls in a variety of contexts. Audible vocalizations can often be heard during agonistic or aggressive encounters, whereas ultrasound is used in sexual communication and also by pups when they have fallen out of the nest. [ 49 ] Laboratory rats (which are brown rats, Rattus norvegicus ) emit short, high frequency, ultrasonic vocalizations during purportedly pleasurable experiences such as rough-and-tumble play, when anticipating routine doses of morphine , during mating, and when tickled. The vocalization, described as a distinct "chirping", has been likened to laughter , and is interpreted as an expectation of something rewarding. In clinical studies, the chirping is associated with positive emotional feelings, and social bonding occurs with the tickler, resulting in the rats becoming conditioned to seek the tickling. However, as the rats age, the tendency to chirp declines. Like most rat vocalizations, the chirping is at frequencies too high for humans to hear without special equipment, so bat detectors have been used for this purpose. [ 58 ] Visual Rodents, like all placental mammals except primates, have just two types of light receptive cones in their retina, [ 59 ] a short wavelength "blue-UV" type and a middle wavelength "green" type. They are therefore classified as dichromats ; however, they are visually sensitive into the ultraviolet (UV) spectrum and therefore can see light that humans cannot. The functions of this UV sensitivity are not always clear. In degus , for example, the belly reflects more UV light than the back. Therefore, when a degu stands up on its hind legs, which it does when alarmed, it exposes its belly to other degus and ultraviolet vision may serve a purpose in communicating the alarm. When it stands on all fours, its low UV-reflectance back could help make the degu less visible to predators. [ 60 ] Ultraviolet light is abundant during the day but not at night. There is a large increase in the ratio of ultraviolet to visible light in the morning and evening twilight hours. Many rodents are active during twilight hours (crepuscular activity), and UV-sensitivity would be advantageous at these times. Ultraviolet reflectivity is of dubious value for nocturnal rodents. [ 61 ] The urine of many rodents (e.g. voles, degus, mice, rats) strongly reflects UV light and this may be used in communication by leaving visible as well as olfactory markings. [ 62 ] However, the amount of UV that is reflected decreases with time, which in some circumstances can be disadvantageous; the common kestrel can distinguish between old and fresh rodent trails and has greater success hunting over more recently marked routes. [ 63 ] Tactile Vibrations can provide cues to conspecifics about specific behaviors being performed, predator warning and avoidance, herd or group maintenance, and courtship. The Middle East blind mole rat was the first mammal for which seismic communication was documented. These fossorial rodents bang their head against the walls of their tunnels. This behavior was initially interpreted as part of their tunnel building behavior, but it was eventually realized that they generate temporally patterned seismic signals for long-distance communication with neighboring mole rats. [ 64 ] Footdrumming is used widely as a predator warning or defensive action. It is used primarily by fossorial or semi-fossorial rodents. [ 65 ] The banner-tailed kangaroo rat produces several complex footdrumming patterns in a number of different contexts, one of which is when it encounters a snake. The footdrumming may alert nearby offspring but most likely conveys that the rat is too alert for a successful attack, thus preventing the snake's predatory pursuit. [ 64 ] [ 66 ] Several studies have indicated intentional use of ground vibrations as a means of intra-specific communication during courtship among the Cape mole rat . [ 67 ] Footdrumming has been reported to be involved in male-male competition; the dominant male indicates its resource holding potential by drumming, thus minimizing physical contact with potential rivals. [ 64 ] Mating strategies Some species of rodent are monogamous, with an adult male and female forming a lasting pair bond . Monogamy can come in two forms; obligate and facultative. In obligate monogamy, both parents care for the offspring and play an important part in their survival. This occurs in species such as California mice , oldfield mice , Malagasy giant rats and beavers. In these species, males usually mate only with their partners. In addition to increased care for young, obligate monogamy can also be beneficial to the adult male as it decreases the chances of never finding a mate or mating with an infertile female. In facultative monogamy, the males do not provide direct parental care and stay with one female because they cannot access others due to being spatially dispersed. Prairie voles appear to be an example of this form of monogamy, with males guarding and defending females within their vicinity. [ 68 ] In polygynous species, males will try to monopolize and mate with multiple females. As with monogamy, polygyny in rodents can come in two forms; defense and non-defense. Defense polygyny involves males controlling territories that contain resources that attract females. This occurs in ground squirrels like yellow-bellied marmots , California ground squirrels , Columbian ground squirrels and Richardson's ground squirrels . Males with territories are known as "resident" males and the females that live within the territories are known as "resident" females. In the case of marmots, resident males do not appear to ever lose their territories and always win encounters with invading males. Some species are also known to directly defend their resident females and the ensuing fights can lead to severe wounding. In species with non-defense polygyny, males are not territorial and wander widely in search of females to monopolize. These males establish dominance hierarchies, with the high-ranking males having access to the most females. This occurs in species like Belding's ground squirrels and some tree squirrel species. [ 68 ] Promiscuity , in which both males and females mate with multiple partners, also occurs in rodents. In species such as the white-footed mouse, females give birth to litters with multiple paternities. Promiscuity leads to increased sperm competition and males tend to have larger testicles. In the Cape ground squirrel , the male's testes can be 20 percent of its head-body length. [ 68 ] Several rodent species have flexible mating systems that can vary between monogamy, polygyny and promiscuity. [ 68 ] Female rodents play an active role in choosing their mates. Factors that contribute to female preference may include the size, dominance and spatial ability of the male. [ 69 ] In the eusocial naked mole rats, a single female monopolizes mating from at least three males. [ 38 ] Reproductively active female naked mole-rats tend to associate with unfamiliar males (generally non-kin), whereas females that are reproductively inactive do not tend to discriminate. [ 70 ] The preference of reproductively active females for unfamiliar males is thought to be an adaptation for inbreeding avoidance, since inbreeding ordinarily leads to the expression of recessive deleterious alleles. [ 71 ] In most rodent species, such as brown rats and house mice, ovulation occurs on a regular cycle while in others, such as voles, it is induced by mating . During copulation, males of some rodent species deposit a mating plug in the female's genital opening, both to prevent sperm leakage and to protect against other males inseminating the female. Females can remove the plug and may do so either immediately or after several hours. [ 69 ] Metabolism of thyroid hormones and iodine in the mediobasal hypothalamus changes in response to photoperiod . Thyroid hormones in turn induce reproductive changes. This is found by Watanabe et al. 2004 and 2007, Barrett et al. 2007, Freeman et al. 2007, and Herwig et al. 2009 in Siberian hamsters , Revel et al. 2006 and Yasuo et al. 2007 in Syrian hamsters , Yasuo et al. 2007 and Ross et al. 2011 in rats, and Ono et al. 2008 in mice. [ 72 ] Birth and parenting Rodents may be born either altricial (blind, hairless and relatively underdeveloped) or precocial (mostly furred, eyes open and fairly developed) depending on the species. The altricial state is typical for squirrels and mice, while the precocial state usually occurs in species like guinea pigs and porcupines. Females with altricial young typically build elaborate nests before they give birth and maintain them until their offspring are weaned . The female gives birth sitting or lying down and the young emerge in the direction she is facing. The newborns first venture out of the nest a few days after they have opened their eyes and initially keep returning regularly. As they get older and more developed, they visit the nest less often and leave permanently when weaned. [ 73 ] In precocial species, the mothers invest little in nest building and some do not build nests at all. The female gives birth standing and the young emerge behind her. Mothers of these species maintain contact with their highly mobile young with maternal contact calls. Though relatively independent and weaned within days, precocial young may continue to nurse and be groomed by their mothers. Rodent litter sizes also vary and females with smaller litters spend more time in the nest than those with larger litters. [ 73 ] Mother rodents provide both direct parental care, such as nursing, grooming, retrieving and huddling, and indirect parenting, such as food caching, nest building and protection to their offspring. [ 73 ] In many social species, young may be cared for by individuals other than their parents, a practice known as alloparenting or cooperative breeding . This is known to occur in black-tailed prairie dogs and Belding's ground squirrels, where mothers have communal nests and nurse unrelated young along with their own. There is some question as to whether these mothers can distinguish which young are theirs. In the Patagonian mara , young are also placed in communal warrens, but mothers do not permit youngsters other than their own to nurse. [ 74 ] Infanticide exists in numerous rodent species and may be practiced by adult conspecifics of either sex. Several reasons have been proposed for this behavior, including nutritional stress, resource competition, avoiding misdirecting parental care and, in the case of males, attempting to make the mother sexually receptive. The latter reason is well supported in primates and lions but less so in rodents. [ 75 ] Infanticide appears to be widespread in black-tailed prairie dogs, including infanticide from invading males and immigrant females, as well as occasional cannibalism of an individual's own offspring. [ 76 ] To protect against infanticide from other adults, female rodents may employ avoidance or direct aggression against potential perpetrators, multiple mating, territoriality or early termination of pregnancy. [ 75 ] Feticide can also occur among rodents; in alpine marmots , dominant females tend to suppress the reproduction of subordinates by being antagonistic towards them while they are pregnant. The resulting stress causes the fetuses to abort. [ 77 ] Intelligence Rodents have advanced cognitive abilities. They can quickly learn to avoid poisoned baits, which makes them difficult pests to deal with. [ 1 ] Guinea pigs can learn and remember complex pathways to food. [ 78 ] Squirrels and kangaroo rats are able to locate caches of food by spatial memory , rather than just by smell. [ 79 ] [ 80 ] Because laboratory mice (house mice) and rats (brown rats) are widely used as scientific models to further our understanding of biology, a great deal has come to be known about their cognitive capacities. Brown rats exhibit cognitive bias , where information processing is biased by whether they are in a positive or negative affective state. [ 81 ] For example, laboratory rats trained to respond to a specific tone by pressing a lever to receive a reward, and to press another lever in response to a different tone so as to avoid receiving an electric shock, are more likely to respond to an intermediate tone by choosing the reward lever if they have just been tickled (something they enjoy), indicating "a link between the directly measured positive affective state and decision making under uncertainty in an animal model." [ 82 ] Laboratory (brown) rats may have the capacity for metacognition —to consider their own learning and then make decisions based on what they know, or do not know, as indicated by choices they make apparently trading off difficulty of tasks and expected rewards, making them the first animals other than primates known to have this capacity, [ 83 ] [ 84 ] but these findings are disputed, since the rats may have been following simple operant conditioning principles, [ 85 ] or a behavioral economic model. [ 86 ] Brown rats use social learning in a wide range of situations, but perhaps especially so in acquiring food preferences. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] Evolutionary history Dentition is the key feature by which fossil rodents are recognized and the earliest record of such mammals comes from the Paleocene , shortly after the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs some 66 million years ago. These fossils are found in Laurasia , [ 89 ] the supercontinent composed of modern-day North America, Europe, and Asia. The divergence of Glires , a clade consisting of rodents and lagomorphs (rabbits, hares and pikas), from other placental mammals occurred within a few million years after the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary; rodents and lagomorphs then radiated during the Cenozoic . [ 90 ] [ 91 ] Some molecular clock data suggest modern rodents (members of the order Rodentia) had appeared by the late Cretaceous , [ 92 ] although other molecular divergence estimations are in agreement with the fossil record. [ 93 ] [ 94 ] Rodents are thought to have evolved in Asia, where local multituberculate faunas were severely affected by the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event and never fully recovered, unlike their North American and European relatives. In the resulting ecological vacuum, rodents and other Glires were able to evolve and diversify, taking the niches left by extinct multituberculates. The correlation between the spread of rodents and the demise of multituberculates is a controversial topic, not fully resolved. American and European multituberculate assemblages do decline in diversity in correlation with the introduction of rodents in these areas, but the remaining Asian multituberculates co-existed with rodents with no observable replacement taking place, and ultimately both clades co-existed for at least 15 million years. [ 95 ] The history of the colonization of the world's continents by rodents is complex. The movements of the large superfamily Muroidea (including hamsters , gerbils , true mice and rats ) may have involved up to seven colonizations of Africa, five of North America, four of Southeast Asia, two of South America and up to ten of Eurasia. [ 96 ] During the Eocene , rodents began to diversify. Beavers appeared in Eurasia in the late Eocene before spreading to North America in the late Miocene. [ 98 ] Late in the Eocene, hystricognaths invaded Africa, most probably having originated in Asia at least 39.5 million years ago. [ 99 ] From Africa, fossil evidence shows that some hystricognaths ( caviomorphs ) colonized South America , which was an isolated continent at the time, evidently making use of ocean currents to cross the Atlantic on floating debris . [ 100 ] Caviomorphs had arrived in South America by 41 million years ago (implying a date at least as early as this for hystricognaths in Africa), [ 99 ] and had reached the Greater Antilles by the early Oligocene , suggesting that they must have dispersed rapidly across South America. [ 101 ] Nesomyid rodents are thought to have rafted from Africa to Madagascar 20–24 million years ago. [ 102 ] All 27 species of native Malagasy rodents appear to be descendants of a single colonization event. By 20 million years ago, fossils recognizably belonging to the current families such as Muridae had emerged. [ 89 ] By the Miocene , when Africa had collided with Asia, African rodents such as the porcupine began to spread into Eurasia . [ 103 ] Some fossil species were very large in comparison to modern rodents and included the giant beaver, Castoroides ohioensis , which grew to a length of 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) and weight of 100 kg (220 lb). [ 104 ] The largest known rodent was Josephoartigasia monesi , a pacarana with an estimated body length of 3 m (10 ft). [ 105 ] The first rodents arrived in Australia via Indonesia around 5 million years ago. Although marsupials are the most prominent mammals in Australia, many rodents , all belonging to the subfamily Murinae , are among the continent's mammal species . [ 106 ] There are about fifty species of 'old endemics', the first wave of rodents to colonize the country in the Miocene and early Pliocene , and eight true rat ( Rattus ) species of 'new endemics', arriving in a subsequent wave in the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene . The earliest fossil rodents in Australia have a maximum age of 4.5 million years, [ 107 ] and molecular data is consistent with the colonization of New Guinea from the west during the late Miocene or early Pliocene followed by rapid diversification. A further wave of adaptive radiation occurred after one or more colonizations of Australia some 2 to 3 million years later. [ 108 ] Rodents participated in the Great American Interchange that resulted from the joining of the Americas by formation of the Isthmus of Panama , around 3 million years ago in the Piacenzian age. [ 109 ] In this exchange, a small number of species such as the New World porcupines (Erethizontidae) headed north. [ 89 ] However, the main southward invasion of sigmodontines preceded formation of the land bridge by at least several million years, probably occurring via rafting. [ 110 ] [ 111 ] [ 112 ] Sigmodontines diversified explosively once in South America, although some degree of diversification may have already occurred in Central America before the colonization. [ 111 ] [ 112 ] Classification The use of the order name "Rodentia" is attributed to the English traveler and naturalist Thomas Edward Bowdich (1821). [ 113 ] The Modern Latin word Rodentia is derived from rōdēns , present participle of rōdere , rōdō ' to gnaw, eat away ' . [ 114 ] The hares , rabbits and pikas (order Lagomorpha) have continuously growing incisors, as do rodents, and were at one time included in the order. However, they have an additional pair of incisors in the upper jaw and the two orders have quite separate evolutionary histories. [ 115 ] The phylogeny of the rodents places them in the clades Glires, Euarchontoglires and Boreoeutheria . The cladogram below shows some of the inner and outer relations of Rodentia based on a 2012 attempt by Wu et al. to align the molecular clock with paleontological data: [ 116 ] Boreoeutheria Laurasiatheria Eulipotyphla Scrotifera Euarchontoglires Euarchonta Glires Lagomorpha Ochotona (pikas) Leporidae (rabbits and hares) Rodentia Hystricomorpha Ctenodactylidae (gundis) Atherurus (brush-tailed porcupines) Octodontomys (mountain degus) Erethizontidae (New World porcupines) Caviidae (guinea pigs and capybara) Sciuromorpha Aplodontia (mountain beavers) Sciuridae Glaucomys (New World flying squirrels) Tamias (chipmunks) Castorimorpha Castor (beavers) Dipodomys (kangaroo rats) Thomomys (pocket gophers) Myomorpha Muroidea Cricetidae (hamsters and new world mice) Mus (true mice) Rattus (rats) Dipodoidea Sicista (birch mice) Zapus (jumping mice) Cardiocranius (pygmy jerboas) Laurasiatheria Eulipotyphla Scrotifera Eulipotyphla Eulipotyphla Scrotifera Scrotifera Euarchontoglires Euarchonta Glires Lagomorpha Ochotona (pikas) Leporidae (rabbits and hares) Rodentia Hystricomorpha Ctenodactylidae (gundis) Atherurus (brush-tailed porcupines) Octodontomys (mountain degus) Erethizontidae (New World porcupines) Caviidae (guinea pigs and capybara) Sciuromorpha Aplodontia (mountain beavers) Sciuridae Glaucomys (New World flying squirrels) Tamias (chipmunks) Castorimorpha Castor (beavers) Dipodomys (kangaroo rats) Thomomys (pocket gophers) Myomorpha Muroidea Cricetidae (hamsters and new world mice) Mus (true mice) Rattus (rats) Dipodoidea Sicista (birch mice) Zapus (jumping mice) Cardiocranius (pygmy jerboas) Euarchonta Euarchonta Glires Lagomorpha Ochotona (pikas) Leporidae (rabbits and hares) Rodentia Hystricomorpha Ctenodactylidae (gundis) Atherurus (brush-tailed porcupines) Octodontomys (mountain degus) Erethizontidae (New World porcupines) Caviidae (guinea pigs and capybara) Sciuromorpha Aplodontia (mountain beavers) Sciuridae Glaucomys (New World flying squirrels) Tamias (chipmunks) Castorimorpha Castor (beavers) Dipodomys (kangaroo rats) Thomomys (pocket gophers) Myomorpha Muroidea Cricetidae (hamsters and new world mice) Mus (true mice) Rattus (rats) Dipodoidea Sicista (birch mice) Zapus (jumping mice) Cardiocranius (pygmy jerboas) Lagomorpha Ochotona (pikas) Leporidae (rabbits and hares) Ochotona (pikas) Ochotona (pikas) Leporidae (rabbits and hares) Leporidae (rabbits and hares) Rodentia Hystricomorpha Ctenodactylidae (gundis) Atherurus (brush-tailed porcupines) Octodontomys (mountain degus) Erethizontidae (New World porcupines) Caviidae (guinea pigs and capybara) Sciuromorpha Aplodontia (mountain beavers) Sciuridae Glaucomys (New World flying squirrels) Tamias (chipmunks) Castorimorpha Castor (beavers) Dipodomys (kangaroo rats) Thomomys (pocket gophers) Myomorpha Muroidea Cricetidae (hamsters and new world mice) Mus (true mice) Rattus (rats) Dipodoidea Sicista (birch mice) Zapus (jumping mice) Cardiocranius (pygmy jerboas) Hystricomorpha Ctenodactylidae (gundis) Atherurus (brush-tailed porcupines) Octodontomys (mountain degus) Erethizontidae (New World porcupines) Caviidae (guinea pigs and capybara) Ctenodactylidae (gundis) Ctenodactylidae (gundis) Atherurus (brush-tailed porcupines) Octodontomys (mountain degus) Erethizontidae (New World porcupines) Caviidae (guinea pigs and capybara) Atherurus (brush-tailed porcupines) Atherurus (brush-tailed porcupines) Octodontomys (mountain degus) Erethizontidae (New World porcupines) Caviidae (guinea pigs and capybara) Octodontomys (mountain degus) Octodontomys (mountain degus) Erethizontidae (New World porcupines) Caviidae (guinea pigs and capybara) Erethizontidae (New World porcupines) Erethizontidae (New World porcupines) Caviidae (guinea pigs and capybara) Caviidae (guinea pigs and capybara) Sciuromorpha Aplodontia (mountain beavers) Sciuridae Glaucomys (New World flying squirrels) Tamias (chipmunks) Castorimorpha Castor (beavers) Dipodomys (kangaroo rats) Thomomys (pocket gophers) Myomorpha Muroidea Cricetidae (hamsters and new world mice) Mus (true mice) Rattus (rats) Dipodoidea Sicista (birch mice) Zapus (jumping mice) Cardiocranius (pygmy jerboas) Sciuromorpha Aplodontia (mountain beavers) Sciuridae Glaucomys (New World flying squirrels) Tamias (chipmunks) Aplodontia (mountain beavers) Aplodontia (mountain beavers) Sciuridae Glaucomys (New World flying squirrels) Tamias (chipmunks) Glaucomys (New World flying squirrels) Glaucomys (New World flying squirrels) Tamias (chipmunks) Tamias (chipmunks) Castorimorpha Castor (beavers) Dipodomys (kangaroo rats) Thomomys (pocket gophers) Myomorpha Muroidea Cricetidae (hamsters and new world mice) Mus (true mice) Rattus (rats) Dipodoidea Sicista (birch mice) Zapus (jumping mice) Cardiocranius (pygmy jerboas) Castorimorpha Castor (beavers) Dipodomys (kangaroo rats) Thomomys (pocket gophers) Castor (beavers) Castor (beavers) Dipodomys (kangaroo rats) Thomomys (pocket gophers) Dipodomys (kangaroo rats) Dipodomys (kangaroo rats) Thomomys (pocket gophers) Thomomys (pocket gophers) Myomorpha Muroidea Cricetidae (hamsters and new world mice) Mus (true mice) Rattus (rats) Dipodoidea Sicista (birch mice) Zapus (jumping mice) Cardiocranius (pygmy jerboas) Muroidea Cricetidae (hamsters and new world mice) Mus (true mice) Rattus (rats) Cricetidae (hamsters and new world mice) Cricetidae (hamsters and new world mice) Mus (true mice) Rattus (rats) Mus (true mice) Mus (true mice) Rattus (rats) Rattus (rats) Dipodoidea Sicista (birch mice) Zapus (jumping mice) Cardiocranius (pygmy jerboas) Sicista (birch mice) Sicista (birch mice) Zapus (jumping mice) Cardiocranius (pygmy jerboas) Zapus (jumping mice) Zapus (jumping mice) Cardiocranius (pygmy jerboas) Cardiocranius (pygmy jerboas) The living rodent families based on the study done by Fabre et al. 2012. [ 117 ] Rodentia classification Rodentia Sciuromorpha Gliridae Sciurida Aplodontidae Sciuridae Ctenohystrica Ctenodactylomorpha Ctenodactylidae Diatomyidae Hystricognatha Hystricidae Bathyergomorpha Bathyergidae Petromuridae Thryonomyidae Caviida Cavioidea Erethizontidae Cuniculidae Caviidae Dasyproctidae Chinchilloidea Dinomyidae Chinchillidae Octodontoidea Abrocomidae Echimyidae Ctenomyidae Octodontidae Castorimorpha Castoroidea Castoridae Geomyoidea Heteromyidae Geomyidae Anomaluromorpha Anomaluridae Pedetidae Myomorpha Dipodoidea Dipodidae Muroidea Platacanthomyidae Spalacidae Calomyscidae Nesomyidae Cricetidae Muridae Rodentia Sciuromorpha Gliridae Sciurida Aplodontidae Sciuridae Ctenohystrica Ctenodactylomorpha Ctenodactylidae Diatomyidae Hystricognatha Hystricidae Bathyergomorpha Bathyergidae Petromuridae Thryonomyidae Caviida Cavioidea Erethizontidae Cuniculidae Caviidae Dasyproctidae Chinchilloidea Dinomyidae Chinchillidae Octodontoidea Abrocomidae Echimyidae Ctenomyidae Octodontidae Castorimorpha Castoroidea Castoridae Geomyoidea Heteromyidae Geomyidae Anomaluromorpha Anomaluridae Pedetidae Myomorpha Dipodoidea Dipodidae Muroidea Platacanthomyidae Spalacidae Calomyscidae Nesomyidae Cricetidae Muridae Sciuromorpha Gliridae Sciurida Aplodontidae Sciuridae Gliridae Gliridae Sciurida Aplodontidae Sciuridae Aplodontidae Aplodontidae Sciuridae Sciuridae Ctenohystrica Ctenodactylomorpha Ctenodactylidae Diatomyidae Hystricognatha Hystricidae Bathyergomorpha Bathyergidae Petromuridae Thryonomyidae Caviida Cavioidea Erethizontidae Cuniculidae Caviidae Dasyproctidae Chinchilloidea Dinomyidae Chinchillidae Octodontoidea Abrocomidae Echimyidae Ctenomyidae Octodontidae Castorimorpha Castoroidea Castoridae Geomyoidea Heteromyidae Geomyidae Anomaluromorpha Anomaluridae Pedetidae Myomorpha Dipodoidea Dipodidae Muroidea Platacanthomyidae Spalacidae Calomyscidae Nesomyidae Cricetidae Muridae Ctenohystrica Ctenodactylomorpha Ctenodactylidae Diatomyidae Hystricognatha Hystricidae Bathyergomorpha Bathyergidae Petromuridae Thryonomyidae Caviida Cavioidea Erethizontidae Cuniculidae Caviidae Dasyproctidae Chinchilloidea Dinomyidae Chinchillidae Octodontoidea Abrocomidae Echimyidae Ctenomyidae Octodontidae Ctenodactylomorpha Ctenodactylidae Diatomyidae Ctenodactylidae Ctenodactylidae Diatomyidae Diatomyidae Hystricognatha Hystricidae Bathyergomorpha Bathyergidae Petromuridae Thryonomyidae Caviida Cavioidea Erethizontidae Cuniculidae Caviidae Dasyproctidae Chinchilloidea Dinomyidae Chinchillidae Octodontoidea Abrocomidae Echimyidae Ctenomyidae Octodontidae Hystricidae Hystricidae Bathyergomorpha Bathyergidae Petromuridae Thryonomyidae Caviida Cavioidea Erethizontidae Cuniculidae Caviidae Dasyproctidae Chinchilloidea Dinomyidae Chinchillidae Octodontoidea Abrocomidae Echimyidae Ctenomyidae Octodontidae Bathyergomorpha Bathyergidae Petromuridae Thryonomyidae Bathyergidae Bathyergidae Petromuridae Thryonomyidae Petromuridae Petromuridae Thryonomyidae Thryonomyidae Caviida Cavioidea Erethizontidae Cuniculidae Caviidae Dasyproctidae Chinchilloidea Dinomyidae Chinchillidae Octodontoidea Abrocomidae Echimyidae Ctenomyidae Octodontidae Cavioidea Erethizontidae Cuniculidae Caviidae Dasyproctidae Erethizontidae Erethizontidae Cuniculidae Caviidae Dasyproctidae Cuniculidae Cuniculidae Caviidae Dasyproctidae Caviidae Caviidae Dasyproctidae Dasyproctidae Chinchilloidea Dinomyidae Chinchillidae Octodontoidea Abrocomidae Echimyidae Ctenomyidae Octodontidae Chinchilloidea Dinomyidae Chinchillidae Dinomyidae Dinomyidae Chinchillidae Chinchillidae Octodontoidea Abrocomidae Echimyidae Ctenomyidae Octodontidae Abrocomidae Abrocomidae Echimyidae Ctenomyidae Octodontidae Echimyidae Echimyidae Ctenomyidae Octodontidae Ctenomyidae Ctenomyidae Octodontidae Octodontidae Castorimorpha Castoroidea Castoridae Geomyoidea Heteromyidae Geomyidae Anomaluromorpha Anomaluridae Pedetidae Myomorpha Dipodoidea Dipodidae Muroidea Platacanthomyidae Spalacidae Calomyscidae Nesomyidae Cricetidae Muridae Castorimorpha Castoroidea Castoridae Geomyoidea Heteromyidae Geomyidae Castoroidea Castoridae Castoridae Geomyoidea Heteromyidae Geomyidae Heteromyidae Heteromyidae Geomyidae Geomyidae Anomaluromorpha Anomaluridae Pedetidae Myomorpha Dipodoidea Dipodidae Muroidea Platacanthomyidae Spalacidae Calomyscidae Nesomyidae Cricetidae Muridae Anomaluromorpha Anomaluridae Pedetidae Anomaluridae Anomaluridae Pedetidae Pedetidae Myomorpha Dipodoidea Dipodidae Muroidea Platacanthomyidae Spalacidae Calomyscidae Nesomyidae Cricetidae Muridae Dipodoidea Dipodidae Dipodidae Muroidea Platacanthomyidae Spalacidae Calomyscidae Nesomyidae Cricetidae Muridae Platacanthomyidae Platacanthomyidae Spalacidae Calomyscidae Nesomyidae Cricetidae Muridae Spalacidae Spalacidae Calomyscidae Nesomyidae Cricetidae Muridae Calomyscidae Calomyscidae Nesomyidae Cricetidae Muridae Nesomyidae Nesomyidae Cricetidae Muridae Cricetidae Cricetidae Muridae Muridae The order Rodentia may be divided into suborders , infraorders , superfamilies and families . There is a great deal of parallelism and convergence among rodents caused by the fact that they have tended to evolve to fill largely similar niches. This parallel evolution includes not only the structure of the teeth, but also the infraorbital region of the skull (below the eye socket) and makes classification difficult as similar traits may not be due to common ancestry. [ 118 ] [ 119 ] Brandt (1855) was the first to propose dividing Rodentia into three suborders, Sciuromorpha, Hystricomorpha and Myomorpha, based on the development of certain muscles in the jaw, and this system was widely accepted. Schlosser (1884) performed a comprehensive review of rodent fossils, mainly using the cheek teeth, and found that they fitted into the classical system, but Tullborg (1899) proposed just two sub-orders, Sciurognathi and Hystricognathi. These were based on the degree of inflection of the lower jaw and were to be further subdivided into Sciuromorpha, Myomorpha, Hystricomorpha and Bathyergomorpha. Matthew (1910) created a phylogenetic tree of New World rodents but did not include the more problematic Old World species. Further attempts at classification continued without agreement, with some authors adopting the classical three suborder system and others Tullborg's two suborders. [ 118 ] These disagreements remain unresolved, nor have molecular studies fully resolved the situation though they have confirmed the monophyly of the group and that the clade has descended from a common Paleocene ancestor. Carleton and Musser (2005) in Mammal Species of the World have provisionally adopted a five suborder system: Sciuromorpha, Castorimorpha, Myomorpha, Anomaluromorpha, and Hystricomorpha. As of 2021 the American Society of Mammalogists recognizes 34 recent families containing more than 481 genera and 2277 species. [ 120 ] [ 121 ] [ 122 ] Interaction with humans Conservation While rodents are not the most seriously threatened order of mammals, there are 168 species in 126 genera that are said to warrant conservation attention [ 123 ] in the face of limited appreciation by the public. Since 76 percent of rodent genera contain only one species, much phylogenetic diversity could be lost with a comparatively small number of extinctions. In the absence of more detailed knowledge of species at risk and accurate taxonomy, conservation must be based mainly on higher taxa (such as families rather than species) and geographical hot spots. [ 123 ] Several species of rice rat have become extinct since the 19th century, probably through habitat loss and the introduction of alien species. [ 124 ] In Colombia, the brown hairy dwarf porcupine was recorded from only two mountain localities in the 1920s, while the red crested soft-furred spiny rat is known only from its type locality on the Caribbean coast, so these species are considered vulnerable. [ 125 ] The IUCN Species Survival Commission writes "We can safely conclude that many South American rodents are seriously threatened, mainly by environmental disturbance and intensive hunting". [ 126 ] The "three now cosmopolitan commensal rodent pest species" [ 127 ] (the brown rat, the black rat and the house mouse) have been dispersed in association with humans, partly on sailing ships in the Age of Exploration , and with a fourth species in the Pacific, the Polynesian rat ( Rattus exulans ), have severely damaged island biotas around the world. For example, when the black rat reached Lord Howe Island in 1918, over 40 percent of the terrestrial bird species of the island, including the Lord Howe fantail , [ 128 ] became extinct within ten years. Similar destruction has been seen on Midway Island (1943) and Big South Cape Island (1962). Conservation projects can with careful planning completely eradicate these pest rodents from islands using an anticoagulant rodenticide such as brodifacoum . [ 127 ] This approach has been successful on the island of Lundy in the United Kingdom, where the eradication of an estimated 40,000 brown rats is giving populations of Manx shearwater and Atlantic puffin a chance to recover from near-extinction. [ 129 ] [ 130 ] Rodents have also been susceptible to climate change , especially species living on low-lying islands. The Bramble Cay melomys , which lived in the northernmost point of land of Australia , was the first mammal species to be declared extinct as a consequence of human-caused climate change . [ 131 ] Exploitation Fur Humanity has long used animal skins for clothing, as the leather is durable and the fur provides extra insulation. [ 2 ] The native people of North America made much use of beaver pelts, tanning and sewing them together to make robes. Europeans appreciated the quality of these and the North American fur trade developed and became of prime importance to early settlers. In Europe, the soft underfur known as "beaver wool" was found to be ideal for felting and was made into beaver hats and trimming for clothing. [ 132 ] [ 133 ] Later, the coypu took over as a cheaper source of fur for felting and was farmed extensively in America and Europe; however, fashions changed, new materials became available and this area of the animal fur industry declined. [ 134 ] The chinchilla has a soft and silky coat and the demand for its fur was so high that it was nearly wiped out in the wild before farming took over as the main source of pelts. [ 134 ] The quills and guardhairs of porcupines are used for traditional decorative clothing. For example, their guardhairs are used in the creation of the Native American "porky roach" headdress. The main quills may be dyed, and then applied in combination with thread to embellish leather accessories such as knife sheaths and leather bags. Lakota women would harvest the quills for quillwork by throwing a blanket over a porcupine and retrieving the quills it left stuck in the blanket. [ 135 ] Consumption At least 89 species of rodent, mostly Hystricomorpha such as guinea pigs, agoutis and capybaras, are eaten by humans; in 1985, there were at least 42 different societies in which people eat rats. [ 136 ] Guinea pigs were first raised for food around 2500 B.C. and by 1500 B.C. had become the main source of meat for the Inca Empire . Dormice were raised by the Romans in special pots called "gliraria", or in large outdoor enclosures, where they were fattened on walnuts, chestnuts, and acorns. The dormice were also caught from the wild in autumn when they were fattest, and either roasted and dipped into honey or baked while stuffed with a mixture of pork, pine nuts, and other flavorings. Researchers found that in Amazonia, where large mammals were scarce, pacas and common agoutis accounted for around 40 percent of the annual game taken by the indigenous people, but in forested areas where larger mammals were abundant, these rodents constituted only about 3 percent of the take. [ 136 ] Guinea pigs are used in the cuisine of Cuzco , Peru, in dishes such as cuy al horno , baked guinea pig. [ 2 ] [ 137 ] The traditional Andean stove, known as a qoncha or a fogón , is made from mud and clay reinforced with straw and hair from animals such as guinea pigs. [ 138 ] In Peru, there are at any time 20 million domestic guinea pigs, which annually produce 64 million edible carcasses. This animal is an excellent food source since the flesh is 19% protein. [ 136 ] In the United States, mostly squirrels, but also muskrats, porcupines, and groundhogs are eaten by humans. The Navajo people ate prairie dog baked in mud, while the Paiute ate gophers, squirrels, and rats. [ 136 ] Animal testing Rodents are used widely as model organisms in animal testing. [ 2 ] Albino mutant rats were first used for research in 1828 and later became the first animal domesticated for purely scientific purposes. [ 139 ] Nowadays, the house mouse is the most commonly used laboratory rodent, and in 1979 it was estimated that fifty million were used annually worldwide. They are favored because of their small size, fertility, short gestation period and ease of handling and because they are susceptible to many of the conditions and infections that afflict humans. They are used in research into genetics , developmental biology , cell biology , oncology and immunology . [ 140 ] Guinea pigs were popular laboratory animals until the late 20th century; about 2.5 million guinea pigs were used annually in the United States for research in the 1960s, [ 141 ] but that total decreased to about 375,000 by the mid-1990s. [ 142 ] In 2007, they constituted about 2% of all laboratory animals. [ 141 ] Guinea pigs played a major role in the establishment of germ theory in the late 19th century, through the experiments of Louis Pasteur , Émile Roux , and Robert Koch . [ 143 ] They have been launched into orbital space flight several times—first by the USSR on the Sputnik 9 biosatellite of 9 March 1961, with a successful recovery. [ 144 ] The naked mole rat is the only known mammal that is poikilothermic ; it is used in studies on thermoregulation . It is also unusual in not producing the neurotransmitter substance P , a fact which researchers find useful in studies on pain . [ 145 ] Rodents have sensitive olfactory abilities, which have been used by humans to detect odors or chemicals of interest. [ 146 ] The Gambian pouched rat is able to detect tuberculosis bacilli with a sensitivity of up to 86.6%, and specificity (detecting the absence of the bacilli) of over 93%; the same species has been trained to detect land mines . [ 147 ] [ 148 ] Rats have been studied for possible use in hazardous situations such as in disaster zones. They can be trained to respond to commands, which may be given remotely, and even persuaded to venture into brightly lit areas, which rats usually avoid. [ 149 ] [ 150 ] [ 151 ] As pets Rodents including guinea pigs, [ 152 ] mice, rats, hamsters, gerbils, chinchillas, degus and chipmunks make convenient pets able to live in small spaces, each species with its own qualities. [ 153 ] Most are normally kept in cages of suitable sizes and have varied requirements for space and social interaction. If handled from a young age, they are usually docile and do not bite. Guinea pigs have a long lifespan and need a large cage. [ 78 ] Rats also need plenty of space and can become very tame, can learn tricks and seem to enjoy human companionship. Mice are short-lived but take up very little space. Hamsters are solitary but tend to be nocturnal. They have interesting behaviors, but unless handled regularly they may be defensive. Gerbils are not usually aggressive, rarely bite and are sociable animals that enjoy the company of humans and their own kind. [ 154 ] As pests and disease vectors Some rodent species are serious agricultural pests , eating large quantities of food stored by humans. [ 155 ] For example, in 2003, the amount of rice lost to mice and rats in Asia was estimated to be enough to feed 200 million people. Most of the damage worldwide is caused by a relatively small number of species, chiefly rats and mice. [ 156 ] In Indonesia and Tanzania , rodents reduce crop yields by around fifteen percent, while in some instances in South America losses have reached ninety percent. Across Africa, rodents including Mastomys and Arvicanthis damage cereals, groundnuts, vegetables and cacao. In Asia, rats, mice and species such as Microtus brandti , Meriones unguiculatus and Eospalax baileyi damage crops of rice, sorghum , tubers, vegetables and nuts. In Europe, as well as rats and mice, species of Apodemus , Microtus and in occasional outbreaks Arvicola terrestris cause damage to orchards, vegetables and pasture as well as cereals. In South America, a wider range of rodent species, such as Holochilus , Akodon , Calomys , Oligoryzomys , Phyllotis , Sigmodon and Zygodontomys , damage many crops including sugar cane, fruits, vegetables, and tubers. [ 156 ] Rodents are also significant vectors of disease. [ 157 ] The black rat, with the fleas that it carries , plays a primary role in spreading the bacterium Yersinia pestis responsible for bubonic plague , [ 158 ] and carries the organisms responsible for typhus , Weil's disease , toxoplasmosis and trichinosis . [ 157 ] A number of rodents carry hantaviruses , including the Puumala , Dobrava and Saaremaa viruses , which can infect humans. [ 159 ] Rodents also help to transmit diseases including babesiosis , cutaneous leishmaniasis , human granulocytic anaplasmosis , Lyme disease , Omsk hemorrhagic fever , Powassan virus , rickettsialpox , relapsing fever , Rocky Mountain spotted fever , and West Nile virus . [ 160 ] Because rodents are a nuisance and endanger public health , human societies often attempt to control them. Traditionally, this involved poisoning and trapping, methods that were not always safe or effective. More recently, integrated pest management attempts to improve control with a combination of surveys to determine the size and distribution of the pest population, the establishment of tolerance limits (levels of pest activity at which to intervene), interventions, and evaluation of effectiveness based on repeated surveys. Interventions may include education, making and applying laws and regulations, modifying the habitat, changing farming practices, and biological control using pathogens or predators , as well as poisoning and trapping. [ 161 ] The use of pathogens such as Salmonella has the drawback that they can infect man and domestic animals, and rodents often become resistant. The use of predators including ferrets , mongooses and monitor lizards has been found unsatisfactory. Domestic and feral cats are able to control rodents effectively, provided the rodent population is not too large. [ 162 ] In the UK, two species in particular, the house mouse and the brown rat, are actively controlled to limit damage in growing crops, loss and contamination of stored crops and structural damage to facilities, as well as to comply with the law. [ 163 ] See also Rodentology References ^ a b c d e f g h i .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Single, G.; Dickman, C. 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Classification of Mammals Above the Species Level . Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11013-6 . Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M., eds. (2005). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference . Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0 . Carleton, M. D.; Musser, G. G. "Order Rodentia", pages 745–752 in Wilson & Reeder (2005). Carleton, M. D.; Musser, G. G. "Order Rodentia", pages 745–752 in Wilson & Reeder (2005). External links Zoology, osteology, comparative anatomy ArchéoZooThèque : Rodent osteology Archived 29 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine (photos) ArchéoZooThèque : Rodent skeleton drawings Various African rodentia Rodent photos on Flickr Rodent Species Fact Sheets from the National Pest Management Association on Deer Mice, Norway Rats, and other rodent species .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Extant mammal orders v t e Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Subphylum Vertebrata (unranked) Amniota Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Subphylum Vertebrata (unranked) Amniota Yinotheria Australosphenida Monotremata (platypuses and echidnas) Australosphenida Monotremata (platypuses and echidnas) Monotremata (platypuses and echidnas) Theria Metatheria ( Marsupial inclusive) Ameridelphia Paucituberculata (shrew opossums) Didelphimorphia (opossums) Australidelphia Microbiotheria (monitos del monte) Notoryctemorphia (marsupial moles) Dasyuromorphia (quolls and dunnarts) Peramelemorphia (bilbies and bandicoots) Diprotodontia (kangaroos, koalas, and relatives) Eutheria ( Placental inclusive) Atlantogenata Xenarthra Cingulata (armadillos) Pilosa (anteaters and sloths) Afrotheria Afrosoricida (tenrecs, golden moles, and otter shrews) Macroscelidea (elephant shrews) Tubulidentata (aardvarks) Hyracoidea (hyraxes) Proboscidea (elephants) Sirenia (dugongs and manatees) Boreoeutheria Laurasiatheria Eulipotyphla (hedgehogs, shrews, moles and relatives) Chiroptera (bats) Pholidota (pangolins) Carnivora (dogs, cats and relatives) Perissodactyla (horses, zebras, donkeys, rhinoceroses and tapirs) Artiodactyla (pigs, camels, hippos, deer, buffalo, gazelles, giraffes, whales, dolphins and relatives) Euarchontoglires Rodentia (rats, mice, guinea pigs, squirrels, beavers, chinchillas, porcupines, capybaras and relatives) Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares and pikas) Scandentia (treeshrews) Dermoptera (colugos) Primates (lorises, lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes (including humans) and relatives) Metatheria ( Marsupial inclusive) Ameridelphia Paucituberculata (shrew opossums) Didelphimorphia (opossums) Australidelphia Microbiotheria (monitos del monte) Notoryctemorphia (marsupial moles) Dasyuromorphia (quolls and dunnarts) Peramelemorphia (bilbies and bandicoots) Diprotodontia (kangaroos, koalas, and relatives) Ameridelphia Paucituberculata (shrew opossums) Didelphimorphia (opossums) Paucituberculata (shrew opossums) Didelphimorphia (opossums) Australidelphia Microbiotheria (monitos del monte) Notoryctemorphia (marsupial moles) Dasyuromorphia (quolls and dunnarts) Peramelemorphia (bilbies and bandicoots) Diprotodontia (kangaroos, koalas, and relatives) Microbiotheria (monitos del monte) Notoryctemorphia (marsupial moles) Dasyuromorphia (quolls and dunnarts) Peramelemorphia (bilbies and bandicoots) Diprotodontia (kangaroos, koalas, and relatives) Eutheria ( Placental inclusive) Atlantogenata Xenarthra Cingulata (armadillos) Pilosa (anteaters and sloths) Afrotheria Afrosoricida (tenrecs, golden moles, and otter shrews) Macroscelidea (elephant shrews) Tubulidentata (aardvarks) Hyracoidea (hyraxes) Proboscidea (elephants) Sirenia (dugongs and manatees) Boreoeutheria Laurasiatheria Eulipotyphla (hedgehogs, shrews, moles and relatives) Chiroptera (bats) Pholidota (pangolins) Carnivora (dogs, cats and relatives) Perissodactyla (horses, zebras, donkeys, rhinoceroses and tapirs) Artiodactyla (pigs, camels, hippos, deer, buffalo, gazelles, giraffes, whales, dolphins and relatives) Euarchontoglires Rodentia (rats, mice, guinea pigs, squirrels, beavers, chinchillas, porcupines, capybaras and relatives) Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares and pikas) Scandentia (treeshrews) Dermoptera (colugos) Primates (lorises, lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes (including humans) and relatives) Atlantogenata Xenarthra Cingulata (armadillos) Pilosa (anteaters and sloths) Afrotheria Afrosoricida (tenrecs, golden moles, and otter shrews) Macroscelidea (elephant shrews) Tubulidentata (aardvarks) Hyracoidea (hyraxes) Proboscidea (elephants) Sirenia (dugongs and manatees) Xenarthra Cingulata (armadillos) Pilosa (anteaters and sloths) Cingulata (armadillos) Pilosa (anteaters and sloths) Afrotheria Afrosoricida (tenrecs, golden moles, and otter shrews) Macroscelidea (elephant shrews) Tubulidentata (aardvarks) Hyracoidea (hyraxes) Proboscidea (elephants) Sirenia (dugongs and manatees) Afrosoricida (tenrecs, golden moles, and otter shrews) Macroscelidea (elephant shrews) Tubulidentata (aardvarks) Hyracoidea (hyraxes) Proboscidea (elephants) Sirenia (dugongs and manatees) Boreoeutheria Laurasiatheria Eulipotyphla (hedgehogs, shrews, moles and relatives) Chiroptera (bats) Pholidota (pangolins) Carnivora (dogs, cats and relatives) Perissodactyla (horses, zebras, donkeys, rhinoceroses and tapirs) Artiodactyla (pigs, camels, hippos, deer, buffalo, gazelles, giraffes, whales, dolphins and relatives) Euarchontoglires Rodentia (rats, mice, guinea pigs, squirrels, beavers, chinchillas, porcupines, capybaras and relatives) Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares and pikas) Scandentia (treeshrews) Dermoptera (colugos) Primates (lorises, lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes (including humans) and relatives) Laurasiatheria Eulipotyphla (hedgehogs, shrews, moles and relatives) Chiroptera (bats) Pholidota (pangolins) Carnivora (dogs, cats and relatives) Perissodactyla (horses, zebras, donkeys, rhinoceroses and tapirs) Artiodactyla (pigs, camels, hippos, deer, buffalo, gazelles, giraffes, whales, dolphins and relatives) Eulipotyphla (hedgehogs, shrews, moles and relatives) Chiroptera (bats) Pholidota (pangolins) Carnivora (dogs, cats and relatives) Perissodactyla (horses, zebras, donkeys, rhinoceroses and tapirs) Artiodactyla (pigs, camels, hippos, deer, buffalo, gazelles, giraffes, whales, dolphins and relatives) Euarchontoglires Rodentia (rats, mice, guinea pigs, squirrels, beavers, chinchillas, porcupines, capybaras and relatives) Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares and pikas) Scandentia (treeshrews) Dermoptera (colugos) Primates (lorises, lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes (including humans) and relatives) Rodentia (rats, mice, guinea pigs, squirrels, beavers, chinchillas, porcupines, capybaras and relatives) Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares and pikas) Scandentia (treeshrews) Dermoptera (colugos) Primates (lorises, lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes (including humans) and relatives) v t e Extant families in order Rodentia v t e Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Infraclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Infraclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Sciuromorpha ("Squirrel-like") Aplodontiidae (Mountain beaver) Gliridae (Dormice) Sciuridae (Squirrels, chipmunks, marmots, susliks and prairie dogs) Aplodontiidae (Mountain beaver) Gliridae (Dormice) Sciuridae (Squirrels, chipmunks, marmots, susliks and prairie dogs) Castorimorpha ("Beaver-like") Castoroidea Castoridae (Beavers) Geomyoidea Geomyidae (Pocket gophers) Heteromyidae (Kangaroo rats and mice, pocket mice) Myomorpha ("Mouse-like") Dipodoidea Dipodidae (Jerboas, jumping mice and birch mice) Muroidea Platacanthomyidae (Oriental dormice) Spalacidae (Zokors, bamboo rats, mole rats, blind mole rats) Calomyscidae (Mouse-like hamsters) Nesomyidae (Malagasy rats and relatives) Cricetidae (Hamsters and relatives) Muridae (House mouse and relatives) Anomaluromorpha ("Anomalure-like") Anomaluridae (Anomalures) Pedetidae (Springhares) Anomaluridae (Anomalures) Pedetidae (Springhares) Hystricomorpha ("Porcupine-like") Ctenodactylidae (Gundis) Diatomyidae (Laotian rock rat) Hystricidae (Old World porcupines) Phiomorpha Bathyergidae (Blesmols) Petromuridae (Dassie rat) Thryonomyidae (Cane rats) Caviomorpha (New World hystricognaths) Erethizontidae (New World porcupines) Caviidae (Cavies) Cuniculidae (Pacas) Dasyproctidae (Agoutis and acouchis) Dinomyidae (Pacarana) Ctenomyidae (Tuco-tucos) Echimyidae (Spiny rats, coypus, hutias) Octodontidae (Degus and relatives) Abrocomidae (Chinchilla rats) Chinchillidae (Chinchillas and viscachas) Ctenodactylidae (Gundis) Diatomyidae (Laotian rock rat) Hystricidae (Old World porcupines) v t e Prehistoric families in order Rodentia v t e Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Infraclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Infraclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Sciuromorpha Allomyidae Mylagaulidae Reithroparamyidae Allomyidae Mylagaulidae Reithroparamyidae Castorimorpha Eutypomyidae Rhizospalacidae Eomyidae Florentiamyidae Heliscomyidae Eutypomyidae Rhizospalacidae Eomyidae Florentiamyidae Heliscomyidae Myomorpha Armintomyidae Anomalomyidae Simimyidae Armintomyidae Anomalomyidae Simimyidae Anomaluromorpha Parapedetidae Parapedetidae Hystricomorpha Tamquammyidae Gobiomyidae Yuomyidae Chapattimyidae Tsaganomyidae " Baluchimyinae " Bathyergoididae Myophiomyidae Diamantomyidae Phiomyidae Kenyamyidae Cephalomyidae Eocardiidae Neoepiblemidae Heptaxodontidae Tamquammyidae Gobiomyidae Yuomyidae Chapattimyidae Tsaganomyidae " Baluchimyinae " Bathyergoididae Myophiomyidae Diamantomyidae Phiomyidae Kenyamyidae Cephalomyidae Eocardiidae Neoepiblemidae Heptaxodontidae Theridomorpha See Theridomorpha See Theridomorpha See Theridomorpha incertae sedis Eurymylidae Alagomyidae Archetypomyidae Cocomyidae Ivanantoniidae Laredomyidae Ischyromyidae Theridomyidae Protoptychidae Zegdoumyidae Sciuravidae Cylindrodontidae Zelomyidae Eurymylidae Alagomyidae Archetypomyidae Cocomyidae Ivanantoniidae Laredomyidae Ischyromyidae Theridomyidae Protoptychidae Zegdoumyidae Sciuravidae Cylindrodontidae Zelomyidae See also: Category Mammals Animals Biology Taxon identifiers Rodentia Wikidata : Q10850 Wikispecies : Rodentia ADW : Rodentia AFD : Rodentia BOLD : 313 CoL : 3Z5 EoL : 8677 EPPO : 1RODEO Fauna Europaea : 12648 Fauna Europaea (new) : e29e3737-b9da-4c42-8e07-6ebfd76eb98c GBIF : 1459 iNaturalist : 43698 IRMNG : 11808 ITIS : 180130 MSW : 12200001 NBN : NHMSYS0000376181 NCBI : 9989 NZOR: bd4bb6ec-e755-4be9-a591-a99aa71a6934 Open Tree of Life : 864593 Paleobiology Database : 41370 Plazi : C32887CB-FF95-BA66-FF3D-F9A1FA76EDD6 WoRMS : 404079 Wikidata : Q10850 Wikispecies : Rodentia ADW : Rodentia AFD : Rodentia BOLD : 313 CoL : 3Z5 EoL : 8677 EPPO : 1RODEO Fauna Europaea : 12648 Fauna Europaea (new) : e29e3737-b9da-4c42-8e07-6ebfd76eb98c GBIF : 1459 iNaturalist : 43698 IRMNG : 11808 ITIS : 180130 MSW : 12200001 NBN : NHMSYS0000376181 NCBI : 9989 NZOR: bd4bb6ec-e755-4be9-a591-a99aa71a6934 Open Tree of Life : 864593 Paleobiology Database : 41370 Plazi : C32887CB-FF95-BA66-FF3D-F9A1FA76EDD6 WoRMS : 404079 Authority control databases International GND GND National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Israel Other NARA Yale LUX NARA Yale LUX Rodents Extant Thanetian first appearances Taxa named by Thomas Edward Bowdich CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Featured articles Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Use American English from May 2015 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use dmy dates from October 2021 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with 'species' microformats Articles containing Latin-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Webarchive template wayback links Taxonbars with 20–24 taxon IDs Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 13:56 (UTC) . 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodent#As_pests_and_disease_vectors
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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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"Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. 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Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Content use DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education Related AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh 10,000+ Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu 1,000+ Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof 500+ Bambara Wayuu Bambara Wayuu List of Wikimedia wikis v t e Wikimedia Foundation v t e People Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Abstract Wikipedia Other Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 See also Wikipedia : Wikipedia is not Whac-A-Mole Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version This is an essay . It contains the advice or opinions of one or more Wikipedia contributors. This page is not an encyclopedia article or a Wikipedia policy , as it has not been reviewed by the community and may reflect various opinions. .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:WHAC WP:WHAC WP:WHACAMOLE WP:WHACAMOLE WP:WHACKAMOLE WP:WHACKAMOLE WP:WHAC WP:WHAC WP:WHACAMOLE WP:WHACAMOLE WP:WHACKAMOLE WP:WHACKAMOLE This page in a nutshell: Don't rush into a discussion pointing at lots of policies without expanding on why you're doing so. Wikipedia is not a game of Whac-A-Mole . You don't score points for seeing how many articles facing deletion that pop up daily you can mark down in as quick a time as possible. One of the biggest stumbling blocks newcomers can face on Wikipedia is having to deal with an article that is sitting in Articles for Deletion and staring at the onslaught of " Delete per WP:RS Delete per WP:OR Delete per WP:GNG ", often quickly following the article's nomination. In particular, they may feel that you're trying to pull rank by deleting their work. Stop and think for a second. Does the article really have no reliable sources , or couldn't you just be bothered to find any? While online citations are the easiest references to uncover, citations can also take the shape of books , journals and newspapers . Because they may take more time and effort to find, it can be easy to assume that nobody's honestly going to look for them, you've done your due diligence, so delete already! Wham! That's another one out of the way. That'll keep that pesky lot at the Article Rescue Squad at bay for a bit! If you're confident an article will not satisfy the general notability guidelines , take time out to explain why not . Maybe the newcomer will understand. Maybe somebody else will suggest sources you haven't tried and reverse the consensus. Please do not do anything that you think is not appropriate. See also WP:ASSERTN WP:BEFORE WP:CITE WP:JNN WP:SFoD WP:VAGUEWAVE WP:WINNING .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia essays (?) v t e Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists About essays About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About essays About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard Wikipedia essays Wikipedia essays about deletion This page was last edited on 23 November 2025, at 01:07 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . 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The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . 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Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Characteristics 2 History 3 Value proposition 4 Usage examples 5 Adoption and suitability 6 Challenges and limitations Toggle Challenges and limitations subsection 6.1 Cloud migration challenges 6.2 Implementation challenges 6.3 Cloud cost overruns 6.4 Service Level Agreements 6.5 Leaky abstractions 6.6 Service lock-in within the same vendor 6.7 Security and privacy 6.8 Cloud Act 6.1 Cloud migration challenges 6.2 Implementation challenges 6.3 Cloud cost overruns 6.4 Service Level Agreements 6.5 Leaky abstractions 6.6 Service lock-in within the same vendor 6.7 Security and privacy 6.8 Cloud Act 7 Service models Toggle Service models subsection 7.1 Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) 7.2 Platform as a service (PaaS) 7.3 Software as a service (SaaS) 7.4 Serverless computing 7.1 Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) 7.2 Platform as a service (PaaS) 7.3 Software as a service (SaaS) 7.4 Serverless computing 8 Deployment models Toggle Deployment models subsection 8.1 Private 8.2 Public 8.3 Hybrid 8.4 Community 8.5 Multi cloud 8.1 Private 8.2 Public 8.3 Hybrid 8.4 Community 8.5 Multi cloud 9 Market 10 Cloud Computing Vendors 11 Similar concepts 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 15 Further reading Cloud computing Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Basa Banyumasan Беларуская भोजपुरी Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча پنجابی Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский سرائیکی Scots Shqip සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Cloud computing is defined by the ISO as "a paradigm for enabling network access to a scalable and elastic pool of shareable physical or virtual resources with self-service provisioning and administration on demand". [ 1 ] It is commonly referred to as "the cloud". [ 2 ] Characteristics In 2011, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) identified five "essential characteristics" for cloud systems. [ 3 ] Below are the exact definitions according to NIST: [ 3 ] On-demand self-service: "A consumer can unilaterally provision computing capabilities, such as server time and network storage, as needed automatically without requiring human interaction with each service provider." Broad network access: "Capabilities are available over the network and accessed through standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous thin or thick client platforms (e.g., mobile phones, tablets, laptops , and workstations)." Resource pooling : " The provider's computing resources are pooled to serve multiple consumers using a multi-tenant model, with different physical and virtual resources dynamically assigned and reassigned according to consumer demand." Rapid elasticity: "Capabilities can be elastically provisioned and released, in some cases automatically, to scale rapidly outward and inward commensurate with demand. To the consumer, the capabilities available for provisioning often appear unlimited and can be appropriated in any quantity at any time." Measured service: "Cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use by leveraging a metering capability at some level of abstraction appropriate to the type of service (e.g., storage, processing, bandwidth, and active user accounts). Resource usage can be monitored, controlled, and reported, providing transparency for both the provider and consumer of the utilized service. By 2023, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) had expanded and refined the list. [ 4 ] History The history of cloud computing extends to the 1960s, with the initial concepts of time-sharing becoming popularized via remote job entry (RJE). The "data center" model, where users submitted jobs to operators to run on mainframes, was predominantly used during this era. This period saw broad experimentation with making large-scale computing power more accessible through time-sharing , while optimizing infrastructure, platforms, and applications to improve efficiency for end users. [ 5 ] The "cloud" metaphor for virtualized services dates to 1994, when it was used by General Magic for the universe of "places" that mobile agents in the Telescript environment could "go". The metaphor is credited to David Hoffman, a General Magic communications specialist, based on its long-standing use in networking and telecom. [ 6 ] The expression cloud computing became more widely known in 1996 when Compaq Computer Corporation drew up a business plan for future computing and the Internet . The company's ambition was to supercharge sales with "cloud computing-enabled applications". The business plan foresaw that online consumer file storage would likely be commercially successful. As a result, Compaq decided to sell server hardware to internet service providers . [ 7 ] In the 2000s, the application of cloud computing began to take shape with the establishment of Amazon Web Services (AWS) in 2002, which allowed developers to build applications independently. In 2006 Amazon Simple Storage Service, known as Amazon S3 , and the Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) were released. In 2008 NASA 's development of the first open-source software for deploying private and hybrid clouds. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] The following decade saw the launch of various cloud services. In 2010, Microsoft launched Microsoft Azure , and Rackspace Hosting and NASA initiated an open-source cloud-software project, OpenStack . IBM introduced the IBM SmartCloud framework in 2011, and Oracle announced the Oracle Cloud in 2012. In December 2019, Amazon launched AWS Outposts, a service that extends AWS infrastructure, services, APIs , and tools to customer data centers, co-location spaces, or on-premises facilities. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Value proposition This section cites its sources but does not provide page references . Please help improve it by providing page numbers for existing citations. ( January 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Cloud computing can shorten time to market by offering pre-configured tools, scalable resources, and managed services, allowing users to focus on core business value rather than maintaining infrastructure. Cloud platforms can enable organizations and individuals to reduce upfront capital expenditures on physical infrastructure by shifting to an operational expenditure model, where costs scale with usage. Cloud platforms also offer managed services and tools, such as artificial intelligence, data analytics, and machine learning, which might otherwise require significant in-house expertise and infrastructure investment. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] While cloud computing can offer cost advantages through effective resource optimization, organizations often face challenges such as unused resources, inefficient configurations, and hidden costs without proper oversight and governance. Many cloud platforms provide cost management tools, such as AWS Cost Explorer and Azure Cost Management, and frameworks like FinOps have emerged to standardize financial operations in the cloud. Cloud computing also facilitates collaboration, remote work, and global service delivery by enabling secure access to data and applications from any location with an internet connection. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Cloud providers offer various redundancy options for core services, such as managed storage and managed databases, though redundancy configurations often vary by service tier. Advanced redundancy strategies, such as cross-region replication or failover systems, typically require explicit configuration and may incur additional costs or licensing fees. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Cloud environments operate under a shared responsibility model , where providers are typically responsible for infrastructure security, physical hardware, and software updates, while customers are accountable for data encryption, identity and access management (IAM), and application-level security. These responsibilities vary depending on the cloud service model— Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), or Software as a Service (SaaS)—with customers typically having more control and responsibility in IaaS environments and progressively less in PaaS and SaaS models, often trading control for convenience and managed services. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Usage examples Cloud computing offers significant potential [ 15 ] for data analysis and computational tasks by providing on-demand access to resources, enabling solutions that are scalable, flexible, and cost-efficient. It supports a wide range of societal, industrial, and scientific applications, providing scalable, resilient, and accessible infrastructure for data-driven decision-making. Key usage examples include: Disaster Mitigation and Emergency Response: Real-time data sharing, coordination of rescue operations, and cloud-based disaster recovery systems. Healthcare and Telemedicine: Electronic health records, remote consultations, and large-scale medical data analytics. Smart Cities and Infrastructure: Traffic optimization, energy management, and IoT-enabled public services. Environmental Monitoring: Weather forecasting, air and water quality tracking, and ecosystem management. Education and Remote Learning: Virtual classrooms, collaborative research, and cloud-based content delivery. Business Continuity and Remote Work: Virtual desktops, collaboration tools, and supply chain monitoring. Scientific Research and Big Data Analytics: High-performance computing, AI/ML training, and global data aggregation. Adoption and suitability This section cites its sources but does not provide page references . Please help improve it by providing page numbers for existing citations. ( January 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The decision to adopt cloud computing or maintain on-premises infrastructure depends on factors such as scalability, cost structure, latency requirements, regulatory constraints, and infrastructure customization. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Organizations with variable or unpredictable workloads, limited capital for upfront investments, or a focus on rapid scalability benefit from cloud adoption. Startups, SaaS companies, and e-commerce platforms often prefer the pay-as-you-go operational expenditure (OpEx) model of cloud infrastructure. Additionally, companies prioritizing global accessibility, remote workforce enablement, disaster recovery, and leveraging advanced services such as AI/ML and analytics are well-suited for the cloud. In recent years, some cloud providers have started offering specialized services for high-performance computing and low-latency applications, addressing some use cases previously exclusive to on-premises setups. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] On the other hand, organizations with strict regulatory requirements, highly predictable workloads, or reliance on deeply integrated legacy systems may find cloud infrastructure less suitable. Businesses in industries like defense, government, or those handling highly sensitive data often favor on-premises setups for greater control and data sovereignty. Additionally, companies with ultra-low latency requirements, such as high-frequency trading (HFT) firms, rely on custom hardware (e.g., FPGAs) and physical proximity to exchanges, which most cloud providers cannot fully replicate despite recent advancements. Similarly, tech giants like Google, Meta, and Amazon build their own data centers due to economies of scale, predictable workloads, and the ability to customize hardware and network infrastructure for optimal efficiency. However, these companies also use cloud services selectively for certain workloads and applications where it aligns with their operational needs. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] In practice, many organizations are increasingly adopting hybrid cloud architectures, combining on-premises infrastructure with cloud services. This approach allows businesses to balance scalability, cost-effectiveness, and control, offering the benefits of both deployment models while mitigating their respective limitations. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Challenges and limitations One of the primary challenges of cloud computing, compared with traditional on-premises systems, is maintaining data security and privacy. Cloud users entrust their sensitive data to third-party providers, who may not have adequate measures to protect it from unauthorized access, breaches, or leaks. Cloud users also face compliance risks if they have to adhere to certain regulations or standards regarding data protection, such as GDPR or HIPAA . [ 20 ] Another challenge of cloud computing is reduced visibility and control. Cloud users may not have full insight into how their cloud resources are managed, configured, or optimized by their providers. They may also have limited ability to customize or modify their cloud services according to their specific needs or preferences. [ 20 ] Complete understanding of all technology may be impossible, especially given the scale, complexity, and deliberate opacity of contemporary systems; however, there is a need for understanding complex technologies and their interconnections to have power and agency within them. [ 21 ] The metaphor of the cloud can be seen as problematic as cloud computing retains the aura of something noumenal and numinous ; it is something experienced without precisely understanding what it is or how it works. [ 22 ] Additionally, cloud migration is a significant challenge. This process involves transferring data, applications, or workloads from one cloud environment to another, or from on-premises infrastructure to the cloud. Cloud migration can be complicated, time-consuming, and expensive, particularly when there are compatibility issues between different cloud platforms or architectures. If not carefully planned and executed, cloud migration can lead to downtime, reduced performance, or even data loss. [ 23 ] Cloud migration challenges According to the 2024 State of the Cloud Report by Flexera , approximately 50% of respondents identified the following top challenges when migrating workloads to public clouds : [ 24 ] "Understanding application dependencies" "Comparing on-premise and cloud costs" "Assessing technical feasibility." Implementation challenges Applications hosted in the cloud are susceptible to the fallacies of distributed computing , a series of misconceptions that can lead to significant issues in software development and deployment. [ 25 ] Cloud cost overruns In a report by Gartner , a survey of 200 IT leaders revealed that 69% experienced budget overruns in their organizations' cloud expenditures during 2023. Conversely, 31% of IT leaders whose organizations stayed within budget attributed their success to accurate forecasting and budgeting, proactive monitoring of spending, and effective optimization. [ 26 ] The 2024 Flexera State of Cloud Report identifies the top cloud challenges as managing cloud spend, followed by security concerns and lack of expertise. Public cloud expenditures exceeded budgeted amounts by an average of 15%. The report also reveals that cost savings is the top cloud initiative for 60% of respondents. Furthermore, 65% measure cloud progress through cost savings, while 42% prioritize shorter time-to-market, indicating that cloud's promise of accelerated deployment is often overshadowed by cost concerns. [ 24 ] Service Level Agreements Typically, cloud providers' Service Level Agreements (SLAs) do not encompass all forms of service interruptions. Exclusions typically include planned maintenance, downtime resulting from external factors such as network issues, human errors , like misconfigurations, natural disasters , force majeure events, or security breaches . Typically, customers bear the responsibility of monitoring SLA compliance and must file claims for any unmet SLAs within a designated timeframe. Customers should be aware of how deviations from SLAs are calculated, as these parameters may vary by service. These requirements can place a considerable burden on customers. Additionally, SLA percentages and conditions can differ across various services within the same provider, with some services lacking any SLA altogether. In cases of service interruptions due to hardware failures in the cloud provider, the company typically does not offer monetary compensation. Instead, eligible users may receive credits as outlined in the corresponding SLA. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] [ 29 ] [ 30 ] Leaky abstractions Cloud computing abstractions aim to simplify resource management, but leaky abstractions can expose underlying complexities. These variations in abstraction quality depend on the cloud vendor, service and architecture . Mitigating leaky abstractions requires users to understand the implementation details and limitations of the cloud services they utilize. [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Service lock-in within the same vendor Service lock-in within the same vendor occurs when a customer becomes dependent on specific services within a cloud vendor, making it challenging to switch to alternative services within the same vendor when their needs change. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] Security and privacy Cloud computing poses privacy concerns because the service provider can access the data that is in the cloud at any time. It could accidentally or deliberately alter or delete information. [ 36 ] Many cloud providers can share information with third parties if necessary for purposes of law and order without a warrant. That is permitted in their privacy policies, which users must agree to before they start using cloud services. Solutions to privacy include policy and legislation as well as end-users' choices for how data is stored. [ 36 ] Users can encrypt data that is processed or stored within the cloud to prevent unauthorized access. [ 36 ] Identity management systems can also provide practical solutions to privacy concerns in cloud computing. These systems distinguish between authorized and unauthorized users and determine the amount of data that is accessible to each entity. [ 37 ] The systems work by creating and describing identities, recording activities, and getting rid of unused identities. According to the Cloud Security Alliance, the top three threats in the cloud are Insecure Interfaces and APIs , Data Loss & Leakage , and Hardware Failure —which accounted for 29%, 25% and 10% of all cloud security outages respectively. Together, these form shared technology vulnerabilities. In a cloud provider platform being shared by different users, there may be a possibility that information belonging to different customers resides on the same data server. Additionally, Eugene Schultz , chief technology officer at Emagined Security, said that hackers are spending substantial time and effort looking for ways to penetrate the cloud. "There are some real Achilles' heels in the cloud infrastructure that are making big holes for the bad guys to get into". Because data from hundreds or thousands of companies can be stored on large cloud servers, hackers can theoretically gain control of huge stores of information through a single attack—a process he called "hyperjacking". Some examples of this include the Dropbox security breach, and iCloud 2014 leak. [ 38 ] Dropbox had been breached in October 2014, having over seven million of its users passwords stolen by hackers in an effort to get monetary value from it by Bitcoins (BTC). By having these passwords, they are able to read private data as well as have this data be indexed by search engines (making the information public). [ 38 ] There is the problem of legal ownership of the data (If a user stores some data in the cloud, can the cloud provider profit from it?). Many Terms of Service agreements are silent on the question of ownership. [ 39 ] Physical control of the computer equipment (private cloud) is more secure than having the equipment off-site and under someone else's control (public cloud). This delivers great incentive to public cloud computing service providers to prioritize building and maintaining strong management of secure services. [ 40 ] Some small businesses that do not have expertise in IT security could find that it is more secure for them to use a public cloud. There is the risk that end users do not understand the issues involved when signing on to a cloud service (persons sometimes do not read the many pages of the terms of service agreement, and just click "Accept" without reading). This is important now that cloud computing is common and required for some services to work, for example for an intelligent personal assistant (Apple's Siri or Google Assistant ). Fundamentally, private cloud is seen as more secure with higher levels of control for the owner, however public cloud is seen to be more flexible and requires less time and money investment from the user. [ 41 ] The attacks that can be made on cloud computing systems include man-in-the middle attacks, phishing attacks, authentication attacks, and malware attacks. One of the largest threats is considered to be malware attacks, such as Trojan horses . Recent research conducted in 2022 has revealed that the Trojan horse injection method is a serious problem with harmful impacts on cloud computing systems. [ 42 ] Cloud Act The CLOUD Act allows United States authorities to request data from cloud providers and other covered service providers regardless of where the data is physically stored. [ 43 ] [ 44 ] The act is not limited to companies based in the United States. It applies to "all electronic communication service or remote computing service providers that operate or have a legal presence in the U.S". [ 45 ] Courts can require parent companies to provide data held by their subsidiaries. [ 46 ] Service models The National Institute of Standards and Technology recognized three cloud service models in 2011: Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). [ 3 ] The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) later identified additional models in 2023, including "Network as a Service" , "Communications as a Service", "Compute as a Service", and " Data Storage as a Service" . [ 4 ] Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) refers to online services that provide high-level APIs used to abstract various low-level details of underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources, location, data partitioning, scaling, security, backup, etc. A hypervisor runs the virtual machines as guests. Pools of hypervisors within the cloud operational system can support large numbers of virtual machines and the ability to scale services up and down according to customers' varying requirements. Linux containers run in isolated partitions of a single Linux kernel running directly on the physical hardware. Linux cgroups and namespaces are the underlying Linux kernel technologies used to isolate, secure and manage the containers. The use of containers offers higher performance than virtualization because there is no hypervisor overhead. IaaS clouds often offer additional resources such as a virtual-machine disk-image library, raw block storage , file or object storage , firewalls, load balancers , IP addresses , virtual local area networks (VLANs), and software bundles. [ 47 ] The NIST 's definition of cloud computing describes IaaS as "where the consumer is able to deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems and applications. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over operating systems, storage, and deployed applications; and possibly limited control of select networking components (e.g., host firewalls)." [ 3 ] IaaS-cloud providers supply these resources on-demand from their large pools of equipment installed in data centers . For wide-area connectivity, customers can use either the Internet or carrier clouds (dedicated virtual private networks ). To deploy their applications, cloud users install operating-system images and their application software on the cloud infrastructure. In this model, the cloud user patches and maintains the operating systems and the application software. Cloud providers typically bill IaaS services on a utility computing basis: cost reflects the number of resources allocated and consumed. [ 48 ] Platform as a service (PaaS) The NIST 's definition of cloud computing defines Platform as a Service as: [ 3 ] The capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure consumer-created or acquired applications created using programming languages, libraries, services, and tools supported by the provider. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but has control over the deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the application-hosting environment. The capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure consumer-created or acquired applications created using programming languages, libraries, services, and tools supported by the provider. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but has control over the deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the application-hosting environment. PaaS vendors offer a development environment to application developers. The provider typically develops toolkit and standards for development and channels for distribution and payment. In the PaaS models, cloud providers deliver a computing platform , typically including an operating system, programming-language execution environment, database, and the web server. Application developers develop and run their software on a cloud platform instead of directly buying and managing the underlying hardware and software layers. With some PaaS, the underlying computer and storage resources scale automatically to match application demand so that the cloud user does not have to allocate resources manually. [ 49 ] [ need quotation to verify ] Some integration and data management providers also use specialized applications of PaaS as delivery models for data. Examples include iPaaS (Integration Platform as a Service) and dPaaS (Data Platform as a Service) . iPaaS enables customers to develop, execute and govern integration flows. [ 50 ] Under the iPaaS integration model, customers drive the development and deployment of integrations without installing or managing any hardware or middleware. [ 51 ] dPaaS delivers integration—and data-management—products as a fully managed service. [ 52 ] Under the dPaaS model, the PaaS provider, not the customer, manages the development and execution of programs by building data applications for the customer. dPaaS users access data through data-visualization tools. [ 53 ] Software as a service (SaaS) The NIST 's definition of cloud computing defines Software as a Service as: [ 3 ] The capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider's applications running on a cloud infrastructure . The applications are accessible from various client devices through either a thin client interface, such as a web browser (e.g., web-based email), or a program interface. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, storage, or even individual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited user-specific application configuration settings. The capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider's applications running on a cloud infrastructure . The applications are accessible from various client devices through either a thin client interface, such as a web browser (e.g., web-based email), or a program interface. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, storage, or even individual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited user-specific application configuration settings. In the software as a service (SaaS) model, users gain access to application software and databases . Cloud providers manage the infrastructure and platforms that run the applications. SaaS is sometimes referred to as "on-demand software" and is usually priced on a pay-per-use basis or using a subscription fee. [ 54 ] In the SaaS model, cloud providers install and operate application software in the cloud and cloud users access the software from cloud clients. Cloud users do not manage the cloud infrastructure and platform where the application runs. This eliminates the need to install and run the application on the cloud user's own computers, which simplifies maintenance and support. Cloud applications differ from other applications in their scalability—which can be achieved by cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines at run-time to meet changing work demand. [ 55 ] Load balancers distribute the work over the set of virtual machines. This process is transparent to the cloud user, who sees only a single access-point. To accommodate a large number of cloud users, cloud applications can be multitenant , meaning that any machine may serve more than one cloud-user organization. The pricing model for SaaS applications is typically a monthly or yearly flat fee per user, [ 56 ] so prices become scalable and adjustable if users are added or removed at any point. It may also be free. [ 57 ] Proponents claim that SaaS gives a business the potential to reduce IT operational costs by outsourcing hardware and software maintenance and support to the cloud provider. This enables the business to reallocate IT operations costs away from hardware/software spending and from personnel expenses, towards meeting other goals. In addition, with applications hosted centrally, updates can be released without the need for users to install new software. One drawback of SaaS comes with storing the users' data on the cloud provider's server. As a result, [ citation needed ] there could be unauthorized access to the data. [ 58 ] Examples of applications offered as SaaS are games and productivity software like Google Docs and Office Online. SaaS applications may be integrated with cloud storage or File hosting services , which is the case with Google Docs being integrated with Google Drive , and Office Online being integrated with OneDrive . [ 59 ] Serverless computing Serverless computing allows customers to use various cloud capabilities without the need to provision, deploy, or manage hardware or software resources, apart from providing their application code or data. ISO/IEC 22123-2:2023 classifies serverless alongside Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS) under the broader category of cloud service categories. Notably, while ISO refers to these classifications as cloud service categories, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) refers to them as service models. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Deployment models "A cloud deployment model represents the way in which cloud computing can be organized based on the control and sharing of physical or virtual resources." [ 4 ] Cloud deployment models define the fundamental patterns of interaction between cloud customers and cloud providers. They do not detail implementation specifics or the configuration of resources. [ 4 ] Private Private cloud is cloud infrastructure operated solely for a single organization, whether managed internally or by a third party, and hosted either internally or externally. [ 3 ] Undertaking a private cloud project requires significant engagement to virtualize the business environment, and requires the organization to reevaluate decisions about existing resources. It can improve business, but every step in the project raises security issues that must be addressed to prevent serious vulnerabilities. Self-run data centers [ 60 ] are generally capital intensive. They have a significant physical footprint, requiring allocations of space, hardware, and environmental controls. These assets have to be refreshed periodically, resulting in additional capital expenditures. They have attracted criticism because users "still have to buy, build, and manage them" and thus do not benefit from less hands-on management, [ 61 ] essentially "[lacking] the economic model that makes cloud computing such an intriguing concept". [ 62 ] [ 63 ] Public Cloud services are considered "public" when they are delivered over the public Internet, and they may be offered as a paid subscription, or free of charge. [ 64 ] Architecturally, there are few differences between public- and private-cloud services, but security concerns increase substantially when services (applications, storage, and other resources) are shared by multiple customers. Most public-cloud providers offer direct-connection services that allow customers to securely link their legacy data centers to their cloud-resident applications. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] Several factors like the functionality of the solutions, cost , integrational and organizational aspects as well as safety & security are influencing the decision of enterprises and organizations to choose a public cloud or on-premises solution. [ 67 ] Hybrid Hybrid cloud is a composition of a public cloud and a private environment, such as a private cloud or on-premises resources, [ 68 ] [ 69 ] that remain distinct entities but are bound together, offering the benefits of multiple deployment models. Hybrid cloud can also mean the ability to connect collocation, managed or dedicated services with cloud resources. [ 3 ] Gartner defines a hybrid cloud service as a cloud computing service that is composed of some combination of private, public and community cloud services, from different service providers. [ 70 ] A hybrid cloud service crosses isolation and provider boundaries so that it cannot be simply put in one category of private, public, or community cloud service. It allows one to extend either the capacity or the capability of a cloud service, by aggregation, integration or customization with another cloud service. Varied use cases for hybrid cloud composition exist. For example, an organization may store sensitive client data in house on a private cloud application, but interconnect that application to a business intelligence application provided on a public cloud as a software service. [ 71 ] This example of hybrid cloud extends the capabilities of the enterprise to deliver a specific business service through the addition of externally available public cloud services. Hybrid cloud adoption depends on a number of factors such as data security and compliance requirements, level of control needed over data, and the applications an organization uses. [ 72 ] Another example of hybrid cloud is one where IT organizations use public cloud computing resources to meet temporary capacity needs that can not be met by the private cloud. [ 73 ] This capability enables hybrid clouds to employ cloud bursting for scaling across clouds. [ 3 ] Cloud bursting is an application deployment model in which an application runs in a private cloud or data center and "bursts" to a public cloud when the demand for computing capacity increases. A primary advantage of cloud bursting and a hybrid cloud model is that an organization pays for extra compute resources only when they are needed. [ 74 ] Cloud bursting enables data centers to create an in-house IT infrastructure that supports average workloads, and use cloud resources from public or private clouds, during spikes in processing demands. [ 75 ] Community Community cloud shares infrastructure between several organizations from a specific community with common concerns (security, compliance, jurisdiction, etc.), whether it is managed internally or by a third-party, and hosted internally or externally, the costs are distributed among fewer users compared to a public cloud (but more than a private cloud). As a result, only a portion of the potential cost savings of cloud computing is achieved. [ 3 ] Multi cloud According to ISO /IEC 22123-1: "multi-cloud is a cloud deployment model in which a customer uses public cloud services provided by two or more cloud service providers". [ 76 ] Poly cloud refers to the use of multiple public clouds for the purpose of leveraging specific services that each provider offers. It differs from Multi cloud in that it is not designed to increase flexibility or mitigate against failures but is rather used to allow an organization to achieve more than could be done with a single provider. [ 77 ] Market According to International Data Corporation (IDC), global spending on cloud computing services has reached $706 billion and is expected to reach $1.3 trillion by 2025. [ 78 ] Gartner estimated that global public cloud services end-user spending would reach $600 billion by 2023. [ 79 ] According to a McKinsey & Company report, cloud cost-optimization levers and value-oriented business use cases foresee more than $1 trillion in run-rate EBITDA across Fortune 500 companies as up for grabs in 2030. [ 80 ] In 2022, more than $1.3 trillion in enterprise IT spending was at stake from the shift to the cloud, growing to almost $1.8 trillion in 2025, according to Gartner. [ 81 ] The European Commission's 2012 Communication identified several issues which were impeding the development of the cloud computing market: [ 82 ] : Section 3 fragmentation of the digital single market across the EU concerns about contracts including reservations about data access and ownership, data portability , and change control variations in standards applicable to cloud computing The Communication set out a series of "digital agenda actions" which the Commission proposed to undertake in order to support the development of a fair and effective market for cloud computing services. [ 82 ] : Pages 6–14 Cloud Computing Vendors As of 2025, the three largest cloud computing providers by market share, commonly referred to as hyperscalers, are Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud. [ 83 ] [ 84 ] These companies dominate the global cloud market due to their extensive infrastructure, broad service offerings, and scalability. In recent years, organizations have increasingly adopted alternative cloud providers, which offer specialized services that distinguish them from hyperscalers. These providers may offer advantages such as lower costs, improved cost transparency and predictability, enhanced data sovereignty (particularly within regions such as the European Union to comply with regulations like the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)), stronger alignment with local regulatory requirements, or industry-specific services. [ 85 ] Alternative cloud providers are often part of multi-cloud strategies, where organizations use multiple cloud services—both from hyperscalers and specialized providers—to optimize performance, compliance, and cost efficiency. However, they do not necessarily serve as direct replacements for hyperscalers, as their offerings are typically more specialized. [ 85 ] Similar concepts The goal of cloud computing is to allow users to take benefit from all of these technologies, without the need for deep knowledge about or expertise with each one of them. The cloud aims to cut costs and helps the users focus on their core business instead of being impeded by IT obstacles. [ 86 ] The main enabling technology for cloud computing is virtualization . Virtualization software separates a physical computing device into one or more "virtual" devices, each of which can be easily used and managed to perform computing tasks. With operating system–level virtualization essentially creating a scalable system of multiple independent computing devices, idle computing resources can be allocated and used more efficiently. Virtualization provides the agility required to speed up IT operations and reduces cost by increasing infrastructure utilization . Autonomic computing automates the process through which the user can provision resources on-demand . By minimizing user involvement, automation speeds up the process, reduces labor costs and reduces the possibility of human errors. [ 86 ] Cloud computing uses concepts from utility computing to provide metrics for the services used. Cloud computing attempts to address QoS (quality of service) and reliability problems of other grid computing models. [ 86 ] Cloud computing shares characteristics with: Client–server model – Client–server computing refers broadly to any distributed application that distinguishes between service providers (servers) and service requestors (clients). [ 87 ] Computer bureau – A service bureau providing computer services, particularly from the 1960s to 1980s. Grid computing – A form of distributed and parallel computing, whereby a 'super and virtual computer' is composed of a cluster of networked, loosely coupled computers acting in concert to perform very large tasks. Fog computing – Distributed computing paradigm that provides data, compute, storage and application services closer to the client or near-user edge devices, such as network routers. Furthermore, fog computing handles data at the network level, on smart devices and on the end-user client-side (e.g. mobile devices), instead of sending data to a remote location for processing. Utility computing – The "packaging of computing resources , such as computation and storage, as a metered service similar to a traditional public utility, such as electricity." [ 88 ] [ 89 ] Peer-to-peer – A distributed architecture without the need for central coordination. Participants are both suppliers and consumers of resources (in contrast to the traditional client-server model). Cloud sandbox – A live, isolated computer environment in which a program, code or file can run without affecting the application in which it runs. See also Block-level storage Browser-based computing Category:Cloud computing providers Category:Cloud platforms Cloud computing architecture Cloud broker Cloud collaboration Cloud-computing comparison Cloud computing security Cloud gaming Cloud management Cloud-native computing Cloud research Cloud robotics Cloud storage Cloud-to-cloud integration Cloudlet Computer cluster Cooperative storage cloud Decentralized computing Desktop virtualization Dew computing Directory Distributed data store Distributed database Distributed computing Distributed networking e-Science Edge computing Edge device Exchange-traded fund File system Clustered file system Distributed file system Distributed file system for cloud Clustered file system Distributed file system Distributed file system for cloud Fog computing Fog robotics Green computing ( environmentally sustainable computing) Grid computing In-memory database In-memory processing Internet of things IoT security device Knowledge as a service Microservices Mobile cloud computing Multi-access edge computing Multisite cloud Peer-to-peer Personal cloud Private cloud computing infrastructure Robot as a service Service-oriented architecture Time-sharing Ubiquitous computing Virtual private cloud Notes References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "ISO/IEC 22123-1:2023(E) – Information technology – Cloud computing – Part 1: Vocabulary". 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Retrieved 2017-11-15 . ^ Schmidt, Rainer; Möhring, Michael; Keller, Barbara (2017). "Customer Relationship Management in a Public Cloud environment - Key influencing factors for European enterprises" . HICSS . Proceedings of the 50th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (2017). doi : 10.24251/HICSS.2017.513 . hdl : 10125/41673 . ISBN 978-0-9981331-0-2 . ^ "What is hybrid cloud? - Definition from WhatIs.com" . SearchCloudComputing . Archived from the original on 2019-07-16 . Retrieved 2019-08-10 . ^ Butler, Brandon (2017-10-17). "What is hybrid cloud computing? The benefits of mixing private and public cloud services" . Network World . Archived from the original on 2019-08-11 . Retrieved 2019-08-11 . ^ "Mind the Gap: Here Comes Hybrid Cloud – Thomas Bittman" . Thomas Bittman . 24 September 2012. Archived from the original on 17 April 2015 . Retrieved 22 April 2015 . ^ "Business Intelligence Takes to Cloud for Small Businesses" . CIO.com. 2014-06-04. Archived from the original on 2014-06-07 . Retrieved 2014-06-04 . ^ Désiré Athow (24 August 2014). "Hybrid cloud: is it right for your business?" . TechRadar . Archived from the original on 7 July 2017 . Retrieved 22 April 2015 . ^ Metzler, Jim; Taylor, Steve. (2010-08-23) "Cloud computing: Reality vs. fiction" Archived 2013-06-19 at the Wayback Machine , Network World. ^ Rouse, Margaret. "Definition: Cloudbursting" Archived 2013-03-19 at the Wayback Machine , May 2011. SearchCloudComputing.com. ^ "How Cloudbursting "Rightsizes" the Data Center" . 2012-06-22. Archived from the original on 2016-10-19 . Retrieved 2016-10-19 . ^ "ISO/IEC 22123-1:2023(E) - Information technology — Cloud computing — Part 1: Vocabulary". International Organization for Standardization : 2. ^ Gall, Richard (2018-05-16). "Polycloud: a better alternative to cloud agnosticism" . Packt Hub . Archived from the original on 2019-11-11 . Retrieved 2019-11-11 . ^ "IDC Forecasts Worldwide "Whole Cloud" Spending to Reach $1.3 Trillion by 2025" . Idc.com. 2021-09-14. Archived from the original on 2022-07-29 . Retrieved 2022-07-30 . ^ "Gartner Forecasts Worldwide Public Cloud End-User Spending to Reach Nearly $500 Billion in 2022" . Archived from the original on 2022-07-25 . Retrieved 2022-07-25 . ^ "Cloud's trillion-dollar prize is up for grabs" . McKinsey. Archived from the original on 2022-07-25 . Retrieved 2022-07-30 . ^ "Gartner Says More Than Half of Enterprise IT Spending in Key Market Segments Will Shift to the Cloud by 2025" . Archived from the original on 2022-07-25 . Retrieved 2022-07-25 . ^ a b European Commission, Unleashing the Potential of Cloud Computing in Europe , COM(2012) 529 final, page 3, published 27 September 2012, accessed 26 April 2024 ^ "Global cloud infrastructure market share 2024 | Statista" . Statista . Archived from the original on 2025-01-18 . Retrieved 2025-03-20 . ^ "Gartner Says Worldwide IaaS Public Cloud Services Revenue Grew 16.2% i" . Gartner . Retrieved 2025-03-20 . ^ a b Linthicum, David (2022). AN INSIDER'S GUIDE TO CLOUD COMPUTING . Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar: ADDISON WESLEY. ISBN 978-0-13-793578-9 . ^ a b c HAMDAQA, Mohammad (2012). Cloud Computing Uncovered: A Research Landscape (PDF) . Elsevier Press. pp. 41– 85. ISBN 978-0-12-396535-6 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-06-19 . Retrieved 2013-03-19 . ^ "Distributed Application Architecture" (PDF) . Sun Microsystem. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-04-06 . Retrieved 2009-06-16 . ^ Vaquero, Luis M.; Rodero-Merino, Luis; Caceres, Juan; Lindner, Maik (December 2008). "A break in the clouds: Towards a cloud definition" . ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review . 39 (1): 50– 55. doi : 10.1145/1496091.1496100 . S2CID 207171174 . ^ Danielson, Krissi (2008-03-26). "Distinguishing Cloud Computing from Utility Computing" . Ebizq.net. Archived from the original on 2017-11-10 . Retrieved 2010-08-22 . Further reading Millard, Christopher (2013). Cloud Computing Law . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967168-7 . Weisser, Alexander (2020). International Taxation of Cloud Computing . Editions Juridiques Libres, ISBN 978-2-88954-030-3 . Singh, Jatinder; Powles, Julia; Pasquier, Thomas; Bacon, Jean (July 2015). "Data Flow Management and Compliance in Cloud Computing" . IEEE Cloud Computing . 2 (4): 24– 32. doi : 10.1109/MCC.2015.69 . S2CID 9812531 . Armbrust, Michael; Stoica, Ion; Zaharia, Matei; Fox, Armando; Griffith, Rean; Joseph, Anthony D.; Katz, Randy; Konwinski, Andy; Lee, Gunho; Patterson, David; Rabkin, Ariel (1 April 2010). "A view of cloud computing" . Communications of the ACM . 53 (4): 50. doi : 10.1145/1721654.1721672 . S2CID 1673644 . Hu, Tung-Hui (2015). A Prehistory of the Cloud . MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02951-3 . Mell, P. (2011, September). The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing . Retrieved November 1, 2015, from National Institute of Standards and Technology website @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Cloud computing at Wikimedia Commons .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Cloud computing v t e Business models Content as a service Data as a service Desktop as a service Function as a service Infrastructure as a service Integration platform as a service Backend as a service Network as a service Platform as a service Security as a service Software as a service Content as a service Data as a service Desktop as a service Function as a service Infrastructure as a service Integration platform as a service Backend as a service Network as a service Platform as a service Security as a service Software as a service Technologies Cloud database Cloud-native computing Cloud storage Cloud storage gateways Data centers Dew computing Distributed file system for cloud Hardware virtualization Internet Mobile cloud computing Native cloud application Networking Personal cloud Security Serverless computing Structured storage Virtual appliance Web APIs Virtual private cloud Cloud database Cloud-native computing Cloud storage Cloud storage gateways Data centers Dew computing Distributed file system for cloud Hardware virtualization Internet Mobile cloud computing Native cloud application Networking Personal cloud Security Serverless computing Structured storage Virtual appliance Web APIs Virtual private cloud Applications Box Dropbox Google Workspace Drive HP Cloud (closed) IBM Cloud Lark Microsoft Office 365 OneDrive Nextcloud Oracle Cloud Owncloud Proton Drive Rackspace Salesforce Seafile PlateSpin Workday Zoho Box Dropbox Google Workspace Drive Workspace Drive HP Cloud (closed) IBM Cloud Lark Microsoft Office 365 OneDrive Office 365 OneDrive Nextcloud Oracle Cloud Owncloud Proton Drive Rackspace Salesforce Seafile PlateSpin Workday Zoho Platforms Alibaba Cloud Amazon Web Services AppScale Box CloudBolt Cloud Foundry Cocaine (PaaS) Engine Yard Helion GE Predix Google App Engine GreenQloud Heroku IBM Cloud Inktank Jelastic Microsoft Azure MindSphere Netlify Oracle Cloud OutSystems openQRM OpenShift PythonAnywhere RightScale Scalr Force.com SAP Business Technology Platform Splunk Vercel vCloud Air WaveMaker Alibaba Cloud Amazon Web Services AppScale Box CloudBolt Cloud Foundry Cocaine (PaaS) Engine Yard Helion GE Predix Google App Engine GreenQloud Heroku IBM Cloud Inktank Jelastic Microsoft Azure MindSphere Netlify Oracle Cloud OutSystems openQRM OpenShift PythonAnywhere RightScale Scalr Force.com SAP Business Technology Platform Splunk Vercel vCloud Air WaveMaker Infrastructure Alibaba Cloud Amazon Web Services Abiquo Enterprise Edition CloudStack Citrix Cloud Deft DigitalOcean EMC Atmos Eucalyptus Fujitsu Google Cloud GreenButton GreenQloud IBM Cloud iland Joyent Linode Lunacloud Microsoft Azure Mirantis Netlify Nimbula Nimbus OpenIO OpenNebula OpenStack Oracle Cloud OrionVM Rackspace Cloud Safe Swiss Cloud Zadara libvirt libguestfs OVirt Virtual Machine Manager Wakame-vdc Vercel Virtual Private Cloud OnDemand Alibaba Cloud Amazon Web Services Abiquo Enterprise Edition CloudStack Citrix Cloud Deft DigitalOcean EMC Atmos Eucalyptus Fujitsu Google Cloud GreenButton GreenQloud IBM Cloud iland Joyent Linode Lunacloud Microsoft Azure Mirantis Netlify Nimbula Nimbus OpenIO OpenNebula OpenStack Oracle Cloud OrionVM Rackspace Cloud Safe Swiss Cloud Zadara libvirt libguestfs OVirt Virtual Machine Manager Wakame-vdc Vercel Virtual Private Cloud OnDemand Category Commons Category Commons v t e Parallel computing v t e General Distributed computing Parallel computing Parallel algorithm Massively parallel Cloud computing High-performance computing Multiprocessing Manycore processor GPGPU Computer network Systolic array Distributed computing Parallel computing Parallel algorithm Massively parallel Cloud computing High-performance computing Multiprocessing Manycore processor GPGPU Computer network Systolic array Levels Bit Instruction Thread Task Data Memory Loop Pipeline Bit Instruction Thread Task Data Memory Loop Pipeline Multithreading Temporal Simultaneous (SMT) Simultaneous and heterogenous Speculative (SpMT) Preemptive Cooperative Clustered multi-thread (CMT) Hardware scout Temporal Simultaneous (SMT) Simultaneous and heterogenous Speculative (SpMT) Preemptive Cooperative Clustered multi-thread (CMT) Hardware scout Theory PRAM model PEM model Analysis of parallel algorithms Amdahl's law Gustafson's law Cost efficiency Karp–Flatt metric Slowdown Speedup PRAM model PEM model Analysis of parallel algorithms Amdahl's law Gustafson's law Cost efficiency Karp–Flatt metric Slowdown Speedup Elements Process Thread Fiber Instruction window Array Process Thread Fiber Instruction window Array Coordination Multiprocessing Memory coherence Cache coherence Cache invalidation Barrier Synchronization Application checkpointing Multiprocessing Memory coherence Cache coherence Cache invalidation Barrier Synchronization Application checkpointing Programming Stream processing Dataflow programming Models Implicit parallelism Explicit parallelism Concurrency Non-blocking algorithm Stream processing Dataflow programming Models Implicit parallelism Explicit parallelism Concurrency Implicit parallelism Explicit parallelism Concurrency Non-blocking algorithm Hardware Flynn's taxonomy SISD SIMD Array processing (SIMT) Pipelined processing Associative processing MISD MIMD Dataflow architecture Pipelined processor Superscalar processor Vector processor Multiprocessor symmetric asymmetric Memory shared distributed distributed shared UMA NUMA COMA Massively parallel computer Computer cluster Beowulf cluster Grid computer Hardware acceleration Flynn's taxonomy SISD SIMD Array processing (SIMT) Pipelined processing Associative processing MISD MIMD SISD SIMD Array processing (SIMT) Pipelined processing Associative processing Array processing (SIMT) Pipelined processing Associative processing MISD MIMD Dataflow architecture Pipelined processor Superscalar processor Vector processor Multiprocessor symmetric asymmetric symmetric asymmetric Memory shared distributed distributed shared UMA NUMA COMA shared distributed distributed shared UMA NUMA COMA Massively parallel computer Computer cluster Beowulf cluster Beowulf cluster Grid computer Hardware acceleration APIs Ateji PX Boost Chapel HPX Charm++ Cilk Coarray Fortran CUDA Dryad C++ AMP Global Arrays GPUOpen MPI OpenMP OpenCL OpenHMPP OpenACC Parallel Extensions PVM pthreads RaftLib ROCm UPC TBB ZPL Ateji PX Boost Chapel HPX Charm++ Cilk Coarray Fortran CUDA Dryad C++ AMP Global Arrays GPUOpen MPI OpenMP OpenCL OpenHMPP OpenACC Parallel Extensions PVM pthreads RaftLib ROCm UPC TBB ZPL Problems Automatic parallelization Cache stampede Deadlock Deterministic algorithm Embarrassingly parallel Parallel slowdown Race condition Software lockout Scalability Starvation Automatic parallelization Cache stampede Deadlock Deterministic algorithm Embarrassingly parallel Parallel slowdown Race condition Software lockout Scalability Starvation Category: Parallel computing Category: Parallel computing Authority control databases International GND FAST GND FAST National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Latvia Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Latvia Israel Other IdRef 2 IdRef 2 2 Cloud computing Cloud infrastructure CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Physics > Physics and Society Title: Circadian patterns of Wikipedia editorial activity: A demographic analysis Abstract: Wikipedia (WP) as a collaborative, dynamical system of humans is an appropriate subject of social studies. Each single action of the members of this society, i.e. editors, is well recorded and accessible. Using the cumulative data of 34 Wikipedias in different languages, we try to characterize and find the universalities and differences in temporal activity patterns of editors. Based on this data, we estimate the geographical distribution of editors for each WP in the globe. Furthermore we also clarify the differences among different groups of WPs, which originate in the variance of cultural and social features of the communities of editors. Subjects: Physics and Society (physics.soc-ph) ; Social and Information Networks (cs.SI); Applications (stat.AP) Cite as: arXiv:1109.1746 [physics.soc-ph] (or arXiv:1109.1746v3 [physics.soc-ph] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Journal reference: PLoS ONE 7(1): e30091 (2012) Related DOI : Focus to learn more DOI(s) linking to related resources Submission history Access Paper: View PDF TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Publication history Toggle Publication history subsection 1.1 Creation and early history 1.2 Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages 1.3 Modern Age and reboots 1.1 Creation and early history 1.2 Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages 1.3 Modern Age and reboots 2 Characterization Toggle Characterization subsection 2.1 Bruce Wayne 2.1.1 Personality 2.2 Others 2.1 Bruce Wayne 2.1.1 Personality 2.1.1 Personality 2.2 Others 3 Supporting characters Toggle Supporting characters subsection 3.1 Enemies 3.2 Allies 3.3 Sidekicks 3.4 Romantic interests 3.1 Enemies 3.2 Allies 3.3 Sidekicks 3.4 Romantic interests 4 Abilities Toggle Abilities subsection 4.1 Skills and training 4.2 Technology 4.1 Skills and training 4.2 Technology 5 Fictional character biography Toggle Fictional character biography subsection 5.1 20th century 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.2 21st century 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.3 The New 52 5.4 DC Rebirth 5.1 20th century 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.2 21st century 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.3 The New 52 5.4 DC Rebirth 6 Other versions 7 In popular culture Toggle In popular culture subsection 7.1 Media appearances 7.1.1 Criticism 7.2 Different interpretations 7.1 Media appearances 7.1.1 Criticism 7.1.1 Criticism 7.2 Different interpretations 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources 11 Further reading 12 External links Batman Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Chi-Chewa Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Võro Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Betawi Ghanaian Pidgin Kʋsaal Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item This article may incorporate text from a large language model . 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The reason given is: This 2024 "split" that appears to also introduce AI summaries, with usual WP:AISIGNS of promotional tone, vocab distribution, etc. See talk page for more info ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Batman Cover of the DC Comics Absolute Edition of Batman: Hush (2011) Art by Jim Lee Publication information Publisher DC Comics First appearance Detective Comics #27 ( cover-dated May 1939; published March 30, 1939) [ 1 ] Created by .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Bob Kane Bill Finger [ a ] Bob Kane Bill Finger [ a ] In-story information Alter ego Bruce Wayne Place of origin Gotham City Team affiliations Justice League Bat-Family Outsiders Wayne Enterprises Justice League Bat-Family Outsiders Wayne Enterprises Partnerships Robin (various) Batgirl (various) Alfred Pennyworth James Gordon Superman Wonder Woman Catwoman Robin (various) Batgirl (various) Alfred Pennyworth James Gordon Superman Wonder Woman Catwoman Notable aliases Dark Knight Caped Crusader Matches Malone World's Greatest Detective Dark Knight Caped Crusader Matches Malone World's Greatest Detective Abilities Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist and field commander Proficient in using high-tech equipment and weapons Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist and field commander Proficient in using high-tech equipment and weapons Batman [ b ] is a superhero who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics . Batman was created by writer Bill Finger and artist Bob Kane , and debuted in the 27th issue of the comic book Detective Comics on March 30, 1939. In the DC Universe , Batman is the alias of Bruce Wayne , a wealthy American playboy , philanthropist , and industrialist who resides in the fictional Gotham City . His origin story features him swearing vengeance against criminals after witnessing the murder of his parents, Thomas and Martha , as a child, a vendetta tempered by the ideal of justice . He trains himself physically and intellectually, crafts a bat-inspired persona , and monitors the Gotham streets at night. Kane, Finger, and other creators accompanied Batman with supporting characters , including his sidekicks Robin and Batgirl ; allies Alfred Pennyworth and James Gordon ; love interest and occasional adversary Catwoman ; as well as foes such as the Penguin , the Riddler , Two-Face , and his archenemy , the Joker . Kane conceived Batman in early 1939 to capitalize on the popularity of Superman ; although Kane frequently claimed sole creation credit, Finger substantially developed the concept from a generic superhero into something more bat -like. They drew inspiration from pulp fiction characters like the Shadow , Sherlock Holmes , and the Green Hornet . Batman received a spin-off publication, Batman , in 1940. Kane and Finger introduced Batman as a ruthless vigilante who frequently killed or maimed criminals, but he evolved into a just, tempered superhero with a stringent moral code that prohibits killing during the 1940s. Unlike most superheroes, Batman does not possess any superpowers , instead relying on his intellect, fighting skills, and wealth. The 1960s Batman television series used a camp aesthetic, which continued to be associated with Batman for years after it ended. Various creators worked to return Batman to his darker roots in the 1970s and 1980s, culminating with the 1986 miniseries The Dark Knight Returns by Frank Miller . DC has featured Batman in many comic books , including comics published under its imprints such as Vertigo and Black Label ; he has been considered DC's flagship character [ 4 ] [ 5 ] since the 1990s. The longest-running Batman comic, Detective Comics , is the longest-running comic book in the United States. Batman is frequently depicted alongside other DC superheroes, such as Superman and Wonder Woman , as a member of organizations such as the Justice League and the Outsiders . In addition to Bruce Wayne, other characters used the Batman persona, such as Jean-Paul Valley / Azrael in the 1993–1994 " Knightfall " story arc; Dick Grayson , the first Robin, from 2009 to 2011; and Jace Fox , the son of Wayne's ally Lucius , since 2021. [ 6 ] DC has also published comics featuring alternate versions of Batman, including the incarnation seen in The Dark Knight Returns and its successors, the incarnation from the Flashpoint (2011) event, and numerous interpretations in comics published under the Elseworlds label. Batman is one of the most iconic characters in popular culture and has been listed among the greatest comic book superheroes and characters ever created. He is one of the most commercially successful superheroes, the second best-selling comic book series in history with 460 million copies sold worldwide, [ 7 ] and his likeness has been licensed and featured in various media and merchandise sold around the world; this includes toy lines such as Lego Batman and video games such as the Batman: Arkham series. Batman has been adapted in many live-action and animated television series and films. Adam West portrayed him in the 1960s Batman television series, and he has been portrayed in films by Michael Keaton , Val Kilmer , George Clooney , Christian Bale , Ben Affleck , and Robert Pattinson . Many actors, most prolifically Kevin Conroy , have provided Batman's voice in animation and video games. In September 2024, Batman was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , being the first superhero to receive the honor. Publication history Creation and early history In early 1939, following the success of Superman , DC Comics ' editors requested more superheroes. [ 8 ] Bob Kane created Batman, initially drawing a character with red tights, bat wings, and a domino mask. Bill Finger , a collaborator, made significant contributions by suggesting a cowl, cape, gloves, and a darker costume. [ 9 ] The character's alter ego, Bruce Wayne, was inspired by historical figures Robert the Bruce and Mad Anthony Wayne . [ 10 ] Batman's early adventures drew inspiration from contemporary pulp fiction and characters like Zorro and the Shadow, establishing Batman as a master detective with a dark, brooding persona driven by the murder of his parents. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages Batman debuted in Detective Comics #27 in 1939. Early stories were dark, featuring a Batman who did not shy away from killing. The character quickly became popular, leading to his own solo title in 1940. Robin, Batman's sidekick, was introduced in 1940, lightening the tone and boosting sales. Over the next few years, Batman's rogues' gallery expanded with iconic villains like the Joker and Catwoman. The 1950s saw Batman in lighter, science fiction-influenced stories. However, declining sales led to a 1964 revamp by editor Julius Schwartz, who returned Batman to his detective roots and updated his appearance. The 1966 Batman TV series introduced a campy, humorous tone, which was reflected in the comics until its cancellation in 1968. In the 1970s, writers Dennis O'Neil and Neal Adams restored Batman's dark, gritty nature, a trend that continued despite fluctuating sales. Modern Age and reboots In the Modern Age of Comic Books Batman comics have undergone significant transformations, reflecting changing storytelling trends and audience interests. Beginning with seminal works like The Dark Knight Returns in the 1980s, [ 13 ] which reintroduced Batman in a grittier, more mature context, the character's narrative evolved to explore deeper themes and darker tones. [ 14 ] This period also saw the exploration of Batman's origins and psyche through works like Batman: Year One , [ 14 ] [ 15 ] and Batman: The Killing Joke , which delved into the complexities of heroism and villainy. [ 16 ] In the 1990s, storylines such as " Knightfall " introduced new adversaries like Bane, who physically and mentally challenged Batman, leading to a temporary replacement by Jean-Paul Valley. The aftermath of an earthquake in "No Man's Land" depicted Gotham City in chaos, further pushing Batman to new limits of heroism and survival. [ 17 ] Entering the 21st century, Grant Morrison 's influential run introduced Damian Wayne as Batman's son and heir, bringing familial dynamics and a new generation of challenges to the forefront. Morrison's storytelling also delved into surreal and existential themes, such as in Batman R.I.P. and Final Crisis , which tested Batman's resolve and sanity against cosmic threats and personal demons. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] The New 52 reboot in 2011 refreshed Batman's continuity while preserving core elements of his character. This era introduced modern interpretations of classic storylines, like Night of the Owls , where Batman confronts the Court of Owls, a clandestine society controlling Gotham for centuries. The chilling return of the Joker in "Death of the Family" explored the intricate relationships within Batman's extended family of allies and adversaries. More recent developments under DC Rebirth and Infinite Frontier have continued to evolve Batman's universe, exploring new characters like Gotham and Gotham Girl , and tackling contemporary issues within the context of Gotham City's ever-evolving landscape of crime and heroism. [ 20 ] Characterization Bruce Wayne Batman's secret identity is Bruce Wayne, a wealthy American industrialist. As a child, Bruce witnessed the murder of his parents, Dr. Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne , which ultimately led him to craft the Batman persona and seek justice against criminals. He resides on the outskirts of Gotham City in his personal residence, Wayne Manor . Wayne averts suspicion by acting the part of a superficial playboy idly living off his family's fortune and the profits of Wayne Enterprises , his inherited conglomerate. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] He supports philanthropic causes through his nonprofit Wayne Foundation, which in part addresses social issues encouraging crime as well as assisting victims of it, but is more widely known as a celebrity socialite. [ 23 ] In public, he frequently appears in the company of high-status women, which encourages tabloid gossip. He feigns near-drunkenness by consuming large quantities of disguised ginger ale , though he is a teetotalor to maintain his physical and mental prowess. [ 24 ] Although Bruce Wayne leads an active romantic life, his vigilante activities as Batman account for most of his time. [ 25 ] While Bruce Wayne is never depicted as being especially religious, he is ethnically Jewish on his mother's side; [ 26 ] [ 27 ] his maternal cousin Batwoman (Kate Kane) is practising. His father, Thomas , raised Bruce as a Christian, but as an adult he doesn't follow any religion. [ 26 ] [ 28 ] Various modern stories have portrayed the extravagant, playboy image of Bruce Wayne as a facade. [ 29 ] This is in contrast to the Post- Crisis Superman, whose Clark Kent persona is the true identity, while the Superman persona is the facade. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In Batman Unmasked , a television documentary about the psychology of the character, behavioral scientist Benjamin Karney notes that Batman's personality is driven by Bruce Wayne's inherent humanity; that "Batman, for all its benefits and for all of the time Bruce Wayne devotes to it, is ultimately a tool for Bruce Wayne's efforts to make the world better". Bruce Wayne's principles include the desire to prevent future harm and a vow not to kill. Bruce Wayne believes that our actions define us, we fail for a reason, and anything is possible. [ 32 ] Writers of Batman and Superman stories have often compared and contrasted the two. Interpretations vary depending on the writer, the story, and the timing. Grant Morrison [ 33 ] notes that both heroes "believe in the same kind of things" despite the day/night contrast their heroic roles display. Morrison notes an equally stark contrast in their real identities. Bruce Wayne and Clark Kent belong to different social classes: "Bruce has a butler, Clark has a boss." T. James Musler's book Unleashing the Superhero in Us All explores the extent to which Bruce Wayne's vast personal wealth is important in his life story, and the crucial role it plays in his efforts as Batman. [ 34 ] Will Brooker notes in his book Batman Unmasked that "the confirmation of the Batman's identity lies with the young audience ...he doesn't have to be Bruce Wayne; he just needs the suit and gadgets, the abilities, and most importantly the morality, the humanity. There's just a sense about him: 'they trust him ...and they're never wrong." [ 35 ] Personality Batman's primary character traits can be summarized as "wealth; physical prowess; deductive abilities and obsession" . [ 36 ] The details and tone of Batman comic books have varied over the years with different creative teams. Dennis O'Neil noted that character consistency was not a major concern during early editorial regimes: " Julie Schwartz did a Batman in Batman and Detective and Murray Boltinoff did a Batman in the Brave and the Bold and apart from the costume they bore very little resemblance to each other. Julie and Murray did not want to coordinate their efforts, nor were they asked to do so. Continuity was not important in those days." [ 37 ] The driving force behind Bruce Wayne's character is his parents' murder and their absence. Bob Kane and Bill Finger discussed Batman's background and decided that "there's nothing more traumatic than having your parents murdered before your eyes". [ 38 ] Despite his trauma, he sets his mind on studying to become a scientist [ 39 ] [ 40 ] and to train his body into physical perfection [ 39 ] [ 40 ] to fight crime in Gotham City as Batman, an inspired idea from Wayne's insight into the criminal mind. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] He also speaks over 40 languages. [ 41 ] Another of Batman's characterizations is that of a vigilante; in order to stop evil that started with the death of his parents, he must sometimes break the law himself. Although manifested differently by being re-told by different artists, it is nevertheless that the details and the prime components of Batman's origin have never varied at all in the comic books, the "reiteration of the basic origin events holds together otherwise divergent expressions". [ 42 ] The origin is the source of the character's traits and attributes, which play out in many of the character's adventures. [ 36 ] Batman is often treated as a vigilante by other characters in his stories. Frank Miller views the character as "a dionysian figure, a force for anarchy that imposes an individual order". [ 43 ] Dressed as a bat, Batman deliberately cultivates a frightening persona in order to aid him in crime-fighting, [ 44 ] a fear that originates from the criminals' own guilty conscience . [ 45 ] Miller is often credited with reintroducing anti-heroic traits into Batman's characterization, [ 46 ] such as his brooding personality, willingness to use violence and torture, and increasingly alienated behavior. Batman, shortly a year after his debut and the introduction of Robin, was changed in 1940 after DC editor Whitney Ellsworth felt the character would be tainted by his lethal methods and DC established their own ethical code, subsequently he was retconned to have a stringent moral code, [ 47 ] [ 48 ] which has stayed with the character of Batman ever since. Miller's Batman was closer to the original pre-Robin version, who was willing to kill criminals if necessary. [ 49 ] Others On several occasions former Robin Dick Grayson has served as Batman; most notably in 2009 while Wayne was believed dead, and served as a second Batman even after Wayne returned in 2010. [ 50 ] As part of DC's 2011 continuity relaunch , Grayson returned to being Nightwing following the Flashpoint crossover event. In an interview with IGN , Morrison detailed that having Dick Grayson as Batman and Damian Wayne as Robin represented a "reverse" of the normal dynamic between Batman and Robin, with, "a more light-hearted and spontaneous Batman and a scowling, badass Robin". Morrison explained their intentions for the new characterization of Batman: "Dick Grayson is kind of this consummate superhero. The guy has been Batman's partner since he was a kid, he's led the Teen Titans , and he's trained with everybody in the DC Universe. So he's a very different kind of Batman. He's a lot easier; He's a lot looser and more relaxed." [ 51 ] Over the years, there have been numerous others to assume the name of Batman, or to officially take over for Bruce during his leaves of absence. Jean-Paul Valley, also known as Azrael , assumed the cowl after the events of the Knightfall saga. [ 50 ] Jim Gordon donned a mecha-suit after the events of Batman: Endgame , and served as Batman in 2015 and 2016. In 2021, as part of the Fear State crossover event, Lucius Fox 's son Jace Fox succeeds Bruce as Batman in a 2021 storyline, depicted in the series I Am Batman , after Batman was declared dead. Additionally, members of the group Batman Incorporated , Bruce Wayne's experiment at franchising his brand of vigilantism, have at times stood in as the official Batman in cities around the world. [ 50 ] Various others have also taken up the role of Batman in stories set in alternative universes and possible futures, including, among them, various former proteges of Bruce Wayne. Supporting characters Batman's interactions with both villains and cohorts have, over time, developed a strong supporting cast of characters. [ 36 ] Enemies Batman faces a variety of foes ranging from common criminals to outlandish supervillains. Many of them mirror aspects of the Batman's character and development, often having tragic origin stories that lead them to a life of crime. [ 52 ] These foes are commonly referred to as Batman's rogues gallery . Batman's "most implacable foe" is the Joker , a homicidal maniac with a clown-like appearance. The Joker is considered by critics to be his perfect adversary, since he is the antithesis of Batman in personality and appearance; the Joker has a maniacal demeanor with a colorful appearance, while Batman has a serious and resolute demeanor with a dark appearance. As a "personification of the irrational", the Joker represents "everything Batman [opposes]". [ 53 ] Other long-time recurring foes that are part of Batman's rogues gallery include Catwoman (a cat burglar anti-heroine who is variously an ally and romantic interest), the Penguin , Ra's al Ghul , Two-Face (Harvey Dent), the Riddler , the Scarecrow , Mr. Freeze , Poison Ivy , Harley Quinn , Bane , Clayface , and Killer Croc , among others. Many of Batman's adversaries are often psychiatric patients at Arkham Asylum . Allies Alfred Pennyworth , Batman's loyal butler and father figure, first appeared in Batman #16 (1943). After Bruce Wayne's parents were killed, Alfred raised Bruce and became one of the few people to know his secret identity. He is often portrayed as a steadying presence in Bruce's life, offering both emotional support and practical assistance in Batman's crime-fighting endeavors. More than just a caretaker, Alfred is a trusted ally and sometimes sidekick, sharing Wayne Manor with Bruce and contributing to Batman's mission. [ 52 ] One of Batman's most crucial allies is Commissioner James Gordon . Their relationship is built on mutual respect and a shared commitment to justice in Gotham City. In Batman: Year One , Gordon and Batman learn to trust each other, which transforms their efforts against crime into a more effective partnership. Gordon's perspective as a police officer complements Batman's vigilantism, allowing them to tackle Gotham's challenges together. Another important ally is the Justice League , which further emphasizes the importance of collaboration. Batman's relationship with Superman showcases how their contrasting ideologies can complement each other. In stories like World's Finest , their friendship highlights how Batman's methods benefit from Superman's optimism and strength. [ 54 ] Sidekicks Robin, Batman's vigilante partner, has been a widely recognized supporting character for many years; each iteration of the Robin character, of which there have been five in the mainstream continuity, function as members of the Batman family, but additionally, as Batman's "central" sidekick in various media. [ 55 ] Bill Finger stated that he wanted to include Robin because "Batman didn't have anyone to talk to, and it got a little tiresome always having him thinking." [ 56 ] The first Robin, Dick Grayson , was introduced in 1940. In the 1970s he finally grew up, went off to college and became the hero Nightwing . A second Robin, Jason Todd was introduced in the 1980s, following Dick Grayson's departure from the role. Initially impulsive and rebellious, Jason's tenure as Robin was controversial among fans. In 1988, DC held a fan vote to determine his fate in the iconic A Death in the Family storyline, where the Joker brutally beat Jason with a crowbar and left him to die in an explosion. The fans voted for his death. However, Jason was later resurrected and returned as the antihero Red Hood . [ 57 ] The third Robin in the mainstream comics is Tim Drake , who first appeared in 1989. He went on to star in his own comic series, and goes by the name Red Robin , a variation on the traditional Robin persona. In the first decade of the new millennium, Stephanie Brown served as the fourth in-universe Robin between stints as her self-made vigilante identity the Spoiler, and later as Batgirl . [ 58 ] After Brown's apparent death, Drake resumed the role of Robin for a time. The role eventually passed to Damian Wayne , the 10-year-old son of Bruce Wayne and Talia al Ghul , in the late 2000s. [ 59 ] Damian's tenure as du jour Robin ended when the character was killed off in the pages of Batman Incorporated in 2013. [ 60 ] Batman's next young sidekick is Harper Row , a streetwise young woman who avoids the name Robin but followed the ornithological theme nonetheless; she debuted the codename and identity of the Bluebird in 2014. Unlike the Robins, the Bluebird is willing and permitted to use a gun, albeit non-lethal ; her weapon of choice is a modified rifle that fires taser rounds. [ 61 ] In 2015, a new series began titled We Are...Robin , focused on a group of teenagers using the Robin persona to fight crime in Gotham City. The most prominent of these, Duke Thomas , later becomes Batman's crimefighting partner as The Signal. [ 62 ] Romantic interests Batman's first love interest was Julie Madison , an actress introduced in Detective Comics #31 (1939), they ultimately got engaged, and later she left him due to his playboy persona. [ 63 ] Following The New 52 DC relaunch, the character was reintroduced as an artist whose father was a gunrunner involved in the death of Bruce's parents. [ 63 ] Catwoman/Selina Kyle debuting in Batman #1 (1940), during the Golden Age of Comics . [ 63 ] She was created in the pre– Comics Code era and portrayed as a "flirtatious and sensual" character to add a layer of sex appeal to Batman. [ 64 ] The two ultimately got engaged during the DC Rebirth relaunch. [ 63 ] Another love interest is intrepid reporter Vicki Vale , who debuted in Batman #49 (1948), and was inspired by Superman ’s love interest, reporter Lois Lane . Vicki frequently tried to prove that Bruce Wayne was Batman, but never succeeded. [ 63 ] This was followed by Linda Page , who debuted in Batman #5 (1941) as a rich socialite turned nurse. [ 63 ] Kathy Kane/Batwoman debuted in Detective Comics #233 (1956) alongside her sister Bette Kane . Kathy was introduced as a love interest for Batman, following allegations of homosexuality between Batman and Robin. [ 63 ] The character was written out in the 1960s and returned in the 1970s to be killed by the League of Assassins . Writer Grant Morrison later brought Kathy back into DC's continuity in Batman, Inc. , as part of his attempts to canonize every Batman story, but she was ultimately killed off again. [ 63 ] Talia al Ghul , introduced in Detective Comics #411 (1971) as the daughter of Batman's enemy Ra's al Ghul . Their love story resulted in the birth of Damian Wayne , who would later become Robin . [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Natalia Knight/Nocturna , debuted in Detective Comics #529 (1983) as the leader of a criminal organization. She became Batman's love interest and later the adopted mother of Jason Todd . Nocturna was later killed by her former lover, Night-Slayer , but returned in subsequent continuity. [ 63 ] Abilities Skills and training Batman has no inherent superhuman powers; he relies on "his own scientific knowledge, detective skills, and athletic prowess". [ 66 ] Batman's inexhaustible wealth gives him access to advanced technologies, and as a proficient scientist , he is able to use and modify these technologies to his advantage. In the stories, Batman is regarded as one of the world's greatest detectives, if not the world's greatest crime solver. [ 67 ] Batman has been repeatedly described as having a genius-level intellect, being one of the greatest martial artists in the DC Universe, and having peak human physical and mental conditioning. [ 68 ] As a polymath , his knowledge and expertise in countless disciplines is nearly unparalleled by any other character in the DC Universe. He has shown prowess in assorted fields such as mathematics, biology, physics, chemistry, and several levels of engineering. [ 69 ] He has traveled the world acquiring the skills needed to aid him in his endeavors as Batman. In the Superman: Doomed story arc, Superman considers Batman to be one of the most brilliant minds on the planet. [ 70 ] Batman has trained extensively in various fighting styles, making him one of the best hand-to-hand fighters in the DC Universe. He possesses a photographic memory , [ 71 ] and has fully utilized his photographic memory to master a total of 127 forms of martial arts. [ 72 ] In terms of his physical condition, Batman is described as peak human and far beyond an Olympic-athlete-level condition, able to perform feats such as easily running across rooftops in a Parkour -esque fashion, pressing thousands of pounds regularly, and even bench pressing six hundred pounds of soil and coffin in a poisoned and starved state. Superman describes Batman as "the most dangerous man on Earth", able to defeat an entire team of superpowered extraterrestrials by himself in order to rescue his imprisoned teammates in Grant Morrison's first storyline in JLA . Batman is strongly disciplined, and he has the ability to function under great physical pain and resist most forms of telepathy and mind control . He is a master of disguise , multilingual, and an expert in espionage , often gathering information under the identity of a notorious gangster named Matches Malone. Batman is highly skilled in stealth movement and escapology , which allows him to appear and disappear at will and to break free of nearly inescapable deathtraps with little to no harm. He is also a master strategist, considered DC's greatest tactician, with numerous plans in preparation for almost any eventuality. Batman is an expert in interrogation techniques and his intimidating and frightening appearance alone is often all that is needed in getting information from suspects. Despite having the potential to harm his enemies, Batman's most defining characteristic is his strong commitment to justice and his reluctance to take a life. This unyielding moral rectitude has earned him the respect of several heroes in the DC Universe, most notably that of Superman and Wonder Woman . Among physical and other crime fighting related training, he is also proficient at other types of skills. Some of these include being a licensed pilot (in order to operate the Batplane ), as well as being able to operate other types of machinery. In some publications, he even underwent some magician training. Technology Batman utilizes a vast arsenal of specialized, high-tech vehicles and gadgets in his war against crime, the designs of which usually share a bat motif. Batman historian Les Daniels credits Gardner Fox with creating the concept of Batman's arsenal with the introduction of the utility belt in Detective Comics #29 (July 1939) and the first bat-themed weapons the batarang and the "Batgyro" in Detective Comics #31 and 32 (Sept. and October 1939). [ 73 ] Batman's batsuit aids in his combat against enemies, having the properties of both Kevlar and Nomex . It protects him from gunfire and other significant impacts, and incorporates the imagery of a bat in order to frighten criminals. [ 74 ] The details of the Batman costume change repeatedly through various decades, stories, media and artists' interpretations, but the most distinctive elements remain consistent: a scallop-hem cape; a cowl covering most of the face; a pair of bat-like ears; a stylized bat emblem on the chest; and the ever-present utility belt. His gloves typically feature three scallops that protrude from long, gauntlet-like cuffs, although in his earliest appearances he wore short, plain gloves without the scallops. [ 75 ] The overall look of the character, particularly the length of the cowl's ears and of the cape, varies greatly depending on the artist. Dennis O'Neil said, "We now say that Batman has two hundred suits hanging in the Batcave so they don't have to look the same ...Everybody loves to draw Batman, and everybody wants to put their own spin on it." [ 76 ] Finger and Kane originally conceptualized Batman as having a black cape and cowl and grey suit, but conventions in coloring called for black to be highlighted with blue. [ 74 ] Hence, the costume's colors have appeared in the comics as dark blue and grey; [ 74 ] as well as black and grey. In the Tim Burton 's Batman and Batman Returns films, Batman has been depicted as completely black with a bat in the middle surrounded by a yellow background. Christopher Nolan 's The Dark Knight Trilogy depicted Batman wearing high-tech gear painted completely black with a black bat in the middle. Ben Affleck 's Batman in the DC Extended Universe films wears a suit grey in color with a black cowl, cape, and bat symbol. Seemingly following the suit of the DC Extended Universe outfit, Robert Pattinson 's uniform in The Batman restores the more traditional gray bodysuit and black appendage design, notably different from prior iterations by mostly utilizing real world armor and apparel pieces from modern military and motorcycle gear. Batman's primary vehicle is the Batmobile , which is usually depicted as an imposing black car, often with tailfins that suggest a bat's wings. Batman also has an aircraft called the Batplane (originally a relatively traditionally, but bat-motifed plane, later seen as the much more unique "Batwing" starting in the 1989 film ), along with various other means of transportation. In proper practice, the "bat" prefix (as in Batmobile or batarang) is rarely used by Batman himself when referring to his equipment, particularly after some portrayals (primarily the 1960s Batman live-action television show and the Super Friends animated series) stretched the practice to campy proportions. For example, the 1960s television show depicted a Batboat, Bat-Sub , and Batcycle, among other bat-themed vehicles. The 1960s television series Batman has an arsenal that includes such "bat-" names as the Bat-computer, Bat-scanner, bat-radar, bat-cuffs, bat-pontoons, bat-drinking water dispenser, bat-camera with polarized bat-filter, bat- shark repellent bat-spray, and Bat-rope. The storyline "A Death in the Family" suggests that given Batman's grim nature, he is unlikely to have adopted the "bat" prefix on his own. In The Dark Knight Returns , Batman tells Carrie Kelley that the original Robin came up with the name "Batmobile" when he was young, since that is what a kid would call Batman's vehicle. The Batmobile, which was before frequently depicted to resemble a sports car , was redesigned in 2011 when DC Comics relaunched its entire line of comic books, with the Batmobile being given heavier armor and new aesthetics. Batman keeps most of his field equipment in his utility belt . Over the years it has shown to contain an assortment of crime-fighting tools, weapons, and investigative and technological instruments. Different versions of the belt have these items stored in compartments, often as pouches or hard cylinders attached evenly around it. Since the 1989 film , Batman is often depicted as carrying a projectile which shoots a retractable grappling hook attached to a cable (before this, a he employed a traditionally thrown grappling hook.) This allows him to attach to distant objects, be propelled into the air, and thus swing from the rooftops of Gotham City. An exception to the range of Batman's equipment are hand guns , which he refuses to use on principle, since a gun was used in his parents' murder. In modern stories in terms of his vehicles, Batman compromises on that principle to install weapon systems on them for the purpose of non-lethally disabling other vehicles, forcing entry into locations and attacking dangerous targets too large to defeat by other means. When Batman is needed, the Gotham City police activate a searchlight with a bat-shaped insignia over the lens called the Bat-Signal, which shines into the night sky, creating a bat-symbol on a passing cloud which can be seen from any point in Gotham. The origin of the signal varies, depending on the continuity and medium. In various incarnations, most notably the 1960s Batman TV series , Commissioner Gordon also has a dedicated phone line, dubbed the Bat-Phone, connected to a bright red telephone (in the TV series) which sits on a wooden base and has a transparent top. The line connects directly to Batman's residence, Wayne Manor , specifically both to a similar phone sitting on the desk in Bruce Wayne's study and the extension phone in the Batcave. The Batcave is Batman's secret headquarters, consisting of a series of caves beneath his mansion, Wayne Manor . As his command center, the Batcave serves multiple purposes; supercomputer, surveillance, redundant power-generators, forensics lab, medical infirmary, private study, training dojo, fabrication workshop, arsenal, hangar and garage. It houses the vehicles and equipment Batman uses in his campaign to fight crime. It is also a trophy room and storage facility for Batman's unique memorabilia collected over the years from various cases he has worked on. In both the comic book Batman: Shadow of the Bat #45 and the 2005 film Batman Begins , the cave is said to have been part of the Underground Railroad . Fictional character biography Batman's history has undergone many retroactive continuity revisions, both minor and major. Elements of the character's history have varied greatly. Scholars William Uricchio and Roberta E. Pearson noted in the early 1990s, "Unlike some fictional characters, the Batman has no primary urtext set in a specific period, but has rather existed in a plethora of equally valid texts constantly appearing over more than five decades." [ 77 ] 20th century Origin The central fixed event in the Batman stories is the character's origin story . [ 36 ] As a young boy, Bruce Wayne was horrified and traumatized when he watched his parents, the physician Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha , murdered with a gun by a mugger named Joe Chill . Batman refuses to utilize any sort of gun on the principle that a gun was used to murder his parents. This event drove him to train his body to its peak condition and fight crime in Gotham City as Batman. Pearson and Uricchio also noted beyond the origin story and such events as the introduction of Robin, "Until recently, the fixed and accruing and hence, canonized, events have been few in number", [ 36 ] a situation altered by an increased effort by later Batman editors such as Dennis O'Neil to ensure consistency and continuity between stories. [ 78 ] Golden Age In Batman's first appearance in Detective Comics #27, he is already operating as a crime-fighter. [ 79 ] Batman's origin is first presented in Detective Comics #33 (November 1939) and is later expanded upon in Batman #47. As these comics state, Bruce Wayne is born to Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha, two very wealthy and charitable Gotham City socialites. Bruce is brought up in Wayne Manor , and leads a happy and privileged existence until the age of 8, when his parents are killed by a small-time criminal named Joe Chill while on their way home from a movie theater. That night, Bruce Wayne swears an oath to spend his life fighting crime. He engages in intense intellectual and physical training; however, he realizes that these skills alone would not be enough. "Criminals are a superstitious cowardly lot", Wayne remarks, "so my disguise must be able to strike terror into their hearts. I must be a creature of the night, black, terrible ..." As if responding to his desires, a bat suddenly flies through the window, inspiring Bruce to craft the Batman persona. [ 80 ] In early strips, Batman's career as a vigilante earns him the ire of the police. During this period, Bruce Wayne has a fiancé named Julie Madison . [ 81 ] In Detective Comics #38, Wayne takes in an orphaned circus acrobat, Dick Grayson , who becomes his vigilante partner, Robin . Batman also becomes a founding member of the Justice Society of America , [ 82 ] although he, like Superman, is an honorary member, [ 83 ] and thus only participates occasionally. Batman's relationship with the law thaws quickly, and he is made an honorary member of Gotham City's police department . [ 84 ] During this time, Alfred Pennyworth arrives at Wayne Manor, and after deducing the Dynamic Duo's secret identities, joins their service as their butler. [ 85 ] Silver Age The Silver Age of Comic Books in DC Comics is sometimes held to have begun in 1956 when the publisher introduced Barry Allen as a new, updated version of the Flash . Batman is not significantly changed by the late 1950s for the continuity which would be later referred to as Earth-One . The lighter tone Batman had taken in the period between the Golden and Silver Ages led to the stories of the late 1950s and early 1960s that often feature many science-fiction elements, and Batman is not significantly updated in the manner of other characters until Detective Comics #327 (May 1964), in which Batman reverts to his detective roots, with most science-fiction elements jettisoned from the series. After the introduction of DC Comics' Multiverse in the 1960s, DC established that stories from the Golden Age star the Earth-Two Batman , a character from a parallel world. This version of Batman partners with and marries the reformed Earth-Two Catwoman (Selina Kyle). The two have a daughter, Helena Wayne , who becomes the Huntress. She assumes the position as Gotham's protector along with Dick Grayson, the Earth-Two Robin , once Bruce Wayne retires to become police commissioner. Wayne holds the position of police commissioner until he is killed during one final adventure as Batman. Batman titles, however, often ignored that a distinction had been made between the pre-revamp and post-revamp Batmen (since unlike the Flash or Green Lantern , Batman comics had been published without interruption through the 1950s) and would occasionally make reference to stories from the Golden Age. [ 86 ] Nevertheless, details of Batman's history were altered or expanded upon through the decades. Additions include meetings with a future Superman during his youth, his upbringing by his uncle Philip Wayne (introduced in Batman #208 (February 1969)) after his parents' death, and appearances of his father and himself as prototypical versions of Batman and Robin, respectively. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] In 1980, then-editor Paul Levitz commissioned the Untold Legend of the Batman miniseries to thoroughly chronicle Batman's origin and history. Batman meets and regularly works with other heroes during the Silver Age, most notably Superman, whom he began regularly working alongside in a series of team-ups in World's Finest Comics , starting in 1954 and continuing through the series' cancellation in 1986. Batman and Superman are usually depicted as close friends. As a founding member of the Justice League of America, Batman appears in its first story, in 1960's The Brave and the Bold #28. In the 1970s and 1980s, The Brave and the Bold became a Batman title, in which Batman teams up with a different DC Universe superhero each month. Bronze Age In 1969, Dick Grayson attends college as part of DC Comics' effort to revise the Batman comics. Additionally, Batman also moves from his mansion, Wayne Manor into a penthouse apartment atop the Wayne Foundation building in downtown Gotham City, in order to be closer to Gotham City's crime. In 1974's "Night of the Stalker" storyline, a diploma on the wall reveals Bruce Wayne as a graduate of Yale Law School . [ 89 ] Batman spends the 1970s and early 1980s mainly working solo, with occasional team-ups with Robin or Batgirl. Batman's adventures also become somewhat darker and more grim during this period, depicting increasingly violent crimes, including the first appearance (since the early Golden Age) of the Joker as a homicidal psychopath , and the arrival of Ra's al Ghul , a centuries-old terrorist who knows Batman's secret identity. In the 1980s, Dick Grayson becomes Nightwing . [ 90 ] In the final issue of The Brave and the Bold in 1983, Batman quits the Justice League and forms a new group called the Outsiders . He serves as the team's leader until Batman and the Outsiders #32 (1986) and the comic subsequently changed its title. Modern Age After the 12-issue miniseries Crisis on Infinite Earths , DC Comics retconned the histories of some major characters in an attempt at updating them for contemporary audiences. Frank Miller retold Batman's origin in the storyline " Year One " from Batman #404–407, which emphasizes a grittier tone in the character. [ 91 ] Though the Earth-Two Batman is erased from history, many stories of Batman's Silver Age/Earth-One career (along with an amount of Golden Age ones) remain canonical in the post- Crisis universe, with his origins remaining the same in essence, despite alteration. For example, Gotham's police are mostly corrupt, setting up further need for Batman's existence. The guardian Phillip Wayne is removed, leaving young Bruce to be raised by Alfred Pennyworth. Additionally, Batman is no longer a founding member of the Justice League of America, although he becomes leader for a short time of a new incarnation of the team launched in 1987. To help fill in the revised backstory for Batman following Crisis , DC launched a new Batman title called Legends of the Dark Knight in 1989 and has published various miniseries and one-shot stories since then that largely take place during the "Year One" period. [ 92 ] Subsequently, Batman begins exhibiting an excessive, reckless approach to his crimefighting, a result of the pain of losing Jason Todd . Batman works solo until the decade's close, when Tim Drake becomes the new Robin. [ 93 ] Many of the major Batman storylines since the 1990s have been intertitle crossovers that run for a number of issues. In 1993, DC published " Knightfall ". During the storyline's first phase, the new villain Bane paralyzes Batman, leading Wayne to ask Azrael to take on the role. After the end of "Knightfall", the storylines split in two directions, following both the Azrael-Batman's adventures, and Bruce Wayne's quest to become Batman once more. The story arcs realign in "KnightsEnd", as Azrael becomes increasingly violent and is defeated by a healed Bruce Wayne. Wayne hands the Batman mantle to Dick Grayson (then Nightwing) for an interim period, while Wayne trains for a return to the role. [ 94 ] The 1994 company-wide crossover storyline Zero Hour: Crisis in Time! changes aspects of DC continuity again, including those of Batman. Noteworthy among these changes is that the general populace and the criminal element now consider Batman an urban legend rather than a known force. Batman once again becomes a member of the Justice League during Grant Morrison's 1996 relaunch of the series, titled JLA . During this time, Gotham City faces catastrophe in the decade's closing crossover arc. In 1998's " Cataclysm " storyline, Gotham City is devastated by an earthquake and ultimately cut off from the United States. Deprived of many of his technological resources, Batman fights to reclaim the city from legions of gangs during 1999's " No Man's Land ". Meanwhile, Batman's relationship with the Gotham City Police Department changed for the worse with the events of "Batman: Officer Down" and "Batman: War Games/War Crimes"; Batman's long-time law enforcement allies Commissioner Gordon and Harvey Bullock are forced out of the police department in "Officer Down", while "War Games" and "War Crimes" saw Batman become a wanted fugitive after a contingency plan of his to neutralize Gotham City's criminal underworld is accidentally triggered, resulting in a massive gang war that ends with Black Mask becoming the undisputed ruler of the city's criminal gangs. Lex Luthor arranges for the murder of Batman's on-again, off-again love interest Vesper Fairchild (introduced in the mid-1990s) during the "Bruce Wayne: Murderer?" and " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " story arcs. Though Batman is able to clear his name, he loses another ally in the form of his new bodyguard Sasha Bordeaux , who is recruited into the organization Checkmate while stuck in prison due to her refusal to turn state's evidence against her employer. While he was unable to prove that Luthor was behind the murder of Vesper, Batman does get his revenge with help from Talia al Ghul in Superman/Batman #1–6. 21st century 2000s DC Comics' 2005 miniseries Identity Crisis reveals that JLA member Zatanna had edited Batman's memories to prevent him from stopping the Justice League from lobotomizing Dr. Light after he raped Sue Dibny . Batman later creates the satellite surveillance system Brother Eye to watch over and, if necessary, kill the other heroes after he remembered. The revelation of Batman's creation and his tacit responsibility for Blue Beetle 's death becomes a driving force in the lead-up to the Infinite Crisis miniseries, which again restructures DC continuity. Batman and a team of superheroes destroy Brother Eye and the OMACs , though, at the very end, Batman reaches his apparent breaking point when Alexander Luthor Jr. seriously wounds Nightwing. Picking up a gun, Batman nearly shoots Luthor in order to avenge his former sidekick, until Wonder Woman convinces him to not pull the trigger. Following Infinite Crisis , Bruce Wayne, Dick Grayson (having recovered from his wounds), and Tim Drake retrace the steps Bruce had taken when he originally left Gotham City, to "rebuild Batman". [ 95 ] In the Face the Face storyline, Batman and Robin return to Gotham City after their year-long absence. Part of this absence is captured during Week 30 of the 52 series, which shows Batman fighting his inner demons. [ 96 ] Later on in 52 , Batman is shown undergoing an intense meditation ritual in Nanda Parbat . This becomes an important part of the regular Batman title, which reveals that Batman is reborn as a more effective crime fighter while undergoing this ritual, having "hunted down and ate" the last traces of fear in his mind. [ 97 ] [ 98 ] At the end of the "Face the Face" story arc, Bruce officially adopts Tim (who had lost both of his parents at various points in the character's history) as his son. [ 99 ] The follow-up story arc in Batman , Batman and Son , introduces Damian Wayne , who is Batman's son with Talia al Ghul . Although originally, in Batman: Son of the Demon , Bruce's coupling with Talia was implied to be consensual, this arc retconned it into Talia forcing herself on Bruce. [ 100 ] Batman, along with Superman and Wonder Woman, reforms the Justice League in the new Justice League of America series, [ 101 ] and is leading the newest incarnation of the Outsiders . [ 102 ] Grant Morrison 's 2008 storyline, " Batman R.I.P. " featured Batman being physically and mentally broken by the enigmatic villain Doctor Hurt and attracted news coverage in advance of its highly promoted conclusion, which would speculated to feature the death of Bruce Wayne. [ 103 ] However, though Batman is shown to possibly perish at the end of the arc, the two-issue arc "Last Rites", which leads into the crossover storyline " Final Crisis ", shows that Batman survives his helicopter crash into the Gotham City River and returns to the Batcave, only to be summoned to the Hall of Justice by the JLA to help investigate the New God Orion 's death. The story ends with Batman retrieving the god-killing bullet used to kill Orion, setting up its use in "Final Crisis". [ 104 ] In the pages of Final Crisis Batman is reduced to a charred skeleton. [ 105 ] In Final Crisis #7, Wayne is shown witnessing the death of the first man, Anthro . [ 106 ] [ 107 ] Wayne's "death" sets up the three-issue Battle for the Cowl miniseries in which Wayne's ex-proteges compete for the "right" to assume the role of Batman, which concludes with Grayson becoming Batman, [ 108 ] while Tim Drake takes on the identity of the Red Robin . [ 109 ] Dick and Damian continue as Batman and Robin, and in the crossover storyline " Blackest Night ", what appears to be Wayne's corpse is reanimated as a Black Lantern zombie , [ 110 ] but is later shown that the corpse is one of Darkseid's failed Batman clones. Dick and Batman's other friends conclude that Bruce is alive. [ 111 ] [ 112 ] 2010s Bruce subsequently returned in Morrison's miniseries Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne , which depicted his travels through time from prehistory to present-day Gotham. [ 113 ] [ 114 ] [ 115 ] Bruce's return set up Batman Incorporated , an ongoing series which focused on Wayne franchising the Batman identity across the globe, allowing Dick and Damian to continue as Gotham's Dynamic Duo. Bruce publicly announced that Wayne Enterprises will aid Batman on his mission, known as "Batman, Incorporated". However, due to rebooted continuity that occurred as part of DC Comics' 2011 relaunch of all of its comic books, The New 52 , Dick Grayson was restored as Nightwing with Wayne serving as the sole Batman once again. The relaunch also interrupted the publication of Batman, Incorporated , which resumed its story in 2012–2013 with changes to suit the new status quo. The New 52 During The New 52 , all of DC's continuity was reset and the timeline was changed, making Batman the first superhero to emerge. This emergence took place during Zero Year , where Bruce Wayne returns to Gotham and becomes Batman, fighting the original Red Hood [ 116 ] and the Riddler. [ 117 ] In the present day, Batman discovers the Court of Owls , a secret organization operating in Gotham for decades. [ 118 ] Batman somewhat defeats the Court by defeating Owlman, [ 119 ] although the Court continues to operate on a smaller scale. [ 120 ] The Joker returns after losing the skin on his face (as shown in the opening issue of the second volume of Detective Comics ) and attempts to kill the Batman's allies, though he is stopped by Batman. [ 121 ] After some time, Joker returns again, and both he and Batman die while fighting each other. Jim Gordon temporarily becomes Batman, using a high-tech suit, while it is revealed that an amnesiac Bruce Wayne is still alive. [ citation needed ] Gordon attempts to fight a new villain called Mr. Bloom , while Wayne, regains his memories with the help of Alfred Pennyworth and Julie Madison . Once with his memories, Wayne becomes Batman again and defeats Bloom with the help of Gordon. [ citation needed ] DC Rebirth The timeline was reset again during Rebirth , although no significant changes were made to the Batman mythos. [ citation needed ] Batman meets two new superheroes operating in Gotham named Gotham and Gotham Girl. Psycho-Pirate gets into Gotham's head and turns against Batman, and is finally defeated when he is killed. This event is very traumatic for Gotham Girl and she begins to lose her sanity. [ 122 ] Batman forms his own Suicide Squad , including Catwoman, and attempts to take down Bane . The mission is successful, and Batman breaks Bane's back. [ 123 ] Batman proposes to Catwoman. After healing from his wounds, an angry Bane travels to Gotham, where he fights Batman and loses. [ 124 ] Batman then tells Catwoman about the War of Jokes and Riddles, and she agrees to marry him. [ 125 ] Bane takes control of Arkham Asylum and manipulates Catwoman into leaving Wayne before the wedding. [ 126 ] This causes Wayne to become very angry, and, as Batman, lashes out against criminals, nearly killing Mr. Freeze. [ 127 ] Batman learns of Bane's control over Arkham and teams up with the Penguin to stop him. [ 128 ] Bane captures Batman, and Scarecrow causes him to hallucinate, although he eventually breaks free. [ 129 ] Batman escapes and reunites with Catwoman, while Bane captures and kills Alfred Pennyworth. Batman returns and defeats Bane, although too late to save Alfred. Gotham Girl prompts him to marry Catwoman. [ 130 ] It is revealed that the Joker who was working for Bane was Clayface in disguise. The real Joker has been plotting a master plan to take over Gotham. This plan comes to fruition during The Joker War , in which Joker takes over the city. Batman defeats the Joker who vanishes after an explosion. [ 131 ] Ghost-Maker , an enemy from Batman's past, appears in Gotham, and, after a battle, becomes a sort of ally to Batman. [ 132 ] A new group called the Magistrate rises up in Gotham, led by Simon Saint, whose goal is to outlaw vigilantes such as Batman. At the same time, Scarecrow returns, [ 133 ] fighting Batman. During Fear State , Batman battles and defeats both Scarecrow and the Magistrate's Peacekeepers. Other versions The character of Batman has been portrayed in numerous alternative versions across various media since his debut in 1939. These adaptations explore different facets and interpretations of the character. In Smallville , Bruce Wayne adopts the Batman persona in 2001, later teaming up with Superman and other superheroes. [ 134 ] Frank Miller 's influential series, " The Dark Knight Returns ", reimagines Batman as an older, more hardened vigilante, coming out of retirement to fight crime in a dystopian future. [ 135 ] In the Injustice: Gods Among Us universe, Batman leads a resistance against a tyrannical Superman who has taken control of Earth. The DC Bombshells series sets Batman in a World War II -era context, with Bruce Wayne taking inspiration from Batwoman to become the masked hero. The "Dark Multiverse" introduces various twisted versions of Batman, such as The Batman Who Laughs , a hybrid of Batman and the Joker, and Red Death, a fusion of Batman and the Flash. Other notable reimaginings include JLA/Avengers , where Batman appears in a crossover with Marvel's Avengers ; Stan Lee 's Just Imagine , which offers a completely different origin for Batman; and "Kingdom Come", where an older Batman operates in a dystopian future alongside other aged superheroes. In "Superman: American Alien", Bruce Wayne's journey is retold with significant differences, and "Batman: White Knight" explores a reality where the Joker is cured of his insanity and seeks to expose Batman as the true villain of Gotham. These various adaptations and reinterpretations highlight the versatility and enduring appeal of Batman as a character, allowing for a rich exploration of his mythology across different narratives and settings. In popular culture Batman has ascended to the status of a global pop culture phenomenon, transcending his origins in comic books. His influence expanded notably with the release of the 1989 film, which propelled him to the forefront of public consciousness through widespread merchandising. The Guardian describes Batman as emblematic of the constant reinvention characteristic of modern mass culture, embodying both iconic status and commercial appeal, making him a quintessential cultural artifact of the 21st century. [ 136 ] Media appearances Apart from comics, Batman's presence spans various mediums, including newspapers, radio dramas, television, stage, and film. From the 1940s serials to contemporary TV shows like Gotham and Titans , Batman's legacy endures. Celebrating the character's 75th anniversary, Warner Bros released Batman: Strange Days , showcasing his timeless appeal. [ 137 ] In September 2024, Batman become the first superhero to be given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . It was the 2,790th star. [ 138 ] Criticism Batman has been criticized by fans for the extreme changes in tone and style between different iterations of the character in the franchise. [ 139 ] Different interpretations Gay interpretations of Batman have been studied academically since psychologist Fredric Wertham 's claims in 1954. [ 140 ] Andy Medhurst and Will Brooker have explored Batman's appeal to gay audiences and the validity of a queer reading. [ 141 ] Meanwhile, in psychological interpretations, Dr. Travis Langley sees Batman as representing the "shadow archetype", confronting inner darkness to fight evil, according to Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell's theories. Langley's analysis adds depth to Batman's psychological complexity. [ 142 ] Notes ^ Finger was not credited in official materials until 2015. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] ^ Sometimes referred to as "the Batman" and originally stylized as The Bat-Man References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Zalben, Alex (March 28, 2014). 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Batman Vol. 3: I Am Bane . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 4: The War of Jokes and Riddles . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 7: The Wedding . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 8: Cold Days . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 9: The Tyrant Wing . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 10: Knightmares . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 13: The City of Bane Part 2 . DC Comics . ^ Tynion IV, James. Batman Vol. 2: The Joker War . DC Comics . ^ Tynion IV, James. Batman Vol. 3: Ghost Stories . DC Comics . ^ Tynion IV, James. Batman Vol. 4: The Cowardly Lot . DC Comics . ^ Smallville: Season 11 #6-9 ^ "Comics Reviews, News, Heroes, Villains, Superheroes & Toys" . IGN . Retrieved June 6, 2024 . ^ Finkelstein, David; Macfarlane, Ross (March 15, 1999). "Batman's big birthday" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on January 14, 2008 . Retrieved June 19, 2007 . ^ Daniels (1999) , p. 50 ^ nrueda (September 26, 2024). "Batman becomes first superhero with star on Hollywood Walk of Fame" . INQUIRER.net USA . Retrieved October 6, 2024 . ^ Glazebrook, Lewis (October 10, 2023). "Why Batman's Most Consistent Movie Complaint Is Actually Great For The DCU's Reboot" . ScreenRant . Retrieved March 25, 2025 . ^ Wertham, Fredric. Seduction of the Innocent . Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1954. pp. 189–90. For discussion of Wertham's impact see Brooker (2001). ^ Medhurst, Andy. "Batman, Deviance, and Camp." The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . Routledge: London, 1991. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 , p. 150. ^ Langley, Travis. Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight . John Wiley & Sons; 1st edition, 2012, ISBN 1-118-16765-1 Sources Beatty, Scott (2005). The Batman Handbook: The Ultimate Training Manual . Quirk Books. ISBN 978-1-59474-023-7 . Boichel, Bill (1991). "Batman: Commodity as Myth". The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 . Daniels, Les (1999). Batman: The Complete History . Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0-8118-2470-5 . Daniels, Les (1995). DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes . Bulfinch. ISBN 978-0-8212-2076-4 . Daniels, Les (2003). DC Comics: A Celebration of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes . Billboard Books/Watson-Guptill Publications. ISBN 978-0-8230-7919-3 . Daniels, Les (April 2004). Batman: The Complete History: The Life and Times of the Dark Knight . Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0-8118-4232-7 . Retrieved November 8, 2020 . Pearson, Roberta E.; Uricchio, William, eds. (1991). The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 . Wright, Bradford W. (2001). Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America . The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6514-5 . Further reading Jones, Gerard (1995). Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book . Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-03657-8 . External links Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Data from Wikidata Official website Batman Bio at the Unofficial Guide to the DC Universe Batman on DC Database , a DC Comics wiki Batman (1940–present) Comics Inventory .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Batman v t e Bob Kane Bill Finger Other contributors Bob Kane Bill Finger Other contributors Characters Supporting characters Enemies In other media Supporting characters Enemies In other media In other media Locations in Gotham City Arkham Asylum Batcave Gotham City Police Department S.T.A.R. 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Labs Wayne Enterprises Wayne Manor Technology Equipment Batarang Batcomputer Batsuit utility belt Bat-Signal Bat phone Transport Batboat Batcopter Batcycle Batmobile Batplane Equipment Batarang Batcomputer Batsuit utility belt Bat-Signal Bat phone Batarang Batcomputer Batsuit utility belt utility belt Bat-Signal Bat phone Transport Batboat Batcopter Batcycle Batmobile Batplane Batboat Batcopter Batcycle Batmobile Batplane Batman in other media In film In video games In amusement parks In children's books In film In video games In amusement parks In children's books Ongoing publications ( history ) Detective Comics Batman Batman Beyond Batgirl Batwoman Nightwing Harley Quinn Red Hood and the Outlaws DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Detective Comics Batman Batman Beyond Batgirl Batwoman Nightwing Harley Quinn Red Hood and the Outlaws DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Miscellaneous Detective Comics #27 Origin of Batman Batman and Robin Homosexuality in the Batman franchise The Bat Whispers Batkid Begins Detective Comics #27 Origin of Batman Batman and Robin Homosexuality in the Batman franchise The Bat Whispers Batkid Begins Category Category v t e Justice League characters v t e Founding members Pre-New 52/ Rebirth Aquaman Batman Flash / Barry Allen Green Lantern / Hal Jordan Martian Manhunter Superman Wonder Woman Post-New 52/ Rebirth Aquaman Batman Cyborg Flash / Barry Allen Green Lantern / Hal Jordan Superman Wonder Woman Pre-New 52/ Rebirth Aquaman Batman Flash / Barry Allen Green Lantern / Hal Jordan Martian Manhunter Superman Wonder Woman Aquaman Batman Flash / Barry Allen Green Lantern / Hal Jordan Martian Manhunter Superman Wonder Woman Post-New 52/ Rebirth Aquaman Batman Cyborg Flash / Barry Allen Green Lantern / Hal Jordan Superman Wonder Woman Aquaman Batman Cyborg Flash / Barry Allen Green Lantern / Hal Jordan Superman Wonder Woman Recurring members Abin Sur Adam Strange Agent Liberty Amazing-Man / Will Everett III Ambush Bug Animal Man Aqualad Atom Ray Palmer Ryan Choi Atom Smasher Aztek Batgirl/Oracle Batwing Batwoman Beast Boy Big Barda Black Adam Black Canary Black Condor Black Lightning Black Orchid Bloodwynd Booster Gold Blue Beetle Ted Kord Jaime Reyes Blue Devil Blue Jay Bumblebee Bulleteer Captain Atom Captain Comet Captain Marvel / Shazam Catwoman Commander Steel / Hank Heywood III Congorilla Crimson Fox Damage Deadman Detective Chimp Doctor Fate Doctor Light Donna Troy Element Girl Elongated Man Etrigan the Demon Fire Firestorm The Flash Jay Garrick Wally West Gangbuster General Glory Geo-Force Godiva Green Arrow Green Lantern Alan Scott Guy Gardner Jade John Stewart Kyle Rayner Simon Baz Jessica Cruz Sojourner Mullein Guardian Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawkman Carter Hall Katar Hol Hawkgirl and Hawkwoman Shiera Sanders Hall Shayera Hol Kendra Saunders Hourman Rick Tyler Matthew Tyler (android) Huntress Ice Impulse Jesse Quick John Constantine Kasumi Katana Lightray Lobo Madame Xanadu Manitou Dawn Manitou Raven Max Mercury Maxima Maya Mera Metamorpho Mister Miracle Mr Terrific Moon Maiden Mystek Naomi McDuffie Nightshade Obsidian Orion Pandora Pantha Phantom Stranger Plastic Man Power Girl Question Raven Ray Red Arrow Red Star Red Tornado Robin/Nightwing Rocket Red Shade, the Changing Man Silver Sorceress Snapper Carr Star Sapphire Starfire Stargirl Starman Mikaal Tomas Prince Gavyn Will Payton Jack Knight Steel Super-Chief Superboy Supergirl Swamp Thing Tasmanian Devil Tomorrow Woman Triumph Vibe Vixen Wonder Girl Zatanna Zauriel Abin Sur Adam Strange Agent Liberty Amazing-Man / Will Everett III Ambush Bug Animal Man Aqualad Atom Ray Palmer Ryan Choi Ray Palmer Ryan Choi Atom Smasher Aztek Batgirl/Oracle Batwing Batwoman Beast Boy Big Barda Black Adam Black Canary Black Condor Black Lightning Black Orchid Bloodwynd Booster Gold Blue Beetle Ted Kord Jaime Reyes Ted Kord Jaime Reyes Blue Devil Blue Jay Bumblebee Bulleteer Captain Atom Captain Comet Captain Marvel / Shazam Catwoman Commander Steel / Hank Heywood III Congorilla Crimson Fox Damage Deadman Detective Chimp Doctor Fate Doctor Light Donna Troy Element Girl Elongated Man Etrigan the Demon Fire Firestorm The Flash Jay Garrick Wally West Jay Garrick Wally West Gangbuster General Glory Geo-Force Godiva Green Arrow Green Lantern Alan Scott Guy Gardner Jade John Stewart Kyle Rayner Simon Baz Jessica Cruz Sojourner Mullein Alan Scott Guy Gardner Jade John Stewart Kyle Rayner Simon Baz Jessica Cruz Sojourner Mullein Guardian Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawkman Carter Hall Katar Hol Carter Hall Katar Hol Hawkgirl and Hawkwoman Shiera Sanders Hall Shayera Hol Kendra Saunders Shiera Sanders Hall Shayera Hol Kendra Saunders Hourman Rick Tyler Matthew Tyler (android) Rick Tyler Matthew Tyler (android) Huntress Ice Impulse Jesse Quick John Constantine Kasumi Katana Lightray Lobo Madame Xanadu Manitou Dawn Manitou Raven Max Mercury Maxima Maya Mera Metamorpho Mister Miracle Mr Terrific Moon Maiden Mystek Naomi McDuffie Nightshade Obsidian Orion Pandora Pantha Phantom Stranger Plastic Man Power Girl Question Raven Ray Red Arrow Red Star Red Tornado Robin/Nightwing Rocket Red Shade, the Changing Man Silver Sorceress Snapper Carr Star Sapphire Starfire Stargirl Starman Mikaal Tomas Prince Gavyn Will Payton Jack Knight Mikaal Tomas Prince Gavyn Will Payton Jack Knight Steel Super-Chief Superboy Supergirl Swamp Thing Tasmanian Devil Tomorrow Woman Triumph Vibe Vixen Wonder Girl Zatanna Zauriel Other characters Supporting characters Alfred Pennyworth Arella A.R.G.U.S. Carol Ferris Highfather Hippolyta Iris West James Gordon Jimmy Olsen Lois Lane Lucius Fox Pariah Perry White Steve Trevor Sue Dibny Vicki Vale Allies Amazonians Atlanteans Avengers Birds of Prey Doom Patrol Gotham City Police Department Justice League Dark John Constantine Deadman Detective Chimp Etrigan the Demon Swamp Thing Zatanna Justice Society of America Lantern Corps Guardians of the Universe Zamarons Blue Lantern Corps Green Lantern Corps Indigo Tribe White Lantern Corps Legion of Super-Heroes Marvel/Shazam Family New Gods Outsiders S.T.A.R. Labs Teen Titans Robin Starfire Beast Boy Cyborg Raven Young Justice Neutral characters Amanda Waller Black Adam Captain Cold Manchester Black Frankenstein Jonah Hex Killer Frost Larfleeze Lobo Harley Quinn Poison Ivy Star Sapphire Suicide Squad Supporting characters Alfred Pennyworth Arella A.R.G.U.S. Carol Ferris Highfather Hippolyta Iris West James Gordon Jimmy Olsen Lois Lane Lucius Fox Pariah Perry White Steve Trevor Sue Dibny Vicki Vale Alfred Pennyworth Arella A.R.G.U.S. Carol Ferris Highfather Hippolyta Iris West James Gordon Jimmy Olsen Lois Lane Lucius Fox Pariah Perry White Steve Trevor Sue Dibny Vicki Vale Allies Amazonians Atlanteans Avengers Birds of Prey Doom Patrol Gotham City Police Department Justice League Dark John Constantine Deadman Detective Chimp Etrigan the Demon Swamp Thing Zatanna Justice Society of America Lantern Corps Guardians of the Universe Zamarons Blue Lantern Corps Green Lantern Corps Indigo Tribe White Lantern Corps Legion of Super-Heroes Marvel/Shazam Family New Gods Outsiders S.T.A.R. Labs Teen Titans Robin Starfire Beast Boy Cyborg Raven Young Justice Amazonians Atlanteans Avengers Birds of Prey Doom Patrol Gotham City Police Department Justice League Dark John Constantine Deadman Detective Chimp Etrigan the Demon Swamp Thing Zatanna John Constantine Deadman Detective Chimp Etrigan the Demon Swamp Thing Zatanna Justice Society of America Lantern Corps Guardians of the Universe Zamarons Blue Lantern Corps Green Lantern Corps Indigo Tribe White Lantern Corps Guardians of the Universe Zamarons Blue Lantern Corps Green Lantern Corps Indigo Tribe White Lantern Corps Legion of Super-Heroes Marvel/Shazam Family New Gods Outsiders S.T.A.R. Labs Teen Titans Robin Starfire Beast Boy Cyborg Raven Robin Starfire Beast Boy Cyborg Raven Young Justice Neutral characters Amanda Waller Black Adam Captain Cold Manchester Black Frankenstein Jonah Hex Killer Frost Larfleeze Lobo Harley Quinn Poison Ivy Star Sapphire Suicide Squad Amanda Waller Black Adam Captain Cold Manchester Black Frankenstein Jonah Hex Killer Frost Larfleeze Lobo Harley Quinn Poison Ivy Star Sapphire Suicide Squad Enemies Central rogues Amazo Anti-Monitor Black Adam Black Manta Brainiac Captain Cold Cheetah Darkseid Deathstroke Despero Doctor Destiny Doctor Light Doomsday Eclipso Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kanjar Ro Lex Luthor Libra Mongul Nekron Neron Ocean Master Professor Ivo Prometheus Queen Bee Queen of Fables Sinestro Starro Steppenwolf T. O. Morrow Ultra-Humanite Vandal Savage Other supervillains Amos Fortune Black Hand Blockbuster Brain Storm Circe Count Vertigo David Graves Deadshot Doctor Polaris Doctor Sivana Epoch Funky Flashman Gamemnae General Wade Eiling Gentleman Ghost Gog Hyathis Imperiex Key King Kull Ma'alefa'ak Magog Manchester Black Manga Khan Manhunter Matter Master Maxwell Lord Merlyn Morgaine le Fey Nebula Man OMAC Paragon Per Degaton Ra's al Ghul Rainbow Raider Rama Khan Red King Shaggy Man Siren Solaris Solomon Grundy Sonar Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Aryan Brigade Axis Amerika Black Lantern Corps Brotherhood of Evil Cadre Court of Owls Crime Syndicate of America Darkseid's Elite Demolition Team Dominators Fearsome Five Female Furies H.I.V.E. Injustice League Injustice Society Intergang Kobra League of Assassins Legion of Doom Manhunters Parademons Phantom Zone Villains Rogues Royal Flush Gang Secret Six Secret Society of Super Villains Sinestro Corps White Martians Central rogues Amazo Anti-Monitor Black Adam Black Manta Brainiac Captain Cold Cheetah Darkseid Deathstroke Despero Doctor Destiny Doctor Light Doomsday Eclipso Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kanjar Ro Lex Luthor Libra Mongul Nekron Neron Ocean Master Professor Ivo Prometheus Queen Bee Queen of Fables Sinestro Starro Steppenwolf T. O. Morrow Ultra-Humanite Vandal Savage Amazo Anti-Monitor Black Adam Black Manta Brainiac Captain Cold Cheetah Darkseid Deathstroke Despero Doctor Destiny Doctor Light Doomsday Eclipso Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kanjar Ro Lex Luthor Libra Mongul Nekron Neron Ocean Master Professor Ivo Prometheus Queen Bee Queen of Fables Sinestro Starro Steppenwolf T. O. Morrow Ultra-Humanite Vandal Savage Other supervillains Amos Fortune Black Hand Blockbuster Brain Storm Circe Count Vertigo David Graves Deadshot Doctor Polaris Doctor Sivana Epoch Funky Flashman Gamemnae General Wade Eiling Gentleman Ghost Gog Hyathis Imperiex Key King Kull Ma'alefa'ak Magog Manchester Black Manga Khan Manhunter Matter Master Maxwell Lord Merlyn Morgaine le Fey Nebula Man OMAC Paragon Per Degaton Ra's al Ghul Rainbow Raider Rama Khan Red King Shaggy Man Siren Solaris Solomon Grundy Sonar Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Amos Fortune Black Hand Blockbuster Brain Storm Circe Count Vertigo David Graves Deadshot Doctor Polaris Doctor Sivana Epoch Funky Flashman Gamemnae General Wade Eiling Gentleman Ghost Gog Hyathis Imperiex Key King Kull Ma'alefa'ak Magog Manchester Black Manga Khan Manhunter Matter Master Maxwell Lord Merlyn Morgaine le Fey Nebula Man OMAC Paragon Per Degaton Ra's al Ghul Rainbow Raider Rama Khan Red King Shaggy Man Siren Solaris Solomon Grundy Sonar Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Aryan Brigade Axis Amerika Black Lantern Corps Brotherhood of Evil Cadre Court of Owls Crime Syndicate of America Darkseid's Elite Demolition Team Dominators Fearsome Five Female Furies H.I.V.E. Injustice League Injustice Society Intergang Kobra League of Assassins Legion of Doom Manhunters Parademons Phantom Zone Villains Rogues Royal Flush Gang Secret Six Secret Society of Super Villains Sinestro Corps White Martians Aryan Brigade Axis Amerika Black Lantern Corps Brotherhood of Evil Cadre Court of Owls Crime Syndicate of America Darkseid's Elite Demolition Team Dominators Fearsome Five Female Furies H.I.V.E. Injustice League Injustice Society Intergang Kobra League of Assassins Legion of Doom Manhunters Parademons Phantom Zone Villains Rogues Royal Flush Gang Secret Six Secret Society of Super Villains Sinestro Corps White Martians Alternative versions Alternate versions of the Justice League Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Others Superman Wonder Woman Alternate versions of the Justice League Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Others Superman Wonder Woman Superman Wonder Woman In other media DC Extended Universe Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman DC Extended Universe Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman Category Category Articles and topics related to Batman v t e Batman characters Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Category v t e Batman publications and storylines Current series Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Completed ongoing series Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Completed miniseries Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One One-shots Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Storylines 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " Intercompany crossovers Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Incomplete All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre Related topics Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Category Publications are listed alphabetically by published titles. Storylines are listed in publication order. Compiled without respect for canon or "current" continuity. v t e Batman franchise media Live-action television Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Live-action films Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production Animated television The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes The Batman characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam Animated films Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Animated shorts Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Novels The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution Podcasts Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Enemies in other media Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Supporting characters in other media Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Related topics Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One v t e Batman music Soundtracks Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Songs Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " v t e Batman video games Lego series Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Arkham series Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Telltale series The Telltale Series The Enemy Within Film -based Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Animation-based The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame Other games Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Category v t e Batman in amusement parks Of Batman Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Of derivative characters Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Of derivative elements Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham v t e Batman in film Serials Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Adam West films Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) 1989–1997 series Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman The Dark Knight trilogy Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes DC Extended Universe Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn The Batman series The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack Theatrical animated films Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack Spin-off films Catwoman (2004) video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack Unofficial and fan films Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild See also Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials v t e Batman and Superman Comic books Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Television The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures Books Enemies & Allies Film Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Fan works How It Should Have Ended Related Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Categories: Batman Superman v t e Justice League International Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Initial members Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Supporting characters L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman Enemies Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Publications and storylines Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Spinoff teams Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force v t e Catwoman Bob Kane Bill Finger Incarnations Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Supporting characters Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Antagonists Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Publications Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives In other media Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Category v t e Batgirl Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Incarnations Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Supporting characters Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Antagonists Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Related identities Flamebird Oracle Huntress Publications Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Related articles " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman Category v t e Robin Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Robins Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Supporting characters Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Antagonists Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Related identities Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X In other media Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Publications Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Alternative versions Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Related Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Category v t e The Joker Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Supporting characters Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Antagonists Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Publications and stories The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War Alternative versions Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs In other media Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Rides The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) Related Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Category v t e Harley Quinn Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Supporting characters Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Teams Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Antagonists Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Publications The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy In other media " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Related articles Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Category v t e The Outsiders Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Members Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Supporting characters Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Enemies Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Locations Batcave Other media Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice v t e Birds of Prey Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Titles Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Main characters Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Notable members Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Supporting characters Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Antagonists Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz In other media TV series Film soundtrack Category v t e Superman characters Superman family By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Supporting characters Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Associated characters Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Enemies Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Alternative versions Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl In other media 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane Related Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Category v t e Wonder Woman William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors Characters Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Locations Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Publications Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Storylines " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) Technology Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets In other media Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Miscellaneous Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! 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Kid Marvelman Marvelman Young Marvelman Magazine Enterprises Funnyman Maple Leaf Publishing Brok Windsor Iron Man Rural Home Publications Green Turtle Street & Smith The Avenger Doc Savage The Shadow Supersnipe v t e Batman characters v t e Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Ace the Bat-Hound Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Kate Kane Category Category v t e Batman publications and storylines v t e Current series Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Completed ongoing series Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Completed miniseries Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One One-shots Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Storylines 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " Intercompany crossovers Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Incomplete All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre Related topics Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Category Publications are listed alphabetically by published titles. Storylines are listed in publication order. Compiled without respect for canon or "current" continuity. v t e Batman franchise media v t e Live-action television Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Batman episodes episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " Batwoman episodes characters episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Live-action films Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production The Batman production production Animated television The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes The Batman characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes characters episodes The Batman characters episodes characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam Animated films Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Animated shorts Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Novels The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution Podcasts Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Enemies in other media Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Supporting characters in other media Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Related topics Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One v t e Batman music v t e Soundtracks Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman score soundtrack score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Songs Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " v t e Batman video games v t e Lego series Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Arkham series Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Telltale series The Telltale Series The Enemy Within The Telltale Series The Enemy Within Film -based Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Animation-based The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame Other games Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Category Category v t e Batman in amusement parks v t e Of Batman Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Of derivative characters Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Of derivative elements Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham v t e Batman in film v t e Serials Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Adam West films Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) 1989–1997 series Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman The Dark Knight trilogy Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes DC Extended Universe Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn The Batman series The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack production accolades soundtrack Theatrical animated films Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack soundtrack Spin-off films Catwoman (2004) video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack Catwoman (2004) video game video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack score soundtrack Unofficial and fan films Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild See also Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials v t e Batman and Superman v t e Comic books Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Television The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures The New Batman/Superman Adventures Books Enemies & Allies Enemies & Allies Film Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Fan works How It Should Have Ended How It Should Have Ended Related Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Categories: Batman Superman Categories: Batman Superman v t e Justice League International v t e Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Initial members Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Supporting characters L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman Enemies Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Publications and storylines Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Spinoff teams Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force v t e Catwoman v t e Bob Kane Bill Finger Bob Kane Bill Finger Incarnations Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Supporting characters Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Antagonists Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Publications Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives In other media Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Category Category v t e Batgirl v t e Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Incarnations Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Supporting characters Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Antagonists Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Related identities Flamebird Oracle Huntress Flamebird Oracle Huntress Publications Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Related articles " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman Category Category v t e Robin v t e Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Robins Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Supporting characters Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Batgirl Barbara Gordon Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Antagonists Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Related identities Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X In other media Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Publications Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Alternative versions Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Related Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Category Category v t e The Joker v t e Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Supporting characters Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Antagonists Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Batgirl Barbara Gordon Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Publications and stories The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War Alternative versions Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs In other media Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Joker accolades soundtrack accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Rides The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) Related Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Category Category v t e Harley Quinn v t e Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Supporting characters Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Teams Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Antagonists Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Publications The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy In other media " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Related articles Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Category Category v t e The Outsiders v t e Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Members Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Supporting characters Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Enemies Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Locations Batcave Batcave Other media Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice v t e Birds of Prey v t e Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Titles Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Main characters Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Notable members Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Supporting characters Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Antagonists Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz In other media TV series Film soundtrack TV series Film soundtrack soundtrack Category Category v t e Superman characters v t e Superman family By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Supporting characters Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Associated characters Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Enemies Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Alternative versions Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl Power Girl In other media 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane Clark Kent Lois Lane Related Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Category Category v t e Wonder Woman v t e William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors Characters Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Locations Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Publications Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Storylines " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) Technology Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets In other media Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Wonder Woman episodes episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Miscellaneous Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Category v t e Golden Age of Comic Books v t e Ace Comics Captain Courageous Doctor Nemesis The Flag Lash Lightning The Raven Unknown Soldier Vulcan Captain Courageous Doctor Nemesis The Flag Lash Lightning The Raven Unknown Soldier Vulcan All-American Publications The Atom Al Pratt Black Canary Doctor Mid-Nite Charles McNider Doiby Dickles The Flash Jay Garrick Gay Ghost Green Lantern Alan Scott Hawkgirl Shiera Sanders Hall Hawkman Carter Hall Hop Harrigan Johnny Thunder Justice Society of America The King Mister Terrific Terry Sloane Neptune Perkins Red Tornado Sargon the Sorcerer Terrific Whatzit Thunderbolt Ultra-Man The Whip Wildcat Ted Grant Wonder Woman The Atom Al Pratt Al Pratt Black Canary Doctor Mid-Nite Charles McNider Charles McNider Doiby Dickles The Flash Jay Garrick Jay Garrick Gay Ghost Green Lantern Alan Scott Alan Scott Hawkgirl Shiera Sanders Hall Shiera Sanders Hall Hawkman Carter Hall Carter Hall Hop Harrigan Johnny Thunder Justice Society of America The King Mister Terrific Terry Sloane Terry Sloane Neptune Perkins Red Tornado Sargon the Sorcerer Terrific Whatzit Thunderbolt Ultra-Man The Whip Wildcat Ted Grant Ted Grant Wonder Woman Centaur Comics Airman Amazing-Man The Arrow The Clock The Eye Fantom of the Fair Magician from Mars The Masked Marvel Minimidget Airman Amazing-Man The Arrow The Clock The Eye Fantom of the Fair Magician from Mars The Masked Marvel Minimidget Charlton Comics Atomic Mouse Captain Atom Nightshade Mr. Muscles Nature Boy Space Adventures Yellowjacket Atomic Mouse Captain Atom Nightshade Mr. Muscles Nature Boy Space Adventures Yellowjacket Dell Comics Doctor Hormone Flash Gordon The Owl Phantasmo Supermind's Son Zorro Doctor Hormone Flash Gordon The Owl Phantasmo Supermind's Son Zorro Fawcett Comics Bulletgirl Bulletman Captain Marvel Captain Marvel Jr. Captain Midnight Dan Dare Golden Arrow Hoppy the Marvel Bunny Ibis the Invincible Lieutenant Marvels Marvel Family Mary Marvel Master Man Minute-Man Mr. Scarlet Nyoka the Jungle Girl Phantom Eagle Pinky the Whiz Kid Scoop Smith Spy Smasher Squadron of Justice Uncle Marvel Bulletgirl Bulletman Captain Marvel Captain Marvel Jr. Captain Midnight Dan Dare Golden Arrow Hoppy the Marvel Bunny Ibis the Invincible Lieutenant Marvels Marvel Family Mary Marvel Master Man Minute-Man Mr. Scarlet Nyoka the Jungle Girl Phantom Eagle Pinky the Whiz Kid Scoop Smith Spy Smasher Squadron of Justice Uncle Marvel Fox Comics Blue Beetle Dan Garret The Bouncer Bronze Man Dynamo The Flame Green Mask The Moth Samson Stardust the Super Wizard U.S. Jones Wonder Man Blue Beetle Dan Garret Dan Garret The Bouncer Bronze Man Dynamo The Flame Green Mask The Moth Samson Stardust the Super Wizard U.S. Jones Wonder Man Harvey Comics Black Cat Captain 3-D Captain Freedom Green Hornet Invisible Scarlet O'Neil Kato Shock Gibson Spirit of '76 Black Cat Captain 3-D Captain Freedom Green Hornet Invisible Scarlet O'Neil Kato Shock Gibson Spirit of '76 Lev Gleason Publications Captain Battle Claw Crimebuster Daredevil Little Wise Guys Silver Streak Captain Battle Claw Crimebuster Daredevil Little Wise Guys Silver Streak MLJ Comics The Black Hood Bob Phantom Captain Flag The Comet The Firefly The Fox The Hangman Rang-a-Tang the Wonder Dog The Shield Super Duck The Web The Wizard The Black Hood Bob Phantom Captain Flag The Comet The Firefly The Fox The Hangman Rang-a-Tang the Wonder Dog The Shield Super Duck The Web The Wizard National Allied Publications Ace the Bat-Hound Air Wave Aquaman Batman Batwoman Black Pirate Boy Commandos Captain Comet Chris KL-99 Congo Bill Crimson Avenger Lee Travis Dan the Dyna-Mite Dark Ranger Detective Chimp Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Doctor Occult Genius Jones Gimmick Girl Green Arrow Guardian Hourman Rex Tyler Johnny Chambers King Faraday The Knight Krypto Liberty Belle Manhunter Paul Kirk Martian Manhunter Miss X Mr. America Newsboy Legion Phantom Stranger Rex the Wonder Dog Robin Dick Grayson Robotman Rose Psychic Sandman Wesley Dodds Sandy the Golden Boy Seven Soldiers of Victory Shining Knight Sir Justin Slam Bradley The Spectre Jim Corrigan Speedy Roy Harper Squire Star-Spangled Kid Sylvester Pemberton Starman Ted Knight Stripesy Stuff the Chinatown Kid Superboy Kal-El Superman Superwoman Lois Lane Tarantula TNT Tommy Tomorrow Vigilante Greg Saunders Wonder Woman Zatara Ace the Bat-Hound Air Wave Aquaman Batman Batwoman Black Pirate Boy Commandos Captain Comet Chris KL-99 Congo Bill Crimson Avenger Lee Travis Lee Travis Dan the Dyna-Mite Dark Ranger Detective Chimp Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Kent Nelson Doctor Occult Genius Jones Gimmick Girl Green Arrow Guardian Hourman Rex Tyler Rex Tyler Johnny Chambers King Faraday The Knight Krypto Liberty Belle Manhunter Paul Kirk Paul Kirk Martian Manhunter Miss X Mr. America Newsboy Legion Phantom Stranger Rex the Wonder Dog Robin Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Robotman Rose Psychic Sandman Wesley Dodds Wesley Dodds Sandy the Golden Boy Seven Soldiers of Victory Shining Knight Sir Justin Sir Justin Slam Bradley The Spectre Jim Corrigan Jim Corrigan Speedy Roy Harper Roy Harper Squire Star-Spangled Kid Sylvester Pemberton Sylvester Pemberton Starman Ted Knight Ted Knight Stripesy Stuff the Chinatown Kid Superboy Kal-El Kal-El Superman Superwoman Lois Lane Lois Lane Tarantula TNT Tommy Tomorrow Vigilante Greg Saunders Greg Saunders Wonder Woman Zatara Nedor Comics American Crusader American Eagle Black Terror Captain Future Doc Strange Fighting Yank The Ghost Grim Reaper Judy of the Jungle Kara the Jungle Princess Lance Lewis, Space Detective Liberator The Magnet Miss Masque Princess Pantha Pyroman The Scarab The Woman in Red American Crusader American Eagle Black Terror Captain Future Doc Strange Fighting Yank The Ghost Grim Reaper Judy of the Jungle Kara the Jungle Princess Lance Lewis, Space Detective Liberator The Magnet Miss Masque Princess Pantha Pyroman The Scarab The Woman in Red Novelty Press Blue Bolt Dick Cole The Target The Targeteers The Twister Blue Bolt Dick Cole The Target The Targeteers The Twister Prize Publications Atomic-Man Black Owl Fighting American Green Lama Yank & Doodle Atomic-Man Black Owl Fighting American Green Lama Yank & Doodle Quality Comics Archie O'Toole #711 Black Condor Blackhawk Blue Tracer Bozo the Iron Man Captain Triumph Doll Girl Doll Man Firebrand Human Bomb Invisible Hood The Jester Kid Eternity Lady Luck Madame Fatal Magno Manhunter Merlin the Magician Midnight Miss America Miss Fear Mouthpiece Neon the Unknown Phantom Lady Plastic Man Quicksilver The Ray Red Bee Red Torpedo The Spider Spider Widow Uncle Sam Wildfire Wonder Boy Woozy Winks Archie O'Toole #711 Black Condor Blackhawk Blue Tracer Bozo the Iron Man Captain Triumph Doll Girl Doll Man Firebrand Human Bomb Invisible Hood The Jester Kid Eternity Lady Luck Madame Fatal Magno Manhunter Merlin the Magician Midnight Miss America Miss Fear Mouthpiece Neon the Unknown Phantom Lady Plastic Man Quicksilver The Ray Red Bee Red Torpedo The Spider Spider Widow Uncle Sam Wildfire Wonder Boy Woozy Winks Timely Comics All-Winners Squad American Ace The Angel Black Marvel Black Widow Claire Voyant Blazing Skull Blonde Phantom Blue Blade Blue Diamond Breeze Barton Bucky Bucky Barnes Captain America Captain Wonder The Challenger Citizen V The Destroyer Dynamic Man Father Time Ferret Fiery Mask The Fin Golden Girl Human Torch Jack Frost Laughing Mask Marvel Boy Mercury Miss America Miss Fury Mister E Namor Namora The Patriot Phantom Reporter Red Raven Rockman Silver Scorpion Sun Girl Super Rabbit Thin Man Thunderer Tim Mulrooney Toro Venus Vision Whizzer Robert Frank Witness Young Allies All-Winners Squad American Ace The Angel Black Marvel Black Widow Claire Voyant Claire Voyant Blazing Skull Blonde Phantom Blue Blade Blue Diamond Breeze Barton Bucky Bucky Barnes Bucky Barnes Captain America Captain Wonder The Challenger Citizen V The Destroyer Dynamic Man Father Time Ferret Fiery Mask The Fin Golden Girl Human Torch Jack Frost Laughing Mask Marvel Boy Mercury Miss America Miss Fury Mister E Namor Namora The Patriot Phantom Reporter Red Raven Rockman Silver Scorpion Sun Girl Super Rabbit Thin Man Thunderer Tim Mulrooney Toro Venus Vision Whizzer Robert Frank Robert Frank Witness Young Allies Misc. American Comics Group Superkatt Anglo-American Publishing Commander Steel Atlas Publications Captain Atom Bell Features The Brain Johnny Canuck Nelvana of the Northern Lights Cardal Publishing Streamline Columbia Comics The Face Skyman David McKay Publications Mandrake the Magician The Phantom DC Thomson The Amazing Mr X Jack Flash Dynamic Publications Dynamic Man Yankee Girl Eastern Color Printing Buck Rogers Hydroman Phantom Magician EC Comics Moon Girl Superduperman Elliot Publishing Company Kismet, Man of Fate Fiction House Fantomah Hillman Periodicals Airboy The Heap Holyoke Publishing Cat-Man Kitten Miss Victory L. Miller & Son, Ltd. Kid Marvelman Marvelman Young Marvelman Magazine Enterprises Funnyman Maple Leaf Publishing Brok Windsor Iron Man Rural Home Publications Green Turtle Street & Smith The Avenger Doc Savage The Shadow Supersnipe American Comics Group Superkatt Superkatt Anglo-American Publishing Commander Steel Commander Steel Atlas Publications Captain Atom Captain Atom Bell Features The Brain Johnny Canuck Nelvana of the Northern Lights The Brain Johnny Canuck Nelvana of the Northern Lights Cardal Publishing Streamline Streamline Columbia Comics The Face Skyman The Face Skyman David McKay Publications Mandrake the Magician The Phantom Mandrake the Magician The Phantom DC Thomson The Amazing Mr X Jack Flash The Amazing Mr X Jack Flash Dynamic Publications Dynamic Man Yankee Girl Dynamic Man Yankee Girl Eastern Color Printing Buck Rogers Hydroman Phantom Magician Buck Rogers Hydroman Phantom Magician EC Comics Moon Girl Superduperman Moon Girl Superduperman Elliot Publishing Company Kismet, Man of Fate Kismet, Man of Fate Fiction House Fantomah Fantomah Hillman Periodicals Airboy The Heap Airboy The Heap Holyoke Publishing Cat-Man Kitten Miss Victory Cat-Man Kitten Miss Victory L. 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Kid Marvelman Marvelman Young Marvelman Kid Marvelman Marvelman Young Marvelman Magazine Enterprises Funnyman Funnyman Maple Leaf Publishing Brok Windsor Iron Man Brok Windsor Iron Man Rural Home Publications Green Turtle Green Turtle Street & Smith The Avenger Doc Savage The Shadow Supersnipe The Avenger Doc Savage The Shadow Supersnipe United States Comics Speculative fiction Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Authority control databases International VIAF 2 GND FAST VIAF 2 2 GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Spain Taiwan Chile Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Spain Taiwan Chile Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia Academics ORCID ORCID Artists MusicBrainz FID MusicBrainz FID People DDB DDB Other IdRef Open Library NARA SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) Yale LUX IdRef Open Library NARA SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) Yale LUX DC Comics superheroes Batman Batman characters Batman elements introduced in 1939 1939 comics debuts 1939 establishments in the United States Characters created by Bill Finger Characters created by Bob Kane Comics characters introduced in 1939 Culture of the United States DC Comics American superheroes DC Comics businesspeople DC Comics film characters DC Comics male superheroes DC Comics martial artists DC Comics orphans DC Comics scientists Fictional American detectives Fictional aviators Fictional billionaires Fictional business executives Fictional characters with eidetic memory Fictional characters with post-traumatic stress disorder Fictional criminologists Fictional engineers Fictional escapologists Fictional foster carers Fictional gentleman detectives Fictional hackers Fictional hybrid martial artists Fictional inventors in comics Fictional martial arts trainers Fictional philanthropists Fictional socialites Fictional torturers Fictional victims of sexual assault Superheroes with alter egos Superhero detectives Vigilante characters in comics Justice League characters Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2016 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from February 2021 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing suspected AI-generated texts from January 2026 Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use mdy dates from July 2020 Converted comics character infoboxes Converted category character infoboxes All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2022 Pages using Sister project links with wikidata mismatch Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata This page was last edited on 10 January 2026, at 04:28 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 Pre-1600 1.2 1601–1900 1.3 1901–present 1.1 Pre-1600 1.2 1601–1900 1.3 1901–present 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 Pre-1600 2.2 1601–1900 2.3 1901–present 2.1 Pre-1600 2.2 1601–1900 2.3 1901–present 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 Pre-1600 3.2 1601–1900 3.3 1901–present 3.1 Pre-1600 3.2 1601–1900 3.3 1901–present 4 Holidays and observances 5 References 6 External links January 17 Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kiswahili Коми Kongo Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Перем коми Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла संस्कृतम् Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taqbaylit Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Тыва дыл Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Руски Tolışi ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikidata item Page version status This is an accepted version of this page .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{color:var(--color-base,#202122);background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{color:var(--color-base,#202122);background-color:#d8e0ff}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{background-color:#2a2a5c}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{background-color:#202040}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{background-color:#2a2a5c}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{background-color:#202040}} << January >> Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2026 January 17 in recent years 2025 (Friday) 2024 (Wednesday) 2023 (Tuesday) 2022 (Monday) 2021 (Sunday) 2020 (Friday) 2019 (Thursday) 2018 (Wednesday) 2017 (Tuesday) 2016 (Sunday) January 17 is the 17th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar ; 348 days remain until the end of the year (349 in leap years ). Events Pre-1600 38 BC – Octavian divorces his wife Scribonia and marries Livia Drusilla , ending the fragile peace between the Second Triumvirate and Sextus Pompey . [ 1 ] 1362 – Saint Marcellus' flood kills at least 25,000 people on the shores of the North Sea. [ 2 ] 1377 – Pope Gregory XI reaches Rome, after deciding to move the Papacy back to Rome from Avignon . [ 3 ] 1524 – Giovanni da Verrazzano sets sail westward from Madeira to find a sea route to the Pacific Ocean. [ 4 ] 1562 – France grants religious toleration to the Huguenots in the Edict of Saint-Germain . [ 5 ] 1595 – During the French Wars of Religion , Henry IV of France declares war on Spain. [ 6 ] 1601–1900 1608 – Emperor Susenyos I of Ethiopia surprises an Oromo army at Ebenat; his army reportedly kills 12,000 Oromo at the cost of 400 of his men. [ 7 ] 1648 – England's Long Parliament passes the " Vote of No Addresses ", breaking off negotiations with King Charles I and thereby setting the scene for the second phase of the English Civil War . [ 8 ] 1649 – The Second Ormonde Peace creates an alliance between the Irish Royalists and Confederates during the War of the Three Kingdoms . The coalition was then decisively defeated during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland . [ 9 ] 1773 – Captain James Cook leads the first expedition to sail south of the Antarctic Circle . [ 10 ] 1781 – American Revolutionary War : Battle of Cowpens : Continental troops under Brigadier General Daniel Morgan defeat British forces under Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton at the battle in South Carolina . [ 11 ] 1799 – Maltese patriot Dun Mikiel Xerri , along with a number of other patriots, is executed. [ 12 ] 1811 – Mexican War of Independence : In the Battle of Calderón Bridge , a heavily outnumbered Spanish force of 6,000 troops defeats nearly 100,000 Mexican revolutionaries. [ 13 ] 1852 – The United Kingdom signs the Sand River Convention with the South African Republic . [ 14 ] 1873 – A group of Modoc warriors defeats the United States Army in the First Battle of the Stronghold , part of the Modoc War . [ 15 ] 1885 – A British force defeats a large Dervish army at the Battle of Abu Klea in the Sudan . [ 16 ] 1893 – Lorrin A. Thurston , along with the Citizens' Committee of Public Safety , led the Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and the government of Queen Liliʻuokalani . [ 17 ] 1899 – The United States takes possession of Wake Island in the Pacific Ocean. [ 18 ] 1901–present 1903 – El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico becomes part of the United States National Forest System as the Luquillo Forest Reserve. 1904 – Anton Chekhov 's The Cherry Orchard receives its premiere performance at the Moscow Art Theatre . [ 19 ] 1912 – British polar explorer Captain Robert Falcon Scott reaches the South Pole , one month after Roald Amundsen . 1915 – Russia defeats Ottoman Turkey in the Battle of Sarikamish during the Caucasus Campaign of World War I . 1917 – The United States pays Denmark $25 million for the Virgin Islands . [ 20 ] 1918 – Finnish Civil War : The first serious battles take place between the Red Guards and the White Guard . 1920 – Alcohol Prohibition begins in the United States as the Volstead Act goes into effect. [ 21 ] 1941 – Franco-Thai War : Vichy French forces inflict a decisive defeat over the Royal Thai Navy . 1943 – World War II : Greek submarine Papanikolis captures the 200-ton sailing vessel Agios Stefanos and mans her with part of her crew. 1944 – World War II: Allied forces launch the first of four assaults on Monte Cassino with the intention of breaking through the Winter Line and seizing Rome, an effort that would ultimately take four months and cost 105,000 Allied casualties. 1945 – World War II: The Vistula–Oder Offensive forces German troops out of Warsaw . 1945 – The SS-Totenkopfverbände begin the evacuation of the Auschwitz concentration camp as the Red Army closes in. 1945 – Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg is taken into Soviet custody while in Hungary; he is never publicly seen again. [ 22 ] 1946 – The UN Security Council holds its first session. 1948 – The Renville Agreement between the Netherlands and Indonesia is ratified. 1950 – The Great Brink's Robbery : Eleven thieves steal more than $2 million from an armored car company's offices in Boston . [ 23 ] 1950 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 79 relating to arms control is adopted. 1961 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower delivers a televised farewell address to the nation three days before leaving office, in which he warns against the accumulation of power by the " military–industrial complex " as well as the dangers of massive spending, especially deficit spending. 1961 – Former Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba is murdered together with former Minister of Youth and Sports of the Republic of the Congo Maurice Mpolo and former Senator from Kasai Province Joseph Okito in circumstances suggesting the support and complicity of the governments of Belgium and the United States. 1966 – Palomares incident : A B-52 bomber collides with a KC-135 Stratotanker over Spain, killing seven airmen, and dropping three 70-kiloton nuclear bombs near the town of Palomares and another one into the sea. 1969 – Black Panther Party members Bunchy Carter and John Huggins are killed during a meeting in Campbell Hall on the campus of UCLA . 1977 – Capital punishment in the United States resumes after a ten-year hiatus, as convicted murderer Gary Gilmore is executed by firing squad in Utah. 1981 – President of the Philippines Ferdinand Marcos lifts martial law eight years and five months after declaring it. 1991 – Gulf War : Operation Desert Storm begins early in the morning as aircraft strike positions across Iraq, it is also the first major combat sortie for the F-117 . LCDR Scott Speicher's F/A-18C Hornet from VFA-81 is shot down by a Mig-25 and is the first American casualty of the War. Iraq fires eight Scud missiles into Israel in an unsuccessful bid to provoke Israeli retaliation. 1991 – Crown Prince Harald of Norway becomes King Harald V , following the death of his father, King Olav V . 1992 – During a visit to South Korea, Japanese Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa apologizes for forcing Korean women into sexual slavery during World War II. 1994 – The 6.7 M w Northridge earthquake shakes the Greater Los Angeles Area with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX ( Violent ), leaving 57 people dead and more than 8,700 injured. 1995 – The 6.9 M w Great Hanshin earthquake shakes the southern Hyōgo Prefecture with a maximum Shindo of 7, leaving 5,502–6,434 people dead, and 251,301–310,000 displaced. 1996 – The Czech Republic applies for membership in the European Union . 1997 – Cape Canaveral Air Force Station : A Delta II carrying the GPS IIR-1 satellite explodes 13 seconds after launch, dropping 250 tons of burning rocket remains around the launch pad. 1998 – Clinton–Lewinsky scandal : Matt Drudge breaks the story of the Bill Clinton – Monica Lewinsky affair on his Drudge Report website. 2002 – Mount Nyiragongo erupts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo , displacing an estimated 400,000 people. 2007 – The Doomsday Clock is set to five minutes to midnight in response to North Korea 's nuclear testing. 2008 – British Airways Flight 38 crashes short of the runway at Heathrow Airport , injuring 47. [ 24 ] 2010 – Rioting begins between Muslim and Christian groups in Jos, Nigeria , results in at least 200 deaths. 2013 – Former cyclist Lance Armstrong confesses to his doping in an airing of Oprah's Next Chapter . [ 25 ] 2013 – Shahzad Luqman is murdered by members of Golden Dawn in Petralona , Athens , leading the creation of new measures to combat race-based attacks in Greece . [ 26 ] 2016 – President Barack Obama announces the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action , an agreement intended to limit Iran's nuclear program. [ 27 ] 2017 – The search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 is announced to be suspended. [ 28 ] 2023 – An avalanche strikes Nyingchi, Tibet , killing 28 people. [ 29 ] Births Pre-1600 1342 – Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (died 1404) 1429 – Antonio del Pollaiuolo , Italian artist (diedc. 1498 ) 1463 – Frederick III, Elector of Saxony (died 1525) 1463 – Antoine Duprat , French cardinal (died 1535) 1472 – Guidobaldo da Montefeltro , Italian captain (died 1508) 1484 – George Spalatin , German priest and reformer (died 1545) 1501 – Leonhart Fuchs , German physician and botanist (died 1566) 1504 – Pope Pius V (died 1572) [ 30 ] 1517 – Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk , English Duke (died 1554) 1560 – Gaspard Bauhin , Swiss botanist, physician, and academic (died 1624) 1574 – Robert Fludd , English physician, astrologer, and mathematician (died 1637) 1593 – William Backhouse , English alchemist and astrologer (died 1662) 1600 – Pedro Calderón de la Barca , Spanish playwright and poet (died 1681) 1601–1900 1612 – Thomas Fairfax , English general and politician (died 1671) 1640 – Jonathan Singletary Dunham , American settler (died 1724) 1659 – Antonio Veracini , Italian violinist and composer (died 1745) 1666 – Antonio Maria Valsalva , Italian anatomist and physician (died 1723) 1686 – Archibald Bower , Scottish historian and author (died 1766) 1693 – Melchor de Navarrete , Spanish colonial governor of Cartagena de Indias (Colombia, 1739 – 1742); of Spanish Florida (1749 – 1752); and of Yucatán (Mexico, 1754 – 1758) (died 1761) [ 31 ] 1706 – Benjamin Franklin , American publisher, inventor, and politician, 6th President of Pennsylvania (died 1790) 1712 – John Stanley , English organist and composer (died 1786) 1719 – William Vernon , American businessman (died 1806) 1728 – Johann Gottfried Müthel , German pianist and composer (died 1788) 1732 – Stanisław August Poniatowski , Polish-Lithuanian king (died 1798) 1734 – François-Joseph Gossec , French composer and conductor (died 1829) 1761 – Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet , Scottish geologist and geophysicist (died 1832) 1789 – August Neander , German historian and theologian (died 1850) 1793 – Antonio José Martínez , Spanish-American priest, rancher and politician (died 1867) 1814 – Ellen Wood , English author (died 1887) 1820 – Anne Brontë , English author and poet (died 1849) 1828 – Lewis A. Grant , American lawyer and general, Medal of Honor recipient (died 1918) 1828 – Ede Reményi , Hungarian violinist and composer (died 1898) 1832 – Henry Martyn Baird , American historian and academic (died 1906) 1834 – August Weismann , German biologist, zoologist, and geneticist (died 1914) 1850 – Joaquim Arcoverde de Albuquerque Cavalcanti , Brazilian cardinal (died 1930) 1850 – Alexander Taneyev , Russian pianist and composer (died 1918) 1851 – A. B. Frost , American author and illustrator (died 1928) 1853 – Alva Belmont , American suffragist (died 1933) [ 32 ] 1853 – T. Alexander Harrison , American painter and academic (died 1930) 1857 – Wilhelm Kienzl , Austrian pianist, composer, and conductor (died 1941) 1857 – Eugene Augustin Lauste , French-American engineer (died 1935) 1858 – Tomás Carrasquilla , Colombian author (died 1940) 1860 – Douglas Hyde , Irish academic and politician, 1st President of Ireland (died 1949) 1863 – David Lloyd George , Welsh lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (died 1945) 1863 – Konstantin Stanislavski , Russian actor and director (died 1938) 1865 – Sir Charles Fergusson, 7th Baronet , English general and politician, 3rd Governor-General of New Zealand (died 1951) 1867 – Carl Laemmle , German-born American film producer, co-founded Universal Studios (died 1939) 1867 – Sir Alfred Rawlinson, 3rd Baronet , English colonel, pilot, and polo player (died 1934) 1871 – David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty , English admiral (died 1936) 1871 – Nicolae Iorga , Romanian historian and politician, 34th Prime Minister of Romania (died 1940) 1875 – Florencio Sánchez , Uruguayan journalist and playwright (died 1910) 1876 – Frank Hague , American lawyer and politician, 30th Mayor of Jersey City (died 1956) 1877 – Marie Zdeňka Baborová-Čiháková , Czech botanist and zoologist (died 1937) [ 33 ] 1877 – May Gibbs , English-Australian author and illustrator (died 1969) 1880 – Mack Sennett , Canadian-American actor, director, and producer (died 1960) 1881 – Antoni Łomnicki , Polish mathematician and academic (died 1941) 1881 – Harry Price , English psychologist and author (died 1948) 1882 – Noah Beery, Sr. , American actor (died 1946) 1883 – Compton Mackenzie , English-Scottish author, poet, and playwright (died 1972) 1886 – Glenn L. Martin , American pilot and businessman, founded the Glenn L. Martin Company (died 1955) 1887 – Ola Raknes , Norwegian psychoanalyst and philologist (died 1975) 1888 – Babu Gulabrai , Indian philosopher and author (died 1963) 1897 – Marcel Petiot , French physician and serial killer (died 1946) 1898 – Lela Mevorah , Serbian librarian (died 1972) [ 34 ] 1899 – Al Capone , American mob boss (died 1947) 1899 – Robert Maynard Hutchins , American philosopher and academic (died 1977) 1899 – Nevil Shute , English engineer and author (died 1960) 1901–present 1901 – Aron Gurwitsch , Lithuanian-American philosopher and author (died 1973) 1904 – Hem Vejakorn , Thai painter and illustrator (died 1969) 1905 – Ray Cunningham , American baseball player (died 2005) 1905 – Peggy Gilbert , American saxophonist and bandleader (died 2007) 1905 – Eduard Oja , Estonian composer, conductor, educator, and critic (died 1950) 1905 – Guillermo Stábile , Argentinian footballer and manager (died 1966) 1905 – Jan Zahradníček , Czech poet and translator (died 1960) 1907 – Henk Badings , Indonesian-Dutch composer and engineer (died 1987) 1907 – Alfred Wainwright , British fellwalker, guidebook author and illustrator (died 1991) 1908 – Cus D'Amato , American boxing manager and trainer (died 1985) 1911 – Busher Jackson , Canadian ice hockey player (died 1966) 1911 – John S. McCain Jr. , American admiral (died 1981) 1911 – George Stigler , American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1991) 1914 – Anacleto Angelini , Italian-Chilean businessman (died 2007) 1914 – Irving Brecher , American director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2008) 1914 – Howard Marion-Crawford , English actor (died 1969) [ 35 ] 1914 – Paul Royle , Australian lieutenant and pilot (died 2015) 1914 – William Stafford , American poet and author (died 1993) 1916 – Peter Frelinghuysen Jr. , American lieutenant and politician (died 2011) 1917 – M. G. Ramachandran , Indian actor, director, and politician, 3rd Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (died 1987) 1918 – Keith Joseph , English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Education (died 1994) 1918 – George M. Leader , American soldier and politician, 36th Governor of Pennsylvania (died 2013) 1920 – Georges Pichard , French author and illustrator (died 2003) 1921 – Jackie Henderson , Scottish footballer (died 2005) [ 36 ] 1921 – Asghar Khan , Pakistani general and politician (died 2018) 1921 – Charlie Mitten , English footballer and manager (died 2002) [ 37 ] 1921 – Antonio Prohías , Cuban cartoonist (died 1998) 1922 – Luis Echeverría , Mexican academic and politician, 50th President of Mexico (died 2022) [ 38 ] 1922 – Nicholas Katzenbach , American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 65th United States Attorney General (died 2012) 1922 – Betty White , American actress, game show panelist, television personality, and animal rights activist (died 2021) [ 39 ] 1923 – Rangeya Raghav , Indian author and playwright (died 1962) 1924 – Rik De Saedeleer , Belgian footballer and journalist (died 2013) 1924 – Jewel Plummer Cobb , American biologist, cancer researcher, and academic (died 2017) 1925 – Gunnar Birkerts , Latvian-American architect (died 2017) 1925 – Robert Cormier , American author and journalist (died 2000) 1925 – Abdul Hafeez Kardar , Pakistani cricketer and author (died 1996) 1926 – Newton N. Minow , American lawyer and politician (died 2023) [ 40 ] 1926 – Moira Shearer , Scottish-English ballerina and actress (died 2006) 1926 – Clyde Walcott , Barbadian cricketer (died 2006) 1927 – Thomas Anthony Dooley III , American physician and humanitarian (died 1961) 1927 – Eartha Kitt , American actress and singer (died 2008) [ 41 ] 1927 – Harlan Mathews , American lawyer and politician (died 2014) 1927 – E. W. Swackhamer , American director and producer (died 1994) 1928 – Jean Barraqué , French composer (died 1973) 1928 – Vidal Sassoon , English-American hairdresser and businessman (died 2012) [ 42 ] 1929 – Philip Latham , British actor (died 2020) [ 43 ] 1929 – Jacques Plante , Canadian-Swiss ice hockey player, coach, and sportscaster (died 1986) 1929 – Tan Boon Teik , Malaysian-Singaporean lawyer and politician, Attorney-General of Singapore (died 2012) 1931 – James Earl Jones , American actor (died 2024) [ 44 ] 1931 – Douglas Wilder , American sergeant and politician, 66th Governor of Virginia [ 42 ] 1931 – Don Zimmer , American baseball player, coach, and manager (died 2014) 1932 – John Cater , English actor (died 2009) [ 45 ] 1932 – Sheree North , American actress and dancer (died 2005) [ 46 ] 1933 – Dalida , Egyptian-French singer and actress (died 1987) 1933 – Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan , French-Pakistani diplomat, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (died 2003) 1933 – Shari Lewis , American actress, puppeteer/ventriloquist, and television host (died 1998) [ 42 ] 1934 – Donald Cammell , Scottish-American director and screenwriter (died 1996) [ 47 ] 1935 – Ruth Ann Minner , American businesswoman and politician, 72nd Governor of Delaware (died 2021) 1936 – John Boyd , English academic and diplomat, British ambassador to Japan (died 2019) 1936 – A. Thangathurai , Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (died 1997) 1937 – Alain Badiou , French philosopher and academic 1938 – John Bellairs , American author and academic (died 1991) 1938 – Toini Gustafsson , Swedish cross country skier 1939 – Christodoulos of Athens , Greek archbishop (died 2008) 1939 – Maury Povich , American talk show host and producer [ 48 ] 1940 – Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni , Egyptian-Armenian patriarch (died 2015) 1940 – Kipchoge Keino , Kenyan athlete [ 42 ] 1940 – Tabaré Vázquez , Uruguayan physician and politician, 39th President of Uruguay (died 2020) 1941 – István Horthy, Jr. , Hungarian physicist and architect 1942 – Muhammad Ali , American boxer and activist (died 2016) [ 49 ] 1942 – Ita Buttrose , Australian journalist and author 1942 – Ulf Hoelscher , German violinist and educator 1942 – Nigel McCulloch , English bishop 1943 – Chris Montez , American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1943 – René Préval , Haitian agronomist and politician, 52nd President of Haiti (died 2017) 1944 – Ann Oakley , English sociologist, author, and academic 1945 – Javed Akhtar , Indian poet, playwright, and composer 1945 – Anne Cutler , Australian psychologist and academic (died 2022) 1947 – Joanna David , English actress [ 48 ] 1947 – Jane Elliot , American actress [ 48 ] 1948 – Davíð Oddsson , Icelandic politician, 21st Prime Minister of Iceland 1949 – Anita Borg , American computer scientist and academic (died 2003) 1949 – Gyude Bryant , Liberian businessman and politician (died 2014) 1949 – Augustin Dumay , French violinist and conductor 1949 – Andy Kaufman , American actor and comedian (died 1984) [ 42 ] 1949 – Mick Taylor , English singer-songwriter and guitarist [ 42 ] 1950 – Luis López Nieves , Puerto Rican-American author and academic 1952 – Tom Deitz , American author (died 2009) [ 50 ] 1952 – Darrell Porter , American baseball player and sportscaster (died 2002) 1952 – Ryuichi Sakamoto , Japanese pianist, composer, and producer (died 2023) [ 51 ] 1953 – Jeff Berlin , American bass player and educator 1953 – Carlos Johnson , American singer and guitarist 1954 – Robert F. Kennedy, Jr. , American environmental lawyer, writer, and conspiracy theorist 1955 – Steve Earle , American singer-songwriter, musician, record producer, author and actor [ 48 ] 1955 – Pietro Parolin , Italian cardinal 1955 – Steve Javie , American basketball player and referee 1956 – Damian Green , English journalist and politician 1956 – Paul Young , English singer-songwriter and guitarist [ 48 ] 1957 – Steve Harvey , American actor, comedian, television personality and game show host [ 52 ] 1957 – Ann Nocenti , American journalist and author 1958 – Tony Kouzarides , English biologist, cancer researcher 1959 – Susanna Hoffs , American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress [ 48 ] 1960 – John Crawford , American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1960 – Chili Davis , Jamaican-American baseball player and coach 1961 – Brian Helgeland , American director, producer, and screenwriter [ 48 ] 1962 – Jun Azumi , Japanese broadcaster and politician, 46th Japanese Minister of Finance 1962 – Jim Carrey , Canadian-American actor, comedian, and producer [ 48 ] 1962 – Sebastian Junger , American journalist and author [ 42 ] 1962 – Denis O'Hare , American actor and singer [ 48 ] 1963 – Colin Gordon , English footballer, agent, manager and chief executive [ 53 ] 1963 – Kai Hansen , German singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1964 – Michelle Obama , American lawyer and activist, 44th First Lady of the United States [ 48 ] 1964 – John Schuster , Samoan-New Zealand rugby player 1965 – Sylvain Turgeon , Canadian ice hockey player 1966 – Trish Johnson , English golfer 1966 – Joshua Malina , American actor [ 48 ] 1966 – Shabba Ranks , Jamaican rapper, musician, and songwriter [ 48 ] 1967 – Richard Hawley , English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1968 – Rowan Pelling , English journalist and author 1968 – Ilja Leonard Pfeijffer , Dutch author, poet, and scholar 1969 – Naveen Andrews , English actor [ 48 ] 1969 – Lukas Moodysson , Swedish director, screenwriter, and author 1969 – Tiësto , Dutch DJ and producer [ 48 ] 1970 – Cássio Alves de Barros , Brazilian footballer 1970 – Jeremy Roenick , American ice hockey player and actor 1970 – Genndy Tartakovsky , Russian-American animator, director, and producer [ 54 ] 1971 – Giorgos Balogiannis , Greek basketball player 1971 – Richard Burns , English race car driver (died 2005) 1971 – Kid Rock , American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor [ 48 ] 1971 – Sylvie Testud , French actress, director, and screenwriter 1973 – Cuauhtémoc Blanco , Mexican footballer and actor 1973 – Chris Bowen , Australian politician, 37th Treasurer of Australia 1973 – Liz Ellis , Australian netball player and sportscaster 1973 – Aaron Ward , Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1974 – Yang Chen , Chinese footballer and manager 1974 – Vesko Kountchev , Bulgarian viola player, composer, and producer 1974 – Derrick Mason , American football player 1975 – Freddy Rodriguez , American actor [ 48 ] 1977 – Leigh Whannell , Australian actor, director, screenwriter, and producer [ 48 ] 1978 – Lisa Llorens , Australian Paralympian [ 55 ] 1978 – Ricky Wilson , English singer-songwriter 1980 – Maksim Chmerkovskiy , Ukrainian-American dancer and choreographer [ 42 ] 1980 – Zooey Deschanel , American singer-songwriter and actress [ 48 ] 1980 – Modestas Stonys , Lithuanian footballer 1981 – Warren Feeney , Northern Irish footballer and manager 1981 – Ray J , American singer, actor, and television personality [ 56 ] 1981 – Michael Zigomanis , Canadian ice hockey player [ 57 ] 1982 – Dwyane Wade , American basketball player [ 42 ] 1982 – Andrew Webster , Australian rugby league player and coach [ 58 ] 1982 – Amanda Wilkinson , Canadian singer [ 48 ] 1983 – Álvaro Arbeloa , Spanish footballer 1983 – Ryan Gage , English actor [ 48 ] 1983 – Johannes Herber , German basketball player 1983 – Rick Kelly , Australian race car driver 1983 – Marcelo Garcia , Brazilian martial artist 1984 – Calvin Harris , Scottish singer-songwriter, DJ, and producer [ 48 ] 1984 – Dexter Lumis , American wrestler [ 59 ] 1985 – Pablo Barrientos , Argentinian footballer 1985 – Simone Simons , Dutch singer-songwriter 1986 – Viktor Stålberg , Swedish ice hockey player [ 60 ] 1987 – Cody Decker , American baseball player 1987 – Oleksandr Usyk , Ukrainian boxer [ 61 ] 1988 – Andrea Antonelli , Italian motorcycle racer (died 2013) 1988 – Earl Clark , American basketball player [ 62 ] 1988 – Will Genia , Australian rugby player 1988 – Jonathan Keltz , American actor [ 48 ] 1988 – Héctor Moreno , Mexican footballer 1989 – Taylor Jordan , American baseball player 1989 – Kelly Marie Tran , American actress [ 48 ] 1990 – Santiago Tréllez , Colombian footballer 1990 – Tyler Zeller , American basketball player [ 63 ] 1991 – Trevor Bauer , American baseball player 1991 – Willa Fitzgerald , American actress [ 42 ] 1991 – Esapekka Lappi , Finnish rally driver 1991 – Alise Post , American BMX rider 1992 – Stanislav Galiev , Russian ice hockey player [ 64 ] 1994 – Lucy Boynton , American-English actress [ 42 ] 1994 – Mark Steketee , Australian cricketer 1995 – Indya Moore , American actor and model [ 65 ] 1996 – Allonzo Trier , American basketball player [ 66 ] 1997 – Jake Paul , American boxer, actor, rapper, and social media personality [ 67 ] 1997 – Kyle Tucker , American baseball player [ 68 ] 1998 – Sophie Molineux , Australian cricketer 1998 – Jeff Reine-Adélaïde , French footballer 1999 – Isa Briones , American actor and singer [ 69 ] 2000 – Kang Chan-hee , South Korean singer and actor [ 70 ] 2000 – Devlin DeFrancesco , Canadian race car driver [ 71 ] 2000 – Ayo Dosunmu , American basketball player [ 72 ] 2001 – Enzo Fernández , Argentinian footballer [ 73 ] 2002 – Samuel , American singer based in South Korea. [ 74 ] 2003 – Robin Roefs , Dutch footballer [ 75 ] 2005 – Peio Canales , Spanish footballer [ 76 ] Deaths Pre-1600 395 – Theodosius I , Roman emperor (born 347) 644 – Sulpitius the Pious , French bishop and saint 764 – Joseph of Freising , German bishop 1040 – Mas'ud I of Ghazni , Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire (born 998) 1156 – André de Montbard , fifth Grand Master of the Knights Templar 1168 – Thierry, Count of Flanders (born 1099) 1229 – Albert of Riga , German bishop (born 1165) 1329 – Roseline of Villeneuve , Carthusian nun (born 1263) 1334 – John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond (born 1266) 1345 – Henry of Asti , Greek patriarch 1345 – Martino Zaccaria , Genoese Lord of Chios 1369 – Peter I of Cyprus (born 1328) 1456 – Elisabeth of Lorraine-Vaudémont , French translator (born 1395) 1468 – Skanderbeg , Albanian soldier and politician (born 1405) 1523 – Elisabeth of Hesse-Marburg , German landgravine (born 1466) [ 77 ] [ 78 ] 1588 – Qi Jiguang , Chinese general (born 1528) 1598 – Feodor I of Russia (born 1557) 1601–1900 1617 – Fausto Veranzio , Croatian bishop and lexicographer (born 1551) 1705 – John Ray , English botanist and historian (born 1627) 1718 – Benjamin Church , American colonel (born 1639) 1737 – Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann , German architect (born 1662) 1738 – Jean-François Dandrieu , French organist and composer (born 1682) 1751 – Tomaso Albinoni , Italian violinist and composer (born 1671) 1826 – Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga , Spanish-French composer (born 1806) 1834 – Giovanni Aldini , Italian physicist and academic (born 1762) 1850 – Elizabeth Simcoe , English-Canadian painter and author (born 1762) [ 79 ] 1861 – Lola Montez , Irish actress and dancer (born 1821) 1863 – Horace Vernet , French painter (born 1789) 1869 – Alexander Dargomyzhsky , Russian composer (born 1813) 1878 – Edward Shepherd Creasy , English historian and jurist (born 1812) 1884 – Hermann Schlegel , German ornithologist and herpetologist (born 1804) 1887 – William Giblin , Australian lawyer and politician, 13th Premier of Tasmania (born 1840) 1888 – Big Bear , Canadian tribal chief (born 1825) 1891 – George Bancroft , American historian and politician, 17th United States Secretary of the Navy (born 1800) 1893 – Rutherford B. Hayes , American general, lawyer, and politician, 19th President of the United States (born 1822) 1896 – Augusta Hall, Baroness Llanover , Welsh writer and patron of the arts (born 1802) [ 80 ] 1901–present 1903 – Ignaz Wechselmann , Hungarian architect and philanthropist (born 1828) 1908 – Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of Tuscany (born 1835) 1909 – Agathon Meurman , Finnish politician and journalist (born 1826) [ 81 ] 1909 – Francis Smith , Australian lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th Premier of Tasmania (born 1819) 1911 – Francis Galton , English polymath, anthropologist, and geographer (born 1822) 1927 – Juliette Gordon Low , American founder of the Girl Scouts of the USA (born 1860) 1930 – Gauhar Jaan , One of the first performers to record music on 78 rpm records in India. (born 1873) 1931 – Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich of Russia (born 1864) 1932 – Ahmet Derviş , Turkish general (born 1881) 1932 – Albert Jacka , Australian captain, Victoria Cross recipient (born 1893) 1933 – Louis Comfort Tiffany , American stained glass artist (born 1848) 1936 – Mateiu Caragiale , Romanian journalist, author, and poet (born 1885) 1942 – Walther von Reichenau , German field marshal (born 1884) 1947 – Pyotr Krasnov , Russian historian and general (born 1869) 1947 – Jean-Marie-Rodrigue Villeneuve , Canadian cardinal (born 1883) 1951 – Jyoti Prasad Agarwala , Indian poet, playwright, and director (born 1903) 1952 – Walter Briggs Sr. , American businessman (born 1877) 1961 – Patrice Lumumba , Congolese politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (born 1925) 1970 – Simon Kovar , Russian-American bassoon player and educator (born 1890) 1970 – Billy Stewart , American rhythm and blues singer and pianist (born 1937) 1972 – Betty Smith , American author and playwright (born 1896) 1977 – Dougal Haston , Scottish mountaineer (born 1940) 1977 – Gary Gilmore , American murderer (born 1940) 1981 – Loukas Panourgias , Greek footballer and lawyer (born 1899) 1984 – Kostas Giannidis , Greek pianist, composer, and conductor (born 1903) 1987 – Hugo Fregonese , Argentinian director and screenwriter (born 1908) 1987 – Lawrence Kohlberg , American psychologist and author (born 1927) [ 82 ] 1988 – Percy Qoboza , South African journalist and author (born 1938) 1990 – Panka Pelishek , Bulgarian pianist and music teacher (born 1899) [ 83 ] 1991 – Olav V of Norway (born 1903) 1992 – Frank Pullen , English soldier and businessman (born 1915) 1993 – Albert Hourani , English-Lebanese historian and academic (born 1915) 1994 – Yevgeni Ivanov , Russian spy (born 1926) 1994 – Helen Stephens , American runner, shot putter, and discus thrower (born 1918) 1996 – Barbara Jordan , American lawyer and politician (born 1936) 1996 – Sylvia Lawler , English geneticist (born 1922) 1997 – Bert Kelly , Australian farmer and politician, 20th Australian Minister for the Navy (born 1912) 1997 – Clyde Tombaugh , American astronomer and academic, discovered Pluto (born 1906) 2000 – Philip Jones , English trumpet player and educator (born 1928) 2000 – Ion Rațiu , Romanian journalist and politician (born 1917) 2002 – Camilo José Cela , Spanish author and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1916) 2002 – Roman Personov , Russian physicist and academic (born 1932) 2003 – Richard Crenna , American actor and director (born 1926) 2004 – Raymond Bonham Carter , English banker (born 1929) 2004 – Harry Brecheen , American baseball player and coach (born 1914) 2004 – Ray Stark , American film producer (born 1915) 2004 – Noble Willingham , American actor (born 1931) 2005 – Charlie Bell , Australian businessman (born 1960) 2005 – Virginia Mayo , American actress, singer, and dancer (born 1920) 2005 – Albert Schatz , American microbiologist and academic (born 1920) 2005 – Zhao Ziyang , Chinese politician, 3rd Premier of the People's Republic of China (born 1919) 2006 – Pierre Grondin , Canadian surgeon (born 1925) 2007 – Art Buchwald , American journalist and author (born 1925) 2007 – Yevhen Kushnaryov , Ukrainian engineer and politician (born 1951) 2007 – Uwe Nettelbeck , German record producer, journalist and film critic (born 1940) [ 84 ] 2008 – Bobby Fischer , American chess player and author (born 1943) [ 85 ] 2008 – Ernie Holmes , American football player, wrestler, and actor (born 1948) 2009 – Anders Isaksson , Swedish journalist and historian (born 1943) 2010 – Gaines Adams , American football player (born 1983) 2010 – Jyoti Basu , Indian politician and 9th Chief Minister of West Bengal (born 1914) 2010 – Michalis Papakonstantinou , Greek journalist and politician, Foreign Minister of Greece (born 1919) 2010 – Erich Segal , American author and screenwriter (born 1937) 2011 – Don Kirshner , American songwriter and producer (born 1934) 2012 – Julius Meimberg , German soldier and pilot (born 1917) 2012 – Johnny Otis , American singer-songwriter and producer (born 1921) 2012 – Marty Springstead , American baseball player and umpire (born 1937) 2013 – Mehmet Ali Birand , Turkish journalist and author (born 1941) 2013 – Jakob Arjouni , German author (born 1964) 2013 – Yves Debay , Belgian journalist (born 1954) 2013 – John Nkomo , Zimbabwean politician, Vice President of Zimbabwe (born 1934) 2013 – Lizbeth Webb , English soprano and actress (born 1926) 2014 – Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin , Indian spiritual leader, 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq (born 1915) 2014 – Francine Lalonde , Canadian educator and politician (born 1940) 2014 – Alistair McAlpine, Baron McAlpine of West Green , English businessman and politician (born 1942) 2014 – John J. McGinty III , American captain, Medal of Honor recipient (born 1940) 2014 – Sunanda Pushkar , Indian-Canadian businesswoman (born 1962) 2014 – Suchitra Sen , Indian film actress (born 1931) [ 86 ] 2015 – Ken Furphy , English footballer and manager (born 1931) 2015 – Faten Hamama , Egyptian actress and producer (born 1931) 2015 – Don Harron , Canadian actor and screenwriter (born 1924) 2016 – Blowfly , American singer-songwriter and producer (born 1939) 2016 – Melvin Day , New Zealand painter and historian (born 1923) 2016 – V. Rama Rao , Indian lawyer and politician, 12th Governor of Sikkim (born 1935) 2016 – Sudhindra Thirtha , Indian religious leader (born 1926) 2017 – Tirrel Burton , American football player and coach (born 1929) 2017 – Colo , American western lowland gorilla , first gorilla born in captivity and oldest recorded (born 1956) [ 87 ] [ 88 ] 2019 – S. Balakrishnan , Malayalam movie composer (born 1948) [ 89 ] 2020 – Derek Fowlds , British actor (born1937) [ 90 ] 2021 – Rasheed Naz , Pakistani film and television actor (born 1948) [ 91 ] 2022 – Birju Maharaj , Indian dancer (born 1937) [ 92 ] 2023 – Lucile Randon , French supercentenarian (born 1904) [ 93 ] 2025 – Didier Guillaume , French politician, 25th Minister of State of Monaco (born 1959) [ 94 ] 2025 – Jules Feiffer , American cartoonist, playwright, screenwriter, and educator (born 1929) [ 95 ] 2025 – Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat , Mongolian politician, 1st President of Mongolia (born 1942) [ 96 ] 2025 – Denis Law , Scottish footballer (born 1940) [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Holidays and observances Christian feast day : Anthony the Great Blessed Angelo Paoli Blessed Gamelbert of Michaelsbuch Charles Gore ( Church of England ) Jenaro Sánchez Delgadillo (one of Saints of the Cristero War ) Mildgyth Our Lady of Pontmain Sulpitius the Pious January 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Anthony the Great Blessed Angelo Paoli Blessed Gamelbert of Michaelsbuch Charles Gore ( Church of England ) Jenaro Sánchez Delgadillo (one of Saints of the Cristero War ) Mildgyth Our Lady of Pontmain Sulpitius the Pious January 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) National Day ( Menorca , Spain ) The opening ceremony of Patras Carnival , celebrated until Clean Monday . ( Patras , Greece ) References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Anthony A. 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Retrieved June 20, 2023 . ^ "Noted music composer S Balakrishnan passes away" . Mathrubhumi . Archived from the original on 2019-01-19 . Retrieved 2019-01-17 . ^ Louise Randell. "Yes Minister and Heartbeat star Derek Fowlds dead at 82" . MSN . Retrieved 2020-01-18 . ^ "Veteran actor Rashid Naz passes away at 73" . Images . 2022-01-17 . Retrieved 2025-08-07 . ^ "Leading Indian dancer Birju Maharaj dies" . Reuters . 2022-01-17 . Retrieved 2022-01-18 . ^ "The world's oldest known person, French nun Lucile Randon, dead at 118" . France 24 . 2023-01-17 . Retrieved 2023-03-05 . ^ Beaudet, Florence (January 17, 2025). "Drôme : Didier Guillaume, ancien président du département et ancien ministre de l'Agriculture, est mort" . France Bleu (in French) . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . ^ Webster, Andy (January 21, 2025). "Jules Feiffer, Acerbic Cartoonist, Writer and Much Else, Dies at 95" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved January 21, 2025 . ^ "Mongolian ex-president passes away" . XinhauNet . January 18, 2025 . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . ^ "Denis Law obituary" . The Guardian, UK . January 19, 2025 . Retrieved January 19, 2025 . ^ "Man Utd and Scotland legend Law dies aged 84" . BBC Sport . January 17, 2025 . Retrieved January 24, 2025 . External links BBC: On This Day The New York Times : On This Day Historical Events on January 17 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Months and days of the year v t e Today: January 16 , 2026 [refresh] January 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 February 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 March 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 April 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 May 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 June 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 July 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 August 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 September 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 October 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 November 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 December 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Related: List of non-standard dates Related: List of non-standard dates Days of January CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 Czech-language sources (cs) CS1 Korean-language sources (ko) CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles using Mw magnitude scale Commons link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 03:25 (UTC) . 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–4 of 4 results for author: Hurley, R Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10696 [ pdf ] cs.AI The Impact of Generative AI on Architectural Conceptual Design: Performance, Creative Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Load Authors: Han Jiang , Yao Xiao , Rachel Hurley , Shichao Liu Abstract : Our study examines how generative AI (GenAI) influences performance, creative self-efficacy, and cognitive load in architectural conceptual design tasks. Thirty-six student participants from Architectural Engineering and other disciplines completed a two-phase architectural design task, first independently and then with external tools (GenAI-assisted condition and control condition using an online… ▽ More Our study examines how generative AI (GenAI) influences performance, creative self-efficacy, and cognitive load in architectural conceptual design tasks. Thirty-six student participants from Architectural Engineering and other disciplines completed a two-phase architectural design task, first independently and then with external tools (GenAI-assisted condition and control condition using an online repository of existing architectural projects). Design outcomes were evaluated by expert raters, while self-efficacy and cognitive load were self-reported after each phase. Difference-in-differences analyses revealed no overall performance advantage of GenAI across participants; however, subgroup analyses showed that GenAI significantly improved design performance for novice designers. In contrast, general creative self-efficacy declined for students using GenAI. Cognitive load did not differ significantly between conditions, though prompt usage patterns showed that iterative idea generation and visual feedback prompts were linked to greater reductions in cognitive load. These findings suggest that GenAI effectiveness depends on users' prior expertise and interaction strategies through prompting. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10696 [ pdf ] The Impact of Generative AI on Architectural Conceptual Design: Performance, Creative Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Load Authors: Han Jiang , Yao Xiao , Rachel Hurley , Shichao Liu Abstract : Our study examines how generative AI (GenAI) influences performance, creative self-efficacy, and cognitive load in architectural conceptual design tasks. Thirty-six student participants from Architectural Engineering and other disciplines completed a two-phase architectural design task, first independently and then with external tools (GenAI-assisted condition and control condition using an online… ▽ More Our study examines how generative AI (GenAI) influences performance, creative self-efficacy, and cognitive load in architectural conceptual design tasks. Thirty-six student participants from Architectural Engineering and other disciplines completed a two-phase architectural design task, first independently and then with external tools (GenAI-assisted condition and control condition using an online repository of existing architectural projects). Design outcomes were evaluated by expert raters, while self-efficacy and cognitive load were self-reported after each phase. Difference-in-differences analyses revealed no overall performance advantage of GenAI across participants; however, subgroup analyses showed that GenAI significantly improved design performance for novice designers. In contrast, general creative self-efficacy declined for students using GenAI. Cognitive load did not differ significantly between conditions, though prompt usage patterns showed that iterative idea generation and visual feedback prompts were linked to greater reductions in cognitive load. These findings suggest that GenAI effectiveness depends on users' prior expertise and interaction strategies through prompting. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2506.05352 [ pdf ] cs.AI A Path to Loving Authors: John Beverley , Regina Hurley Abstract : This work lays the foundations for a rigorous ontological characterization of love, addressing its philosophical complexity and scientific relevance, with particular emphasis on psychology and sociology, as well as highlighting ways in which such characterization enhances relevant AI based applications. The position defended here is that love is best understood as a concatenation of passive sensat… ▽ More This work lays the foundations for a rigorous ontological characterization of love, addressing its philosophical complexity and scientific relevance, with particular emphasis on psychology and sociology, as well as highlighting ways in which such characterization enhances relevant AI based applications. The position defended here is that love is best understood as a concatenation of passive sensations (e.g., emotional arousal) and active evaluative judgments (e.g., perceiving the beloved as valuable), in the interest of balancing the involuntary aspects of love with its rational accountability. To provide a structured foundation, the paper draws on Basic Formal Ontology (BFO) and other applied ontological methods to differentiate various senses of love. This work engages with objections to the understanding of love as concatenation, particularly concerning the relationship between sensation and judgment. A causal correlation model is defended, ensuring that the affective and cognitive components are linked. By offering a precise and scalable ontological account, this work lays the foundation for future interdisciplinary applications, making love a subject of formal inquiry in ontology engineering, artificial intelligence, and the sciences. △ Less Submitted 28 April, 2025; originally announced June 2025. arXiv:2506.05352 [ pdf ] A Path to Loving Authors: John Beverley , Regina Hurley Abstract : This work lays the foundations for a rigorous ontological characterization of love, addressing its philosophical complexity and scientific relevance, with particular emphasis on psychology and sociology, as well as highlighting ways in which such characterization enhances relevant AI based applications. The position defended here is that love is best understood as a concatenation of passive sensat… ▽ More This work lays the foundations for a rigorous ontological characterization of love, addressing its philosophical complexity and scientific relevance, with particular emphasis on psychology and sociology, as well as highlighting ways in which such characterization enhances relevant AI based applications. The position defended here is that love is best understood as a concatenation of passive sensations (e.g., emotional arousal) and active evaluative judgments (e.g., perceiving the beloved as valuable), in the interest of balancing the involuntary aspects of love with its rational accountability. To provide a structured foundation, the paper draws on Basic Formal Ontology (BFO) and other applied ontological methods to differentiate various senses of love. This work engages with objections to the understanding of love as concatenation, particularly concerning the relationship between sensation and judgment. A causal correlation model is defended, ensuring that the affective and cognitive components are linked. By offering a precise and scalable ontological account, this work lays the foundation for future interdisciplinary applications, making love a subject of formal inquiry in ontology engineering, artificial intelligence, and the sciences. △ Less Submitted 28 April, 2025; originally announced June 2025. arXiv:2504.19968 [ pdf ] cs.AI cs.GT How Group Lives Go Well Authors: John Beverley , Regina Hurley Abstract : This paper explores the ontological space of group well being, proposing a framework for representing collective welfare, group functions, and long term contributions within an ontology engineering context. Traditional well being theories focus on individual states, often relying on hedonistic, desire satisfaction, or objective list models. Such approaches struggle to account for cases where indiv… ▽ More This paper explores the ontological space of group well being, proposing a framework for representing collective welfare, group functions, and long term contributions within an ontology engineering context. Traditional well being theories focus on individual states, often relying on hedonistic, desire satisfaction, or objective list models. Such approaches struggle to account for cases where individual sacrifices contribute to broader social progress, a critical challenge in modeling group flourishing. To address this, the paper refines and extends the Counterfactual Account (CT) of well being, which evaluates goodness of an event by comparing an individual's actual well being with a hypothetical counterpart in a nearby possible world. While useful, this framework is insufficient for group level ontologies, where well being depends on functional persistence, institutional roles, and historical impact rather than immediate individual outcomes. Drawing on Basic Formal Ontology (BFO), the paper introduces a model in which group flourishing is evaluated in terms of group functional, where members bear roles and exhibit persistence conditions akin to biological systems or designed artifacts. This approach enables semantic interoperability for modeling longitudinal social contributions, allowing for structured reasoning about group welfare, social institutions, and group flourishing over time. △ Less Submitted 28 April, 2025; originally announced April 2025. arXiv:2504.19968 [ pdf ] How Group Lives Go Well Authors: John Beverley , Regina Hurley Abstract : This paper explores the ontological space of group well being, proposing a framework for representing collective welfare, group functions, and long term contributions within an ontology engineering context. Traditional well being theories focus on individual states, often relying on hedonistic, desire satisfaction, or objective list models. Such approaches struggle to account for cases where indiv… ▽ More This paper explores the ontological space of group well being, proposing a framework for representing collective welfare, group functions, and long term contributions within an ontology engineering context. Traditional well being theories focus on individual states, often relying on hedonistic, desire satisfaction, or objective list models. Such approaches struggle to account for cases where individual sacrifices contribute to broader social progress, a critical challenge in modeling group flourishing. To address this, the paper refines and extends the Counterfactual Account (CT) of well being, which evaluates goodness of an event by comparing an individual's actual well being with a hypothetical counterpart in a nearby possible world. While useful, this framework is insufficient for group level ontologies, where well being depends on functional persistence, institutional roles, and historical impact rather than immediate individual outcomes. Drawing on Basic Formal Ontology (BFO), the paper introduces a model in which group flourishing is evaluated in terms of group functional, where members bear roles and exhibit persistence conditions akin to biological systems or designed artifacts. This approach enables semantic interoperability for modeling longitudinal social contributions, allowing for structured reasoning about group welfare, social institutions, and group flourishing over time. △ Less Submitted 28 April, 2025; originally announced April 2025. arXiv:2405.00960 [ pdf ] cs.AI cs.DB cs.IT Foundations for Digital Twins Authors: Finn Wilson , Regina Hurley , Dan Maxwell , Jon McLellan , John Beverley Abstract : The growing reliance on digital twins across various industries and domains brings with it semantic interoperability challenges. Ontologies are a well-known strategy for addressing such challenges, though given the complexity of the phenomenon, there are risks of reintroducing the interoperability challenges at the level of ontology representations. In the interest of avoiding such pitfalls, we in… ▽ More The growing reliance on digital twins across various industries and domains brings with it semantic interoperability challenges. Ontologies are a well-known strategy for addressing such challenges, though given the complexity of the phenomenon, there are risks of reintroducing the interoperability challenges at the level of ontology representations. In the interest of avoiding such pitfalls, we introduce and defend characterizations of digital twins within the context of the Common Core Ontologies, an extension of the widely-used Basic Formal Ontology. We provide a set of definitions and design patterns relevant to the domain of digital twins, highlighted by illustrative use cases of digital twins and their physical counterparts. In doing so, we provide a foundation on which to build more sophisticated ontological content related and connected to digital twins. △ Less Submitted 15 August, 2024; v1 submitted 1 May, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Comments: 14 arXiv:2405.00960 [ pdf ] Foundations for Digital Twins Authors: Finn Wilson , Regina Hurley , Dan Maxwell , Jon McLellan , John Beverley Abstract : The growing reliance on digital twins across various industries and domains brings with it semantic interoperability challenges. Ontologies are a well-known strategy for addressing such challenges, though given the complexity of the phenomenon, there are risks of reintroducing the interoperability challenges at the level of ontology representations. In the interest of avoiding such pitfalls, we in… ▽ More The growing reliance on digital twins across various industries and domains brings with it semantic interoperability challenges. Ontologies are a well-known strategy for addressing such challenges, though given the complexity of the phenomenon, there are risks of reintroducing the interoperability challenges at the level of ontology representations. In the interest of avoiding such pitfalls, we introduce and defend characterizations of digital twins within the context of the Common Core Ontologies, an extension of the widely-used Basic Formal Ontology. We provide a set of definitions and design patterns relevant to the domain of digital twins, highlighted by illustrative use cases of digital twins and their physical counterparts. In doing so, we provide a foundation on which to build more sophisticated ontological content related and connected to digital twins. △ Less Submitted 15 August, 2024; v1 submitted 1 May, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Comments: 14 About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–3 of 3 results for author: Ciausu, C Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10154 [ pdf ] cs.AI cs.CV cs.ET cs.LG cs.SE MHub.ai: A Simple, Standardized, and Reproducible Platform for AI Models in Medical Imaging Authors: Leonard Nürnberg , Dennis Bontempi , Suraj Pai , Curtis Lisle , Steve Pieper , Ron Kikinis , Sil van de Leemput , Rahul Soni , Gowtham Murugesan , Cosmin Ciausu , Miriam Groeneveld , Felix J. Dorfner , Jue Jiang , Aneesh Rangnekar , Harini Veeraraghavan , Joeran S. Bosma , Keno Bressem , Raymond Mak , Andrey Fedorov , Hugo JWL Aerts Abstract : Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to transform medical imaging by automating image analysis and accelerating clinical research. However, research and clinical use are limited by the wide variety of AI implementations and architectures, inconsistent documentation, and reproducibility issues. Here, we introduce MHub.ai, an open-source, container-based platform that standardizes access t… ▽ More Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to transform medical imaging by automating image analysis and accelerating clinical research. However, research and clinical use are limited by the wide variety of AI implementations and architectures, inconsistent documentation, and reproducibility issues. Here, we introduce MHub.ai, an open-source, container-based platform that standardizes access to AI models with minimal configuration, promoting accessibility and reproducibility in medical imaging. MHub.ai packages models from peer-reviewed publications into standardized containers that support direct processing of DICOM and other formats, provide a unified application interface, and embed structured metadata. Each model is accompanied by publicly available reference data that can be used to confirm model operation. MHub.ai includes an initial set of state-of-the-art segmentation, prediction, and feature extraction models for different modalities. The modular framework enables adaptation of any model and supports community contributions. We demonstrate the utility of the platform in a clinical use case through comparative evaluation of lung segmentation models. To further strengthen transparency and reproducibility, we publicly release the generated segmentations and evaluation metrics and provide interactive dashboards that allow readers to inspect individual cases and reproduce or extend our analysis. By simplifying model use, MHub.ai enables side-by-side benchmarking with identical execution commands and standardized outputs, and lowers the barrier to clinical translation. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 41 pages, 15 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2601.10154 [ pdf ] MHub.ai: A Simple, Standardized, and Reproducible Platform for AI Models in Medical Imaging Authors: Leonard Nürnberg , Dennis Bontempi , Suraj Pai , Curtis Lisle , Steve Pieper , Ron Kikinis , Sil van de Leemput , Rahul Soni , Gowtham Murugesan , Cosmin Ciausu , Miriam Groeneveld , Felix J. Dorfner , Jue Jiang , Aneesh Rangnekar , Harini Veeraraghavan , Joeran S. Bosma , Keno Bressem , Raymond Mak , Andrey Fedorov , Hugo JWL Aerts Abstract : Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to transform medical imaging by automating image analysis and accelerating clinical research. However, research and clinical use are limited by the wide variety of AI implementations and architectures, inconsistent documentation, and reproducibility issues. Here, we introduce MHub.ai, an open-source, container-based platform that standardizes access t… ▽ More Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to transform medical imaging by automating image analysis and accelerating clinical research. However, research and clinical use are limited by the wide variety of AI implementations and architectures, inconsistent documentation, and reproducibility issues. Here, we introduce MHub.ai, an open-source, container-based platform that standardizes access to AI models with minimal configuration, promoting accessibility and reproducibility in medical imaging. MHub.ai packages models from peer-reviewed publications into standardized containers that support direct processing of DICOM and other formats, provide a unified application interface, and embed structured metadata. Each model is accompanied by publicly available reference data that can be used to confirm model operation. MHub.ai includes an initial set of state-of-the-art segmentation, prediction, and feature extraction models for different modalities. The modular framework enables adaptation of any model and supports community contributions. We demonstrate the utility of the platform in a clinical use case through comparative evaluation of lung segmentation models. To further strengthen transparency and reproducibility, we publicly release the generated segmentations and evaluation metrics and provide interactive dashboards that allow readers to inspect individual cases and reproduce or extend our analysis. By simplifying model use, MHub.ai enables side-by-side benchmarking with identical execution commands and standardized outputs, and lowers the barrier to clinical translation. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 41 pages, 15 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2507.17971 [ pdf , ps , other ] eess.IV cs.CV Benchmarking of Deep Learning Methods for Generic MRI Multi-Organ Abdominal Segmentation Authors: Deepa Krishnaswamy , Cosmin Ciausu , Steve Pieper , Ron Kikinis , Benjamin Billot , Andrey Fedorov Abstract : Recent advances in deep learning have led to robust automated tools for segmentation of abdominal computed tomography (CT). Meanwhile, segmentation of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is substantially more challenging due to the inherent signal variability and the increased effort required for annotating training datasets. Hence, existing approaches are trained on limited sets of MRI sequences, wh… ▽ More Recent advances in deep learning have led to robust automated tools for segmentation of abdominal computed tomography (CT). Meanwhile, segmentation of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is substantially more challenging due to the inherent signal variability and the increased effort required for annotating training datasets. Hence, existing approaches are trained on limited sets of MRI sequences, which might limit their generalizability. To characterize the landscape of MRI abdominal segmentation tools, we present here a comprehensive benchmarking of the three state-of-the-art and open-source models: MRSegmentator, MRISegmentator-Abdomen, and TotalSegmentator MRI. Since these models are trained using labor-intensive manual annotation cycles, we also introduce and evaluate ABDSynth, a SynthSeg-based model purely trained on widely available CT segmentations (no real images). More generally, we assess accuracy and generalizability by leveraging three public datasets (not seen by any of the evaluated methods during their training), which span all major manufacturers, five MRI sequences, as well as a variety of subject conditions, voxel resolutions, and fields-of-view. Our results reveal that MRSegmentator achieves the best performance and is most generalizable. In contrast, ABDSynth yields slightly less accurate results, but its relaxed requirements in training data make it an alternative when the annotation budget is limited. The evaluation code and datasets are given for future benchmarking at along with inference code and weights for ABDSynth. △ Less Submitted 25 July, 2025; v1 submitted 23 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025. arXiv:2507.17971 [ pdf , ps , other ] Benchmarking of Deep Learning Methods for Generic MRI Multi-Organ Abdominal Segmentation Authors: Deepa Krishnaswamy , Cosmin Ciausu , Steve Pieper , Ron Kikinis , Benjamin Billot , Andrey Fedorov Abstract : Recent advances in deep learning have led to robust automated tools for segmentation of abdominal computed tomography (CT). Meanwhile, segmentation of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is substantially more challenging due to the inherent signal variability and the increased effort required for annotating training datasets. Hence, existing approaches are trained on limited sets of MRI sequences, wh… ▽ More Recent advances in deep learning have led to robust automated tools for segmentation of abdominal computed tomography (CT). Meanwhile, segmentation of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is substantially more challenging due to the inherent signal variability and the increased effort required for annotating training datasets. Hence, existing approaches are trained on limited sets of MRI sequences, which might limit their generalizability. To characterize the landscape of MRI abdominal segmentation tools, we present here a comprehensive benchmarking of the three state-of-the-art and open-source models: MRSegmentator, MRISegmentator-Abdomen, and TotalSegmentator MRI. Since these models are trained using labor-intensive manual annotation cycles, we also introduce and evaluate ABDSynth, a SynthSeg-based model purely trained on widely available CT segmentations (no real images). More generally, we assess accuracy and generalizability by leveraging three public datasets (not seen by any of the evaluated methods during their training), which span all major manufacturers, five MRI sequences, as well as a variety of subject conditions, voxel resolutions, and fields-of-view. Our results reveal that MRSegmentator achieves the best performance and is most generalizable. In contrast, ABDSynth yields slightly less accurate results, but its relaxed requirements in training data make it an alternative when the annotation budget is limited. The evaluation code and datasets are given for future benchmarking at along with inference code and weights for ABDSynth. △ Less Submitted 25 July, 2025; v1 submitted 23 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025. arXiv:2403.15609 [ pdf , other ] eess.IV cs.CV Towards Automatic Abdominal MRI Organ Segmentation: Leveraging Synthesized Data Generated From CT Labels Authors: Cosmin Ciausu , Deepa Krishnaswamy , Benjamin Billot , Steve Pieper , Ron Kikinis , Andrey Fedorov Abstract : Deep learning has shown great promise in the ability to automatically annotate organs in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, for example, of the brain. However, despite advancements in the field, the ability to accurately segment abdominal organs remains difficult across MR. In part, this may be explained by the much greater variability in image appearance and severely limited availability of… ▽ More Deep learning has shown great promise in the ability to automatically annotate organs in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, for example, of the brain. However, despite advancements in the field, the ability to accurately segment abdominal organs remains difficult across MR. In part, this may be explained by the much greater variability in image appearance and severely limited availability of training labels. The inherent nature of computed tomography (CT) scans makes it easier to annotate, resulting in a larger availability of expert annotations for the latter. We leverage a modality-agnostic domain randomization approach, utilizing CT label maps to generate synthetic images on-the-fly during training, further used to train a U-Net segmentation network for abdominal organs segmentation. Our approach shows comparable results compared to fully-supervised segmentation methods trained on MR data. Our method results in Dice scores of 0.90 (0.08) and 0.91 (0.08) for the right and left kidney respectively, compared to a pretrained nnU-Net model yielding 0.87 (0.20) and 0.91 (0.03). We will make our code publicly available. △ Less Submitted 22 March, 2024; originally announced March 2024. Comments: 13 pages arXiv:2403.15609 [ pdf , other ] Towards Automatic Abdominal MRI Organ Segmentation: Leveraging Synthesized Data Generated From CT Labels Authors: Cosmin Ciausu , Deepa Krishnaswamy , Benjamin Billot , Steve Pieper , Ron Kikinis , Andrey Fedorov Abstract : Deep learning has shown great promise in the ability to automatically annotate organs in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, for example, of the brain. However, despite advancements in the field, the ability to accurately segment abdominal organs remains difficult across MR. In part, this may be explained by the much greater variability in image appearance and severely limited availability of… ▽ More Deep learning has shown great promise in the ability to automatically annotate organs in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, for example, of the brain. However, despite advancements in the field, the ability to accurately segment abdominal organs remains difficult across MR. In part, this may be explained by the much greater variability in image appearance and severely limited availability of training labels. The inherent nature of computed tomography (CT) scans makes it easier to annotate, resulting in a larger availability of expert annotations for the latter. We leverage a modality-agnostic domain randomization approach, utilizing CT label maps to generate synthetic images on-the-fly during training, further used to train a U-Net segmentation network for abdominal organs segmentation. Our approach shows comparable results compared to fully-supervised segmentation methods trained on MR data. Our method results in Dice scores of 0.90 (0.08) and 0.91 (0.08) for the right and left kidney respectively, compared to a pretrained nnU-Net model yielding 0.87 (0.20) and 0.91 (0.03). We will make our code publicly available. △ Less Submitted 22 March, 2024; originally announced March 2024. Comments: 13 pages About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Recent military use 2 See also 3 References Outpost (military) Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Català Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia עברית Русский Shqip کوردی Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Part of a series on War ( outline ) History Prehistoric Ancient Thermal Gunpowder Timeline Post-classical Castles Early modern Military revolution Pike and shot Napoleonic warfare Late modern Industrial warfare Fourth-gen warfare AI warfare Prehistoric Ancient Thermal Gunpowder Timeline Thermal Gunpowder Timeline Timeline Post-classical Castles Castles Early modern Military revolution Pike and shot Napoleonic warfare Military revolution Pike and shot Napoleonic warfare Late modern Industrial warfare Fourth-gen warfare AI warfare Industrial warfare Fourth-gen warfare AI warfare Military Organization Command and control Defense ministry Reserves Ranks Branches: Army Navy Air force Marines Coast guard Border guard Special forces Cyber force Space force Specialties: Staff Engineers Intel Recon Medical Police Diving Pilot Land units: Infantry Armor Cavalry Artillery Special forces Signal corps Naval units: Warships Submarines Aircraft carriers Landing craft Auxiliary ships Air units: Fighters Bombers Command Close air support Electronic-warfare Reconnaissance Combat systems: Fire-control system Fire-control radar Director (military) Combat information center Sonar Radar Historical: Ship gun fire-control Gun data computer Torpedo data computer Development: Basic training Military maneuvers Combat training Organization Command and control Defense ministry Reserves Ranks Branches: Army Navy Air force Marines Coast guard Border guard Special forces Cyber force Space force Specialties: Staff Engineers Intel Recon Medical Police Diving Pilot Land units: Infantry Armor Cavalry Cavalry Artillery Special forces Signal corps Naval units: Warships Submarines Aircraft carriers Landing craft Auxiliary ships Air units: Fighters Bombers Command Close air support Electronic-warfare Reconnaissance Combat systems: Fire-control system Fire-control radar Director (military) Combat information center Sonar Radar Historical: Ship gun fire-control Gun data computer Torpedo data computer Development: Basic training Military maneuvers Combat training Battlespace Aerospace Aerial Airborne Space Land Cold-region Desert Fortification Jungle Mountain Urban Subterranean Tunnel Sea Amphibious Blue Brown Green Surface Underwater Seabed Cyber Information Night Aerospace Aerial Airborne Space Aerial Airborne Space Land Cold-region Desert Fortification Jungle Mountain Urban Subterranean Tunnel Cold-region Desert Fortification Jungle Mountain Urban Subterranean Tunnel Tunnel Sea Amphibious Blue Brown Green Surface Underwater Seabed Amphibious Blue Brown Green Surface Underwater Seabed Seabed Cyber Information Night Weapons Air defense Armor Artillery Barrage Biological Camouflage Cavalry Horses Air cavalry Chemical Combined arms Conventional Cyber Denial Disinformation Drone / Robot Electromagnetic Firearms Infantry Loitering Missile Music Nuclear Psychological Radiological Submarine Unconventional Air defense Armor Artillery Barrage Biological Camouflage Cavalry Horses Air cavalry Horses Air cavalry Chemical Combined arms Conventional Cyber Denial Disinformation Drone / Robot Electromagnetic Firearms Infantry Loitering Missile Music Nuclear Psychological Radiological Submarine Unconventional Tactics List of military tactics Aerial Airlift Air assault Airbridge Airdrop Anti-aircraft Anti-sub Anti-tank Battle Cavalry Charge CQC Counterattack Counterinsurgency Counter-battery Convoy Defeat in detail Foxhole Drone Envelopment Formation Guerrilla Naval Shock Rapid dominance Encirclement Investment Siege Swarm Screen Tactical objective Target saturation Trench Withdrawal Aerial Airlift Air assault Airbridge Airdrop Air assault Airbridge Airdrop Anti-aircraft Anti-sub Anti-tank Battle Cavalry Charge CQC Counterattack Counterinsurgency Counter-battery Convoy Defeat in detail Foxhole Drone Envelopment Formation Guerrilla Naval Shock Rapid dominance Rapid dominance Encirclement Investment Siege Siege Swarm Screen Tactical objective Target saturation Trench Withdrawal Operational Military operation Special Operations research Blitzkrieg Expeditionary Deep operation Maneuver Operational maneuver group Raid Covert Stay-behind Military operation Special Special Operations research Blitzkrieg Expeditionary Deep operation Maneuver Operational maneuver group Raid Covert Stay-behind Strategy List of military strategies and concepts Military campaign Anti-access Attrition Commerce raiding Counter-offensive Culminating Defense in depth Fabian Empty fort Mosaic Deception Defensive Depth Goal Nuclear Naval Offensive Scorched earth Military campaign Anti-access Attrition Commerce raiding Counter-offensive Culminating Defense in depth Fabian Empty fort Mosaic Deception Defensive Depth Goal Nuclear Naval Offensive Scorched earth Grand strategy Alliance Asymmetric Blockade Broken-backed Class Cold war Colonial Conquest Containment Divide and conquer Economic Endemic Fleet in being Irregular Liberation Limited Network-centric New generation Perpetual Political Princely Proxy Religious Resource Strategic Succession Technology Theater Total war World war Alliance Asymmetric Blockade Broken-backed Class Cold war Colonial Conquest Containment Divide and conquer Economic Endemic Fleet in being Irregular Liberation Limited Network-centric New generation Perpetual Political Princely Proxy Religious Resource Strategic Succession Technology Theater Total war World war Administrative Branch Policy Staff Training Service Sociology Branch Policy Staff Training Service Sociology Organization Area of responsibility Chain of command Command and control Doctrine Order of battle Principles of war Economy of force Medicine Engineers Intelligence Ranks Technology and equipment Area of responsibility Chain of command Command and control Doctrine Order of battle Principles of war Economy of force Medicine Engineers Intelligence Ranks Technology and equipment Personnel Recruitment Conscription Draft evasion Mobilization Training Specialism Soldier Morale Volunteer Women Children Transgender Harassment Conscientious objector Conscription and sexism Counter-recruitment Recruitment Conscription Draft evasion Mobilization Training Specialism Soldier Morale Volunteer Women Children Transgender Harassment Conscientious objector Conscription and sexism Counter-recruitment Logistics History War economy Arms industry Materiel Train Supply-chain management Defense industrial base Base MOB FOB Outpost History War economy Arms industry Materiel Train Supply-chain management Defense industrial base Base MOB FOB Outpost MOB FOB Outpost Science Power projection Loss-of-strength gradient Lanchester's laws Force multiplication Morale Power projection Loss-of-strength gradient Lanchester's laws Force multiplication Force multiplication Morale Law Belligerent Occupation Armistice Ceasefire Court-martial Desertion Geneva Conventions Geneva Protocol Islamic rules Justice Lawful / Unlawful combatant Perfidy Regular / Irregular Jewish laws on war Right of conquest Right of self-defense Rules of engagement Self-determination Martial law War crime War and genocide War treason Warlord Belligerent Occupation Armistice Ceasefire Court-martial Desertion Geneva Conventions Geneva Protocol Islamic rules Justice Lawful / Unlawful combatant Perfidy Regular / Irregular Jewish laws on war Right of conquest Right of self-defense Rules of engagement Self-determination Martial law War crime War and genocide War treason Warlord Theory Air supremacy Appeasement Command of the sea Deterrence theory Full-spectrum dominance Overmatch Just war theory Principles of war Philosophy of war Security dilemma Tripwire force Wargaming Simulation Exercises Combat effectiveness Center of gravity Air supremacy Appeasement Command of the sea Deterrence theory Full-spectrum dominance Overmatch Just war theory Principles of war Philosophy of war Security dilemma Tripwire force Tripwire force Wargaming Simulation Exercises Simulation Exercises Combat effectiveness Center of gravity Non-warfare Arms control Counter-insurgency Deterrence Disaster response Gray-zone Gunboat diplomacy Humanitarian aid Law enforcement Low-intensity conflict Military engineering Peacekeeping Peacebuilding Peace through strength Show of force Arms control Counter-insurgency Deterrence Disaster response Gray-zone Gunboat diplomacy Humanitarian aid Law enforcement Low-intensity conflict Military engineering Peacekeeping Peacebuilding Peace through strength Peacebuilding Peace through strength Show of force Culture Awards and decorations Battle cry Warrior War film Military science fiction War novel Anti-war movement Foot drill War song Uniform Wargame Militarization / Militarism Antimilitarism Camp follower Awards and decorations Battle cry Warrior War film Military science fiction War novel Anti-war movement Foot drill War song Uniform Wargame Militarization / Militarism Antimilitarism Antimilitarism Camp follower Books Seven Military Classics The Art of War De re militari Strategemata On War Summary of the Art of War Seven Military Classics The Art of War The Art of War De re militari Strategemata On War Summary of the Art of War Related Women in war War resister War studies Horses in warfare Wartime sexual violence Fifth column Mercenary Pacifism Privateer Private military company Soldiers are murderers Women in war War resister War studies Horses in warfare Wartime sexual violence Fifth column Mercenary Pacifism Privateer Private military company Soldiers are murderers Lists Battles Military occupations Military terms Operations Sieges War crimes Wars by death toll Weapons Writers Battles Military occupations Military terms Operations Sieges War crimes Wars by death toll by death toll Weapons Writers .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e In military terminology , an outpost is a location where detachments of military personnel are stationed at a distance from the main armed force or formation in a region. [ 1 ] Outposts are usually located in remote or sparsely populated areas, positioned to observe and defend against unauthorized intrusions and surprise attacks, serving as the first line of defense. The station occupied by such troops, usually a small military base or settlement in an outlying frontier , limit, political boundary or in another country. [ 2 ] Its oldest known use dates to the 16th century: "station when on duty, a fixed position or place" (1590s), from French poste , meaning "place where one is stationed." [ citation needed ] Outposts can take many different forms, but share the features of being enclosed or otherwise separated from their environment and being regularly staffed by some sort of protective force. In some cases, these outposts develop satellite communities such as mining towns or frontier settlements in the area that outpost protects. [ 3 ] : 441–442 Recent military use Military outposts, most recently referred to as combat outposts (COPs), served as a cornerstone of counterinsurgency doctrine in Iraq and Afghanistan . These permanent or semi-permanent structures, often located in or near populated areas, enabled military forces to secure key lines of communication or infrastructure, secure and co-opt the populace, assist the government in restoring essential services, and force insurgents to operate elsewhere. [ 4 ] Combat outposts were almost unanimously described in positive terms by defense analysts and military officers as a means through which to carry out its counterinsurgency efforts. [ 5 ] Types of outposts are used in almost every war in low supply regions as the can protect supply routes and key points. See also Blockhouse Border outpost Forward operating base Human outpost Military base Observation post Satellite airfield Screening (tactic) References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "outpost n. ". The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military . New York: Oxford University Press. 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-989158-0 . ^ "outpost" , The Free Dictionary , retrieved 27 May 2025 ^ Blower, Brooke L. (June 2017). "Nation of Outposts: Forts, Factories, Bases, and the Making of American Power" . Diplomatic History . 41 (3): 439– 459. doi : 10.1093/dh/dhx034 . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . ^ Seidel, S. B. (2010). Planning Combat Outposts to Maximize Population Security . Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved from [ Article title] ^ Hsia, Timothy (2008). "A Quick Review of Combat Outposts (COPs)" (PDF) . Small Wars Journal . v t e Fortifications v t e Ancient Abatis Acropolis Agger Broch Burgus Caltrop Castellum Castra Castros Chengqiang Circular rampart City gate Crannog Ditch Defensive wall Dun Elevated entrance Faussebraye Gatehouse Gord Hillfort Landwehr Limes Nuraghe Oppidum Palisade Pincer gate Promontory fort Rampart Ringfort (Rath) Refuge castle Schwedenschanze Stockade Sudis Trou de loup Vallum Wagon fort ( Laager ) Vitrified fort Abatis Acropolis Agger Broch Burgus Caltrop Castellum Castra Castros Chengqiang Circular rampart City gate Crannog Ditch Defensive wall Dun Elevated entrance Faussebraye Gatehouse Gord Hillfort Landwehr Limes Nuraghe Oppidum Palisade Pincer gate Promontory fort Rampart Ringfort (Rath) Refuge castle Schwedenschanze Stockade Sudis Trou de loup Vallum Wagon fort ( Laager ) Vitrified fort Post-classical Advanced work Albarrana tower Alcazaba Alcázar Amba Arrowslit Barmkin Barbican Bartizan Bastion Battery tower Battlement Bawn Bent entrance Bergfried Berm Boom Bretèche Bridge castle Bridge tower Burh Butter-churn tower Caer Castle Chamber gate Chartaque Chashi Chemin de ronde Chemise Cheval de frise Citadel Coercion castle Concentric castle Corner tower Counter-castle Curtain Drawbridge Enceinte Embrasure Flanking tower Fortified buildings ( church , house , Dzong ) Fujian tulou Ganerbenburg Gate tower Gabion Glacis Guard tower Gulyay-gorod Gusuku Half tower Hoarding Inner bailey Kasbah Keep Kremlin ( Detinets ) Ksar Landesburg Loophole L-plan castle Machicolation Merlon Moat Motte-and-bailey Murder hole Neck ditch Outer bailey Outwork Parapet Peel tower Portcullis Postern Powder tower Qalat Reduit Ribat Ricetto Ringwork Roundel Quadrangular castle Shell keep Shield wall Shiro Toll castle Tower castle Tower house Turret Viking ring fortress Wall tower Bailey (or ward) Watchtower Witch tower Yagura Yett Zwinger Advanced work Albarrana tower Alcazaba Alcázar Amba Arrowslit Barmkin Barbican Bartizan Bastion Battery tower Battlement Bawn Bent entrance Bergfried Berm Boom Bretèche Bridge castle Bridge tower Burh Butter-churn tower Caer Castle Chamber gate Chartaque Chashi Chemin de ronde Chemise Cheval de frise Citadel Coercion castle Concentric castle Corner tower Counter-castle Curtain Drawbridge Enceinte Embrasure Flanking tower Fortified buildings ( church , house , Dzong ) Fujian tulou Ganerbenburg Gate tower Gabion Glacis Guard tower Gulyay-gorod Gusuku Half tower Hoarding Inner bailey Kasbah Keep Kremlin ( Detinets ) Ksar Landesburg Loophole L-plan castle Machicolation Merlon Moat Motte-and-bailey Murder hole Neck ditch Outer bailey Outwork Parapet Peel tower Portcullis Postern Powder tower Qalat Reduit Ribat Ricetto Ringwork Roundel Quadrangular castle Shell keep Shield wall Shiro Toll castle Tower castle Tower house Turret Viking ring fortress Wall tower Bailey (or ward) Watchtower Witch tower Yagura Yett Zwinger Modern Early modern Abwurfdach Arsenal Barricade Bastion Blockhouse Breastwork Canal Caponier Casemate Cavalier Counterguard Couvreface Coupure Covertway Crownwork Device Forts Entrenchment Flèche Gorge Gunpowder magazine Hornwork Kotta mara Lunette Magazine Orillon Ostrog Palanka Place-of-arms Polygonal fort Presidio (Spanish America) Punji sticks Ravelin Redan Redoubt Retrenchment Sally port Sandbag Scarp and Counterscarp Sconce Schanze Sea fort Station Star fort Tenaille 19th century Barbed wire Barbette Border outpost Bunker Coastal artillery Disappearing gun Fire control tower Gun turret Land mine Martello tower Outpost Polygonal fort Sangar Wire obstacles 20th century Admiralty scaffolding Air raid shelter Anti-tank obstacles Trench Czech hedgehog Dragon's teeth Barbed tape Belgian gate Blast shelter Blast wall Border security Bomb shelter Buoy Bremer wall Concertina wire Defensive fighting position British "hedgehog" road block Entry control point (ECP) Electric fence Fallout shelter Fire support base Flak tower Hardened aircraft shelter Hesco bastion Jersey barrier Kabal Loophole Main line of resistance Missile launch facility Pillbox Revetment Sentry gun Spider hole Spike strip Submarine pen Underground hangar Weapon storage area Weapons Storage and Security System Early modern Abwurfdach Arsenal Barricade Bastion Blockhouse Breastwork Canal Caponier Casemate Cavalier Counterguard Couvreface Coupure Covertway Crownwork Device Forts Entrenchment Flèche Gorge Gunpowder magazine Hornwork Kotta mara Lunette Magazine Orillon Ostrog Palanka Place-of-arms Polygonal fort Presidio (Spanish America) Punji sticks Ravelin Redan Redoubt Retrenchment Sally port Sandbag Scarp and Counterscarp Sconce Schanze Sea fort Station Star fort Tenaille Abwurfdach Arsenal Barricade Bastion Blockhouse Breastwork Canal Caponier Casemate Cavalier Counterguard Couvreface Coupure Covertway Crownwork Device Forts Entrenchment Flèche Gorge Gunpowder magazine Hornwork Kotta mara Lunette Magazine Orillon Ostrog Palanka Place-of-arms Polygonal fort Presidio (Spanish America) Punji sticks Ravelin Redan Redoubt Retrenchment Sally port Sandbag Scarp and Counterscarp Sconce Schanze Sea fort Station Star fort Tenaille 19th century Barbed wire Barbette Border outpost Bunker Coastal artillery Disappearing gun Fire control tower Gun turret Land mine Martello tower Outpost Polygonal fort Sangar Wire obstacles Barbed wire Barbette Border outpost Bunker Coastal artillery Disappearing gun Fire control tower Gun turret Land mine Martello tower Outpost Polygonal fort Sangar Wire obstacles 20th century Admiralty scaffolding Air raid shelter Anti-tank obstacles Trench Czech hedgehog Dragon's teeth Barbed tape Belgian gate Blast shelter Blast wall Border security Bomb shelter Buoy Bremer wall Concertina wire Defensive fighting position British "hedgehog" road block Entry control point (ECP) Electric fence Fallout shelter Fire support base Flak tower Hardened aircraft shelter Hesco bastion Jersey barrier Kabal Loophole Main line of resistance Missile launch facility Pillbox Revetment Sentry gun Spider hole Spike strip Submarine pen Underground hangar Weapon storage area Weapons Storage and Security System Admiralty scaffolding Air raid shelter Anti-tank obstacles Trench Czech hedgehog Dragon's teeth Trench Czech hedgehog Dragon's teeth Barbed tape Belgian gate Blast shelter Blast wall Border security Bomb shelter Buoy Bremer wall Concertina wire Defensive fighting position British "hedgehog" road block Entry control point (ECP) Electric fence Fallout shelter Fire support base Flak tower Hardened aircraft shelter Hesco bastion Jersey barrier Kabal Loophole Main line of resistance Missile launch facility Pillbox Revetment Sentry gun Spider hole Spike strip Submarine pen Underground hangar Weapon storage area Weapons Storage and Security System By topography Cave castle Hill castle Hillfort Hillside castle Hilltop castle Island castle Lowland castle Marsh castle Moated castle Promontory fort Ridge castle Rocca Rock castle Spur castle Water castle Floating water castle Cave castle Hill castle Hillfort Hillside castle Hilltop castle Island castle Lowland castle Marsh castle Moated castle Promontory fort Ridge castle Rocca Rock castle Spur castle Water castle Floating water castle By role Border barrier Coastal defence Coercion castle Counter-castle Fence Ganerbenburg Hunting lodge Imperial castle Kaiserpfalz Landesburg Lustschloss Military base Obstacle Ordensburg Refuge castle Toll castle Urban castle Border barrier Coastal defence Coercion castle Counter-castle Fence Ganerbenburg Hunting lodge Imperial castle Kaiserpfalz Landesburg Lustschloss Military base Obstacle Ordensburg Refuge castle Toll castle Urban castle By design Bastion fort Bridge castle Circular rampart Concentric castle L-plan castle Motte-and-bailey castle Quadrangular castle Ringfort Ringwork Tower castle Z-plan castle Bastion fort Bridge castle Circular rampart Concentric castle L-plan castle Motte-and-bailey castle Quadrangular castle Ringfort Ringwork Tower castle Z-plan castle Lists Bastion forts Castles Cities with defensive walls Defense line Fortified estate Fortifications Forts Military installations Walls Bastion forts Castles Cities with defensive walls Defense line Fortified estate Fortifications Forts Military installations Walls Related word Castle town Château Dungeon Festung Fortified gateway Gatekeeper Loophole National redoubt Palas Picket Schloss Trench Vedette Castle town Château Dungeon Festung Fortified gateway Gatekeeper Loophole National redoubt Palas Picket Schloss Trench Vedette Other topics Civil defense Continuity of government Military urbanism Subterranean warfare Siege Siege engine list Tunnel warfare Trench warfare Urban warfare Guerrilla Civil defense Continuity of government Military urbanism Subterranean warfare Siege Siege engine list list Tunnel warfare Trench warfare Urban warfare Guerrilla Guerrilla See also : Category See also : Category This military -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by adding missing information . This military -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by adding missing information . v t e Borders Military strategy Military science International relations theory Military intelligence collection Military stubs Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from December 2025 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2025 All stub articles This page was last edited on 12 January 2026, at 15:39 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Start and end dates 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 3 Pre-war events Toggle Pre-war events subsection 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war Toggle Course of the war subsection 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Sources 9.1 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links World War II Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article contains one or more duplicated citations . 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( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) (refs: 141, 198) World War II .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Allied victory Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders : Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Main Axis leaders : Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Theatres of World War II v t e Europe Poland Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Asia-Pacific China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Mediterranean and Middle East Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Other campaigns Air warfare Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Coups Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Resistance movements Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans Poland Soviet invasion Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Air warfare Strategic bombing Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Madagascar Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans World War II Navigation Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Campaigns Countries Equipment Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Category Bibliography v t e v t e World War II [ b ] or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions : the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising their resources in pursuit of total war . Tanks and aircraft played major roles , enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of over 60 million people. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust , and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were put on trial for war crimes . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I , the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania , while Germany conquered Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy , and the British Empire / British Commonwealth , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , East Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and the naval Battle of the Atlantic . By mid-1941 Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains along with Axis allies. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway . In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime , and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy , and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Faced with an imminent Allied invasion , the prospect of further atomic bombings, and a Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 . World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the half-century Cold War . In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia . Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . Start and end dates Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath By topic Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Causes ( Diplomacy ) Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Battles Operations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies v t e v t e Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 18 September 1931. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. [ 7 ] The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. [ 8 ] Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. [ 11 ] A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. [ 12 ] No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, [ 13 ] although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. [ 14 ] Background Aftermath of World War I World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires . [ 15 ] [ failed verification ] To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. [ 16 ] Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , [ 17 ] irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . [ 18 ] Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire". [ 19 ] Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . [ 20 ] France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. [ 21 ] European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. [ 22 ] The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. [ 23 ] Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . [ 24 ] In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. [ 25 ] Asia The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies [ 26 ] and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China [ 27 ] as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . [ 28 ] China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe , and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . [ 29 ] After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. [ 30 ] Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . [ 31 ] The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . [ 32 ] The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. [ 33 ] Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . [ 34 ] Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. [ 35 ] The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . [ 36 ] His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . [ 37 ] Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts . [ 38 ] The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . [ 39 ] From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , [ 40 ] fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan [ 41 ] [ 42 ] , and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. [ 43 ] Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. [ 47 ] In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River. [ 48 ] Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War [ 53 ] and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. [ 56 ] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. [ 57 ] Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. [ 58 ] Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . [ 59 ] Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . [ 60 ] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . [ 61 ] Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . [ 62 ] Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . [ 63 ] The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, [ 64 ] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. [ 65 ] This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. [ 66 ] The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I . Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. [ 67 ] In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. [ 68 ] On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. [ 68 ] The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. [ 69 ] Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. [ 71 ] The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . [ 72 ] The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. [ c ] During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland . [ 73 ] The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. [ 74 ] Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . [ 75 ] On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland [ 76 ] under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. [ 77 ] On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. [ 78 ] A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war. [ 79 ] Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland . Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected [ 69 ] and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, [ 80 ] which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, [ 87 ] and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. [ 88 ] Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . [ 89 ] In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, [ 85 ] as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. [ 90 ] In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova . [ 91 ] The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II , turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. [ 92 ] Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation [ 93 ] [ 94 ] gradually stalled, [ 95 ] [ 96 ] and both states began preparations for war. [ 97 ] Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off . [ 98 ] Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. [ 99 ] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. [ 100 ] On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . [ 101 ] The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, [ 102 ] which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. [ 105 ] On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. [ 106 ] The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , [ 107 ] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. [ 108 ] The air Battle of Britain [ 109 ] began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . [ 110 ] The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 [ 111 ] after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. [ 110 ] Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . [ 112 ] The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . [ 113 ] In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies. [ 114 ] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . [ 115 ] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. [ 116 ] In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. [ 117 ] The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. [ 118 ] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. [ 119 ] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. [ 120 ] Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . [ 121 ] Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. [ 122 ] To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. [ 123 ] In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . [ 124 ] The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . [ 125 ] Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. [ 126 ] In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk . [ 127 ] By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade ; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. [ 128 ] The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. [ 129 ] Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. [ 130 ] In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . [ 131 ] Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . [ 132 ] Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. [ 133 ] By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. [ 134 ] Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. [ 135 ] On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . [ 136 ] However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. [ 137 ] In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. [ 138 ] On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them ; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. [ 139 ] The primary targets of this surprise offensive [ 140 ] were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line —from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism , generate Lebensraum ("living space") [ 141 ] by dispossessing the native population , [ 142 ] and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. [ 143 ] Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, [ 144 ] Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence . During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk , Smolensk , and Uman .. Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order , and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death . By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate. [ 145 ] By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. [ 146 ] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov ). [ 147 ] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front [ 148 ] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy . [ 149 ] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany [ 150 ] and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter , which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. [ 151 ] In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor , Iran's oil fields , and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. [ 152 ] By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad [ 153 ] and Sevastopol continuing. [ 154 ] A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops [ 155 ] were forced to suspend the offensive. [ 156 ] Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. [ 157 ] By early December, freshly mobilised reserves [ 158 ] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. [ 159 ] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , [ 160 ] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. [ 161 ] War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre , Japanese-American relations deteriorated . In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts —which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. [ 117 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , but was repulsed by late September. [ 164 ] Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940. [ 165 ] Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; [ 166 ] in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy , a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation. [ 169 ] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao . [ 170 ] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. [ 171 ] German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. [ 172 ] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. [ 175 ] Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. [ 176 ] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. [ 177 ] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries". [ 177 ] Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito , after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, [ 178 ] began to favour Japan's entry into the war. [ 179 ] As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. [ 182 ] On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. [ 183 ] On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. [ 184 ] On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. [ 176 ] The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. [ 185 ] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; [ 186 ] [ 187 ] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [ 188 ] Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. [ 189 ] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. [ 190 ] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . [ 191 ] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines , as well as invasions of Guam , Wake Island , Malaya , [ 191 ] Thailand , and Hong Kong . [ 192 ] These attacks led the United States , United Kingdom , China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. [ 193 ] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States [ 194 ] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. [ 139 ] [ 195 ] Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four [ 196 ] —the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter [ 197 ] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. [ 198 ] During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces ; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. [ 199 ] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. [ 200 ] At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. [ 201 ] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. [ 202 ] Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore. [ 203 ] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march , resulting in thousands of deaths. [ 204 ] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. [ 205 ] Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea , and Indian Ocean , [ 206 ] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . [ 207 ] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. [ 208 ] In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . [ 209 ] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. [ 210 ] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . [ 213 ] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . [ 214 ] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [ 215 ] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona . [ 216 ] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. [ 217 ] By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . [ 218 ] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. [ 219 ] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. [ 220 ] Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. [ 221 ] In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov . [ 222 ] The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas. [ 223 ] In June 1942 launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [ 224 ] By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting . The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad , [ 225 ] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed. [ 226 ] By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, [ 227 ] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk . [ 228 ] Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . [ 229 ] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. [ 230 ] The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, [ 231 ] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. [ 232 ] Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. [ 233 ] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . [ 234 ] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid , [ 235 ] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. [ 236 ] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein [ 237 ] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . [ 238 ] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. [ 239 ] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies. [ 240 ] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; [ 240 ] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. [ 240 ] [ 242 ] In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house " the civilian population. [ 243 ] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. [ 244 ] Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . [ 245 ] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . [ 246 ] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . [ 247 ] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, [ 248 ] and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. [ 249 ] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. [ 250 ] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, [ 251 ] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive . [ 254 ] On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. [ 255 ] Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, [ 256 ] and creating a series of defensive lines. [ 257 ] German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , [ 258 ] causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. [ 259 ] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [ 260 ] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [ 261 ] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory [ 262 ] and the military planning for the Burma campaign , [ 263 ] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [ 264 ] From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde , the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . [ 268 ] On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , thereby ending the most lethal siege in history . [ 269 ] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. [ 270 ] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops. [ 271 ] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. [ 272 ] The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India , [ 273 ] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . [ 274 ] In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, [ 274 ] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . [ 275 ] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. [ 276 ] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha . [ 277 ] Allies Offensives (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day ), after three years of Soviet pressure, [ 278 ] the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France . [ 279 ] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , [ 280 ] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. [ 281 ] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river . In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line . [ 282 ] On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre . [ 283 ] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance , loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. [ 286 ] The Soviet Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. [ 287 ] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania , and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. [ 288 ] By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia , the Soviet Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. [ 289 ] Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, [ 290 ] although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies . [ 291 ] By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River [ 292 ] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road . [ 293 ] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. [ 294 ] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November [ 295 ] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. [ 296 ] In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history. [ 297 ] Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border , hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp . By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. [ 298 ] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia . [ 299 ] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. [ 300 ] In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B . [ 301 ] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton . Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna , and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg , while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. [ 302 ] In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. [ 303 ] Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman . [ 304 ] Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. [ 305 ] On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich ) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich ). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government . Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . [ 306 ] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [ 307 ] On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg . On 5 June all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration . [ 308 ] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . [ 309 ] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. [ 310 ] In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. [ 311 ] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. [ 312 ] At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, [ 315 ] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ". [ 316 ] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. [ 317 ] The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. [ 318 ] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan , invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force. [ 319 ] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. [ 320 ] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration . [ 321 ] On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ( Gyokuon-hōsō , literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). [ 322 ] On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. [ 323 ] Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany , both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany . [ 324 ] In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. [ 325 ] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, [ 326 ] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, [ 327 ] [ 328 ] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line , [ 329 ] from which two million Poles were expelled . [ 328 ] [ 330 ] North-east Romania, [ 331 ] [ 332 ] parts of eastern Finland, [ 333 ] and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union . [ 334 ] [ 335 ] Italy lost its monarchy , colonial empire , and some European territories . [ 336 ] In an effort to maintain world peace , [ 337 ] the Allies formed the United Nations , [ 338 ] which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, [ 339 ] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations . [ 340 ] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council . [ 341 ] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. [ 342 ] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . [ 343 ] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany , [ 344 ] Poland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Albania [ 345 ] became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the Soviet Union . [ 346 ] A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. [ 347 ] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact . [ 348 ] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War —would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world. [ 349 ] In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . [ 350 ] Korea , formerly under Japanese colonial rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War . [ 351 ] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. [ 352 ] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom , and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. [ 355 ] The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. [ 356 ] Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group . The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. [ 359 ] Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . [ 362 ] Italy also experienced an economic boom [ 363 ] and the French economy rebounded . [ 364 ] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, [ 365 ] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, [ 366 ] it continued in relative economic decline for decades. [ 367 ] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, [ 368 ] having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. [ d ] [ 369 ] Japan recovered much later. [ 370 ] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. [ 371 ] Impact Casualties and war crimes An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] [ 374 ] [ 375 ] The majority of these deaths were on the Eastern Front and the Chinese Theatre . [ 376 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people [ 377 ] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. [ 378 ] A quarter of the Soviet population were wounded or killed. [ 379 ] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. [ 380 ] An estimated 11 [ 381 ] to 17 million [ 382 ] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies , including mass killing of around 6 million Jews , along with Roma , homosexuals , at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles [ 383 ] [ 384 ] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups . [ 385 ] [ 382 ] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 1,200,000 Yugoslavians died. [ 386 ] 200,000 were ethnic Serbs , along with Roma and Jews, were persecuted and killed by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia . [ 387 ] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks , [ 388 ] with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians). [ 389 ] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres , between 1943 and 1945. [ 390 ] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other units in reprisal attacks. [ 391 ] The number of deaths resulting from the war in Asia and the Pacific is contested. Estimates of Chinese deaths range from 8 million to over 20 million. [ e ] Arne Westad estimates 14 million Chinese died directly from war, of which 2 million were soldiers and the rest civilians. [ 394 ] Rana Mitter considers Westad's figures conservative. [ 398 ] An estimated 500,000 died as a result of Nationalist forces flooding the Yellow River . [ 399 ] In the Nanking Massacre , between 100,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed by Japanese forces, while another 20,000 were raped. [ 44 ] Another 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed by Japanese forces during the Three Alls policy . [ 400 ] Japanese forces killed between 5 million and 10 million civilians in Southeast Asia. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] At least a million civilians died in Indochina , while as many as 4 million died in the Dutch East Indies, 3 million of which died on Java from famine. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died during the Japanese occupation and American liberation. [ 403 ] [ 404 ] Estimates of the number of people killed by Japanese forces in all theatres are as high as 30 million. [ 405 ] Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) [ 406 ] [ 407 ] and in early conflicts against the Soviets . [ 408 ] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, [ 409 ] and sometimes on prisoners of war . [ 410 ] The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, [ 411 ] and the imprisonment or execution of hundreds of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD secret police, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia , in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. [ 412 ] Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in Germany . [ 413 ] [ 414 ] The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million, [ 415 ] while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. [ 416 ] [ 417 ] The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. [ 418 ] The USAAF bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and destroying 65% of built-up areas. [ 419 ] Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany , under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for killing about 6 million Jews in what is now known as the Holocaust . They also killed an additional 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " (including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , Romani , homosexuals , Freemasons , and Jehovah's Witnesses ) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a " genocidal state". [ 420 ] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions , and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. [ 421 ] [ 422 ] In addition to concentration camps , death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers ; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. [ 423 ] The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–1943, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, [ 425 ] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–1940 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs . [ 426 ] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. [ 427 ] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps , many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), [ 428 ] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. [ 429 ] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56. [ 430 ] At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. [ 431 ] In Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. [ 432 ] Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. [ 433 ] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. [ 434 ] In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. [ 435 ] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes . [ 436 ] The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust . [ 437 ] Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, [ 438 ] the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans [ 439 ] and French Resistance [ 440 ] suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [ 441 ] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. [ 442 ] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m 3 ) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. [ 442 ] Home fronts and production In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. [ 443 ] In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. [ 444 ] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. [ 444 ] The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. [ 445 ] Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition . [ 446 ] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , [ 447 ] Allied strategic bombing , [ 448 ] and Germany's late shift to a war economy [ 449 ] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. [ 450 ] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; [ 451 ] Germany enslaved about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, [ 423 ] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground-support , and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); [ 452 ] and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). [ 453 ] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. [ 454 ] Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). [ 455 ] [ 456 ] [ 457 ] In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . [ 458 ] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft [ 459 ] and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. [ 460 ] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , [ 461 ] were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. [ 462 ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light , Hedgehog , Squid , and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines. [ 463 ] Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry , to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. [ 464 ] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, [ 465 ] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. [ 466 ] [ 467 ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. [ 468 ] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. [ 464 ] Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled ), mines , short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. [ 468 ] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, [ 469 ] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. [ 470 ] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. [ 470 ] The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. [ 471 ] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine . [ 472 ] Development of SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes [ 473 ] and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. [ 474 ] Another component of military intelligence was deception , which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard . [ 473 ] [ 475 ] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ), guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research , the development of artificial harbours , and oil pipelines under the English Channel . [ 476 ] [ 477 ] Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development ] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. [ 478 ] See also Greatest Generation – Cohort born from 1901 to 1927 Opposition to World War II World War III – Hypothetical future global conflict Notes ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited. ^ Often abbreviated as WWII or WW2 ^ The UK declared war on Germany at 11 am. France followed 6 hours later at 5 pm. ^ Reparations were exacted from East Germany , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan ." ^ Multiple sources: [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 397 ] References ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6. ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 7. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). 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Wiest, Andrew; Barbier, M. K. (2002). Strategy and Tactics: Infantry Warfare . St Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-1401-2 . Williams, Andrew (2006). Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-35980-1 . Wilt, Alan F. (1981). "Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941". Military Affairs . 45 (4): 187– 191. doi : 10.2307/1987464 . JSTOR 1987464 . Wohlstetter, Roberta (1962). Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision . Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press . Wolf, Holger C. (1993). "The Lucky Miracle: Germany 1945–1951". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge: MIT Press . pp. 29– 56. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Wood, James B. (2007). Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable? . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5339-2 . Yoder, Amos (1997). 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Past & Present (258): 246– 281. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtab042 . ISSN 0031-2746 . also see online review Archived 4 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine Gerlach, Christian (2024). Conditions of Violence . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-1115-6873-7 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage West Point Maps of the European War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 – August 1945) v t e World War II v t e Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences Outline Battles Operations Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences General Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Air warfare of World War II In Europe In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Participants Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire British Empire United States Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Soviet Union Azerbaijan Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Timeline Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 4 Nobel Prizes 5 References 6 Further reading 1945 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century 20th century 21st century 19th century 20th century 21st century Decades 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s Years 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1945 by topic Subject Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American British Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American American British British By country Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Lists of leaders Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Birth and death categories Births Deaths Births Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments Disestablishments Establishments Disestablishments Works category Works Introductions Works Introductions v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1945 MCMXLV Ab urbe condita 2698 Armenian calendar 1394 ԹՎ ՌՅՂԴ Assyrian calendar 6695 Baháʼí calendar 101–102 Balinese saka calendar 1866–1867 Bengali calendar 1351–1352 Berber calendar 2895 British Regnal year 9 Geo. 6 – 10 Geo. 6 Buddhist calendar 2489 Burmese calendar 1307 Byzantine calendar 7453–7454 Chinese calendar 甲申 年 (Wood Monkey ) 4642 or 4435 — to — 乙酉年 (Wood Rooster ) 4643 or 4436 Coptic calendar 1661–1662 Discordian calendar 3111 Ethiopian calendar 1937–1938 Hebrew calendar 5705–5706 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 2001–2002 - Shaka Samvat 1866–1867 - Kali Yuga 5045–5046 Holocene calendar 11945 Igbo calendar 945–946 Iranian calendar 1323–1324 Islamic calendar 1364–1365 Japanese calendar Shōwa 20 (昭和２０年) Javanese calendar 1875–1876 Juche calendar 34 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days Korean calendar 4278 Minguo calendar ROC 34 民國34年 Nanakshahi calendar 477 Thai solar calendar 2488 Tibetan calendar ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood- Monkey ) 2071 or 1690 or 918 — to — ཤིང་མོ་བྱ་ལོ་ (female Wood- Bird ) 2072 or 1691 or 919 1945 ( MCMXLV ) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar , the 1945th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 945th year of the 2nd millennium , the 45th year of the 20th century , and the 6th year of the 1940s decade. A turning point [ 1 ] in human history , 1945 marked the end of World War II , ending with the defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan by the United States and the Soviet Union in the world of two superpowers which has led the beginning of the Cold War (1945–1991). It is also the year the Nazi concentration camps were liberated and the only year in which atomic weapons have been used in warfare . Events World War II will be abbreviated as "WWII" January January 1 – WWII: Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. January 6 – WWII: A German offensive recaptures Esztergom , Hungary from the Soviets. January 9 – WWII: American and Australian troops land at Lingayen Gulf on western coast of the largest Philippine island of Luzon , occupied by Japan since 1942. January 12 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German Army . [ 3 ] January 13 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive , to eliminate German forces in East Prussia . January 16 – WWII: Adolf Hitler takes residence in the Führerbunker in Berlin. [ 4 ] January 17 WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] January 18 – The Holocaust : The SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp . Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributed. January 19 – The Holocaust : Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto ; only 877 Jews of the initial population of 164,000 remain at this time. [ 6 ] January 20 – Germany begins the Evacuation of East Prussia . January 21 – 22 (night) – At the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing , collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing between 140 and 150 people. January 23 – WWII: Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . January 24 – WWII: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton , nine OSS men, and four SOE agents are executed by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp under Hitler's Commando Order of 1942, which stipulates the immediate execution of all captured Allied commandos or saboteurs without trial, even those in proper uniforms. Morton is the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during the war. January 25 – WWII: Hitler appoints Heinrich Himmler as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania , despite Himmler's lack of military experience. [ 7 ] January 26 – WWII: 19-year-old U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Audie Murphy sees action at Holtzwihr , France, for which is awarded the Medal of Honor . January 27 The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] January 30 – WWII: MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. January 31 – WWII: The Battle of Hill 170 in the Burma Campaign ends with the British 3rd Commando Brigade defeating the Imperial Japanese Army 54th Division , causing the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army to withdraw from the Arakan Peninsula. February February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid 's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut , announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin . [ 9 ] February 3 – WWII: Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. February 4 – 11 – WWII: President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta Conference . February 7 – WWII: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila . February 8 – The Alaska Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945, championed by charismatic native leader Elizabeth Peratrovich , is passed by the territorial Senate, after the legislature defeated a previous bill in 1943. February 9 Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. February 10 – WWII: German troopship SS General von Steuben is sunk by the Soviet submarine S-13 ; 3,608 drown. [ 10 ] February 10 – 20 – WWII: Operation Kita : The Imperial Japanese Navy returns "Completion Force", containing both its Ise -class battleships , safely from Singapore to Kure in Japan despite Allied attacks. February 12 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others. [ 11 ] February 13 – WWII: The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. February 16 – WWII: The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. February 18 – March 5 – WWII: American and Brazilian troops kick off Operation Encore in Northern Italy, a successful limited action in the Northern Apennines that prepares for the western portion of the Allied Spring offensive . [ 12 ] February 19 – 20 – 980 (actual figure is disputed) [ 13 ] Japanese soldiers die as a result of being attacked by long saltwater crocodiles in Ramree, Burma . [ 14 ] February 19 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima – About 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo Jima . February 21 – The last V-2 rocket is launched from Peenemünde . February 22 – WWII: Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. February 23 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . February 24 – Egyptian premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is assassinated in Parliament after declaring war on Germany and Japan. February 27 – The Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyed. February 28 – In Bucharest , a violent demonstration takes place, during which the Bolşevic group opens fire on the army and protesters. In response, Andrei Y. Vishinsky , USSR vice commissioner of foreign affairs and president of the Allied Control Commission for Romania , travels to Bucharest to compel Nicolae Rădescu to resign as premier. March March 1 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives what will be his last address to a joint session of the United States Congress , reporting on the Yalta Conference . March 2 Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] March 3 – WWII: Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. March 4 In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] March 5 – WWII: Brazilian troops take Castelnuovo ( Vergato ), in the last operations of the Allied Operation Encore . March 6 A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. March 7 WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] March 8 Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . March 9 – 10 – WWII: Bombing of Tokyo : USAAF B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan, with incendiary bombs , killing 100,000 citizens in the firebombing. It is the single most destructive conventional air attack of the war. March 11 The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] March 12 – WWII: Swinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation Hannibal . March 15 – 31 – WWII: The Soviet Red Army carries out the Upper Silesian Offensive . March 15 – The 17th Academy Awards ceremony is held, broadcast via radio in the United States for the first time. Best Picture goes to Going My Way . March 16 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. March 17 – WWII: Kobe , Japan is fire-bombed by 331 B-29 bombers, killing over 8,000 people. March 18 – WWII: The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] March 19 – WWII: Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. March 20 – WWII: Hitler dismisses Heinrich Himmler from his military command. [ 3 ] March 21 – WWII: British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. March 22 The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . March 24 WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . March 26 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistance, although there are Japanese holdouts here until 1949. March 27 – WWII: The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . March 29 WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . March 30 – WWII: The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . April April 1 – WWII: Battle of Okinawa : The Tenth United States Army lands on Okinawa . April 4 – WWII: American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. April 6 – WWII: Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. April 7 – WWII: The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . April 8 – The SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp ; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guards. April 9 WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . April 10 – WWII: Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] April 11 – Buchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army . April 12 Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . April 14 – WWII: The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam April 15 – WWII: The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . April 16 – WWII: The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. April 17 – WWII: Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. April 18 – American war correspondent Ernie Pyle is killed by Japanese machine gun fire on the island of Ie Shima off Okinawa . April 19 – Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Carousel , a musical play based on Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom , opens on Broadway , and becomes their second long-running stage classic. It includes the standard " You'll Never Walk Alone ". April 20 – WWII: On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] April 22 – WWII: Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. April 23 – WWII: Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. April 24 – WWII: Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . April 25 Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. April 25 – 26 – WWII: The last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command , the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro Lancasters . April 26 – WWII: Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . April 27 The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] April 28 The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . April 29 At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . April 30 – WWII: Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . May May – Interpol (being headquartered in Berlin) effectively ceases to exist (it is recreated on June 3 , 1946 ). May 1 – WWII: Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. May 2 – WWII: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. May 3 – WWII: The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] May 4 – WWII: German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] May 5 – WWII: Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. May 6 WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] May 6 – 7 – The government of the Independent State of Croatia , the Nazi-affiliated fascist puppet state established in occupied Yugoslavia , flees Zagreb for a location near Klagenfurt in Austria, but is captured in the Bleiburg repatriations that then leads to mass executions. [ 45 ] May 7 – WWII: At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. May 8 – WWII: Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] May 8 – 29 – Sétif and Guelma massacre : in Algeria , thousands die as French troops and released Italian POWs kill an estimated 6,000 to 40,000 Algerian citizens. May 9 – WWII: The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . May 10 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Sark ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops and leaving them under the orders of Dame Sibyl Hathaway . May 12 Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. May 14 – 15 – WWII: Battle of Poljana : The last battle of the War in Europe is fought at Poljana near Slovenj Gradec , Slovenia . May 15 – WWII: Surrender at Bleiburg – Retreating troops of the Croatian Armed Forces of the former puppet Independent State of Croatia (intermingled with fleeing civilians) attempt to surrender to the British Army at Bleiburg , but are directed to surrender to Yugoslav Partisans , who open fire on them. The remainder, after orders are given by Tito , are force-marched through Croatia and Serbia , interned or massacred, with thousands dying. [ 49 ] May 16 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Alderney ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops, the civilian population having been evacuated. May 18 – WWII: Operation Unthinkable – British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly requests his military chiefs of staff to consider a plan for British, American and reactivated German forces to attack the Soviet Red Army on July 1 to preserve the independence of Poland. The operation is ruled militarily unfeasible. [ 50 ] May 23 The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. May 28 – U.S.-born Irish-raised William Joyce (" Lord Haw-Haw ") is captured on the German border. He is later charged in London with high treason for his earlier English-language wartime broadcasts from German radio, convicted, and then hanged in January 1946. May 29 German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. May 30 – The Iranian government demands that all Soviet and British troops leave the country. June June 1 – The British take over Lebanon and Syria . June 5 – The Allied Control Council , the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes power. June 7 – King Haakon VII of Norway returns to Norway five years to the day after leaving for exile in Britain. June 11 William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] June 12 – The Yugoslav Army leaves Trieste , leaving the New Zealand Army in control. June 21 – WWII: The Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972 . June 24 – WWII: A victory parade is held in Red Square in Moscow. June 25 – Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second president of Ireland . June 26 – The United Nations Charter is signed in San Francisco. June 29 – Czechoslovakia cedes Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union . June 30 – John von Neumann 's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC is distributed, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer, with stored-program and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory ( von Neumann architecture ). July July 1 WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . July 2 – The 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion breaks out in Burao and Erigavo in British Somaliland , led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader. [ 52 ] July 4 – Brazilian cruiser Bahia is sunk by an accidentally induced explosion, killing more than 300 and stranding the survivors in shark-infested waters. July 5 The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. July 6 – 7 – Schio massacre : 54 prisoners, mostly fascist sympathisers, are killed by members of the Italian resistance movement in Schio . July 8 – WWII: Harry S. Truman is informed that Japan will talk peace if it can retain the reign of the Emperor. [ 51 ] July 12 – Ben Chifley is elected leader of the Labor Party , and consequently becomes the 16th Prime Minister of Australia , defeating Frank Forde as well as Norman Makin and H.V. Evatt . As a result, Forde becomes the shortest-serving prime minister in Australian history; nevertheless, he retains his post as deputy leader. July 14 – WWII: Italy declares war on Japan. July 16 The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. July 17 – August 2 – WWII: Potsdam Conference – At Potsdam , the three main Allied leaders hold their final summit of the war. President Truman officially informs Stalin that the U.S. has a powerful new weapon. July 21 – WWII: President Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against Japan. [ 51 ] July 23 – WWII: French marshal Philippe Pétain , who headed the Vichy government during WWII, goes on trial for treason. July 26 Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] July 27 – WWII: Bombing of Aomori – Two USAAF B-29s drop a total of 60,000 leaflets on the city of Aomori , Japan, warning civilians of an air raid and urging them to leave immediately. The city was firebombed the next day, killing more than 1,700 people. July 28 WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] July 29 The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. July 30 – WWII: Heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis is hit and sunk by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-58 in the Philippine Sea . Some 900 survivors jump into the sea and are adrift for up to four days. Nearly 600 die before help arrives. Captain Charles B. McVay III of the cruiser is later court-martialed and convicted; in 2000, he is posthumously exonerated. [ 55 ] August August 6 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Hiroshima : United States Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay drops a uranium-235 atomic bomb , codenamed " Little Boy ", on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. local time, resulting in between 90,000 and 146,000 deaths. August 7 – U.S. President Harry Truman announces the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, while he is returning from the Potsdam Conference aboard the U.S. Navy heavy cruiser USS Augusta (CA-31) , in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. August 8 The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. August 9 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] August 10 – WWII: Japan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the Emperor". August 11 WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. August 11 – 25 – Soviet troops complete the occupation of Sakhalin . August 13 – The Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to discuss the founding of the country of Israel . August 14 – WWII: Emperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace . At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT ), U.S. president Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrender. August 15 WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . August 17 Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . August 18 – WWII: Death of Subhas Chandra Bose : Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose is killed as a result of his overloaded Japanese plane crashing in Japanese Taiwan . August 19 – Chinese Civil War : Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the Nationalists . August 22 – Kim Il Sung as the guerilla fighter returned to the Soviet-occupied capital Pyongyang after the Red Army entered the northern peninsula of Korea . August 23 – Soviet–Japanese War : Joseph Stalin orders the detention of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union . August 25 – Bảo Đại abdicates as Emperor of Vietnam , ending 2,000 years of dynastic and monarchic rule in the country and 143 years of the Nguyễn dynasty , Paris marked the first anniversary of liberation from Nazi rule by the French Resistance as a momentous event at the Battle of Normandy against Dietrich von Choltitz . August 30 – WWII: Vietnam 's capital Hanoi is taken by the Viet Minh , which ends the French occupation in what becomes North Vietnam , and thus the southern provinces become South Vietnam . This ends the August Revolution . August 31 WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] September September 2 – World War II ends: Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] September 4 – WWII: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island , after hearing word of their country's surrender. September 5 Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. September 8 U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] September 9 Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] September 10 – Vidkun Quisling is sentenced to death for being a Nazi collaborator in Norway. [ 59 ] September 11 Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. September 12 Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. September 18 Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . September 20 – Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru demand that all British troops depart India. September 24 – Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia : The Topoľčany pogrom is carried out in Czechoslovakia. October October – Arthur C. Clarke puts forward the idea of a geosynchronous communications satellite , in a Wireless World magazine article. October 1 – 15 – Operation Backfire : Three A4 rockets are launched near Cuxhaven , in a demonstration to Allied forces. October 2 – George Albert Smith becomes president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . October 4 – The Partizan Belgrade sports club is founded in Belgrade , Serbia . October 5 – Hollywood Black Friday : A strike by the Set Decorator's Union in Hollywood results in a riot. October 8 – 15 – Hadamar Trial: Personnel of the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre , now in the American zone of Allied-occupied Germany , are the first to be tried for systematic extermination in Nazi Germany . October 9 – Former prime minister Pierre Laval is sentenced to death, for collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France . [ 59 ] October 10 – The Nazi Party is dissolved by the Allied Powers. October 14 – Czechoslovakia : A new provisional national assembly is elected, Kim Il Sung made his first major public appearance in Pyongyang as the celebration of liberation where he was officially introduced to the public by the Soviet authorities as a national hero, a legendary guerrilla fighter and leader. [ 59 ] October 15 – 21 – The Fifth Pan-African Congress is held in Manchester . October 16 – The Food and Agriculture Organization is established at a meeting in Quebec City , as a specialized agency of the United Nations , Syngman Rhee returned to the southern peninsula of Korea as he arrived in Seoul by becoming a prominent figure under the U.S. occupation. October 17 – A massive number of people, headed for the General Confederation of Labour (Argentina) , gather in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires to demand Juan Perón 's release. This is known to the Peronists as the Día de la lealtad ( Loyalty Day ) and considered the founding day of Peronism . October 18 – Isaías Medina Angarita , president of Venezuela , is overthrown by a military coup . [ 59 ] October 19 – Members of the Indonesian People's Army attack Anglo-Dutch forces in Indonesia . [ 59 ] October 20 – Mongolians vote for independence from China. [ 59 ] October 21 – Women's suffrage : Women are allowed to vote in the French Legislative Election for the first time. October 22 – Rómulo Betancourt is named provisional president of Venezuela . [ 59 ] October 24 The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] October 25 WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. October 27 – November 20 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia fight British and British Indian troops in Surabaya . October 29 Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. October 30 – The undivided country of India joins the United Nations . November November 1 International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . November 5 – Colombia joins the United Nations . November 6 – Indonesians reject an offer of autonomy from the Dutch . [ 59 ] November 7 – South Africa and Mexico both joined the United Nations . November 9 – Soo Bahk Do and Moo Duk Kwan martial arts are founded in Korea . November 10 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Following the killing of British officer Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby on October 30, the British Indian Army (in support of its allied Dutch colonial administration) begins an advance on Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies against Indonesian nationalists; although most of the city is retaken in 3 days of heavy fighting, the strength of the resistance leads to today being celebrated as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) in Indonesia. November 11 – 1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election : Marshal Josip Broz Tito and the People's Front win a decisive majority (90%) in the Yugoslavian Assembly. [ 59 ] November 15 Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] November 16 Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. November 18 – The Tudeh party starts a bloodless coup, and will form Azerbaijan within days. Soviet troops prevent Iranian troops from getting involved. November 20 – The Nuremberg trials begin: Trials against 22 Nazis for war crimes of World War II start at the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg . [ 59 ] November 26 – U.S. ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigns after he is unable to broker a deal between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Tse-tung . [ 59 ] November 28 The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] November 29 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. December December 1 – German general Anton Dostler is executed by firing squad in Italy for the war crime of ordering the summary execution of captured U.S. commandos. The U.S. military tribunal which has tried him has not accepted his plea of " superior orders ", setting a precedent for future Allied war crimes trials . [ 63 ] December 2 General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. December 3 – Communist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil War . December 4 – The United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7. December 5 – Flight 19 of United States Navy Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers disappears on a training exercise from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale . December 9 – American General George S. Patton is involved in a car accident in Germany, resulting in his death on December 21. December 21 – Iraq joins the United Nations . December 27 – Twenty-one nations ratify the articles creating the World Bank . [ 64 ] Date unknown A team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (led by Charles D. Coryell ) discovers chemical element 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the periodic table , which they will name promethium . [ 65 ] Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947. The Australian government introduces an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to encourage the immigration of British subjects, at a fare of £ 10, hence they become known as " Ten Pound Poms ". [ 66 ] The first geothermal milk pasteurization is done in Klamath Falls, Oregon , United States. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January January 1 Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver January 3 – Stephen Stills , American rock singer-songwriter ( Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young ) January 4 Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate January 5 Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist January 7 Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) January 10 – Sir Rod Stewart , British rock singer January 12 – André Bicaba , Burkinabé sprinter January 14 – Einar Hákonarson , Icelandic painter January 15 Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family January 17 – Javed Akhtar , Indian political activist, poet, lyricist and screenwriter January 20 – Robert Olen Butler , American writer January 21 Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor January 24 – Subhash Ghai , Indian film director, producer and screenwriter January 25 – Leigh Taylor-Young , American actress January 26 Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) January 27 – Harold Cardinal , Cree political leader, writer and lawyer (d. 2005 ) January 28 Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) January 29 Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) January 31 – Joseph Kosuth , American artist February February 1 – Yasuhiro Takai , Japanese professional baseball player (d. 2019 ) February 3 Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer February 4 – John P. Jumper , United States Air Force general February 5 – Sarah Weddington , American attorney (d. 2021 ) February 6 – Bob Marley , Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981 ) February 7 – Gerald Davies , Welsh rugby player February 9 Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] February 10 – Koo Bon-moo , South Korean business executive (d. 2018 ) February 12 Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist February 13 – Simon Schama , English historian [ 68 ] February 14 Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein February 15 – Douglas Hofstadter , American cognitive scientist February 17 – Brenda Fricker , Irish actress [ 69 ] February 18 – Hashem Mahameed , Israeli politician (d. 2018 ) February 22 – Oliver , American singer ( Good Morning Starshine ) (d. 2000 ) February 24 – Barry Bostwick , American actor February 25 – Roy Saari , American swimmer (d. 2008 ) February 26 – Marta Kristen , Norwegian actress ( Lost In Space ) February 27 – Carl Anderson , American singer, actor ( Jesus Christ Superstar ) (d. 2004 ) February 28 Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) March March 1 – Dirk Benedict , American actor March 3 – George Miller , Australian film director March 4 Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player March 7 – Arthur Lee , American musician (d. 2006 ) March 8 Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter March 9 Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer March 10 – Nobuhiko Higashikuni , Japanese Imperial prince (d. 2019 ) March 13 Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician March 14 – Michael Martin Murphey , American country singer-songwriter March 16 – Douglas Ahlstedt , American tenor March 17 Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) March 18 Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist March 20 Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach March 21 – Charles Greene , American Olympic athlete (d. 2022 ) March 26 – Mikhail Voronin , Russian gymnast (d. 2004 ) March 27 – Władysław Stachurski , Polish football player, manager (d. 2013 ) March 28 Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress March 29 Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) March 30 – Eric Clapton , English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter [ 71 ] March 31 Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] April April 2 – Linda Hunt , American actress [ 74 ] April 4 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit , French political activist [ 75 ] April 5 Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) April 12 – Lee Jong-wook , South Korean Director-General of the World Health Organization (d. 2006 ) April 13 Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) April 14 Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa April 20 – Naftali Temu , Kenyan Olympic long-distance runner (d. 2003 ) April 21 – Ana Lúcia Torre , Brazilian actress April 24 – Larry Tesler , American computer scientist (cut, copy, paste) (d. 2020 ) April 25 – Björn Ulvaeus , Swedish rock songwriter ( ABBA ) April 29 – Tammi Terrell , African-American soul singer (d. 1970 ) April 30 – Lara Saint Paul , Eritrean-born Italian singer (d. 2018 ) May May 1 – Rita Coolidge , American pop singer May 2 – Bianca Jagger , Nicaraguan social activist [ 76 ] May 3 – Jeffrey C. Hall , American geneticist and chronobiologist, Nobel Prize laureate May 4 David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist May 6 – Bob Seger , American rock singer May 7 – Robin Strasser , American actress May 8 – Keith Jarrett , American musician [ 77 ] May 9 – Jupp Heynckes , German footballer and manager May 11 Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist May 13 – Tammam Salam , 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon May 14 – Yochanan Vollach , Israeli footballer and president of Maccabi Haifa, CEO May 15 – Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza , heir to the Portuguese crown May 17 – Tony Roche , Australian tennis player May 19 – Pete Townshend , English rock guitarist, lyricist ( The Who ) May 20 – Anton Zeilinger , Austrian quantum physicist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 78 ] May 21 Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut May 22 – Victoria Wyndham , American actress ( Another World ) May 23 Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer May 24 – Priscilla Presley , American actress, businesswoman May 28 Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) May 29 Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) May 30 Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) May 31 Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire June June 1 – Frederica von Stade , American mezzo-soprano June 2 – Jon Peters , American film producer June 3 – Hale Irwin , American professional golfer June 4 – Anthony Braxton , American composer and musical instrumentalist June 5 John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) June 6 – David Dukes , American actor (d. 2000 ) June 7 – Wolfgang Schüssel , Chancellor of Austria June 9 – Nike Wagner , German woman of the theater June 10 – Benny Gallagher , Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist, half of duo Gallagher and Lyle June 11 – Adrienne Barbeau , American actress, television personality and author ( Maude ) June 12 – Pat Jennings , Northern Irish footballer June 14 – Jörg Immendorff , German painter June 15 Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) June 16 Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician June 17 P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist June 19 Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient June 20 – Anne Murray , Canadian singer June 21 Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter June 22 Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) June 23 Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer June 24 George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician June 25 Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army June 26 – Paul Chun , Hong Kong actor June 27 Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School June 28 Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) June 29 – Chandrika Kumaratunga , 5th President of Sri Lanka June 30 Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician July July 1 Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) July 2 – Linda Warren , American author July 3 – Thomas Mapfumo , Zimbabwean musician July 4 Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist July 5 Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor July 6 – Burt Ward , American actor ( Batman ) July 7 Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer July 8 – Micheline Calmy-Rey , Swiss Federal Councilor July 9 Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer July 10 Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) July 11 – Richard Wesley , American playwright, screenwriter July 12 Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player July 14 – Antun Vujić , Croatian politician, philosopher, political analyst, lexicographer and author July 15 Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) July 16 Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter July 17 Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia July 19 Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician July 20 Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat July 21 John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman July 23 – Edie McClurg , American actress July 24 – Azim Premji , Indian businessman July 26 Helen Mirren , British actress Helen Mirren , British actress July 28 – Jim Davis , American cartoonist ( Garfield ) July 30 Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) August August 1 – Douglas Osheroff , American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate August 4 – Alan Mulally , American businessman, CEO of the Ford Motor Company August 5 – Loni Anderson , American actress ( WKRP in Cincinnati ) (d. 2025 ) August 8 – Julie Anne Robinson , British theatre, television, film director and producer August 9 – Posy Simmonds , English cartoonist August 12 Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) August 14 Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer August 15 Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] August 17 – Katri Helena , Finnish singer August 19 – Ian Gillan , English rock singer ( Deep Purple ) August 22 David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) August 24 – Vincent K. "Vince" McMahon , American professional wrestling promoter, chairman and CEO of WWE August 25 – Daniel Hulet , Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011 ) August 26 – Tom Ridge , American politician August 27 – Marianne Sägebrecht , German film actress August 29 Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete August 31 Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor September September 1 – Mustafa Balel , Turkish writer September 5 K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) September 6 – Victor Ramahatra , 5th Prime Minister of Madagascar September 7 – Jacques Lemaire , Canadian ice hockey coach September 8 Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player September 10 – José Feliciano , Puerto Rican-American singer (" Feliz Navidad ") September 11 – Franz Beckenbauer , German footballer and manager (d. 2024 ) September 12 – Richard Thaler , American economist September 14 – Benjamin Harjo Jr. , Native American artist September 15 – Jessye Norman , American soprano (d. 2019 ) September 16 – Pat Stevens , American voice actress (d. 2010 ) September 17 Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor September 18 John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) September 19 - Randolph Mantooth , American actor September 21 Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet September 22 – Gonzaguinha , Brazilian singer, composer (d. 1991 ) September 24 – John Rutter , English choral composer, conductor September 26 – Bryan Ferry , English singer-songwriter and musician ( Roxy Music ) September 27 – Jack Goldstein , Canadian artist (d. 2003 ) September 29 – Nadezhda Chizhova , Russian athlete September 30 Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter October October 1 Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India October 2 Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") October 3 – Viktor Saneyev , Soviet athlete and Olympic champion (d. 2022 ) October 6 – Ivan Graziani , Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1997 ) October 9 Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) October 12 Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) October 18 Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer October 19 Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) October 22 – Yvan Ponton , Canadian actor, sportscaster October 23 – Kim Larsen , Danish rock musician (d. 2018 ) October 24 Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science October 25 Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor October 26 Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) October 27 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) October 29 Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress October 30 – Henry Winkler , American actor, producer and director ( Happy Days ) November November 3 – Gerd Müller , German footballer (d. 2021 ) November 5 – Jacques Lanctôt , Canadian terrorist November 7 Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer November 8 – Joseph James DeAngelo , American serial killer and serial rapist November 9 – Charlie Robinson , African-American actor (d. 2021 ) November 10 – Madeleine Juneau , Canadian museologist November 11 – Daniel Ortega , 58th and 62nd President of Nicaragua November 12 – Neil Young , Canadian singer-songwriter, musician November 15 – Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Norwegian-born rock singer ( ABBA ) November 17 Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria November 18 Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka November 21 – Goldie Hawn , American actress Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician November 22 – Kari Tapio , Finnish singer (d. 2010 ) November 23 – Dennis Nilsen , Scottish serial killer (d. 2018 ) [ 87 ] November 24 – Nuruddin Farah , Somali novelist November 25 – Mary Jo Deschanel , American actress November 26 – John McVie , English rock musician ( Fleetwood Mac ) November 27 Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) November 30 Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) December December 1 Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer December 2 – Tex Watson , American multiple murderer, 'Manson Family' member December 3 – Bozhidar Dimitrov , Bulgarian historian, politician and polemicist (d. 2018 ) December 4 – Geoff Emerick , English recording engineer (d. 2018 ) December 7 – Clive Russell , English actor December 8 – Julie Heldman , American tennis player [ 89 ] December 10 – John Ankerberg , American Christian television host, author and speaker December 11 – Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor December 12 René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) December 15 Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor December 16 – Patti Deutsch , American voice actress (d. 2017 ) December 17 – Ernie Hudson , African-American actor December 18 – Carolyn Wood , American professional swimmer December 19 – Elaine Joyce , American actress, game show panelist December 20 Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) December 21 – Mari Lill , Estonian actress December 22 – Diane Sawyer , American news journalist December 23 – Donald A. Ritchie , American historian December 24 Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer December 25 – Noel Redding , English musician (d. 2003 ) [ 91 ] December 29 – Birendra of Nepal , King of Nepal (d. 2001 ) December 30 – Davy Jones , English-born pop singer, actor ( The Monkees ) (d. 2012 ) December 31 Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Deaths January January 2 – Sir Bertram Ramsay , British admiral (b. 1883 ) January 3 – Edgar Cayce , American mystic (b. 1877 ) January 4 – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno , 3-time President of Costa Rica (b. 1859 ) January 6 Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) January 7 Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) January 9 – Jüri Uluots , 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1890 ) January 10 – Pēteris Juraševskis , 8th Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1872 ) January 12 – Teresio Olivelli , Italian Roman Catholic soldier and venerable (b. 1916 ) January 15 – Pedro Abad Santos , Filipino politician, brother of José Abad Santos (b. 1876 ) January 16 – José Fabella , Filipino physician (b. 1888 ) January 19 Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) January 20 – Federico Pedrocchi , Italian artist, writer (killed on active service) (b. 1907 ) January 21 Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) January 22 – Else Lasker-Schüler , German poet, author (b. 1869 ) January 23 Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) January 29 – Hans Conrad Leipelt , Austrian member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany (executed) (b. 1921 ) January 30 Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) January 31 – Eddie Slovik , American soldier (executed for desertion) (b. 1920 ) [ 96 ] February February (or March) – Anne Frank , German-born Jewish diarist, writer (typhus in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp ) (b. 1929 ) [ 97 ] February 1 Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) February 2 Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) February 3 – Roland Freisler , Nazi German judge (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 5 Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) February 6 – Robert Brasillach , French writer (executed) (b. 1909 ) [ 98 ] February 8 – Robert Mallet-Stevens , French architect, designer (b. 1886 ) February 11 – Al Dubin , Swiss-born American songwriter (b. 1891 ) February 13 – Maria Orosa , Filipino technologist, chemist, humanitarian and WWII heroine (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 16 – Otto Kittel , German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1917 ) [ 99 ] February 18 – Ivan Chernyakhovsky , Soviet general (died of wounds) (b. 1906 ) February 19 – John Basilone , American war hero (killed in action) (b. 1916 ) February 21 – Eric Liddell , British Olympic athlete (in internment camp) (b. 1902 ) February 22 – Sara Josephine Baker , American physician (b. 1873 ) February 23 José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] February 24 – Josef Mayr-Nusser , Italian Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1910 ) February 25 – Mário de Andrade , Brazilian writer, photographer (b. 1893 ) February 26 – Millard Harmon , American general (b. 1888 ) [ 101 ] March March 2 – Emily Carr , Canadian painter (b. 1871 ) March 3 Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) March 4 Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) March 5 – George Alan Vasey , Australian general (killed in military aircraft accident) (b. 1895 ) March 12 – Friedrich Fromm , German Nazi official (executed) (b. 1888 ) March 14 – Francisco Braga , Brazilian composer (b. 1868 ) March 15 – Sava Caracaș , Romanian general (b. 1890 ) March 18 – William Grover-Williams , British/French racing driver, war hero (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 104 ] March 19 – Marcel Callo , French Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (in concentration camp) (b. 1921 ) March 20 – Lord Alfred Douglas , English poet (b. 1870 ) March 22 Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) March 23 – Élisabeth de Rothschild , French WWII heroine (b. 1902 ) March 26 David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) March 27 – Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil , Turkish author (b. 1867 ) March 29 – Ferenc Csik , Hungarian swimmer (air raid victim) (b. 1913 ) March 30 – Maurice Rose , American general (killed in action) (b. 1899 ) [ 105 ] March 31 Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) April April 7 Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) April 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] April 10 Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] April 11 – Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard , British colonial administrator (b. 1858 ) April 12 – Franklin D. Roosevelt , American political leader and statesman, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882 ) April 13 – Ernst Cassirer , German philosopher (b. 1874 ) April 15 – Joachim Albrecht Eggeling , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1884 ) April 18 Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) April 21 Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) April 22 – Käthe Kollwitz , German artist (b. 1867 ) April 23 – Klaus Bonhoeffer , German resistance fighter, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1901 ) April 24 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz , German SS Reichsphysician (suicide) (b. 1899 ) April 28 Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) April 29 – Achille Starace , Italian Fascist politician (executed) (b. 1889 ) April 30 Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) May May 1 Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) May 2 Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) May 3 – Mario Blasich , Italian physician, politician (b. 1878 ) May 4 – Fedor von Bock , German field marshal (killed in action) (b. 1880 ) [ 108 ] May 6 – Xhem Hasa , Albanian nationalist (assassinated) (b. 1908 ) May 7 – Vladimir Boyarsky , Soviet army officer (executed) (b. 1901 ) May 8 Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 9 – Gustav Becking , German musicologist (b. 1894 ) May 10 – Konrad Henlein , Sudeten German Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 11 Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] May 14 Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) May 15 Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) May 16 – Kaju Sugiura , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1896 ) May 18 – William Joseph Simmons , American founder of the second Ku Klux Klan (b. 1880 ) May 19 – Philipp Bouhler , German Nazi leader and general (suicide) (b. 1899 ) May 21 – Prince Kan'in Kotohito , Japanese prince, member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (b. 1865 ) May 23 – Heinrich Himmler , German politician, Reichsführer-SS (suicide) (b. 1900 ) May 24 – Robert Ritter von Greim , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1892 ) May 25 Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] May 31 Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) June June 4 – Georg Kaiser , German dramatist (b. 1878 ) June 7 – Kitaro Nishida , Japanese philosopher (b. 1870 ) June 8 Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) June 11 – Lurana W. Sheldon , American author and editor (b. 1862 ) June 13 – Minoru Ōta , Japanese admiral (suicide) (b. 1891 ) June 15 Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) June 16 Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) June 18 Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) June 20 Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) June 22 Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) June 24 – José Gutiérrez Solana , Spanish painter (b. 1886 ) June 27 – Emil Hácha , 3rd President of Czechoslovakia , State President of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1872 ) June 30 Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) July July 1 – Félix Evaristo Mejía , Dominican diplomat, educator and writer (b. 1866 ) July 2 – Óscar R. Benavides , Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, politician and President of Peru (b. 1876 ) July 5 – John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885 ) July 7 – Peter To Rot , Papuan Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1912 ) July 9 – Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti , Italian politician, diplomat (b. 1876 ) July 12 Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) July 13 – Alla Nazimova , Russian-born American actress (b. 1879 ) July 17 – Ernst Busch , German field marshal, as prisoner of war (b. 1885 ) July 20 – Paul Valéry , French poet (b. 1871 ) July 24 – Arnold von Winckler , German general (b. 1856 ) July 25 – Malin Craig , United States Army general (b. 1875 ) July 28 – Margot Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith (b. 1864 ) July 29 – Maria Pierina De Micheli , Italian Roman Catholic religious sister, mystic and blessed (b. 1890 ) July 31 – Artemio Ricarte , Filipino general (b. 1866 ) August August 1 – Blas Cabrera Felipe , Spanish physicist (b. 1878 ) August 2 – Pietro Mascagni , Italian composer (b. 1863 ) August 3 – Roman Kochanowski , Polish painter, illustrator (b. 1857 ) August 4 – Gerhard Gentzen , German mathematician and logician (starvation in prison camp) (b. 1909 ) August 5 – Nat Jaffe , American swing jazz pianist (b. 1918 ) August 7 – Jacques Vaillant de Guélis , British/French WWII hero (injuries received in automobile accident) (b. 1907 ) August 8 – Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane , French flatulist (b. 1857 ) August 9 Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) August 10 – Robert H. Goddard , American rocket scientist (b. 1882 ) August 12 – Karl Leisner , German Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1915 ) August 15 Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) August 16 – Takijirō Ōnishi , Japanese admiral (ritual suicide) (b. 1891 ) August 18 Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) August 24 – Shizuichi Tanaka , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1887 ) August 25 – Willis Augustus Lee , American admiral, Olympic shooter (b. 1888 ) August 26 Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) August 27 – Blessed María Pilar Izquierdo Albero , Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed (b. 1906 ) August 29 – Fritz Pfleumer , German engineer, inventor (b. 1881 ) August 30 – Florencio Harmodio Arosemena , 6th President of Panama (b. 1872 ) August 31 Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) September September 6 Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) September 9 – Aage Bertelsen , Danish painter (b. 1873 ) September 12 – Hajime Sugiyama , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1880 ) September 15 Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) September 16 – John McCormack , Irish tenor (b. 1884 ) September 18 José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) September 20 Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) September 24 – Hans Geiger , German physicist, inventor (b. 1882 ) September 26 Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) October October 1 – Walter Bradford Cannon , American physiologist (b. 1871 ) [ 119 ] October 6 – Leonardo Conti , German physician, Nazi officer (suicide) (b. 1900 ) October 8 – Felix Salten , Austrian author (b. 1869 ) [ 120 ] October 10 – Joseph Darnand , Vichy French politician (executed) (b. 1897 ) October 12 – Dmytro Antonovych , Soviet politician (b. 1877 ) October 13 – Milton S. Hershey , American chocolate tycoon (b. 1857 ) October 15 – Pierre Laval , French politician, 2-time Prime Minister of France (executed) (b. 1883 ) [ 59 ] October 18 – Frederick Hovey , American tennis player (b. 1868 ) October 19 Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) October 21 Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] October 24 Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) October 25 – Robert Ley , German Nazi politician (suicide) (b. 1890 ) October 26 Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) October 30 – Xian Xinghai , Chinese composer (b. 1905 ) October 31 Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) November November 8 – August von Mackensen , German field marshal (b. 1849 ) November 11 – Jerome Kern , American composer (b. 1885 ) [ 123 ] November 13 – Sir Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair , British admiral (b. 1865 ) [ 124 ] November 16 – Sigurður Eggerz , Minister for Iceland during World War I and 2nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1875 ) November 17 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1882 ) November 20 – Francis William Aston , British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877 ) November 21 Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] November 23 – Charles Coborn , British singer (b. 1852 ) November 27 – Josep Maria Sert , Spanish Catalan muralist (b. 1874 ) November 28 – Dwight F. Davis , American tennis player (b. 1879 ) November 30 – Shigeru Honjō , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1876 ) December December 1 – Anton Dostler , German general (executed) (b. 1891 ) December 4 Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] December 5 – Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1864 ) December 8 – Gabriellino D'Annunzio , Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1886 ) December 12 – Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1868 ) December 13 Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) December 14 – Forrester Harvey , Irish actor (b. 1884 ) December 16 Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) December 19 – Leonard F. Wing , American general and politician (b. 1893 ) [ 129 ] December 21 – George S. Patton , American general (injuries from automobile accident) (b. 1885 ) [ 130 ] December 22 – Otto Neurath , Austrian philosopher, political economist (b. 1892 ) December 26 Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) December 28 – Theodore Dreiser , American novelist (b. 1871 ) [ 131 ] Nobel Prizes Physics – Wolfgang Pauli Chemistry – Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Physiology or Medicine – Sir Alexander Fleming , Ernst Chain , Howard Florey Literature – Gabriela Mistral Peace – Cordell Hull References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What Was 1945 a Turning Point - 1377 Words | Bartleby" . ^ Girbig, Werner (1975). Six Months to Oblivion: The Eclipse of the Luftwaffe Fighter Force Over the Western Front, 1944/45 . Schiffer Publishing . p. 74. ISBN 978-0-88740-348-4 . ^ a b Duffy, Christopher (1991). Red Storm on the Reich: The Soviet March on Germany, 1945 . Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22829-8 . ^ "Life in the Führerbunker: Hitler's final days" . Sky HISTORY TV channel . Retrieved September 2, 2025 . ^ Si (July 22, 2025). "Raoul Wallenberg – World War II hero" . sweden.se . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Abraham J. Peck (1997). "The Agony of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944" . The Chronicle of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944 by Lucjan Dobroszycki , and The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum , Washington D.C . The Simon Wiesenthal Center . Retrieved March 25, 2015 . ^ Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography . New York: Norton. p. 891. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6 . ^ Wolf's Lair from Battlefields WW2 ^ "Penicillin Pills May Replace Injection" . The Milwaukee Sentinel . February 16, 1945 . Retrieved May 22, 2012 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ "SS General von Steuben [+1945]" . WreckSite . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (1993). Significant tornadoes, 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events . St. Johnsbury, Vermont: Environmental Films. pp. 922– 925. ISBN 1-879362-03-1 . ^ Ernest F. Fisher Jr., The Mediterranean Theater of Operations: Cassino to the Alps (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1977), p. 425–434 ^ "Guinness World Records Website" . guinnessworldrecords.com . December 13, 2016. ^ Guinness Book of World Records . 2008. p. 137. ^ Battle of Manila Footnotes: Battle for Manila by Richard Connaughton , John Pimlott and Duncan Anderson (2002) Presidio Press ISBN 0-89141-771-0 pp 164–7 ^ Year by Year – 1945 . History International . ^ After The Battle #176 – The Allied Capture Of Trier ^ Air University Review . Department of the Air Force. 1976. p. 20. ^ 6. March 1945 - The U.S. Army occupies Cologne ^ Nohlen, Dieter ; Stöver, Philip, eds. (2010). Elections in Europe: A data handbook . Baden-Baden: Nomos. p. 1678. ISBN 978-3-8329-5609-7 . ^ "Proclamation No. 430, s. 1989 - DECLARING THE EIGHTEENTH DAY OF MARCH OF EVERY YEAR AS VICTORY DAY IN THE ISLANDS OF PANAY AND ROMBLON, INCLUDING THE CITIES OF ILOILO AND ROXAS" . Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines . Retrieved March 18, 2024 . ^ "Bombing Berlin: The Biggest Wartime Raid on Hitler's Capital" . The National WWII Museum - New Orleans . March 14, 2020 . Retrieved March 18, 2024 . ^ "Festung Kolberg 1945" (in Polish). Archived from the original on August 11, 2007 . Retrieved March 21, 2024 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link ) ^ Stanton, Shelby (2006). World War II Order of Battle: An Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from Battalion through Division, 1939-1946 (2nd ed.). Stackpole Books. pp. 57, 84. ^ After The Battle #187 – THE ALLIED CAPTURE OF HANNOVER ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes, 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events . St. Johnsbury, Vermont : The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. p. 919. ISBN 1-879362-03-1 . ^ "1945" . A WW2 Timeline . Worldwar-2.net. Archived from the original on April 28, 2012 . Retrieved November 7, 2012 . ^ Last Stand at Völkerschlachtdenkmal: The Battle of Leipzig, 1945 ^ Alexander, Kristen (September 1, 2004). " "Cleaning the Augean stables": the Morotai Mutiny?" . Sabretache . Military Historical Society of Australia. ^ Jones, Bill (1989). The Fatal Attraction of Adolf Hitler (Television documentary). BBC . Retrieved April 27, 2016 . ^ Ziemke, Earl F. (1969). Battle for Berlin: End of the Third Reich . Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II, Battle Book #6. Ballantine Books. ^ Smythe, John (1967). Bolo Whistler: The Life of General Sir Lashmer Whistler . London: Muller. ^ "War Diary for Friday, 27 April 1945" . Stone & Stone Books . Retrieved March 28, 2016 . ^ MacDonogh, Giles (2007). After the Reich: The Brutal History of the Allied Occupation . New York: Basic Books. p. 93. ^ Ernest F. Fisher Jr., The Mediterranean Theater of Operations: Cassino to the Alps (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1977), p. 524 ^ Duncan, George R. "Massacres and Atrocities of World War II" . Retrieved October 15, 2015 . ^ "Central Europe Campaign – 522nd Field Artillery Battalion" . Archived from the original on March 20, 2016 . Retrieved January 12, 2015 . Jewish prisoners from the outer Dachau camps were marched to Dachau, and then 70 miles south. Many of the Jewish marchers weighed less than 80 pounds. Shivering in their tattered striped uniforms, the "skeletons" marched 10 to 15 hours a day, passing more than a dozen Bavarian towns. If they stopped or fell behind, the SS guards shot them and left their corpses along the road. ^ Final Push To Hamburg ^ "Liberatione" . Lib.usc.edu. May 4, 1945. Archived from the original on April 14, 2016 . Retrieved January 16, 2012 . ^ "Befrielsen 1945 – Tidslinje" . Befrielsen1945.dk. January 2, 2012. Archived from the original on January 22, 2011 . Retrieved January 16, 2012 . ^ Waller, Derek (September 25, 2010). "U-Boats that Surrendered" . u-boat.net . Retrieved November 14, 2014 . ^ "Hungary: Recovery of Crown Jewels 1945" . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . ^ THE CITY OF SALZBURG IN 1945 ^ Liberation of Pilsen ^ Milcic, Allen. "Croatian Axis Forces in WWII" . Retrieved June 28, 2012 . ^ "Edward Kennedy, 58, Reporter Who Flashed '45 Surrender, Dies" . The New York Times . Associated Press. November 30, 1963 . Retrieved December 21, 2007 . ^ Killen, John (2003). The Luftwaffe: A History . Barnsley: Pen & Sword. pp. 299– 300. ISBN 978-1-78159-110-9 . ^ Colin F. Baxter; John Martin Carroll, eds. (2007). The American Military Tradition: From Colonial Times to the Present . Rowman & Littlefield. p. 181. ISBN 9780742544284 . ^ Bethell, Nicholas (1974). The Last Secret . London. ISBN 9780465038138 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Norton-Taylor, Richard (October 2, 1998). "Churchill plotted invasion of Russia". The Guardian . London. ^ a b c d e f "1945 – The Decision to Drop the Bomb" . NuclearFiles . Archived from the original on April 6, 2010. ^ Mohamed, Jama (2002). " 'The Evils of Locust Bait': Popular Nationalism during the 1945 Anti-Locust Control Rebellion in Colonial Somaliland" . Past & Present (174): 184– 216. doi : 10.1093/past/174.1.184 . ISSN 0031-2746 . JSTOR 3600720 . ^ "1945: Labour landslide buries Churchill" . BBC News . April 5, 2005. ^ "Accident North American B-25D-20 Mitchell 41-30577, 28 Jul 1945" . aviation-safety.net . Retrieved May 10, 2023 . ^ "USS Indianapolis sinking: 'You could see sharks circling' " . BBC News . Archived from the original on April 18, 2018 . Retrieved June 20, 2018 . ^ Glantz, LTC David M. (June 1983). Leavenworth Papers No. 8 - August Storm: Soviet Tactical and Operational Combat in Manchuria, 1945 (PDF) . Fort Leavenworth , KS: Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. p. 1. ISSN 0195-3451 . Retrieved September 26, 2023 . ^ Angier, R. B.; Boothe, J. H.; Hutchings, B. L.; Mowat, J. H.; Semb, J.; Stokstad, E. L. R.; Subbarow, Y.; Waller, C. W.; Cosulich, D. B.; Fahrenbach, M. J.; Hultquist, M. E.; Kuh, E.; Northey, E. H.; Seeger, D. R.; Sickels, J. P.; Smith Jr, J. M. (1945). "Synthesis of a Compound Identical with the L. Casei Factor Isolated from Liver". Science . 102 (2644): 227– 28. Bibcode : 1945Sci...102..227A . doi : 10.1126/science.102.2644.227 . PMID 17778509 . ^ Hoffbrand, A. V.; Weir, D. G. (2001). "The history of folic acid". British Journal of Haematology . 113 (3): 579– 589. doi : 10.1046/j.1365-2141.2001.02822.x . PMID 11380441 . S2CID 22925228 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Jessup, John E. (1989). A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945-1985 . New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-24308-5 . ^ Crichton, Gerald (February 1, 1946). "Review of events in Afghanistan, July-December 1945" . Foreign Office . ^ Myers, Brian Reynolds (December 16, 2023). "The Power to Mystify" . Sthele Press . Archived from the original on January 14, 2024 . Retrieved January 14, 2024 . Assertion that the emperor's surrender 'abruptly' ended Japan's occupation of the peninsula, which in fact continued in the southern part for more than three weeks? ^ "Amery sentenced to death: "A self-confessed traitor." ". The Times . No. 50312. November 29, 1945. p. 2. ^ Brennan, J. G.; Green, L. C. (1997). "The Case of General Dostler" . Naval War College Review . 50 (4): 115– 117. ISSN 0028-1484 . JSTOR 44638781 . ^ "75th Anniversary of World Bank Articles of Agreement Ratification" . World Bank . Retrieved May 5, 2022 . ^ "Discovery of Promethium" . Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review . 36 (1). 2003. Archived from the original on June 22, 2011 . Retrieved June 16, 2011 . ^ Hammerton, A. James; Thomson, Alistair (2005). 'Ten Pound Poms': Australia's Invisible Migrants . Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-719071321 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2016" . ^ William D. Rubinstein; Michael Jolles; Hilary L. Rubinstein (February 22, 2011). The Palgrave Dictionary of Anglo-Jewish History . Palgrave Macmillan. p. 868. ISBN 978-1-4039-3910-4 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ Chase's ... Calendar of Events . Contemporary Books. 2003. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-07-139098-9 . ^ "They planted an important seed for nanotechnology" (Press release). The Nobel Prize. October 4, 2023 . Retrieved October 7, 2023 . ^ Geoff Nicholson (1991). Big Noises: Rock Guitar in the 1990s . Quartet. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-7043-0145-0 . ^ "Profile of highlife legend Nana Ampadu" . GhanaWeb . September 30, 2021. Archived from the original on October 19, 2022 . Retrieved October 5, 2021 . ^ Avery, Laura (2004). Newsmakers . Gale Research. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7876-6806-8 . ISSN 0899-0417 . OCLC 17977680 . ^ Bauer, Pat (March 29, 2022). "Linda Hunt" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 21, 2023 . ^ Encyclopedia of Contemporary German Culture . Taylor & Francis. 2013. ISBN 9781136816109 . ^ Events, Chase's Calendar of; McGraw-Hill (2007). "Birthday: Bianca Jagger" . Chase's Calendar of Events . McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 9780071468183 . Retrieved August 5, 2025 . At the time of her marriage to Mick Jagger in 1971 it was reported that she was born in 1945, which is cited as her birth year by most published sources. The charitable organisations with which she has been associated have used 1950. ^ Colin Larkin , ed. (1997). The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music (Concise ed.). Virgin Books . p. 666/7. ISBN 1-85227-745-9 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2022" . Nobel Prize (Press release). The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . October 4, 2022 . Retrieved October 6, 2022 . ^ Ruggieri, Melissa. "Procol Harum singer Gary Brooker, the voice of 'A Whiter Shade of Pale,' dies at 76" . USA Today . Retrieved February 23, 2022 . ^ "Betty Stöve" . Women's Tennis Association. ^ Dagnino, Maruja. "Lali Armengol Argemi". In Transparencia Venezuela (ed.). 20 mujeres venezolanas del siglo XX (PDF) . pp. 68– 71. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 6, 2021 . Retrieved June 12, 2022 . ^ Anon (2017). "Henderson, Dr Richard" . Who's Who (online Oxford University Press ed.). Oxford: A & C Black. doi : 10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.19818 . (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ "Patrick Modiano" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 4, 2022 . ^ Easlea, Daryl (April 7, 2010). Talent Is An Asset: The Story Of Sparks . Omnibus Press. ISBN 9780857122377 – via Google Books. ^ "Khaleda Zia" . Britannica Presents 100 Women Trailblazers . February 25, 2020 . Retrieved July 27, 2021 . ^ "Obituary: John McAfee, antivirus software designer, dies aged 75" . The Times . June 24, 2021. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021 . Retrieved June 24, 2021 . ^ "Serial killer Dennis Nilsen dies in prison aged 72" . The Guardian . May 12, 2018 . Retrieved January 3, 2022 . ^ "Legacy Lyle Bien" . South Dakota Hall of Fame . Retrieved June 17, 2024 . ^ David J. Goldman (2014). Jewish Sports Stars; Athletic Heroes Past and Present ^ "Lemmy, Motörhead frontman – obituary" . The Daily Telegraph . December 29, 2015. Archived from the original on January 11, 2022 . Retrieved December 29, 2015 . ^ "Noel Redding" . The Guardian . May 15, 2003 . Retrieved May 4, 2022 . ^ "Vernon Wells" . Movies & TV Dept. The New York Times . 2014. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. ^ "Edith Frank" . July 6, 2010. Archived from the original on July 6, 2010 . Retrieved October 18, 2017 . ^ Lumsden, Herbert ^ "Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biografía" [Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biography] (in Spanish). Madrid : Real Academia de la Historia. 2022 . Retrieved January 4, 2026 . ^ Kimmelman, Benedict B. (September–October 1987). "The Example Of Private Slovik" . American Heritage Magazine . 38 (6) . Retrieved October 5, 2012 . ^ "One day they simply weren't there any more..." (PDF) . anne frank house . March 2015 . Retrieved April 11, 2015 . ^ Kaplan, Alice (2000). The Collaborator: The Trial and Execution of Robert Brasillach . University of Chicago Press. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-226-42414-9 . ^ Zabecki, David T. , ed. (2019). The German War Machine in World War II . Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio . ISBN 978-1-44-086918-1 . ^ "Aleksey Nikolayevich, Count Tolstoy | Soviet writer | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . January 6, 2024. ^ "LIEUTENANT GENERAL MILLARD F. HARMON" . Air Force . [ dead link ] ^ Hill, Alec (1979). " 'Chauvel, Sir Henry George (Harry) (1865–1945)' " . Australian Dictionary of Biography . National Centre of Biography, Australian National University . ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7 . ISSN 1833-7538 . OCLC 70677943 . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . ^ "Preview unavailable" . ProQuest . ProQuest 107039613 . ^ "Casualty Details | CWGC" . www.cwgc.org . Retrieved March 8, 2021 . ^ MG Maurice Rose ^ "Georg Elser" . www.gdw-berlin.de . Retrieved January 4, 2025 . ^ "Ontdek amateurschilder, drukker, fotograaf Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman" . rkd.nl . ^ Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945 . London: Allen Lane. p. 750. ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . ^ Wallace, Sam (January 25, 2020). "The imperishable story of Julius Hirsch: the great goalscorer murdered at Auschwitz who adorns Stamford Bridge mural" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. ^ Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (November 3, 2009). Danger's Hour: The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot Who Crippled Her . Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-6081-7 . ^ "AAFA Bio - Kenneth J. Alford" . ^ "Ishii Kikujiro | Biography & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . March 15, 2024. ^ "Boris Galerkin" . TheFreeDictionary.com . ^ Harry Hillman Taken by Death, Cumberland News , August 10, 1945 ^ Firoz Alam (October 1, 2009). Subhas Chandra Bose . Sahni Publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-7564-242-3 . ^ Fildes, P. (February 13, 1956). "Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer, 1858-1945" . Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 2 (2): 237– 247. doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1956.0016 . S2CID 73380545 . ^ .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} Stevens, Halsey. 2018. " Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer ". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018). ^ "Kaupisch, Leonhard" (in German). lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ "Dr. W.B. Cannon, 73, Neurologist, Dead. Harvard Psychology Professor for 36 Years Noted for His Work on Traumatic Shock Became Professor in 1906" . New York Times . October 2, 1945 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 . ^ "Felix Salten | Austrian novelist | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . September 2, 2023. ^ "Felicija Bortkevičienė" . www.vle.lt . ^ Franklin Carmichael ^ Hugh Fordin, Stephen Sondheim (1995). Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II . Da Capo Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-306-80668-1 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ [Sinclair, Sir Edwyn Sinclair Alexander-, of Freswick (1865–1945)] ^ Billy Altman, Laughter's Gentle Soul: The Life of Robert Benchley . (New York City: W. W. Norton , 1997. ISBN 0-393-03833-5 ) Pages 352–362 ^ Inge, Tonette Bond. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture , ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William R. Ferris. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 884. ^ FC, Celtic. "Jimmy Quinn" . Celtic FC . ^ Siegman, Joseph (2020). Jewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496222121 . ^ Wing, Leonard Fish ^ Axelrod, Alan (2006), Patton: A Biography , London : Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 168– 9, ISBN 978-1-4039-7139-5 ^ Theodore Dreiser Recalled . Clemson University Press. 2017. p. 311. ISBN 9781942954446 . Further reading Ian Buruma . Year Zero: A History of 1945 (Penguin Press; 2013) 368 pages; covers liberation, revenge, decolonization, and the rise of the United Nations. excerpt International News Service, It Happened In 1945 The Essential Year Book (1946) Keith Lowe. Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (2012) excerpt and text search McDannald, A. H. ed. The Americana Annual 1946 (1946) events of 1945 online ; encyclopedia yearbook global coverage in 950pp Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, 4 vol., encyclopedia yearbook online v t e Events by month v t e 1949 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1948 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1947 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1946 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1945 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1944 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1943 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1942 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1941 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1940 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1945 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2022 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with dead external links from February 2023 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with dead external links from March 2025 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from August 2019 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 01:14 (UTC) . 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Panginot na pahina Portal kan komunidad Dai pa sana nahahaloy na pagbabago Dawa anong pahina Tabang Espesyal na mga pahina Mag-donate Maggibo nin account Mag-login Mag-donate Maggibo nin account Mag-login Contents Beginning 1 Toltolan 2022 Pagsakyada kan Rusya sa Ukranya Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés Ænglisc العربية الدارجة مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български भोजपुरी বাংলা བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Буряад Català 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Cebuano کوردی Qırımtatarca Čeština Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Dolnoserbski ދިވެހިބަސް Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Arpetan Gaeilge Galego Avañe'ẽ Gaelg Hausa Hawaiʻi עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut 日本語 ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Қазақша ភាសាខ្មែរ 한국어 کٲشُر Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Ligure Lombard ລາວ Lietuvių Latviešu Олык марий Македонски മലയാളം Монгол ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ मराठी Bahasa Melayu Malti မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano नेपाली Nederlands Norsk bokmål Chi-Chewa ଓଡ଼ିଆ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis پنجابی پښتو Português Română Armãneashti Русский Ikinyarwanda Саха тыла Sardu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски တႆး සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina سرائیکی Slovenščina Gagana Samoa Soomaaliga Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Ślůnski Sakizaya தமிழ் తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkmençe Türkçe Татарча / tatarça ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon 吴语 მარგალური ייִדיש Vahcuengh 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Pahina Urulay Basáhon Liwaton Baguhon an source Tanawon sa historiya Basáhon Liwaton Baguhon an source Tanawon sa historiya Ano an nakatukdo digdi Katakod na mga pagbabago Mag-upload nin file Permanenteng link Impormasyon kan pahina I-cite an pahinang ini Get shortened URL Download QR code Switch to legacy parser Magmukna nin sarong libro I-download bilang PDF Bersyon na mapi-print Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Item na Wikidata Mapa kan Ukranya, an pulang kabtang okupado na kan Rusya asin kan mga pro-Rusyang separatista 2022 Rusong pagsakyada kan Ukranya Parte kan Gera Ruso-Ukranya Petsa 24 Pebrero 2022 ( 2022-02-24 ) – present Lugar Ukraine [ lower-alpha 1 ] Kinaluwasan Nagralabanan Rusya Donetsk Republic [ lower-alpha 2 ] Luhansk Republic [ lower-alpha 2 ] Belarus [ lower-alpha 3 ] Ukraine Komandante Vladimir Putin Mikhail Mishustin Sergey Shoygu Valery Gerasimov Vladimir Kolokoltsev Denis Pushilin Vladimir Pashkov Leonid Pasechnik Sergey Kozlov Volodymyr Zelenskyy Denys Shmyhal Oleksii Reznikov Denys Monastyrsky Oleksii Danilov Valerii Zaluzhnyi Serhiy Shaptala Ruslan Khomchak Oleksandr Syrskyi Vitali Klitschko Kusog Russia: ~175,000–190,000 [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Donetsk Republic: 20,000 [ 9 ] Luhansk Republic: 14,000 [ 9 ] Ukraine: 209,000 (armed forces) 102,000 (paramilitary) 900,000 (reserves) [ 9 ] Biktima Per Russia (27 February): Some losses, but no official number [ 10 ] Per Ukraine (28 February): 5,710 casualties [ 11 ] 200 captured [ 12 ] Equipment losses: Per Russia: 2 civilian ships bombed (several casualties onboard) [ 13 ] 1 Su-25 crashed [ 14 ] 1 An-26 crashed (crew killed) [ 15 ] Per Ukraine: 198 tanks destroyed [ 11 ] 846 armoured vehicles destroyed [ 11 ] 29 aircraft shot down [ 11 ] 29 helicopters shot down [ 11 ] 2 Ilyushin Il-76 planes shot down [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Per Ukraine: 110+ soldiers killed [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Per Russia: 200+ soldiers killed, [ 20 ] 470+ captured [ 14 ] [ 21 ] Equipment losses: Per Ukraine: 1 transport aircraft shot down (five onboard killed) [ 22 ] 1 Su-27 shot down [ 23 ] 1 An-225 destroyed [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Per Russia: 7 combat aircraft shot down [ 26 ] 7 combat helicopters shot down [ 26 ] 31 aircraft on ground destroyed [ 27 ] 9 drones shot down [ 26 ] 314 tanks/combat vehicles destroyed [ 28 ] 274 special military vehicles destroyed [ 28 ] 8 navy vessels destroyed [ 29 ] Per Ukraine: 352 civilians killed, 1,684 wounded [ 30 ] Per UN: 102+ civilians killed, 406+ wounded [ 31 ] Per UN : 660,000+ refugees and ~1 million internally displaced persons [ 32 ] [ 33 ] 20 foreign citizens killed [ lower-alpha 4 ] Other losses: 1 Turkish-owned vessel damaged [ 40 ] 1 Moldovan-flagged vessel damaged [ 41 ] [ 42 ] 1 Panamanian-flagged cargo ship damaged [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ] Kan Pebrero 24, 2022, an Rusya nagbungsod nin lakopan na pagsakyada sa Ukranya , saro sa kadulon kaini sa sud-sulnopan. An siring nagin sayod na pagparo'ro' kan iriwal kan duwang nasyon, na sa presente yaon an duwa sa estado nin makuring siriplingan poon pa kan 2014. Pasunod kan inapod na Rebolusyon nin Dignidad kan 2014, an Rusya sinakop an Crimea asin an Ruso-suportadong pwersang separatista inagaw an parte kan Donbas na yaon sa subangan nin Ukranya , na iyo an nagsabrit kan walong-taon na gera sa rona'. [ 46 ] [ 47 ] May mga report na an pagsakyada iyo na an pinakadakula na nangyari sa Europa poon kan ikaduwang gerang pankinaban . [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ] An pagsakyada pinangenotan nin Rusong pagruso' kan mga elemento militar sa palibot kan Ukranya poon kan kaamayi nin 2021. An Estados Unidos asin ibang mga nasyon pigaakusar an Rusya na nag'aandam nin pagsakyada, alagad mga opisyales na Ruso pighihimutikan ini. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Durante kan krisis, an presidente nin Rusya , si Vladimir Putin , nagrereklamo dapit sa mga bagay-bagay sa Ukranya: saiyang pigkondenar an pagpahiwas kan NATO bilang huma' sa seguridad nin Rusya asin si Putin nagpipirit na dai nanggad pabalihon an Ukranya sa NATOng pag'iribang militar, maski ngani daa an mga ballistic missile na depensa bako man nakahimunta sa Rusya asin ini dai man maaapektohan an kapabilididad kan Rusya sa saiyang pwersang pansagang sa anoman na huma sa seguridad kaini. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] Si Putin nagpapahayag man kan irredentistang mga pagtubod, [ 55 ] Sa pag'huros kan pagsasakyada, si Putin asin mga opisyales sa Kremlin nagpagub kas nin mga seryeng akusasyon kontra sa Ukranya asin mga paghuhurot sa Ukranya asin NATO sa pag-ngata' na makabilog nin sarahotan para sa paglaog sa gera. Kan 9 Desyembre 2021, si Putin nagtaram na may mga diskriminasyon o pang-aapi nangyayari kontra sa mga Ruso na yaon sa luwas kan Rusya , asin daa Russophobia saka pangpupuho sa mga kadugong Ruso." Saiya pang pigkwekwestyon an deretso sa katalingkasan kan Ukranya. [ 56 ] [ 57 ] Kan 21 Pebrero 2022, an Rusya opisyalmente pigmidbid an Donetsk asin an Luhansk na mga republika kaini, an duwa sadiring-proklamang mga estado na kontrolado nin mga pro-Rusong mga pwersa sa Donbas. [ 58 ] Sunod na aldaw, an Konseho kan Pederasyon unanimong pigawtorisar si Putin na maggamit nin pwersa militar sa luwas kan pagdulonan nin Rusya, asin huli kaini an rusya nagpabulos nin tropa sa mga naglitik na mga teritoryo. [ 59 ] 2022 Rusong pagsakyada kan Ukranya Parte kan Gera Ruso-Ukranya Petsa 24 Pebrero 2022 ( 2022-02-24 ) – present Lugar Ukraine [ lower-alpha 1 ] Kinaluwasan Petsa 24 Pebrero 2022 ( 2022-02-24 ) – present Lugar Ukraine [ lower-alpha 1 ] Kinaluwasan Nagralabanan Rusya Donetsk Republic [ lower-alpha 2 ] Luhansk Republic [ lower-alpha 2 ] Belarus [ lower-alpha 3 ] Rusya Donetsk Republic [ lower-alpha 2 ] Luhansk Republic [ lower-alpha 2 ] Belarus [ lower-alpha 3 ] Ukraine Ukraine Komandante Vladimir Putin Mikhail Mishustin Sergey Shoygu Valery Gerasimov Vladimir Kolokoltsev Denis Pushilin Vladimir Pashkov Leonid Pasechnik Sergey Kozlov Vladimir Putin Mikhail Mishustin Sergey Shoygu Valery Gerasimov Vladimir Kolokoltsev Denis Pushilin Vladimir Pashkov Leonid Pasechnik Sergey Kozlov Volodymyr Zelenskyy Denys Shmyhal Oleksii Reznikov Denys Monastyrsky Oleksii Danilov Valerii Zaluzhnyi Serhiy Shaptala Ruslan Khomchak Oleksandr Syrskyi Vitali Klitschko Volodymyr Zelenskyy Denys Shmyhal Oleksii Reznikov Denys Monastyrsky Oleksii Danilov Valerii Zaluzhnyi Serhiy Shaptala Ruslan Khomchak Oleksandr Syrskyi Vitali Klitschko Kusog Russia: ~175,000–190,000 [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Donetsk Republic: 20,000 [ 9 ] Luhansk Republic: 14,000 [ 9 ] Russia: ~175,000–190,000 [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Donetsk Republic: 20,000 [ 9 ] Luhansk Republic: 14,000 [ 9 ] Ukraine: 209,000 (armed forces) 102,000 (paramilitary) 900,000 (reserves) [ 9 ] Ukraine: 209,000 (armed forces) 102,000 (paramilitary) 900,000 (reserves) [ 9 ] Biktima Per Russia (27 February): Some losses, but no official number [ 10 ] Per Ukraine (28 February): 5,710 casualties [ 11 ] 200 captured [ 12 ] Equipment losses: Per Russia: 2 civilian ships bombed (several casualties onboard) [ 13 ] 1 Su-25 crashed [ 14 ] 1 An-26 crashed (crew killed) [ 15 ] Per Ukraine: 198 tanks destroyed [ 11 ] 846 armoured vehicles destroyed [ 11 ] 29 aircraft shot down [ 11 ] 29 helicopters shot down [ 11 ] 2 Ilyushin Il-76 planes shot down [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Per Russia (27 February): Some losses, but no official number [ 10 ] Per Ukraine (28 February): 5,710 casualties [ 11 ] 200 captured [ 12 ] Per Russia: 2 civilian ships bombed (several casualties onboard) [ 13 ] 1 Su-25 crashed [ 14 ] 1 An-26 crashed (crew killed) [ 15 ] Per Ukraine: 198 tanks destroyed [ 11 ] 846 armoured vehicles destroyed [ 11 ] 29 aircraft shot down [ 11 ] 29 helicopters shot down [ 11 ] 2 Ilyushin Il-76 planes shot down [ 16 ] [ 17 ] 2 civilian ships bombed (several casualties onboard) [ 13 ] 1 Su-25 crashed [ 14 ] 1 An-26 crashed (crew killed) [ 15 ] Per Ukraine: 198 tanks destroyed [ 11 ] 846 armoured vehicles destroyed [ 11 ] 29 aircraft shot down [ 11 ] 29 helicopters shot down [ 11 ] 2 Ilyushin Il-76 planes shot down [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Per Ukraine: 110+ soldiers killed [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Per Russia: 200+ soldiers killed, [ 20 ] 470+ captured [ 14 ] [ 21 ] Equipment losses: Per Ukraine: 1 transport aircraft shot down (five onboard killed) [ 22 ] 1 Su-27 shot down [ 23 ] 1 An-225 destroyed [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Per Russia: 7 combat aircraft shot down [ 26 ] 7 combat helicopters shot down [ 26 ] 31 aircraft on ground destroyed [ 27 ] 9 drones shot down [ 26 ] 314 tanks/combat vehicles destroyed [ 28 ] 274 special military vehicles destroyed [ 28 ] 8 navy vessels destroyed [ 29 ] Per Ukraine: 110+ soldiers killed [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Per Russia: 200+ soldiers killed, [ 20 ] 470+ captured [ 14 ] [ 21 ] Per Ukraine: 1 transport aircraft shot down (five onboard killed) [ 22 ] 1 Su-27 shot down [ 23 ] 1 An-225 destroyed [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Per Russia: 7 combat aircraft shot down [ 26 ] 7 combat helicopters shot down [ 26 ] 31 aircraft on ground destroyed [ 27 ] 9 drones shot down [ 26 ] 314 tanks/combat vehicles destroyed [ 28 ] 274 special military vehicles destroyed [ 28 ] 8 navy vessels destroyed [ 29 ] 1 transport aircraft shot down (five onboard killed) [ 22 ] 1 Su-27 shot down [ 23 ] 1 An-225 destroyed [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Per Russia: 7 combat aircraft shot down [ 26 ] 7 combat helicopters shot down [ 26 ] 31 aircraft on ground destroyed [ 27 ] 9 drones shot down [ 26 ] 314 tanks/combat vehicles destroyed [ 28 ] 274 special military vehicles destroyed [ 28 ] 8 navy vessels destroyed [ 29 ] Per Ukraine: 352 civilians killed, 1,684 wounded [ 30 ] Per UN: 102+ civilians killed, 406+ wounded [ 31 ] Per UN : 660,000+ refugees and ~1 million internally displaced persons [ 32 ] [ 33 ] 20 foreign citizens killed [ lower-alpha 4 ] Other losses: 1 Turkish-owned vessel damaged [ 40 ] 1 Moldovan-flagged vessel damaged [ 41 ] [ 42 ] 1 Panamanian-flagged cargo ship damaged [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ] Per Ukraine: 352 civilians killed, 1,684 wounded [ 30 ] Per UN: 102+ civilians killed, 406+ wounded [ 31 ] Per UN : 660,000+ refugees and ~1 million internally displaced persons [ 32 ] [ 33 ] 20 foreign citizens killed [ lower-alpha 4 ] 1 Turkish-owned vessel damaged [ 40 ] 1 Moldovan-flagged vessel damaged [ 41 ] [ 42 ] 1 Panamanian-flagged cargo ship damaged [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ] 1 Turkish-owned vessel damaged [ 40 ] 1 Moldovan-flagged vessel damaged [ 41 ] [ 42 ] 1 Panamanian-flagged cargo ship damaged [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ] Kan Pebrero 24, 2022, an Rusya nagbungsod nin lakopan na pagsakyada sa Ukranya , saro sa kadulon kaini sa sud-sulnopan. An siring nagin sayod na pagparo'ro' kan iriwal kan duwang nasyon, na sa presente yaon an duwa sa estado nin makuring siriplingan poon pa kan 2014. Pasunod kan inapod na Rebolusyon nin Dignidad kan 2014, an Rusya sinakop an Crimea asin an Ruso-suportadong pwersang separatista inagaw an parte kan Donbas na yaon sa subangan nin Ukranya , na iyo an nagsabrit kan walong-taon na gera sa rona'. [ 46 ] [ 47 ] May mga report na an pagsakyada iyo na an pinakadakula na nangyari sa Europa poon kan ikaduwang gerang pankinaban . [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ] An pagsakyada pinangenotan nin Rusong pagruso' kan mga elemento militar sa palibot kan Ukranya poon kan kaamayi nin 2021. An Estados Unidos asin ibang mga nasyon pigaakusar an Rusya na nag'aandam nin pagsakyada, alagad mga opisyales na Ruso pighihimutikan ini. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Durante kan krisis, an presidente nin Rusya , si Vladimir Putin , nagrereklamo dapit sa mga bagay-bagay sa Ukranya: saiyang pigkondenar an pagpahiwas kan NATO bilang huma' sa seguridad nin Rusya asin si Putin nagpipirit na dai nanggad pabalihon an Ukranya sa NATOng pag'iribang militar, maski ngani daa an mga ballistic missile na depensa bako man nakahimunta sa Rusya asin ini dai man maaapektohan an kapabilididad kan Rusya sa saiyang pwersang pansagang sa anoman na huma sa seguridad kaini. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] Si Putin nagpapahayag man kan irredentistang mga pagtubod, [ 55 ] Sa pag'huros kan pagsasakyada, si Putin asin mga opisyales sa Kremlin nagpagub kas nin mga seryeng akusasyon kontra sa Ukranya asin mga paghuhurot sa Ukranya asin NATO sa pag-ngata' na makabilog nin sarahotan para sa paglaog sa gera. Kan 9 Desyembre 2021, si Putin nagtaram na may mga diskriminasyon o pang-aapi nangyayari kontra sa mga Ruso na yaon sa luwas kan Rusya , asin daa Russophobia saka pangpupuho sa mga kadugong Ruso." Saiya pang pigkwekwestyon an deretso sa katalingkasan kan Ukranya. [ 56 ] [ 57 ] Kan 21 Pebrero 2022, an Rusya opisyalmente pigmidbid an Donetsk asin an Luhansk na mga republika kaini, an duwa sadiring-proklamang mga estado na kontrolado nin mga pro-Rusong mga pwersa sa Donbas. [ 58 ] Sunod na aldaw, an Konseho kan Pederasyon unanimong pigawtorisar si Putin na maggamit nin pwersa militar sa luwas kan pagdulonan nin Rusya, asin huli kaini an rusya nagpabulos nin tropa sa mga naglitik na mga teritoryo. [ 59 ] Toltolan [ baguhon | baguhon an source ] ↑ "South Ossetia recognises independence of Donetsk People's Republic" . Information Telegraph Agency of Russia. 27 June 2014 . . ↑ Alec, Luhn (6 November 2014). "Ukraine's rebel 'people's republics' begin work of building new states" . The Guardian . Donetsk . Archived from the original on 26 January 2022 . Retrieved 31 January 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ "Общая информация" [ General Information ] . Official site of the head of the Lugansk People's Republic (in Russian). Archived from the original on 12 March 2018 . Retrieved 11 March 2018 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ Error sa pag-cite: Imbalidong <ref> tatak; mayong teksto na ipinagtao para sa reperensiya na pinagngaranan na CNN invasion routes ↑ Rodionov, Maxim; Balmforth, Tom (25 February 2022). "Belarusian troops could be used in operation against Ukraine if needed, Lukashenko says" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 25 February 2022 . Retrieved 25 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ "Missiles launched into Ukraine from Belarus" . BBC News . 27 February 2022 . . ↑ Barnes, Julian E.; Crowley, Michael; Schmitt, Eric (10 January 2022). "Russia Positioning Helicopters, in Possible Sign of Ukraine Plans" . . ↑ Bengali, Shashank (18 February 2022). " The U.S. says Russia's troop buildup could be as high as 190,000 in and near Ukraine. ". The New York Times . . 1 2 3 The military balance 2021 . Abingdon, Oxon: International Institute for Strategic Studies . 2021. ISBN 978-1032012278 . ↑ Seddon, Max (27 February 2022). "Russia admits its armed forces have suffered casualties" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on 27 February 2022. Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) 1 2 3 4 5 " From beginning of invasion, Russian army lost 5,710 killed, wounded, including 198 tanks, 29 helicopters – General Staff ". Interfax-Ukraine . 1 March 2022 . . ↑ "Ukraine live updates: Fighting reaches Kyiv streets as Russia attacks" . BBC News . . ↑ " Russian forces closing in on Kyiv, claiming dozens of casualties ". Ynet . 24 February 2022 . . 1 2 "Russia Says Destroyed Over 70 Ukraine Military Targets" . The Moscow Times . 24 February 2022. Archived from the original on 24 February 2022 . Retrieved 24 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ Ostroukh, Andrey (24 February 2022). "Military transport aircraft crashes in southern Russia -Interfax" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 24 February 2022 . Retrieved 24 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ Karmanau, Yuras; Isachenkov, Vladimir; Litvinova, Dasha; Heintz, Jim (25 February 2022). "President refuses to flee, urges Ukraine to 'stand firm'" . Associated Press . . ↑ "Ukraine says it shot down large Russian plane" . BBC News . 25 February 2022 . Retrieved 25 February 2022 . ↑ "Artillery kills 70 Ukraine soldiers" . AP News . Associated Press . Associated Press . 1 March 2022 . Retrieved 1 March 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ "Ukraine says more than 40 of its soldiers, 10 civilians killed" . www.timesofisrael.com . AFP. 24 February 2022. Archived from the original on 24 February 2022 . Retrieved 24 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ "Russia says 200 Ukrainians 'eliminated' in airbase siege" . Archived from the original on 25 February 2022 . Retrieved 26 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ "Over 470 Ukrainian troops surrender near Kharkiv – Russian Defense Ministry" . Interfax . 27 February 2022. Archived from the original on 27 February 2022 . Retrieved 27 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ Zinets, Natalia; Marrow, Alexander (24 February 2022). "Ukrainian military plane shot down, five killed – authorities" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 24 February 2022 . Retrieved 24 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ Chance, Matthew; Lister, Tim; Smith-Spark, Laura; Regan, Helen (25 February 2022). "Battle for Ukrainian capital underway as Russian troops seek to encircle Kyiv" . CNN . Retrieved 25 February 2022 . ↑ Guy, Jack (28 February 2022). "World's largest plane destroyed in Ukraine" . CNN . Retrieved 28 February 2022 . ↑ "AN-225 Destroyed by Russian forces at Gostomel" . airlineratings.com . 27 February 2022. Archived from the original on 28 February 2022 . Retrieved 2 March 2022 . 1 2 3 "Russian Armed Forces destroy 821 Ukrainian military infrastructure facilities – Russian Defense Ministry" . . ↑ "Russian Armed Forces hit over 1,000 Ukraine's military targets since start of operation – Russian Defense Ministry" . . 1 2 " Russian forces say destroyed 1,114 elements of Ukrainian military infrastructure ". Interfax . . ↑ " Russian Defense Ministry reports use of Navy, 8 Ukrainian military boats destroyed ". Interfax . 26 February 2022 . . ↑ " Russia's invasion of Ukraine kills 352 civilians, including 14 children ". Reuters . 27 February 2022 . . ↑ Security Council: Ukraine . UN (Report) (in English). 28 February 2022. SC/14812 . Retrieved 28 February 2022 . ↑ "Over 660,000 people flee Ukraine, UN agency says" . Reuters. 1 March 2022 . . ↑ "#BREAKING UNHCR estimates one million internally displaced people in Ukraine" . AFP via Twitter. 1 March 2022 . . ↑ " Two more Greek expats killed in strikes in Ukraine ". Proto Thema . 28 February 2022 . . ↑ "Several Azerbaijani people killed in Ukraine" . 27 February 2022 . . ↑ Shakir, Layal (25 February 2022). " Kurdish student reportedly killed in Ukraine-Russia conflict ". Rudaw . . ↑ "Ukraine: Death of an Algerian student by a missile attack" . 27 February 2022 . . ↑ Sam Hall; Marcus Parekh; Maighna Nanu; Grace Millimaci; Julie Hosking; Genevieve Holl-Allen (28 February 2022). "Russia-Ukraine latest news: Russia 'used vacuum bomb', Ukraine ambassador claims" . . ↑ Susan Ullas, Sruthy (1 March 2022). "Ukraine crisis: Indian student killed during shelling in Kharkiv" . The Times of India . Archived from the original on 1 March 2022 . Retrieved 1 March 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ Malsin, Jared. "Turkish-Owned Ship Hit by Bomb Off Coast of Odessa" . Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 24 February 2022 . Retrieved 25 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ Stan, Filip (25 February 2022). "Alertă în Marea Neagră! Navă a Republicii Moldova, atacată de ruși. Anunțul făcut de Ministerul Apărării din Ucraina" (in ro). România TV . . ↑ Mihăescu, Alexandru (25 February 2022). " O navă sub pavilionul Republicii Moldova a fost lovită de un obuz în Marea Neagră / Tot echipajul e format din marinari ruși " (in ro). G4Media . . ↑ " Panama-flagged ship attacked by Russian Navy ". Newsroom Panama . 25 February 2022 . . ↑ Adjn, Adis (25 February 2022). "Two more ships hit in the Black Sea" . Splash 247 . . ↑ Yee, Lizzy; Jozuka, Emi (26 February 2022). "Japanese-owned cargo ship hit by a missile off Ukrainian coast" . CNN News . . ↑ Kirby, Jen (28 February 2022). "Putin's invasion of Ukraine, explained" . Vox . Retrieved 28 February 2022 . ↑ "Conflict in Ukraine" . Global Conflict Tracker . Council on Foreign Relations. 28 February 2022 . Retrieved 28 February 2022 . ↑ "US orders 7,000 more troops to Europe following Russia's invasion of Ukraine" . CNN . 24 February 2022 . . "Russia's invasion of its neighbor in Ukraine is the largest conventional military attack that's been seen since World War II, the senior defense official said Thursday outlining US observations of the unfolding conflict" ↑ " Russia presses invasion to outskirts of Ukrainian capital ". ABC News . Associated Press ( Kyiv : American Broadcasting Corporation ). 24 February 2022 . . "... [a]mounts to the largest ground war in Europe since World War II." ↑ "Putin puts nuclear 'deterrence' forces on alert" . Reuters . Kyiv : Thomson Corporation . 27 February 2022 . . "[t]he biggest assault on a European state since World War Two." ↑ Error sa pag-cite: Imbalidong <ref> tatak; mayong teksto na ipinagtao para sa reperensiya na pinagngaranan na Deny ↑ Error sa pag-cite: Imbalidong <ref> tatak; mayong teksto na ipinagtao para sa reperensiya na pinagngaranan na denials ↑ NATO-Russia relations: the facts. NATO. Retrieved: 1 March 2022. ↑ Wiegrefe, Klaus (15 February 2022). " NATO's Eastward Expansion: Is Vladimir Putin Right? ". Der Spiegel . ISSN 2195-1349 . . ↑ " Russia's invasion of Ukraine ". The Economist ( The Economist Group ). 26 February 2022. ISSN 0013-0613 . . "Though the target of Mr Putin's tirade on February 21st was Ukraine, the former Soviet republics now in NATO, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, have cause for alarm over his irredentism." ↑ Perrigo, Billy (22 February 2022). "How Putin's Denial of Ukraine's Statehood Rewrites History" . Time . Archived from the original on 22 February 2022 . Retrieved 28 February 2022 . ↑ "Putin Says He Does Not Plan to 'Restore Empire ' " . The Moscow Times . 22 February 2022. ↑ Hernandez, Joe (22 February 2022). "Why Luhansk and Donetsk are key to understanding the latest escalation in Ukraine" . NPR . Retrieved 28 February 2022 . ↑ Error sa pag-cite: Imbalidong <ref> tatak; mayong teksto na ipinagtao para sa reperensiya na pinagngaranan na Hodge 2022 Sarong tamboan an artikulong ini. Makakatabang ka sa Bikol Wikipedia sa pagpoon kaining pahina. ↑ There also was a spillover into Russia , such as the Millerovo air base attack . 1 2 The Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic are separatist states that declared their independence in May 2014, while receiving recognitions from each other, the de facto state of South Ossetia , and Russia (since 2022). [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] ↑ Russian forces were permitted to stage part of the invasion from Belarusian territory. [ 4 ] Belarusian president Alexander Lukashenko also stated that Belarusian troops could take part in the invasion if needed. [ 5 ] Belarusian territory was also used to launch missiles into Ukraine. [ 6 ] See also: Belarusian involvement in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine ↑ 12 Greek citizens killed, [ 34 ] 4 Azerbaijani citizens killed, [ 35 ] 1 Iraqi citizen killed, [ 36 ] 1 Algerian citizen killed, [ 37 ] 1 Israeli citizen killed, [ 38 ] 1 Indian citizen killed. [ 39 ] Error sa pag-cite: <ref> mga tatak na eksistido para sa sarong grupo na pinagngaranan na "lower-alpha", alagad mayong kinasungkoan na <mga pinapanungdanan na grupo="lower-alpha"/> na tatak an nanagboan, o sarong panarado </ref> an nawawara Toltolan ↑ "South Ossetia recognises independence of Donetsk People's Republic" . Information Telegraph Agency of Russia. 27 June 2014 . . ↑ Alec, Luhn (6 November 2014). "Ukraine's rebel 'people's republics' begin work of building new states" . The Guardian . Donetsk . Archived from the original on 26 January 2022 . Retrieved 31 January 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ "Общая информация" [ General Information ] . Official site of the head of the Lugansk People's Republic (in Russian). Archived from the original on 12 March 2018 . Retrieved 11 March 2018 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ Error sa pag-cite: Imbalidong <ref> tatak; mayong teksto na ipinagtao para sa reperensiya na pinagngaranan na CNN invasion routes ↑ Rodionov, Maxim; Balmforth, Tom (25 February 2022). "Belarusian troops could be used in operation against Ukraine if needed, Lukashenko says" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 25 February 2022 . Retrieved 25 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ "Missiles launched into Ukraine from Belarus" . BBC News . 27 February 2022 . . ↑ Barnes, Julian E.; Crowley, Michael; Schmitt, Eric (10 January 2022). "Russia Positioning Helicopters, in Possible Sign of Ukraine Plans" . . ↑ Bengali, Shashank (18 February 2022). " The U.S. says Russia's troop buildup could be as high as 190,000 in and near Ukraine. ". The New York Times . . 1 2 3 The military balance 2021 . Abingdon, Oxon: International Institute for Strategic Studies . 2021. ISBN 978-1032012278 . ↑ Seddon, Max (27 February 2022). "Russia admits its armed forces have suffered casualties" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on 27 February 2022. Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) 1 2 3 4 5 " From beginning of invasion, Russian army lost 5,710 killed, wounded, including 198 tanks, 29 helicopters – General Staff ". Interfax-Ukraine . 1 March 2022 . . ↑ "Ukraine live updates: Fighting reaches Kyiv streets as Russia attacks" . BBC News . . ↑ " Russian forces closing in on Kyiv, claiming dozens of casualties ". Ynet . 24 February 2022 . . 1 2 "Russia Says Destroyed Over 70 Ukraine Military Targets" . The Moscow Times . 24 February 2022. Archived from the original on 24 February 2022 . Retrieved 24 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ Ostroukh, Andrey (24 February 2022). "Military transport aircraft crashes in southern Russia -Interfax" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 24 February 2022 . Retrieved 24 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ Karmanau, Yuras; Isachenkov, Vladimir; Litvinova, Dasha; Heintz, Jim (25 February 2022). "President refuses to flee, urges Ukraine to 'stand firm'" . Associated Press . . ↑ "Ukraine says it shot down large Russian plane" . BBC News . 25 February 2022 . Retrieved 25 February 2022 . ↑ "Artillery kills 70 Ukraine soldiers" . AP News . Associated Press . Associated Press . 1 March 2022 . Retrieved 1 March 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ "Ukraine says more than 40 of its soldiers, 10 civilians killed" . www.timesofisrael.com . AFP. 24 February 2022. Archived from the original on 24 February 2022 . Retrieved 24 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ "Russia says 200 Ukrainians 'eliminated' in airbase siege" . Archived from the original on 25 February 2022 . Retrieved 26 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ "Over 470 Ukrainian troops surrender near Kharkiv – Russian Defense Ministry" . Interfax . 27 February 2022. Archived from the original on 27 February 2022 . Retrieved 27 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ Zinets, Natalia; Marrow, Alexander (24 February 2022). "Ukrainian military plane shot down, five killed – authorities" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 24 February 2022 . Retrieved 24 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ Chance, Matthew; Lister, Tim; Smith-Spark, Laura; Regan, Helen (25 February 2022). "Battle for Ukrainian capital underway as Russian troops seek to encircle Kyiv" . CNN . Retrieved 25 February 2022 . ↑ Guy, Jack (28 February 2022). "World's largest plane destroyed in Ukraine" . CNN . Retrieved 28 February 2022 . ↑ "AN-225 Destroyed by Russian forces at Gostomel" . airlineratings.com . 27 February 2022. Archived from the original on 28 February 2022 . Retrieved 2 March 2022 . 1 2 3 "Russian Armed Forces destroy 821 Ukrainian military infrastructure facilities – Russian Defense Ministry" . . ↑ "Russian Armed Forces hit over 1,000 Ukraine's military targets since start of operation – Russian Defense Ministry" . . 1 2 " Russian forces say destroyed 1,114 elements of Ukrainian military infrastructure ". Interfax . . ↑ " Russian Defense Ministry reports use of Navy, 8 Ukrainian military boats destroyed ". Interfax . 26 February 2022 . . ↑ " Russia's invasion of Ukraine kills 352 civilians, including 14 children ". Reuters . 27 February 2022 . . ↑ Security Council: Ukraine . UN (Report) (in English). 28 February 2022. SC/14812 . Retrieved 28 February 2022 . ↑ "Over 660,000 people flee Ukraine, UN agency says" . Reuters. 1 March 2022 . . ↑ "#BREAKING UNHCR estimates one million internally displaced people in Ukraine" . AFP via Twitter. 1 March 2022 . . ↑ " Two more Greek expats killed in strikes in Ukraine ". Proto Thema . 28 February 2022 . . ↑ "Several Azerbaijani people killed in Ukraine" . 27 February 2022 . . ↑ Shakir, Layal (25 February 2022). " Kurdish student reportedly killed in Ukraine-Russia conflict ". Rudaw . . ↑ "Ukraine: Death of an Algerian student by a missile attack" . 27 February 2022 . . ↑ Sam Hall; Marcus Parekh; Maighna Nanu; Grace Millimaci; Julie Hosking; Genevieve Holl-Allen (28 February 2022). "Russia-Ukraine latest news: Russia 'used vacuum bomb', Ukraine ambassador claims" . . ↑ Susan Ullas, Sruthy (1 March 2022). "Ukraine crisis: Indian student killed during shelling in Kharkiv" . The Times of India . Archived from the original on 1 March 2022 . Retrieved 1 March 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ Malsin, Jared. "Turkish-Owned Ship Hit by Bomb Off Coast of Odessa" . Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 24 February 2022 . Retrieved 25 February 2022 . Unknown parameter | url-status= ignored ( help ) ↑ Stan, Filip (25 February 2022). "Alertă în Marea Neagră! Navă a Republicii Moldova, atacată de ruși. Anunțul făcut de Ministerul Apărării din Ucraina" (in ro). România TV . . ↑ Mihăescu, Alexandru (25 February 2022). " O navă sub pavilionul Republicii Moldova a fost lovită de un obuz în Marea Neagră / Tot echipajul e format din marinari ruși " (in ro). G4Media . . ↑ " Panama-flagged ship attacked by Russian Navy ". Newsroom Panama . 25 February 2022 . . ↑ Adjn, Adis (25 February 2022). "Two more ships hit in the Black Sea" . Splash 247 . . ↑ Yee, Lizzy; Jozuka, Emi (26 February 2022). "Japanese-owned cargo ship hit by a missile off Ukrainian coast" . CNN News . . ↑ Kirby, Jen (28 February 2022). "Putin's invasion of Ukraine, explained" . Vox . Retrieved 28 February 2022 . ↑ "Conflict in Ukraine" . Global Conflict Tracker . Council on Foreign Relations. 28 February 2022 . Retrieved 28 February 2022 . ↑ "US orders 7,000 more troops to Europe following Russia's invasion of Ukraine" . CNN . 24 February 2022 . . "Russia's invasion of its neighbor in Ukraine is the largest conventional military attack that's been seen since World War II, the senior defense official said Thursday outlining US observations of the unfolding conflict" ↑ " Russia presses invasion to outskirts of Ukrainian capital ". ABC News . Associated Press ( Kyiv : American Broadcasting Corporation ). 24 February 2022 . . "... [a]mounts to the largest ground war in Europe since World War II." ↑ "Putin puts nuclear 'deterrence' forces on alert" . Reuters . Kyiv : Thomson Corporation . 27 February 2022 . . "[t]he biggest assault on a European state since World War Two." ↑ Error sa pag-cite: Imbalidong <ref> tatak; mayong teksto na ipinagtao para sa reperensiya na pinagngaranan na Deny ↑ Error sa pag-cite: Imbalidong <ref> tatak; mayong teksto na ipinagtao para sa reperensiya na pinagngaranan na denials ↑ NATO-Russia relations: the facts. NATO. Retrieved: 1 March 2022. ↑ Wiegrefe, Klaus (15 February 2022). " NATO's Eastward Expansion: Is Vladimir Putin Right? ". Der Spiegel . ISSN 2195-1349 . . ↑ " Russia's invasion of Ukraine ". The Economist ( The Economist Group ). 26 February 2022. ISSN 0013-0613 . . "Though the target of Mr Putin's tirade on February 21st was Ukraine, the former Soviet republics now in NATO, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, have cause for alarm over his irredentism." ↑ Perrigo, Billy (22 February 2022). "How Putin's Denial of Ukraine's Statehood Rewrites History" . Time . Archived from the original on 22 February 2022 . Retrieved 28 February 2022 . ↑ "Putin Says He Does Not Plan to 'Restore Empire ' " . The Moscow Times . 22 February 2022. ↑ Hernandez, Joe (22 February 2022). "Why Luhansk and Donetsk are key to understanding the latest escalation in Ukraine" . NPR . Retrieved 28 February 2022 . ↑ Error sa pag-cite: Imbalidong <ref> tatak; mayong teksto na ipinagtao para sa reperensiya na pinagngaranan na Hodge 2022 ↑ There also was a spillover into Russia , such as the Millerovo air base attack . 1 2 The Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic are separatist states that declared their independence in May 2014, while receiving recognitions from each other, the de facto state of South Ossetia , and Russia (since 2022). [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] ↑ Russian forces were permitted to stage part of the invasion from Belarusian territory. [ 4 ] Belarusian president Alexander Lukashenko also stated that Belarusian troops could take part in the invasion if needed. [ 5 ] Belarusian territory was also used to launch missiles into Ukraine. [ 6 ] See also: Belarusian involvement in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine ↑ 12 Greek citizens killed, [ 34 ] 4 Azerbaijani citizens killed, [ 35 ] 1 Iraqi citizen killed, [ 36 ] 1 Algerian citizen killed, [ 37 ] 1 Israeli citizen killed, [ 38 ] 1 Indian citizen killed. [ 39 ] Pages with citations using unsupported parameters CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) CS1 English-language sources (en) Mga tamboan na artikulo Pages with reference errors Huring binago an pahinang ini kaitong 31 Agosto 2025, alas 06:41. Page was rendered with Parsoid . Magagamit an teksto sa irarom kan Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; posibleng malapat an dagdag pang mga termino. Hilingon an Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License para sa detalye. Panundon sa pagkapribado Manungod sa Wikipedia Mga pagsayuma Code of Conduct Mga Developer Estadistika Manungod sa cookie Bersyong pan-mobile
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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–17 of 17 results for author: Beverley, J Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2507.21172 [ pdf ] cs.AI Ontological Foundations of State Sovereignty Authors: John Beverley , Danielle Limbaugh Abstract : This short paper is a primer on the nature of state sovereignty and the importance of claims about it. It also aims to reveal (merely reveal) a strategy for working with vague or contradictory data about which states, in fact, are sovereign. These goals together are intended to set the stage for applied work in ontology about international affairs. This short paper is a primer on the nature of state sovereignty and the importance of claims about it. It also aims to reveal (merely reveal) a strategy for working with vague or contradictory data about which states, in fact, are sovereign. These goals together are intended to set the stage for applied work in ontology about international affairs. △ Less Submitted 25 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025. Comments: 6 pages. 0 figures. Conference: Semantic Technology for Intelligence, Defense, and Security (STIDS 2024) arXiv:2507.21172 [ pdf ] Ontological Foundations of State Sovereignty Authors: John Beverley , Danielle Limbaugh Abstract : This short paper is a primer on the nature of state sovereignty and the importance of claims about it. It also aims to reveal (merely reveal) a strategy for working with vague or contradictory data about which states, in fact, are sovereign. These goals together are intended to set the stage for applied work in ontology about international affairs. This short paper is a primer on the nature of state sovereignty and the importance of claims about it. It also aims to reveal (merely reveal) a strategy for working with vague or contradictory data about which states, in fact, are sovereign. These goals together are intended to set the stage for applied work in ontology about international affairs. △ Less Submitted 25 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025. Comments: 6 pages. 0 figures. Conference: Semantic Technology for Intelligence, Defense, and Security (STIDS 2024) arXiv:2506.12290 [ pdf ] cs.AI Ontology Enabled Hybrid Modeling and Simulation Authors: John Beverley , Andreas Tolk Abstract : We explore the role of ontologies in enhancing hybrid modeling and simulation through improved semantic rigor, model reusability, and interoperability across systems, disciplines, and tools. By distinguishing between methodological and referential ontologies, we demonstrate how these complementary approaches address interoperability challenges along three axes: Human-Human, Human-Machine, and Mach… ▽ More We explore the role of ontologies in enhancing hybrid modeling and simulation through improved semantic rigor, model reusability, and interoperability across systems, disciplines, and tools. By distinguishing between methodological and referential ontologies, we demonstrate how these complementary approaches address interoperability challenges along three axes: Human-Human, Human-Machine, and Machine-Machine. Techniques such as competency questions, ontology design patterns, and layered strategies are highlighted for promoting shared understanding and formal precision. Integrating ontologies with Semantic Web Technologies, we showcase their dual role as descriptive domain representations and prescriptive guides for simulation construction. Four application cases - sea-level rise analysis, Industry 4.0 modeling, artificial societies for policy support, and cyber threat evaluation - illustrate the practical benefits of ontology-driven hybrid simulation workflows. We conclude by discussing challenges and opportunities in ontology-based hybrid M&S, including tool integration, semantic alignment, and support for explainable AI. △ Less Submitted 13 June, 2025; originally announced June 2025. arXiv:2506.12290 [ pdf ] Ontology Enabled Hybrid Modeling and Simulation Authors: John Beverley , Andreas Tolk Abstract : We explore the role of ontologies in enhancing hybrid modeling and simulation through improved semantic rigor, model reusability, and interoperability across systems, disciplines, and tools. By distinguishing between methodological and referential ontologies, we demonstrate how these complementary approaches address interoperability challenges along three axes: Human-Human, Human-Machine, and Mach… ▽ More We explore the role of ontologies in enhancing hybrid modeling and simulation through improved semantic rigor, model reusability, and interoperability across systems, disciplines, and tools. By distinguishing between methodological and referential ontologies, we demonstrate how these complementary approaches address interoperability challenges along three axes: Human-Human, Human-Machine, and Machine-Machine. Techniques such as competency questions, ontology design patterns, and layered strategies are highlighted for promoting shared understanding and formal precision. Integrating ontologies with Semantic Web Technologies, we showcase their dual role as descriptive domain representations and prescriptive guides for simulation construction. Four application cases - sea-level rise analysis, Industry 4.0 modeling, artificial societies for policy support, and cyber threat evaluation - illustrate the practical benefits of ontology-driven hybrid simulation workflows. We conclude by discussing challenges and opportunities in ontology-based hybrid M&S, including tool integration, semantic alignment, and support for explainable AI. △ Less Submitted 13 June, 2025; originally announced June 2025. arXiv:2506.11141 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE cs.ET From over-reliance to smart integration: using Large-Language Models as translators between specialized modeling and simulation tools Authors: Philippe J. Giabbanelli , John Beverley , Istvan David , Andreas Tolk Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) offer transformative potential for Modeling & Simulation (M&S) through natural language interfaces that simplify workflows. However, over-reliance risks compromising quality due to ambiguities, logical shortcuts, and hallucinations. This paper advocates integrating LLMs as middleware or translators between specialized tools to mitigate complexity in M&S tasks. Acting a… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) offer transformative potential for Modeling & Simulation (M&S) through natural language interfaces that simplify workflows. However, over-reliance risks compromising quality due to ambiguities, logical shortcuts, and hallucinations. This paper advocates integrating LLMs as middleware or translators between specialized tools to mitigate complexity in M&S tasks. Acting as translators, LLMs can enhance interoperability across multi-formalism, multi-semantics, and multi-paradigm systems. We address two key challenges: identifying appropriate languages and tools for modeling and simulation tasks, and developing efficient software architectures that integrate LLMs without performance bottlenecks. To this end, the paper explores LLM-mediated workflows, emphasizes structured tool integration, and recommends Low-Rank Adaptation-based architectures for efficient task-specific adaptations. This approach ensures LLMs complement rather than replace specialized tools, fostering high-quality, reliable M&S processes. △ Less Submitted 10 June, 2025; originally announced June 2025. Comments: Accepted at the Winter Simulation conference 2025, December, Seattle USA arXiv:2506.11141 [ pdf , ps , other ] From over-reliance to smart integration: using Large-Language Models as translators between specialized modeling and simulation tools Authors: Philippe J. Giabbanelli , John Beverley , Istvan David , Andreas Tolk Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) offer transformative potential for Modeling & Simulation (M&S) through natural language interfaces that simplify workflows. However, over-reliance risks compromising quality due to ambiguities, logical shortcuts, and hallucinations. This paper advocates integrating LLMs as middleware or translators between specialized tools to mitigate complexity in M&S tasks. Acting a… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) offer transformative potential for Modeling & Simulation (M&S) through natural language interfaces that simplify workflows. However, over-reliance risks compromising quality due to ambiguities, logical shortcuts, and hallucinations. This paper advocates integrating LLMs as middleware or translators between specialized tools to mitigate complexity in M&S tasks. Acting as translators, LLMs can enhance interoperability across multi-formalism, multi-semantics, and multi-paradigm systems. We address two key challenges: identifying appropriate languages and tools for modeling and simulation tasks, and developing efficient software architectures that integrate LLMs without performance bottlenecks. To this end, the paper explores LLM-mediated workflows, emphasizes structured tool integration, and recommends Low-Rank Adaptation-based architectures for efficient task-specific adaptations. This approach ensures LLMs complement rather than replace specialized tools, fostering high-quality, reliable M&S processes. △ Less Submitted 10 June, 2025; originally announced June 2025. Comments: Accepted at the Winter Simulation conference 2025, December, Seattle USA arXiv:2506.06284 [ pdf ] cs.AI About the Unreal Authors: John Beverley , Jim Logan , Barry Smith Abstract : This paper introduces a framework for representing information about entities that do not exist or may never exist, such as those involving fictional entities, blueprints, simulations, and future scenarios. Traditional approaches that introduce "dummy instances" or rely on modal logic are criticized, and a proposal is defended in which such cases are modeled using the intersections of actual types… ▽ More This paper introduces a framework for representing information about entities that do not exist or may never exist, such as those involving fictional entities, blueprints, simulations, and future scenarios. Traditional approaches that introduce "dummy instances" or rely on modal logic are criticized, and a proposal is defended in which such cases are modeled using the intersections of actual types rather than specific non existent tokens. The paper positions itself within the Basic Formal Ontology and its realist commitments, emphasizing the importance of practical, implementable solutions over purely metaphysical or philosophical proposals, arguing that existing approaches to non existent entities either overcommit to metaphysical assumptions or introduce computational inefficiencies that hinder applications. By developing a structured ontology driven approach to unreal patterns, the paper aims to provide a useful and computationally viable means of handling references to hypothetical or non existent entities. △ Less Submitted 12 November, 2025; v1 submitted 28 April, 2025; originally announced June 2025. arXiv:2506.06284 [ pdf ] About the Unreal Authors: John Beverley , Jim Logan , Barry Smith Abstract : This paper introduces a framework for representing information about entities that do not exist or may never exist, such as those involving fictional entities, blueprints, simulations, and future scenarios. Traditional approaches that introduce "dummy instances" or rely on modal logic are criticized, and a proposal is defended in which such cases are modeled using the intersections of actual types… ▽ More This paper introduces a framework for representing information about entities that do not exist or may never exist, such as those involving fictional entities, blueprints, simulations, and future scenarios. Traditional approaches that introduce "dummy instances" or rely on modal logic are criticized, and a proposal is defended in which such cases are modeled using the intersections of actual types rather than specific non existent tokens. The paper positions itself within the Basic Formal Ontology and its realist commitments, emphasizing the importance of practical, implementable solutions over purely metaphysical or philosophical proposals, arguing that existing approaches to non existent entities either overcommit to metaphysical assumptions or introduce computational inefficiencies that hinder applications. By developing a structured ontology driven approach to unreal patterns, the paper aims to provide a useful and computationally viable means of handling references to hypothetical or non existent entities. △ Less Submitted 12 November, 2025; v1 submitted 28 April, 2025; originally announced June 2025. arXiv:2506.05352 [ pdf ] cs.AI A Path to Loving Authors: John Beverley , Regina Hurley Abstract : This work lays the foundations for a rigorous ontological characterization of love, addressing its philosophical complexity and scientific relevance, with particular emphasis on psychology and sociology, as well as highlighting ways in which such characterization enhances relevant AI based applications. The position defended here is that love is best understood as a concatenation of passive sensat… ▽ More This work lays the foundations for a rigorous ontological characterization of love, addressing its philosophical complexity and scientific relevance, with particular emphasis on psychology and sociology, as well as highlighting ways in which such characterization enhances relevant AI based applications. The position defended here is that love is best understood as a concatenation of passive sensations (e.g., emotional arousal) and active evaluative judgments (e.g., perceiving the beloved as valuable), in the interest of balancing the involuntary aspects of love with its rational accountability. To provide a structured foundation, the paper draws on Basic Formal Ontology (BFO) and other applied ontological methods to differentiate various senses of love. This work engages with objections to the understanding of love as concatenation, particularly concerning the relationship between sensation and judgment. A causal correlation model is defended, ensuring that the affective and cognitive components are linked. By offering a precise and scalable ontological account, this work lays the foundation for future interdisciplinary applications, making love a subject of formal inquiry in ontology engineering, artificial intelligence, and the sciences. △ Less Submitted 28 April, 2025; originally announced June 2025. arXiv:2506.05352 [ pdf ] A Path to Loving Authors: John Beverley , Regina Hurley Abstract : This work lays the foundations for a rigorous ontological characterization of love, addressing its philosophical complexity and scientific relevance, with particular emphasis on psychology and sociology, as well as highlighting ways in which such characterization enhances relevant AI based applications. The position defended here is that love is best understood as a concatenation of passive sensat… ▽ More This work lays the foundations for a rigorous ontological characterization of love, addressing its philosophical complexity and scientific relevance, with particular emphasis on psychology and sociology, as well as highlighting ways in which such characterization enhances relevant AI based applications. The position defended here is that love is best understood as a concatenation of passive sensations (e.g., emotional arousal) and active evaluative judgments (e.g., perceiving the beloved as valuable), in the interest of balancing the involuntary aspects of love with its rational accountability. To provide a structured foundation, the paper draws on Basic Formal Ontology (BFO) and other applied ontological methods to differentiate various senses of love. This work engages with objections to the understanding of love as concatenation, particularly concerning the relationship between sensation and judgment. A causal correlation model is defended, ensuring that the affective and cognitive components are linked. By offering a precise and scalable ontological account, this work lays the foundation for future interdisciplinary applications, making love a subject of formal inquiry in ontology engineering, artificial intelligence, and the sciences. △ Less Submitted 28 April, 2025; originally announced June 2025. arXiv:2504.19968 [ pdf ] cs.AI cs.GT How Group Lives Go Well Authors: John Beverley , Regina Hurley Abstract : This paper explores the ontological space of group well being, proposing a framework for representing collective welfare, group functions, and long term contributions within an ontology engineering context. Traditional well being theories focus on individual states, often relying on hedonistic, desire satisfaction, or objective list models. Such approaches struggle to account for cases where indiv… ▽ More This paper explores the ontological space of group well being, proposing a framework for representing collective welfare, group functions, and long term contributions within an ontology engineering context. Traditional well being theories focus on individual states, often relying on hedonistic, desire satisfaction, or objective list models. Such approaches struggle to account for cases where individual sacrifices contribute to broader social progress, a critical challenge in modeling group flourishing. To address this, the paper refines and extends the Counterfactual Account (CT) of well being, which evaluates goodness of an event by comparing an individual's actual well being with a hypothetical counterpart in a nearby possible world. While useful, this framework is insufficient for group level ontologies, where well being depends on functional persistence, institutional roles, and historical impact rather than immediate individual outcomes. Drawing on Basic Formal Ontology (BFO), the paper introduces a model in which group flourishing is evaluated in terms of group functional, where members bear roles and exhibit persistence conditions akin to biological systems or designed artifacts. This approach enables semantic interoperability for modeling longitudinal social contributions, allowing for structured reasoning about group welfare, social institutions, and group flourishing over time. △ Less Submitted 28 April, 2025; originally announced April 2025. arXiv:2504.19968 [ pdf ] How Group Lives Go Well Authors: John Beverley , Regina Hurley Abstract : This paper explores the ontological space of group well being, proposing a framework for representing collective welfare, group functions, and long term contributions within an ontology engineering context. Traditional well being theories focus on individual states, often relying on hedonistic, desire satisfaction, or objective list models. Such approaches struggle to account for cases where indiv… ▽ More This paper explores the ontological space of group well being, proposing a framework for representing collective welfare, group functions, and long term contributions within an ontology engineering context. Traditional well being theories focus on individual states, often relying on hedonistic, desire satisfaction, or objective list models. Such approaches struggle to account for cases where individual sacrifices contribute to broader social progress, a critical challenge in modeling group flourishing. To address this, the paper refines and extends the Counterfactual Account (CT) of well being, which evaluates goodness of an event by comparing an individual's actual well being with a hypothetical counterpart in a nearby possible world. While useful, this framework is insufficient for group level ontologies, where well being depends on functional persistence, institutional roles, and historical impact rather than immediate individual outcomes. Drawing on Basic Formal Ontology (BFO), the paper introduces a model in which group flourishing is evaluated in terms of group functional, where members bear roles and exhibit persistence conditions akin to biological systems or designed artifacts. This approach enables semantic interoperability for modeling longitudinal social contributions, allowing for structured reasoning about group welfare, social institutions, and group flourishing over time. △ Less Submitted 28 April, 2025; originally announced April 2025. arXiv:2501.18296 [ pdf ] cs.AI Broadening Ontologization Design: Embracing Data Pipeline Strategies Authors: Chris Partridge , Andrew Mitchell , Sergio de Cesare , John Beverley Abstract : Our aim in this paper is to outline how the design space for the ontologization process is broader than current practice would suggest. We point out that engineering processes as well as products need to be designed and identify some components of the design. We investigate the possibility of designing a range of radically new practices implemented as data pipelines, providing examples of the new… ▽ More Our aim in this paper is to outline how the design space for the ontologization process is broader than current practice would suggest. We point out that engineering processes as well as products need to be designed and identify some components of the design. We investigate the possibility of designing a range of radically new practices implemented as data pipelines, providing examples of the new practices from our work over the last three decades with an outlier methodology, bCLEARer. We also suggest that setting an evolutionary context for ontologization helps one to better understand the nature of these new practices and provides the conceptual scaffolding that shapes fertile processes. Where this evolutionary perspective positions digitalization (the evolutionary emergence of computing technologies) as the latest step in a long evolutionary trail of information transitions. This reframes ontologization as a strategic tool for leveraging the emerging opportunities offered by digitalization. △ Less Submitted 29 September, 2025; v1 submitted 30 January, 2025; originally announced January 2025. Comments: Semantic Technology for Intelligence, Defense, and Security (STIDS 2024). October 22-23, 2024 arXiv:2501.18296 [ pdf ] Broadening Ontologization Design: Embracing Data Pipeline Strategies Authors: Chris Partridge , Andrew Mitchell , Sergio de Cesare , John Beverley Abstract : Our aim in this paper is to outline how the design space for the ontologization process is broader than current practice would suggest. We point out that engineering processes as well as products need to be designed and identify some components of the design. We investigate the possibility of designing a range of radically new practices implemented as data pipelines, providing examples of the new… ▽ More Our aim in this paper is to outline how the design space for the ontologization process is broader than current practice would suggest. We point out that engineering processes as well as products need to be designed and identify some components of the design. We investigate the possibility of designing a range of radically new practices implemented as data pipelines, providing examples of the new practices from our work over the last three decades with an outlier methodology, bCLEARer. We also suggest that setting an evolutionary context for ontologization helps one to better understand the nature of these new practices and provides the conceptual scaffolding that shapes fertile processes. Where this evolutionary perspective positions digitalization (the evolutionary emergence of computing technologies) as the latest step in a long evolutionary trail of information transitions. This reframes ontologization as a strategic tool for leveraging the emerging opportunities offered by digitalization. △ Less Submitted 29 September, 2025; v1 submitted 30 January, 2025; originally announced January 2025. Comments: Semantic Technology for Intelligence, Defense, and Security (STIDS 2024). October 22-23, 2024 arXiv:2501.01454 [ pdf ] q-bio.OT cs.AI cs.LO A Fourfold Pathogen Reference Ontology Suite Authors: Shane Babcock , Carter Benson , Giacomo De Colle , Sydney Cohen , Alexander D. Diehl , Ram A. N. R. Challa , Ray Mavrovich , Joshua Billig , Anthony Huffman , Yongqun He , John Beverley Abstract : Infectious diseases remain a critical global health challenge, and the integration of standardized ontologies plays a vital role in managing related data. The Infectious Disease Ontology (IDO) and its extensions, such as the Coronavirus Infectious Disease Ontology (CIDO), are essential for organizing and disseminating information related to infectious diseases. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted th… ▽ More Infectious diseases remain a critical global health challenge, and the integration of standardized ontologies plays a vital role in managing related data. The Infectious Disease Ontology (IDO) and its extensions, such as the Coronavirus Infectious Disease Ontology (CIDO), are essential for organizing and disseminating information related to infectious diseases. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the need for updating IDO and its virus-specific extensions. There is an additional need to update IDO extensions specific to bacteria, fungus, and parasite infectious diseases. We adopt the "hub and spoke" methodology to generate pathogen-specific extensions of IDO: Virus Infectious Disease Ontology (VIDO), Bacteria Infectious Disease Ontology (BIDO), Mycosis Infectious Disease Ontology (MIDO), and Parasite Infectious Disease Ontology (PIDO). The creation of pathogen-specific reference ontologies advances modularization and reusability of infectious disease data within the IDO ecosystem. Future work will focus on further refining these ontologies, creating new extensions, and developing application ontologies based on them, in line with ongoing efforts to standardize biological and biomedical terminologies for improved data sharing and analysis. △ Less Submitted 24 April, 2025; v1 submitted 30 December, 2024; originally announced January 2025. Comments: 25 pages arXiv:2501.01454 [ pdf ] A Fourfold Pathogen Reference Ontology Suite Authors: Shane Babcock , Carter Benson , Giacomo De Colle , Sydney Cohen , Alexander D. Diehl , Ram A. N. R. Challa , Ray Mavrovich , Joshua Billig , Anthony Huffman , Yongqun He , John Beverley Abstract : Infectious diseases remain a critical global health challenge, and the integration of standardized ontologies plays a vital role in managing related data. The Infectious Disease Ontology (IDO) and its extensions, such as the Coronavirus Infectious Disease Ontology (CIDO), are essential for organizing and disseminating information related to infectious diseases. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted th… ▽ More Infectious diseases remain a critical global health challenge, and the integration of standardized ontologies plays a vital role in managing related data. The Infectious Disease Ontology (IDO) and its extensions, such as the Coronavirus Infectious Disease Ontology (CIDO), are essential for organizing and disseminating information related to infectious diseases. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the need for updating IDO and its virus-specific extensions. There is an additional need to update IDO extensions specific to bacteria, fungus, and parasite infectious diseases. We adopt the "hub and spoke" methodology to generate pathogen-specific extensions of IDO: Virus Infectious Disease Ontology (VIDO), Bacteria Infectious Disease Ontology (BIDO), Mycosis Infectious Disease Ontology (MIDO), and Parasite Infectious Disease Ontology (PIDO). The creation of pathogen-specific reference ontologies advances modularization and reusability of infectious disease data within the IDO ecosystem. Future work will focus on further refining these ontologies, creating new extensions, and developing application ontologies based on them, in line with ongoing efforts to standardize biological and biomedical terminologies for improved data sharing and analysis. △ Less Submitted 24 April, 2025; v1 submitted 30 December, 2024; originally announced January 2025. Comments: 25 pages arXiv:2408.03866 [ pdf ] cs.DB cs.AI cs.LO doi 10.1038/s41597-025-04580-1 A semantic approach to mapping the Provenance Ontology to Basic Formal Ontology Authors: Tim Prudhomme , Giacomo De Colle , Austin Liebers , Alec Sculley , Peihong "Karl" Xie , Sydney Cohen , John Beverley Abstract : The Provenance Ontology (PROV-O) is a World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommended ontology used to structure data about provenance across a wide variety of domains. Basic Formal Ontology (BFO) is a top-level ontology ISO/IEC standard used to structure a wide variety of ontologies, such as the OBO Foundry ontologies and the Common Core Ontologies (CCO). To enhance interoperability between these two… ▽ More The Provenance Ontology (PROV-O) is a World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommended ontology used to structure data about provenance across a wide variety of domains. Basic Formal Ontology (BFO) is a top-level ontology ISO/IEC standard used to structure a wide variety of ontologies, such as the OBO Foundry ontologies and the Common Core Ontologies (CCO). To enhance interoperability between these two ontologies, their extensions, and data organized by them, a mapping methodology and set of alignments are presented according to specific criteria which prioritize semantic and logical principles. The ontology alignments are evaluated by checking their logical consistency with canonical examples of PROV-O instances and querying terms that do not satisfy the alignment criteria as formalized in SPARQL. A variety of semantic web technologies are used in support of FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable) principles. △ Less Submitted 23 March, 2025; v1 submitted 2 August, 2024; originally announced August 2024. Comments: 31 pages, 12 figures. This version of the article has been accepted for publication, after peer review (when applicable) but is not the Version of Record and does not reflect post-acceptance improvements, or any corrections. The Version of Record is available online at: Journal ref: Sci Data 12, 282 (2025) arXiv:2408.03866 [ pdf ] A semantic approach to mapping the Provenance Ontology to Basic Formal Ontology Authors: Tim Prudhomme , Giacomo De Colle , Austin Liebers , Alec Sculley , Peihong "Karl" Xie , Sydney Cohen , John Beverley Abstract : The Provenance Ontology (PROV-O) is a World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommended ontology used to structure data about provenance across a wide variety of domains. Basic Formal Ontology (BFO) is a top-level ontology ISO/IEC standard used to structure a wide variety of ontologies, such as the OBO Foundry ontologies and the Common Core Ontologies (CCO). To enhance interoperability between these two… ▽ More The Provenance Ontology (PROV-O) is a World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommended ontology used to structure data about provenance across a wide variety of domains. Basic Formal Ontology (BFO) is a top-level ontology ISO/IEC standard used to structure a wide variety of ontologies, such as the OBO Foundry ontologies and the Common Core Ontologies (CCO). To enhance interoperability between these two ontologies, their extensions, and data organized by them, a mapping methodology and set of alignments are presented according to specific criteria which prioritize semantic and logical principles. The ontology alignments are evaluated by checking their logical consistency with canonical examples of PROV-O instances and querying terms that do not satisfy the alignment criteria as formalized in SPARQL. A variety of semantic web technologies are used in support of FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable) principles. △ Less Submitted 23 March, 2025; v1 submitted 2 August, 2024; originally announced August 2024. Comments: 31 pages, 12 figures. This version of the article has been accepted for publication, after peer review (when applicable) but is not the Version of Record and does not reflect post-acceptance improvements, or any corrections. The Version of Record is available online at: Journal ref: Sci Data 12, 282 (2025) arXiv:2407.18998 [ pdf ] cs.AI Towards a Cyber Information Ontology Authors: David Limbaugh , Mark Jensen , John Beverley Abstract : This paper introduces a set of terms that are intended to act as an interface between cyber ontologies (like a file system ontology or a data fusion ontology) and top- and mid-level ontologies, specifically Basic Formal Ontology and the Common Core Ontologies. These terms center on what makes cyberinformation management unique: numerous acts of copying items of information, the aggregates of copie… ▽ More This paper introduces a set of terms that are intended to act as an interface between cyber ontologies (like a file system ontology or a data fusion ontology) and top- and mid-level ontologies, specifically Basic Formal Ontology and the Common Core Ontologies. These terms center on what makes cyberinformation management unique: numerous acts of copying items of information, the aggregates of copies that result from those acts, and the faithful members of those aggregates that represent all other members. △ Less Submitted 15 August, 2024; v1 submitted 26 July, 2024; originally announced July 2024. Comments: 14 arXiv:2407.18998 [ pdf ] Towards a Cyber Information Ontology Authors: David Limbaugh , Mark Jensen , John Beverley Abstract : This paper introduces a set of terms that are intended to act as an interface between cyber ontologies (like a file system ontology or a data fusion ontology) and top- and mid-level ontologies, specifically Basic Formal Ontology and the Common Core Ontologies. These terms center on what makes cyberinformation management unique: numerous acts of copying items of information, the aggregates of copie… ▽ More This paper introduces a set of terms that are intended to act as an interface between cyber ontologies (like a file system ontology or a data fusion ontology) and top- and mid-level ontologies, specifically Basic Formal Ontology and the Common Core Ontologies. These terms center on what makes cyberinformation management unique: numerous acts of copying items of information, the aggregates of copies that result from those acts, and the faithful members of those aggregates that represent all other members. △ Less Submitted 15 August, 2024; v1 submitted 26 July, 2024; originally announced July 2024. Comments: 14 arXiv:2407.17657 [ pdf ] cs.DB My Ontologist: Evaluating BFO-Based AI for Definition Support Authors: Carter Benson , Alec Sculley , Austin Liebers , John Beverley Abstract : Generative artificial intelligence (AI), exemplified by the release of GPT-3.5 in 2022, has significantly advanced the potential applications of large language models (LLMs), including in the realms of ontology development and knowledge graph creation. Ontologies, which are structured frameworks for organizing information, and knowledge graphs, which combine ontologies with actual data, are essent… ▽ More Generative artificial intelligence (AI), exemplified by the release of GPT-3.5 in 2022, has significantly advanced the potential applications of large language models (LLMs), including in the realms of ontology development and knowledge graph creation. Ontologies, which are structured frameworks for organizing information, and knowledge graphs, which combine ontologies with actual data, are essential for enabling interoperability and automated reasoning. However, current research has largely overlooked the generation of ontologies extending from established upper-level frameworks like the Basic Formal Ontology (BFO), risking the creation of non-integrable ontology silos. This study explores the extent to which LLMs, particularly GPT-4, can support ontologists trained in BFO. Through iterative development of a specialized GPT model named "My Ontologist," we aimed to generate BFO-conformant ontologies. Initial versions faced challenges in maintaining definition conventions and leveraging foundational texts effectively. My Ontologist 3.0 showed promise by adhering to structured rules and modular ontology suites, yet the release of GPT-4o disrupted this progress by altering the model's behavior. Our findings underscore the importance of aligning LLM-generated ontologies with top-level standards and highlight the complexities of integrating evolving AI capabilities in ontology engineering. △ Less Submitted 23 October, 2025; v1 submitted 24 July, 2024; originally announced July 2024. arXiv:2407.17657 [ pdf ] My Ontologist: Evaluating BFO-Based AI for Definition Support Authors: Carter Benson , Alec Sculley , Austin Liebers , John Beverley Abstract : Generative artificial intelligence (AI), exemplified by the release of GPT-3.5 in 2022, has significantly advanced the potential applications of large language models (LLMs), including in the realms of ontology development and knowledge graph creation. Ontologies, which are structured frameworks for organizing information, and knowledge graphs, which combine ontologies with actual data, are essent… ▽ More Generative artificial intelligence (AI), exemplified by the release of GPT-3.5 in 2022, has significantly advanced the potential applications of large language models (LLMs), including in the realms of ontology development and knowledge graph creation. Ontologies, which are structured frameworks for organizing information, and knowledge graphs, which combine ontologies with actual data, are essential for enabling interoperability and automated reasoning. However, current research has largely overlooked the generation of ontologies extending from established upper-level frameworks like the Basic Formal Ontology (BFO), risking the creation of non-integrable ontology silos. This study explores the extent to which LLMs, particularly GPT-4, can support ontologists trained in BFO. Through iterative development of a specialized GPT model named "My Ontologist," we aimed to generate BFO-conformant ontologies. Initial versions faced challenges in maintaining definition conventions and leveraging foundational texts effectively. My Ontologist 3.0 showed promise by adhering to structured rules and modular ontology suites, yet the release of GPT-4o disrupted this progress by altering the model's behavior. Our findings underscore the importance of aligning LLM-generated ontologies with top-level standards and highlight the complexities of integrating evolving AI capabilities in ontology engineering. △ Less Submitted 23 October, 2025; v1 submitted 24 July, 2024; originally announced July 2024. arXiv:2405.00960 [ pdf ] cs.AI cs.DB cs.IT Foundations for Digital Twins Authors: Finn Wilson , Regina Hurley , Dan Maxwell , Jon McLellan , John Beverley Abstract : The growing reliance on digital twins across various industries and domains brings with it semantic interoperability challenges. Ontologies are a well-known strategy for addressing such challenges, though given the complexity of the phenomenon, there are risks of reintroducing the interoperability challenges at the level of ontology representations. In the interest of avoiding such pitfalls, we in… ▽ More The growing reliance on digital twins across various industries and domains brings with it semantic interoperability challenges. Ontologies are a well-known strategy for addressing such challenges, though given the complexity of the phenomenon, there are risks of reintroducing the interoperability challenges at the level of ontology representations. In the interest of avoiding such pitfalls, we introduce and defend characterizations of digital twins within the context of the Common Core Ontologies, an extension of the widely-used Basic Formal Ontology. We provide a set of definitions and design patterns relevant to the domain of digital twins, highlighted by illustrative use cases of digital twins and their physical counterparts. In doing so, we provide a foundation on which to build more sophisticated ontological content related and connected to digital twins. △ Less Submitted 15 August, 2024; v1 submitted 1 May, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Comments: 14 arXiv:2405.00960 [ pdf ] Foundations for Digital Twins Authors: Finn Wilson , Regina Hurley , Dan Maxwell , Jon McLellan , John Beverley Abstract : The growing reliance on digital twins across various industries and domains brings with it semantic interoperability challenges. Ontologies are a well-known strategy for addressing such challenges, though given the complexity of the phenomenon, there are risks of reintroducing the interoperability challenges at the level of ontology representations. In the interest of avoiding such pitfalls, we in… ▽ More The growing reliance on digital twins across various industries and domains brings with it semantic interoperability challenges. Ontologies are a well-known strategy for addressing such challenges, though given the complexity of the phenomenon, there are risks of reintroducing the interoperability challenges at the level of ontology representations. In the interest of avoiding such pitfalls, we introduce and defend characterizations of digital twins within the context of the Common Core Ontologies, an extension of the widely-used Basic Formal Ontology. We provide a set of definitions and design patterns relevant to the domain of digital twins, highlighted by illustrative use cases of digital twins and their physical counterparts. In doing so, we provide a foundation on which to build more sophisticated ontological content related and connected to digital twins. △ Less Submitted 15 August, 2024; v1 submitted 1 May, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Comments: 14 arXiv:2405.00197 [ pdf ] cs.AI cs.DB cs.IR Grounding Realizable Entities Authors: Michael Rabenberg , Carter Benson , Federico Donato , Yongqun He , Anthony Huffman , Shane Babcock , John Beverley Abstract : Ontological representations of qualities, dispositions, and roles have been refined over the past decade, clarifying subtle distinctions in life science research. After articulating a widely-used characterization of these entities within the context of Basic Formal Ontology (BFO), we identify gaps in this treatment and motivate the need for supplementing the BFO characterization. By way of supplem… ▽ More Ontological representations of qualities, dispositions, and roles have been refined over the past decade, clarifying subtle distinctions in life science research. After articulating a widely-used characterization of these entities within the context of Basic Formal Ontology (BFO), we identify gaps in this treatment and motivate the need for supplementing the BFO characterization. By way of supplement, we propose definitions for grounding relations holding between qualities and dispositions, and dispositions and roles, illustrating our proposal by representing subtle aspects of host-pathogen interactions. △ Less Submitted 30 April, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Comments: 13 arXiv:2405.00197 [ pdf ] Grounding Realizable Entities Authors: Michael Rabenberg , Carter Benson , Federico Donato , Yongqun He , Anthony Huffman , Shane Babcock , John Beverley Abstract : Ontological representations of qualities, dispositions, and roles have been refined over the past decade, clarifying subtle distinctions in life science research. After articulating a widely-used characterization of these entities within the context of Basic Formal Ontology (BFO), we identify gaps in this treatment and motivate the need for supplementing the BFO characterization. By way of supplem… ▽ More Ontological representations of qualities, dispositions, and roles have been refined over the past decade, clarifying subtle distinctions in life science research. After articulating a widely-used characterization of these entities within the context of Basic Formal Ontology (BFO), we identify gaps in this treatment and motivate the need for supplementing the BFO characterization. By way of supplement, we propose definitions for grounding relations holding between qualities and dispositions, and dispositions and roles, illustrating our proposal by representing subtle aspects of host-pathogen interactions. △ Less Submitted 30 April, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Comments: 13 arXiv:2405.00186 [ pdf ] cs.AI cs.DB cs.IR Credentials in the Occupation Ontology Authors: John Beverley , Robin McGill , Sam Smith , Jie Zheng , Giacomo De Colle , Finn Wilson , Matthew Diller , William D. Duncan , William R. Hogan , Yongqun He Abstract : The term credential encompasses educational certificates, degrees, certifications, and government-issued licenses. An occupational credential is a verification of an individuals qualification or competence issued by a third party with relevant authority. Job seekers often leverage such credentials as evidence that desired qualifications are satisfied by their holders. Many U.S. education and workf… ▽ More The term credential encompasses educational certificates, degrees, certifications, and government-issued licenses. An occupational credential is a verification of an individuals qualification or competence issued by a third party with relevant authority. Job seekers often leverage such credentials as evidence that desired qualifications are satisfied by their holders. Many U.S. education and workforce development organizations have recognized the importance of credentials for employment and the challenges of understanding the value of credentials. In this study, we identified and ontologically defined credential and credential-related terms at the textual and semantic levels based on the Occupation Ontology (OccO), a BFO-based ontology. Different credential types and their authorization logic are modeled. We additionally defined a high-level hierarchy of credential related terms and relations among many terms, which were initiated in concert with the Alabama Talent Triad (ATT) program, which aims to connect learners, earners, employers and education/training providers through credentials and skills. To our knowledge, our research provides for the first time systematic ontological modeling of the important domain of credentials and related contents, supporting enhanced credential data and knowledge integration in the future. △ Less Submitted 30 April, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Comments: 11 arXiv:2405.00186 [ pdf ] Credentials in the Occupation Ontology Authors: John Beverley , Robin McGill , Sam Smith , Jie Zheng , Giacomo De Colle , Finn Wilson , Matthew Diller , William D. Duncan , William R. Hogan , Yongqun He Abstract : The term credential encompasses educational certificates, degrees, certifications, and government-issued licenses. An occupational credential is a verification of an individuals qualification or competence issued by a third party with relevant authority. Job seekers often leverage such credentials as evidence that desired qualifications are satisfied by their holders. Many U.S. education and workf… ▽ More The term credential encompasses educational certificates, degrees, certifications, and government-issued licenses. An occupational credential is a verification of an individuals qualification or competence issued by a third party with relevant authority. Job seekers often leverage such credentials as evidence that desired qualifications are satisfied by their holders. Many U.S. education and workforce development organizations have recognized the importance of credentials for employment and the challenges of understanding the value of credentials. In this study, we identified and ontologically defined credential and credential-related terms at the textual and semantic levels based on the Occupation Ontology (OccO), a BFO-based ontology. Different credential types and their authorization logic are modeled. We additionally defined a high-level hierarchy of credential related terms and relations among many terms, which were initiated in concert with the Alabama Talent Triad (ATT) program, which aims to connect learners, earners, employers and education/training providers through credentials and skills. To our knowledge, our research provides for the first time systematic ontological modeling of the important domain of credentials and related contents, supporting enhanced credential data and knowledge integration in the future. △ Less Submitted 30 April, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Comments: 11 arXiv:2405.00183 [ pdf ] cs.AI cs.LO Capabilities: An Ontology Authors: John Beverley , David Limbaugh , Eric Merrell , Peter M. Koch , Barry Smith Abstract : In our daily lives, as in science and in all other domains, we encounter huge numbers of dispositions (tendencies, potentials, powers) which are realized in processes such as sneezing, sweating, shedding dandruff, and on and on. Among this plethora of what we can think of as mere dispositions is a subset of dispositions in whose realizations we have an interest a car responding well when driven on… ▽ More In our daily lives, as in science and in all other domains, we encounter huge numbers of dispositions (tendencies, potentials, powers) which are realized in processes such as sneezing, sweating, shedding dandruff, and on and on. Among this plethora of what we can think of as mere dispositions is a subset of dispositions in whose realizations we have an interest a car responding well when driven on ice, a rabbits lungs responding well when it is chased by a wolf, and so on. We call the latter capabilities and we attempt to provide a robust ontological account of what capabilities are that is of sufficient generality to serve a variety of purposes, for example by providing a useful extension to ontology-based research in areas where capabilities data are currently being collected in siloed fashion. △ Less Submitted 15 August, 2024; v1 submitted 30 April, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Comments: 14 arXiv:2405.00183 [ pdf ] Capabilities: An Ontology Authors: John Beverley , David Limbaugh , Eric Merrell , Peter M. Koch , Barry Smith Abstract : In our daily lives, as in science and in all other domains, we encounter huge numbers of dispositions (tendencies, potentials, powers) which are realized in processes such as sneezing, sweating, shedding dandruff, and on and on. Among this plethora of what we can think of as mere dispositions is a subset of dispositions in whose realizations we have an interest a car responding well when driven on… ▽ More In our daily lives, as in science and in all other domains, we encounter huge numbers of dispositions (tendencies, potentials, powers) which are realized in processes such as sneezing, sweating, shedding dandruff, and on and on. Among this plethora of what we can think of as mere dispositions is a subset of dispositions in whose realizations we have an interest a car responding well when driven on ice, a rabbits lungs responding well when it is chased by a wolf, and so on. We call the latter capabilities and we attempt to provide a robust ontological account of what capabilities are that is of sufficient generality to serve a variety of purposes, for example by providing a useful extension to ontology-based research in areas where capabilities data are currently being collected in siloed fashion. △ Less Submitted 15 August, 2024; v1 submitted 30 April, 2024; originally announced May 2024. Comments: 14 arXiv:2404.17758 [ pdf ] cs.AI cs.DB cs.LO The Common Core Ontologies Authors: Mark Jensen , Giacomo De Colle , Sean Kindya , Cameron More , Alexander P. Cox , John Beverley Abstract : The Common Core Ontologies (CCO) are designed as a mid-level ontology suite that extends the Basic Formal Ontology. CCO has since been increasingly adopted by a broad group of users and applications and is proposed as the first standard mid-level ontology. Despite these successes, documentation of the contents and design patterns of the CCO has been comparatively minimal. This paper is a step towa… ▽ More The Common Core Ontologies (CCO) are designed as a mid-level ontology suite that extends the Basic Formal Ontology. CCO has since been increasingly adopted by a broad group of users and applications and is proposed as the first standard mid-level ontology. Despite these successes, documentation of the contents and design patterns of the CCO has been comparatively minimal. This paper is a step toward providing enhanced documentation for the mid-level ontology suite through a discussion of the contents of the eleven ontologies that collectively comprise the Common Core Ontology suite. △ Less Submitted 15 August, 2024; v1 submitted 26 April, 2024; originally announced April 2024. Comments: 12 pages arXiv:2404.17758 [ pdf ] The Common Core Ontologies Authors: Mark Jensen , Giacomo De Colle , Sean Kindya , Cameron More , Alexander P. Cox , John Beverley Abstract : The Common Core Ontologies (CCO) are designed as a mid-level ontology suite that extends the Basic Formal Ontology. CCO has since been increasingly adopted by a broad group of users and applications and is proposed as the first standard mid-level ontology. Despite these successes, documentation of the contents and design patterns of the CCO has been comparatively minimal. This paper is a step towa… ▽ More The Common Core Ontologies (CCO) are designed as a mid-level ontology suite that extends the Basic Formal Ontology. CCO has since been increasingly adopted by a broad group of users and applications and is proposed as the first standard mid-level ontology. Despite these successes, documentation of the contents and design patterns of the CCO has been comparatively minimal. This paper is a step toward providing enhanced documentation for the mid-level ontology suite through a discussion of the contents of the eleven ontologies that collectively comprise the Common Core Ontology suite. △ Less Submitted 15 August, 2024; v1 submitted 26 April, 2024; originally announced April 2024. Comments: 12 pages arXiv:2404.17757 [ pdf ] cs.AI cs.DB cs.LO Middle Architecture Criteria Authors: John Beverley , Giacomo De Colle , Mark Jensen , Carter Benson , Barry Smith Abstract : Mid-level ontologies are used to integrate terminologies and data across disparate domains. There are, however, no clear, defensible criteria for determining whether a given ontology should count as mid-level, because we lack a rigorous characterization of what the middle level of generality is supposed to contain. Attempts to provide such a characterization have failed, we believe, because they h… ▽ More Mid-level ontologies are used to integrate terminologies and data across disparate domains. There are, however, no clear, defensible criteria for determining whether a given ontology should count as mid-level, because we lack a rigorous characterization of what the middle level of generality is supposed to contain. Attempts to provide such a characterization have failed, we believe, because they have focused on the goal of specifying what is characteristic of those single ontologies that have been advanced as mid-level ontologies. Unfortunately, single ontologies of this sort are generally a mixture of top- and mid-level, and sometimes even of domain-level terms. To gain clarity, we aim to specify the necessary and sufficient conditions for a collection of one or more ontologies to inhabit what we call a mid-level architecture. △ Less Submitted 15 August, 2024; v1 submitted 26 April, 2024; originally announced April 2024. Comments: 14 pages arXiv:2404.17757 [ pdf ] Middle Architecture Criteria Authors: John Beverley , Giacomo De Colle , Mark Jensen , Carter Benson , Barry Smith Abstract : Mid-level ontologies are used to integrate terminologies and data across disparate domains. There are, however, no clear, defensible criteria for determining whether a given ontology should count as mid-level, because we lack a rigorous characterization of what the middle level of generality is supposed to contain. Attempts to provide such a characterization have failed, we believe, because they h… ▽ More Mid-level ontologies are used to integrate terminologies and data across disparate domains. There are, however, no clear, defensible criteria for determining whether a given ontology should count as mid-level, because we lack a rigorous characterization of what the middle level of generality is supposed to contain. Attempts to provide such a characterization have failed, we believe, because they have focused on the goal of specifying what is characteristic of those single ontologies that have been advanced as mid-level ontologies. Unfortunately, single ontologies of this sort are generally a mixture of top- and mid-level, and sometimes even of domain-level terms. To gain clarity, we aim to specify the necessary and sufficient conditions for a collection of one or more ontologies to inhabit what we call a mid-level architecture. △ Less Submitted 15 August, 2024; v1 submitted 26 April, 2024; originally announced April 2024. Comments: 14 pages About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Concept of genocide 2 List 3 See also Toggle See also subsection 3.1 Political extermination campaigns 3.1 Political extermination campaigns 4 Notes 5 References 6 Bibliography List of genocides Արեւմտահայերէն Català فارسی Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Română Simple English اردو Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Part of a series on Genocide Issues List of genocides Genocides in history before 1490 1490–WWI WWI–WWII 1946–1999 21st-century Effects on youth Denial Massacre Rape In relation to colonialism / environmental destruction / war Perpetrators, victims, and bystanders Prevention Psychology Recognition politics Risk factors Stages Types Anti-Indigenous Cultural Paper Utilitarian Studies Outline Bibliography IAGS INoGS Education List of genocides Genocides in history before 1490 1490–WWI WWI–WWII 1946–1999 21st-century before 1490 1490–WWI WWI–WWII 1946–1999 21st-century Effects on youth Denial Massacre Rape In relation to colonialism / environmental destruction / war Perpetrators, victims, and bystanders Prevention Psychology Recognition politics Risk factors Stages Stages Types Anti-Indigenous Cultural Paper Utilitarian Anti-Indigenous Cultural Paper Utilitarian Studies Outline Bibliography IAGS INoGS Outline Bibliography IAGS INoGS Education Legal definition Genocide Convention Incitement Intent Genocide Convention Incitement Intent Related topics Compulsory sterilization Democide Ethnic cleansing Ethnocide Eugenics Forced assimilation Compulsory sterilization Democide Ethnic cleansing Ethnocide Eugenics Forced assimilation Category .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e This list includes all events which have been classified as genocide by significant scholarship. As there are varying definitions of genocide , this list includes events around which there is ongoing scholarly debate over their classification as genocide and is not a list of only events which have a scholarly consensus to recognize them as genocide. This list excludes mass killings which have not been explicitly defined as genocidal. [ a ] According to the Genocide Convention , genocides have happened in all historical periods. [ 2 ] Concept of genocide Polish–Jewish lawyer Raphael Lemkin coined the term "genocide" in response to world events such as the Armenian genocide and World War II. [ 3 ] His initial definition was "the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group" in which its members were not targeted as individuals, but rather as members of the group. The objectives of genocide "would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups". [ 4 ] Lemkin brought his proposal to criminalize genocide to the newly established United Nations in 1946. [ 5 ] Opposition to the convention was greater than Lemkin expected due to states' concerns that it would lead their own policies—including treatment of indigenous peoples , European colonialism , racial segregation in the United States , and Soviet nationalities policy —to be labeled genocide. Before the convention was passed, powerful countries (both Western powers and the Soviet Union) secured changes in an attempt to make the convention unenforceable and applicable to their geopolitical rivals ' actions but not their own. [ 6 ] Few formerly colonized countries were represented and "most states had no interest in empowering their victims– past, present, and future". [ 7 ] The 1948 Genocide Convention defines genocide as: ... any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy , in whole or in part, a national , ethnical , racial or religious group, as such: .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} (a) Killing members of the group; (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. [ 8 ] ... any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy , in whole or in part, a national , ethnical , racial or religious group, as such: .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} (a) Killing members of the group; (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. [ 8 ] The result severely diluted Lemkin's original concept; [ 9 ] he privately considered it a failure. [ 6 ] Lemkin's anti-colonial conception of genocide was transformed into one that favored colonial powers. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Among the violence freed from the stigma of genocide was the destruction of political groups, which the Soviet Union is particularly blamed for blocking. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 9 ] Although Lemkin credited women's NGOs with securing the passage of the convention, the gendered violence of forced pregnancy, marriage, and divorce was left out. [ 14 ] Additionally omitted was the forced migration of populations —which had been carried out by the Soviet Union and its satellites, condoned by the Western Allies, against millions of Germans from central and Eastern Europe . [ 15 ] Many countries have incorporated genocide into their municipal law , varying to a lesser or greater extent from the convention. [ 16 ] The convention's definition of genocide was adopted verbatim by the ad hoc international criminal tribunals and by the Rome Statute that established the International Criminal Court (ICC). [ 17 ] The crime of genocide also exists in customary international law and is therefore prohibited for non-signatories. [ 18 ] Scholarship varies on the definition of genocide employed when analysing whether events are genocidal in nature. [ 19 ] The Convention and other definitions are generally regarded by the majority of genocide scholars to have an " intent to destroy " as a requirement for any act to be labelled genocide; there is also growing agreement on the inclusion of the physical destruction criterion. [ 20 ] According to Ernesto Verdeja, associate professor of political science and peace studies at the University of Notre Dame, there are three ways to conceptualize genocide other than the legal definition: in academic social science, in international politics and policy, and in colloquial public usage. Many social scientists do not require that intent be proved beyond a reasonable doubt and may include other groups of people in addition to the legally protected ones, such as political groups [ 21 ] [ 22 ] (which can also be termed politicide ). The international politics and policy definition centres around prevention policy and intervention and may actually mean "large-scale violence against civilians" when used by governments and international organizations. [ 21 ] Lastly, Verdeja says the way the general public colloquially uses "genocide" is usually "as a stand-in term for the greatest evils". [ 21 ] List The term genocide is contentious and as a result its definition varies. This list only considers acts which are recognized in significant scholarship as genocides. Event Location Period Estimated killings From To Lowest Highest Description Proportion of group killed Gaza genocide Gaza Strip , Palestine 2023 Present 70,369 [ b ] 335,500 [ c ] The Gaza genocide is the ongoing systematic destruction of the Palestinian people in the Gaza Strip by Israel during the Gaza war , carried out with the intent to destroy Gaza's population in whole or in part through extermination , [ 29 ] starvation , bombing , blockade , and invasion . Other genocidal acts include destroying civilian infrastructure , killing healthcare workers and aid-seekers , using mass forced displacement , committing sexual violence , and restricting birth. [ 30 ] The genocide has been recognized by consensus amongst experts, [ 31 ] a United Nations special committee and commission of inquiry ; [ 32 ] [ 33 ] humanitarian and human rights organizations , including Amnesty International , Médecins Sans Frontières , and Human Rights Watch ; [ 34 ] international law experts; [ 35 ] [ 36 ] and genocide studies scholars, [ 37 ] including 86% of voters in the International Association of Genocide Scholars . [ 38 ] [ 39 ] The Gaza genocide is the ongoing systematic destruction of the Palestinian people in the Gaza Strip by Israel during the Gaza war , carried out with the intent to destroy Gaza's population in whole or in part through extermination , [ 29 ] starvation , bombing , blockade , and invasion . Other genocidal acts include destroying civilian infrastructure , killing healthcare workers and aid-seekers , using mass forced displacement , committing sexual violence , and restricting birth. [ 30 ] The genocide has been recognized by consensus amongst experts, [ 31 ] a United Nations special committee and commission of inquiry ; [ 32 ] [ 33 ] humanitarian and human rights organizations , including Amnesty International , Médecins Sans Frontières , and Human Rights Watch ; [ 34 ] international law experts; [ 35 ] [ 36 ] and genocide studies scholars, [ 37 ] including 86% of voters in the International Association of Genocide Scholars . [ 38 ] [ 39 ] More than 10,000 presumed dead under rubble [ 40 ] More than 10,000 presumed dead under rubble [ 40 ] Blockade of Nagorno-Karabakh and expulsion of Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians Nagorno-Karabakh , Azerbaijan 2022 2023 Azerbaijan's ethnic cleansing of Armenians is characterized as genocide in multiple sources. [ 41 ] [ 42 ] [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ] 99.99% of Armenians were expelled from Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia, [ 46 ] [ 47 ] fleeing through the military checkpoint on the Lachin corridor . Rohingya genocide Rakhine State , Myanmar 2016 Present 9,000 – 13,700 [ 48 ] 43,000 [ 49 ] The Rohingya genocide [ 50 ] is a series of ongoing persecutions and killings of the Muslim Rohingya people by the military of Myanmar . The genocide has consisted of two phases to date: the first was a military crackdown that occurred from October 2016 to January 2017, and the second has been occurring since August 2017. [ 51 ] The crisis forced over a million Rohingya to flee to other countries. Most fled to Bangladesh , resulting in the creation of the world's largest refugee camp , [ 52 ] while others escaped to India, Thailand , Malaysia , and other parts of South and Southeast Asia, where they continue to face persecution. The Rohingya are denied citizenship under the 1982 Myanmar nationality law , and are falsely regarded as Bengali immigrants by much of Myanmar's Bamar majority, to the extent that the government refuses to acknowledge the Rohingya's existence as a valid ethnic group. [ 53 ] The crisis forced over a million Rohingya to flee to other countries. Most fled to Bangladesh , resulting in the creation of the world's largest refugee camp , [ 52 ] while others escaped to India, Thailand , Malaysia , and other parts of South and Southeast Asia, where they continue to face persecution. The Rohingya are denied citizenship under the 1982 Myanmar nationality law , and are falsely regarded as Bengali immigrants by much of Myanmar's Bamar majority, to the extent that the government refuses to acknowledge the Rohingya's existence as a valid ethnic group. [ 53 ] Before the 2015 refugee crisis , the Rohingya population in Myanmar was around 1.0 to 1.3 million. Since 2015, over 900,000 Rohingya refugees have fled to southeastern Bangladesh alone, and more to other surrounding countries. More than 100,000 Rohingyas in Myanmar are confined in camps for internally displaced persons . Persecution of Uyghurs in China Xinjiang , China 2016 Present Widespread human rights violations by the Chinese Communist Party against Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities have often been characterized as genocide. [ 54 ] There have been reports of mass arbitrary arrests and detention , torture , mass surveillance , cultural and religious persecution, family separation , forced labour , sexual violence , and violations of reproductive rights , including forced sterilization. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The Uyghur Tribunal concluded that there was "no evidence of mass killings" but that "alleged efforts to prevent births amounted to genocidal intent." [ 57 ] Human Rights Watch stated in its 2021 report that the organization "has not documented the existence of the necessary genocidal intent at this time." [ 55 ] Birth rates among Uyghurs had fallen by 24% as of 2020 due to Chinese policies. [ 58 ] Birth rates among Uyghurs had fallen by 24% as of 2020 due to Chinese policies. [ 58 ] Genocide of Ukrainians during the Russo-Ukrainian War Ukraine 2014 Present 18,000 [ N 1 ] 50,000 [ 61 ] Several genocide scholars, [ 62 ] commentators, legal experts, Human Rights Organizations and the national parliaments of several countries have declared that Russian war crimes and crimes against humanity committed against Ukrainian civilians during the Russo-Ukrainian war , including mass killings, deliberate attacks on shelters, evacuation routes, and humanitarian corridors, indiscriminate bombardment of residential areas, deliberate and systematic infliction of life-threatening conditions by military sieges, rape and sexual violence amount to genocide and incitement to genocide with intent to destroy the Ukrainian national group. [ 63 ] [ 64 ] Also includes the unlawful deportation and transfer of over 307,000 Ukrainian children into Russia. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] Also includes the unlawful deportation and transfer of over 307,000 Ukrainian children into Russia. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] Yazidi genocide Islamic State -controlled territory in northern Iraq and Syria 2014 2017 2,100 [ 67 ] 5,000 [ 68 ] The Yazidi genocide was perpetrated by the Islamic State throughout Iraq and Syria between 2014 and 2017. [ 69 ] [ 70 ] [ 71 ] It was characterized by massacres, genocidal rape , and forced conversions to Islam . Over a period of three years, Islamic State militants trafficked thousands of Yazidi women and girls and killed thousands of Yazidi men. [ 72 ] The United Nations' Commission of Inquiry on Syria officially declared in its report that ISIS was committing genocide against the Yazidis population. [ 73 ] It is difficult to assess a precise figure for the killings [ 74 ] but it is known that some thousand of Yazidis men and boys were still unaccounted for and ISIS genocidal actions against Yazidis people were still ongoing, as stated by the International Commission in June 2016. See also: 2007 Yazidi communities bombings A study found 3,100 killed and 6,800 were kidnapped, amounting to 2.5% of Yazidis being either killed or kidnapped. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] By 2015, upwards of 71% of the global Yazidi population was displaced by the genocide, with most Yazidi refugees having fled to Iraq's Kurdistan Region and Syria's Rojava . [ 77 ] [ 78 ] Darfur genocide (2003–2005) Darfur , Sudan 2003 2005 98,000 [ 79 ] 500,000 [ 80 ] The Darfur genocide is the systematic killing of ethnic Darfuri people which has occurred during the war in Darfur . [ 81 ] The genocide, which is being carried out against the Fur , Masalit and Zaghawa ethnic groups, has led the International Criminal Court to indict several people for crimes against humanity , rape , forced transfer and torture . This includes Sudan's president Omar al-Bashir for his role in the genocide. [ 82 ] An estimated 200,000 people were killed between 2003 and 2005. [ 83 ] These atrocities have been called the first genocide of the 21st century. [ 81 ] Effacer le tableau North Kivu , DR Congo 2002 2003 60,000 [ 84 ] [ 85 ] 70,000 [ 84 ] Effacer le tableau ("erasing the board") was the operational name given to the systematic extermination of the Bambuti pygmies by rebel forces in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The primary objective of Effacer le tableau was the territorial conquest of the North Kivu province of the DRC and ethnic cleansing of Pygmies from the Congo's eastern region. [ 85 ] 40% of the Eastern Congo's Pygmy population killed [ N 2 ] Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War Kivu , Zaire 1996 1997 200,000 [ 86 ] 233,000 [ 86 ] During the First Congo War , troops of the Rwanda-backed Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre (AFDL) conducted mass killings of Rwandan, Congolese, and Burundian Hutu men, women, and children in villages and refugee camps in eastern Zaire (now named the Democratic Republic of the Congo ). [ 87 ] [ 88 ] Elements of the AFDL and the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) systematically shelled numerous camps and committed massacres with light weapons. These early attacks killed 6,800–8,000 refugees and forced the repatriation of 500,000 – 700,000 refugees back to Rwanda. [ 89 ] As survivors fled westward, the AFDL units hunted them down killing thousands more. [ 87 ] Rwandan genocide Rwanda 1994 491,000 [ 90 ] 800,000 [ 91 ] The Rwandan genocide, also known as the genocide against the Tutsi, occurred between 7 April and 19 July 1994 during the Rwandan Civil War . [ 92 ] [ 90 ] [ 93 ] During this period of around 100 days, members of the Tutsi minority ethnic group, as well as some moderate Hutu and Twa , were killed by armed Hutu militias. Although the Constitution of Rwanda states that more than 1 million people perished in the genocide, the actual number of fatalities is unclear, and some estimates suggest that the real number killed was likely lower. [ 93 ] [ 94 ] [ 95 ] The most widely accepted scholarly estimates are around 500,000 to 800,000 Tutsi deaths. [ 91 ] 60–70% of Tutsis in Rwanda killed [ 90 ] 7% of Rwanda's total population killed [ 90 ] Bosnian genocide Bosnia and Herzegovina 1992 1995 31,107 [ 96 ] 62,013 [ 96 ] The Bosnian genocide comprised localized massacres, including those in Srebrenica [ 97 ] and Žepa , committed by Bosnian Serb forces in 1995, as well as the scattered ethnic cleansing campaign throughout areas controlled by the Army of Republika Srpska [ 98 ] during the 1992–1995 Bosnian War . [ 99 ] On 31 March 2010, the Serbian Parliament passed a resolution condemning the Srebrenica massacre and apologizing to the families of Srebrenica for the deaths of Bosniaks ("Bosnian Muslims"). [ 100 ] More than 3% of the Bosniak population of Bosnia and Herzegovina died during the Bosnian War . [ 101 ] Isaaq genocide Somaliland , Somalia 1987 1989 50,000 [ 102 ] [ 103 ] 200,000 [ 104 ] The Genocide of Isaaqs was the systematic, state-sponsored massacre of Isaaq civilians between 1988 and 1991 by the Somali Democratic Republic under the dictatorship of Siad Barre . [ 105 ] [ 106 ] [ 107 ] This included the levelling and complete destruction of the second- and third-largest cities in Somalia, Hargeisa (90 per cent destroyed) [ 108 ] and Burao (70 per cent destroyed) respectively, [ 109 ] and had caused 400,000 [ 110 ] [ 111 ] Somalis (primarily of the Isaaq clan) to flee their land and cross the border to Hartasheikh in Ethiopia as refugees, [ 112 ] with another 400,000 being internally displaced. [ 110 ] [ 113 ] In 2001, the United Nations commissioned an investigation on past human rights violations in Somalia, [ 105 ] specifically to find out if "crimes of international jurisdiction (i.e. war crimes, crimes against humanity or genocide) had been perpetrated during the country's civil war". The investigation was commissioned jointly by the United Nations Co-ordination Unit (UNCU) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights . The investigation concluded with a report confirming the crime of genocide to have taken place against the Isaaqs in Somalia. [ 105 ] Anfal campaign Iraqi Kurdistan , Ba'athist Iraq 1986 1989 50,000 [ 114 ] 182,000 [ 115 ] The Anfal campaign was a counterinsurgency operation which was carried out by Ba'athist Iraq from February to September 1988 during the Iraqi–Kurdish conflict at the end of the Iran–Iraq War . The campaign targeted rural Kurds [ 116 ] because its purpose was to eliminate Kurdish rebel groups and Arabize strategic parts of the Kirkuk Governorate . [ 117 ] The Iraqis committed atrocities on the local Kurdish population, mostly civilians. [ 118 ] A variety of national governments have passed resolutions recognising the Anfal campaign as a genocide. [ 119 ] [ 120 ] [ 121 ] Sabra and Shatila massacre Beirut , Lebanon 1982 460 [ 122 ] 3,500 [ 123 ] The Sabra and Shatila massacre was the 16–18 September 1982 killings of civilians—mostly Palestinians and Lebanese Shias —in the city of Beirut during the Lebanese Civil War . It was perpetrated by the Lebanese Forces , one of the main Christian militias in Lebanon , and supported by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) that had surrounded Beirut's Sabra neighbourhood and the adjacent Shatila refugee camp . [ 124 ] Both the United Nations and an independent commission headed by Seán MacBride concluded that the massacre was an act of genocide against the Palestinian people, [ 125 ] [ 126 ] a conclusion concurred with by NGOs such as the Palestinian Return Centre . [ 127 ] Human rights scholars Damien Short and Haifa Rashed also described the massacre as genocidal in nature. [ 128 ] Cambodian genocide Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia) 1975 1979 1,386,734 [ 129 ] [ 130 ] 3,000,000 [ 131 ] [ 132 ] The Cambodian genocide was the systematic persecution and killing of Cambodian citizens by the Khmer Rouge , led by Pol Pot . [ 133 ] The Khmer Rouge emptied the cities and forced Cambodians to relocate to labour camps in the countryside, where mass executions, forced labour , physical abuse, malnutrition , and disease were rampant. [ 134 ] [ 135 ] Up to 20,000 mass graves, the infamous Killing Fields , were uncovered, where at least 1,386,734 murdered victims found their final resting place. [ 136 ] [ 137 ] The Khmer Rouge Tribunal found that targeting of Vietnamese and Cham minorities constituted a genocide under the UN Convention. [ 138 ] [ 139 ] 15–33% of total population of Cambodia killed, [ 140 ] [ 141 ] including 99% of Cambodian Viets , 50% of Cambodian Chinese and Cham , 40% of Cambodian Lao and Thai, 25% of Urban Khmer , 16% of Rural Khmer East Timor genocide East Timor , Indonesia 1974 1999 85,320 [ 142 ] 196,720 [ 143 ] The East Timor genocide refers to the "pacification campaigns" of state terrorism which were waged by the Indonesian New Order government during the Indonesian invasion and occupation of East Timor . Genocide scholars at Oxford University and Yale University acknowledge the Indonesian occupation of East Timor as genocide. [ 144 ] [ 145 ] The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings. [ 146 ] 13% to 44% of East Timor 's total population killed (See death toll of East Timor genocide ) Bangladesh genocide East Pakistan (now Bangladesh ) 1971 300,000 [ 147 ] 3,000,000 [ 147 ] [ 148 ] The Bangladesh genocide was the ethnic cleansing of Bengalis , especially Bengali Hindus , [ 149 ] residing in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh ) during the Bangladesh Liberation War , perpetrated by the Pakistan Armed Forces and the Razakars . [ 150 ] [ 151 ] It began as Operation Searchlight was launched by West Pakistan (now Pakistan ) to militarily subdue the Bengali population of East Pakistan; the Bengalis comprised the demographic majority and had been calling for independence. Seeking to curtail the Bengali self-determination movement, Pakistani president Yahya Khan approved a large-scale military deployment, and in the nine-month-long conflict that ensued, Pakistani soldiers and local militias killed between 300,000 and 3,000,000 Bengalis and raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bengali women in a systematic campaign of mass murder and genocidal sexual violence . [ 152 ] 4% of the population of East Pakistan [ 153 ] Nigerian Civil War , particularly the blockade of Biafra Biafra 1967 1970 1,000,000 [ 154 ] More than 1,000,000 [ 155 ] [ 156 ] [ 157 ] Biafra attracted a large amount of international attention from mid-1968, when images of starving Biafran children began to appear in the international press. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Biafran propaganda compared Igbo to Jews and the blockade of Biafra to the Holocaust . Initially, international public opinion was sympathetic to Biafran claims, but shifted after the United Kingdom sent a fact finding mission to Nigeria that reported that genocide was not occurring. [ 160 ] Some scholars have criticized the fact finding mission for not properly investigating the genocide claims. The mission only investigated where Nigeria allowed them to investigate. Additionally, the mission dismissed rape by Nigerian soldiers as "enforced marriage". [ 161 ] Soon after the civil war ended in 1970, it was largely forgotten outside Nigeria and not much mentioned in the field of genocide studies . [ 162 ] Biafra attracted a large amount of international attention from mid-1968, when images of starving Biafran children began to appear in the international press. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Biafran propaganda compared Igbo to Jews and the blockade of Biafra to the Holocaust . Initially, international public opinion was sympathetic to Biafran claims, but shifted after the United Kingdom sent a fact finding mission to Nigeria that reported that genocide was not occurring. [ 160 ] Some scholars have criticized the fact finding mission for not properly investigating the genocide claims. The mission only investigated where Nigeria allowed them to investigate. Additionally, the mission dismissed rape by Nigerian soldiers as "enforced marriage". [ 161 ] Soon after the civil war ended in 1970, it was largely forgotten outside Nigeria and not much mentioned in the field of genocide studies . [ 162 ] Most of the war casualties were civilians [ 163 ] particularly children, who were especially vulnerable to malnutrition. [ 164 ] [ 165 ] Most of the war casualties were civilians [ 163 ] particularly children, who were especially vulnerable to malnutrition. [ 164 ] [ 165 ] Maya genocide Guatemala 1962 1996 166,000 [ 166 ] 166,000 [ 167 ] The Guatemalan genocide was the massacre of Maya civilians during the Guatemalan Civil War (1960–1996) by successive US-backed Guatemalan military governments. [ 168 ] [ 169 ] [ 170 ] [ 171 ] Massacres, forced disappearances , torture and summary executions of guerrillas and especially civilians at the hands of security forces had been widespread since 1965, and was a longstanding policy of the military regime, which US officials were aware of. [ 172 ] [ 173 ] At least an estimated 200,000 persons died by arbitrary executions, forced disappearances and other human rights violations. [ 174 ] 83% of those killed were Maya. [ 175 ] A quarter of the direct victims of human rights violations and acts of violence were women. [ 176 ] 40% of the Maya population (24,000 people) of Guatemala's Ixil and Rabinal regions were killed [ citation needed ] Tamil genocide Sri Lanka 1956 2009 154,022 253,818 The Tamil genocide refers to the various systematic acts of physical violence and cultural destruction committed against the Tamil population in Sri Lanka during the Sinhala –Tamil ethnic conflict beginning in 1956, particularly during the Sri Lankan civil war . Various commenters have accused the Sri Lankan state of responsibility for and complicity in a genocide of Tamils, and point to state-sponsored settler colonialism , state-backed pogroms , and mass killings , enforced disappearances and sexual violence by the security forces as examples of genocidal acts. [ 177 ] [ 178 ] [ 179 ] Population transfer in the Soviet Union [ 180 ] Soviet Union 1941 1949 800,000 [ 181 ] 1,500,000. [ 182 ] Shortly before, during and immediately after World War II , the Soviet Union conducted a series of deportations on a huge scale. [ 183 ] It is estimated that between 1941 and 1949 nearly 3.3 million people from different ethnic groups were deported to Siberia and the Central Asian republics. [ 184 ] Many deportees died during the journey or due to the harsh climates of Siberia and Kazakhstan, disease, malnutrition , forced labor, and the lack of housing. [ 185 ] It is disputed whether these deportations should be called ethnic cleansing, genocide, or something else. Some historians argue that the Soviet authorities acted with knowledge that the conditions deportees would face would lead to mass casualties. Others argue that no intent to exterminate the repressed people can be identified, and that the main motive of the Soviet authorities was to increase security in disputed border areas. [ 186 ] Ethnic groups affected included: Soviet Germans : [ 187 ] over 1 million deported in 1941–1942, [ 188 ] 243,000 deaths [ 189 ] Crimean Tatars : [ 190 ] at least 191,044 deported in 1944, [ 191 ] 34,000 [ 192 ] to 195,471 deaths [ 193 ] Chechens and Ingush : 100,000 deaths [ 194 ] It is disputed whether these deportations should be called ethnic cleansing, genocide, or something else. Some historians argue that the Soviet authorities acted with knowledge that the conditions deportees would face would lead to mass casualties. Others argue that no intent to exterminate the repressed people can be identified, and that the main motive of the Soviet authorities was to increase security in disputed border areas. [ 186 ] Ethnic groups affected included: Soviet Germans : [ 187 ] over 1 million deported in 1941–1942, [ 188 ] 243,000 deaths [ 189 ] Crimean Tatars : [ 190 ] at least 191,044 deported in 1944, [ 191 ] 34,000 [ 192 ] to 195,471 deaths [ 193 ] Chechens and Ingush : 100,000 deaths [ 194 ] On average 25 to 35 percent Siege of Leningrad [ 195 ] [ 196 ] [ 197 ] Leningrad 1941 1944 1,042,000 [ 198 ] [ 199 ] 1,042,000 [ 198 ] [ 199 ] Some historians and the Russian government have classified the siege, in which German and Finnish policies led to the deaths of more than 1 million civilians from starvation, as a genocide. [ 198 ] The Holocaust Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe 1941 1945 5,100,000 [ 200 ] 7,000,000 [ 201 ] [ 202 ] The Holocaust was the genocide of European Jews during World War II . Between 1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany and its collaborators systematically murdered some six million Jews across German-occupied Europe , around two-thirds of Europe's Jewish population. [ 203 ] [ 204 ] [ 205 ] Nearly one and half million were killed in just 100 days from late July to early November 1942, [ 206 ] the fastest rate of genocidal killing in history. [ 207 ] The murders were carried out primarily through mass shootings and poison gas in extermination camps . [ 208 ] Separate Nazi persecutions killed a similar or larger number of non-Jewish civilians and POWs; the term Holocaust is sometimes used to refer to the persecution of these other groups . The Holocaust is considered to be the single largest genocide in history. [ 209 ] [ 210 ] [ 211 ] Around 2/3 of the Jewish population of Europe . [ 212 ] [ 213 ] Genocide of Serbs and Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia Independent State of Croatia (now Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina ) 1941 1945 248,000 [ 214 ] [ 215 ] [ 216 ] [ N 3 ] 548,000 [ 214 ] [ 216 ] [ 215 ] [ N 3 ] Genocide of Serbs and Holocaust of Jews and Romani within the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), a fascist puppet state that existed during World War II , led by the Ustaše regime, which ruled an occupied area of Yugoslavia . The Genocide of Serbs was conducted in parallel to the Holocaust in the NDH . The Ustaše were the only quisling forces in Yugoslavia who operated their own extermination camps for the purpose of murdering Serbs and other ethnic groups (Jews and Romani). Genocide of Bosniaks and Croats by the Chetniks Yugoslavia 1941 1945 47,000 [ 217 ] 68,000 [ 217 ] Genocidal massacres and ethnic cleansing of ethnic Muslims and Croats by Yugoslav royalists and nationalists Chetniks across large areas of Occupied Yugoslavia (modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina , Croatia , Serbia ) during World War II in Yugoslavia , on the basis of creating a post-war Greater Serbia . [ 218 ] The Moljević plan ("On Our State and Its Borders") and the 1941 'Instructions' issued by Chetnik leader, Draža Mihailović , advocated for the cleansing of non-Serbs. Death toll by ethnicity is estimated to be between 18,000 and 32,000 Croats and between 29,000 and 33,000 Muslims. [ 219 ] Nazi crimes against the Polish nation [ 220 ] [ 221 ] (part of the Generalplan Ost ) German-occupied Europe 1939 1945 1,800,000 [ 222 ] 3,000,000 [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Crimes against the Polish nation committed by Nazi Germany and Axis collaborationist forces during the invasion of Poland , [ 225 ] along with auxiliary battalions during the subsequent occupation of Poland in World War II , [ 226 ] included the genocide of millions of Polish people , especially the systematic extermination of Jewish Poles . [ d ] These mass killings were enacted by the Nazis with further plans that were justified by their racial theories , which regarded Poles and other Slavs , and especially Jews, as racially inferior Untermenschen . From 6% to 10% (1.8 to 3 million) of the total Polish gentile population. [ 224 ] In addition, 3 million Polish Jews were killed during the Holocaust in Poland (90% of Polish Jews). [ 222 ] Romani Holocaust German-occupied Europe 1939 [ 228 ] 1945 130,000 [ 229 ] 1,500,000 [ 230 ] [ 231 ] The Romani Holocaust was the planned effort by Nazi Germany and its World War II allies and collaborators to commit ethnic cleansing and eventually genocide against European Roma and Sinti peoples during the Holocaust era . [ 232 ] A supplementary decree to the Nuremberg Laws issued on 26 November 1935 classified the Romani people as "enemies of the race-based state ", thereby placing them in the same category as the Jews . Thus, the fate of the Roma in Europe paralleled that of the Jews in the Holocaust . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] 25% to 80% of Romani people in Europe killed Mass operations of the NKVD Soviet Union 1937 1938 247,157 [ 235 ] During the Great Purge , people from certain ethnic groups were disproportionately represented as victims of arrest and execution. [ 236 ] Although some historians have argued that the victims were targeted mostly because of their ethnicity, historian Andrey Savin writes that "the determinant factors in the choice of the majority of the victims of the national operations were, as a rule, the objective criteria of a "hostile" social past/origin and the subjective criteria of recurrent "anti-Soviet" behaviour". [ 237 ] Multiple historians have published opinions describing the Polish operation as genocidal. [ 238 ] 22% of the Polish population of the USSR was "sentenced" by the operation (140,000 people) [ 239 ] The German operation of the NKVD has also been described as a genocide. [ 240 ] The German operation of the NKVD has also been described as a genocide. [ 240 ] Parsley massacre Dominican Republic 1937 12,000 40,000 [ 241 ] The Parsley massacre was a mass killing of Haitians living in the Dominican Republic 's northwestern frontier and in certain parts of the contiguous Cibao region in October 1937. Dominican Army troops from different areas of the country [ 242 ] carried out the massacre on the orders of Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo . [ 243 ] Many died while trying to flee to Haiti across the Dajabón River that divides the two countries on the island; [ 244 ] the troops followed them into the river to cut them down, causing the river to run with blood and corpses for several days. The massacre claimed the lives of an estimated 14,000 to 40,000 Haitian men, women, and children. [ 245 ] Dominican troops interrogated thousands of civilians demanding that each victim say the word " parsley " ( perejil ). If the accused could not pronounce the word to the interrogators' satisfaction, they were deemed to be Haitians and killed. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] As a result of the massacre, virtually the entire Haitian population in the Dominican frontier was either killed or forced to flee across the border. [ 248 ] Holodomor Ukraine and the northern Kuban , [ 249 ] Soviet Union 1932 1933 3,000,000 [ 250 ] 5,000,000 [ 250 ] The Holodomor also known as the Ukrainian Famine was a man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine from 1932 to 1933 that killed millions of Ukrainians . The Holodomor was part of the wider Soviet famine of 1930–1933 which affected the major grain-producing areas of the Soviet Union . While scholars are in consensus that the cause of the famine was man-made, [ 251 ] whether or not the Holodomor was intentional and therefore constitutes a genocide under the Genocide Convention is debated by scholars. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] 10% of Ukraine's population [ 254 ] Over 35% of Ukrainians in Kazakhstan [ 255 ] Libyan genocide Libyan genocide Italian Libya 1929 1932 83,000 [ 256 ] 125,000 + [ 257 ] The Libyan genocide was the genocide of Libyan Arabs and the systematic destruction of Libyan culture , [ 258 ] [ 259 ] [ 260 ] particularly during and after the Second Italo-Senussi War between 1929 and 1934. [ 261 ] During this period, between 83,000 and 125,000 Libyans were killed by Italian colonial authorities under Benito Mussolini . [ 256 ] [ 257 ] Italy committed major war crimes during the conflict; including the use of chemical weapons , executing surrendering combatants, and the mass executions of civilians. [ 256 ] Italy apologized in 2008 for its killing, destruction and repression of the Libyan people during the period of colonial rule. [ 262 ] 25 % of Cyrenaican population [ 263 ] Half of the nomadic Bedouin population [ 264 ] [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Armenian genocide Ottoman Empire (now Turkey , Syria , and Iraq ) 1915 1917 600,000 [ 267 ] 1,500,000 [ 268 ] The Armenian genocide , [ 269 ] [ 270 ] carried out by the Young Turks , included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches , and mass starvation. It occurred concurrently with the Assyrian and Greek genocides ; some scholars consider these to form a broader genocide targeting all of the Christians in Anatolia. [ 271 ] [ 272 ] Approximately 90% of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire were killed or expelled. [ 273 ] The share of Christians in area within Turkey's current borders declined from 20-22% in 1914, or about 3.3.–3.6 million people, to around 3% in 1927. [ 274 ] Sayfo Ottoman Empire (now Turkey , Syria and Iraq ) 1915 1919 200,000 [ 275 ] The Sayfo (also known as the Seyfo or the Assyrian genocide) was the mass slaughter and deportation of Assyrian / Syriac Christians in southeastern Anatolia and Persia's Azerbaijan province by Ottoman forces and some Kurdish tribes during World War I . Overall, about 2 million Christians were killed in Anatolia between 1894 and 1924, 40 per cent of the original population. [ 276 ] Greek genocide and Pontic genocide Ottoman Empire (now Turkey ) 1914 1922 300,000 [ 277 ] 1,200,000 [ 278 ] The Greek genocide, [ 279 ] [ 280 ] which included the Pontic genocide , was the systematic killing of the Christian Ottoman Greek population of Anatolia which was carried out mainly during World War I and its aftermath (1914–1922) on the basis of their religion and ethnicity. [ 281 ] It was perpetrated by the government of the Ottoman Empire led by the Three Pashas and by the Government of the Grand National Assembly led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , [ 282 ] against the Greek population of the Empire. The genocide included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches through the Syrian Desert , [ 283 ] expulsions, summary executions, and the destruction of Eastern Orthodox cultural, historical, and religious monuments. [ 284 ] At least 25% of Greeks in Anatolia (Turkey) killed [ 285 ] Herero and Nama genocide German South West Africa (now Namibia ) 1904 1908 34,000 [ 286 ] 110,000 [ 287 ] [ 288 ] The Genocide in German South West Africa was the campaign to exterminate the Herero and Nama people that the German Empire undertook in German South-West Africa (modern-day Namibia). It is considered one of the first genocides of the 20th century. 60% (24,000 out of 40,000 [ 286 ] ) to 81.25% (65,000 [ 289 ] [ 290 ] out of 80,000 [ 291 ] ) of total Herero and 50% [ 286 ] of Nama population killed. Selknam genocide Tierra del Fuego , Chile, Argentina 1880 1910 2,500 [ 292 ] 4,000 [ 293 ] The Selknam genocide was the systematic extermination of the Selkʼnam people , an indigenous people of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago by a combination of European and South American hunters, ranchers, gold miners, and soldiers. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 293 ] Historians estimate that the Selkʼnam population fell from approximately 4,000 people during the 1880s to a few hundred by the early 1900s. [ 292 ] 84% The genocide reduced their numbers from around 3,000 to about 500 people. [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Circassian genocide Circassia , Russian Empire 1864 [ N 4 ] 1867 1,000,000 [ 298 ] 2,000,000 [ 299 ] [ 300 ] The Circassian genocide [ 301 ] [ 302 ] was the Russian Empire 's systematic mass murder, ethnic cleansing , and expulsion of the Circassian population, resulting in 1 to 1.5 million deaths [ 303 ] [ e ] during the final stages of the Russo-Circassian War . [ 304 ] [ 305 ] The peoples planned for extermination were mainly the Muslim Circassians, but other Muslim peoples of the Caucasus were also affected. [ 305 ] Killing methods used by Russian forces during the genocide included impaling and tearing the bellies of pregnant women as means of intimidation of the Circassian population. [ 304 ] [ 306 ] Russian generals such as Grigory Zass described the Circassians as "subhuman filth", and glorified the mass murder of Circassian civilians, [ 304 ] [ 307 ] justified their use in scientific experiments, [ 308 ] and allowed their soldiers to rape women. [ 304 ] 95%–97% of total Circassian population killed or deported by the forces of Tsarist Russia . [ 309 ] [ 310 ] Only a small percentage who accepted to convert to Christianity, Russify and resettle within the Russian Empire were spared. The remaining Circassian populations who refused were thus forcefully dispersed, deported or killed. Today, most Circassians live in exile . [ 311 ] California genocide California, United States 1846 1873 9,492 –16,094 [ 312 ] [ 313 ] [ N 5 ] 120,000 [ 313 ] [ N 6 ] The California genocide was a series of systematized killings of thousands of Indigenous peoples of California by United States government agents and private citizens in the 19th century. It began following the American Conquest of California from Mexico, and the influx of settlers due to the California Gold Rush , which accelerated the decline of the Indigenous population of California. Between 1846 and 1873, it is estimated that non-Natives killed between 9,492 and 16,094 California Natives. In addition, between several hundred and several thousand California Natives were starved or worked to death. Acts of enslavement , kidnapping , rape, child separation and forced displacement were widespread. These acts were encouraged, tolerated, and carried out by state authorities and private militias. [ 314 ] Amerindian population in California declined by 80% during the period Queensland Aboriginal genocide Queensland 1840 1897 10,000 [ 315 ] 65,180 [ 316 ] Queensland represents the single bloodiest colonial frontier in Australia. Thus the records of Queensland document the most frequent reports of shootings and massacres of indigenous people, the three deadliest massacres on white settlers, the most disreputable frontier police force, and the highest number of white victims to frontier violence on record in any Australian colony. [ 317 ] Thus some sources have characterized these events as a Queensland Aboriginal genocide. [ 318 ] [ 315 ] 3.3% to over 50% of the aboriginal population was killed (10,000 [ 315 ] to 65,180 [ 316 ] killed out of 125,600) [ clarification needed ] Moriori genocide Chatham Islands , New Zealand 1835 1863 1,900 [ 319 ] [ 320 ] 1,900 The genocide of the Moriori began in 1836. The invasion of the Chatham Islands by New Zealand Maori left the Moriori people and their culture to die off. Those who survived were kept as slaves and were not sanctioned to marry other Moriori or have children within their race. This caused their people and their language to be endangered. According to Moriori elders, a total of 1,561 Moriori died between the invasion in 1835 and the end of the group's slavery in 1863, with others dying of diseases transmitted by Europeans. [ 321 ] The Moriori population was reduced from 2,000 to only 101 in 1863. [ 322 ] 95% of the Moriori population was eradicated by the invasion from Taranaki , a group of people from the Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama iwi . [ 323 ] [ 324 ] All were enslaved and many were cannibalized . [ 325 ] The Moriori language is now extinct. [ 322 ] [ 326 ] Trail of Tears Southeastern United States 1830 1850 12,000 [ 327 ] 16,000 [ 327 ] The Trail of Tears was the forced displacement of approximately 60,000 people of the " Five Civilized Tribes " between 1830 and 1850, and the additional thousands of Native Americans within that were ethnically cleansed by the United States government . [ 328 ] A variety of scholars have classified the Trail of Tears as either a genocide in and of itself, [ N 7 ] or as a genocidal act within the broader genocide of Native Americans . [ 335 ] [ N 8 ] Figures for the number of deaths per Native American group that was forcibly relocated can be found at Trail of Tears § Statistics . Black War (genocide of Aboriginal Tasmanians ) Van Diemen's Land ( Tasmania ) 1825 1832 400 [ 350 ] 1,000 [ 350 ] The extinction of Aboriginal Tasmanians was called an archetypal case of genocide by Rafael Lemkin [ 351 ] among other historians, a view supported by more recent genocide scholars like Ben Kiernan who covered it in his book Blood and Soil: A History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur . This extinction also includes the Black War, which would make the war an act of genocide. [ 352 ] Historians like Keith Windschuttle among other historians disagree with this interpretation in discourse known as the History wars . ~100% [ 352 ] 1804 Haitian massacre Haiti 1804 3,000 [ 353 ] 5,000 [ 353 ] The 1804 Haitian massacre is considered to be a genocide by some scholars, [ 354 ] [ 355 ] as it was intended to destroy the Franco-Haitian population following the Haitian Revolution . The massacre was ordered by King Jean-Jacques Dessalines to remove the remainder of the white population from Haiti, and lasted from January to 22 April 1804. During the massacre, entire families were tortured and killed, and by the end of it, Haiti's white population was virtually non-existent. [ 356 ] [ 357 ] Cape San genocide Dutch Cape Colony and British Cape Colony (modern day South Africa) 1760s–90s [ f ] 1828–1880 [ g ] The Cape San people were subjected to massacres known as " Bushmen hunting" [ 361 ] land expropriation, [ 358 ] forced labor, [ 358 ] and child abduction [ 359 ] at the hands of Dutch settlers and the paramilitary groups that they formed, leading to "the virtual extinction of the Cape San peoples". [ 362 ] Dzungar genocide Dzungaria , Qing dynasty China 1755 1758 480,000 [ 363 ] 600,000 [ 363 ] The Dzungar genocide was the mass extermination of the Mongol Dzungar people by the Qing dynasty . [ 364 ] [ 365 ] The Qianlong Emperor ordered the genocide after the rebellion in 1755 by Dzungar leader Amursana against Qing rule, after the dynasty first conquered the Dzungar Khanate with Amursana's support. The genocide was perpetrated by Manchu generals of the Qing army , supported by Turkic oasis dwellers (now known as Uyghurs ) who rebelled against Dzungar rule. 80% of 600,000 Zungharian Oirats killed [ h ] Iroquois Wars North America 1640 1763 As part of the broader Beaver Wars , among the Indigenous peoples in Canada , the Iroquois conducted a genocidal war against the Huron people [ 370 ] and other Iroquoian and non-Iroquoian peoples. [ 371 ] Settlements were burned, and of the 30,000 Hurons, a few thousand were able to flee and avoid becoming victims of the ethnic genocide. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] Ned Blackhawk , in analysing the war between the Iroquois and Huron, found that the Iroquois committed all five acts described in the 1948 Genocide Convention. [ 374 ] Dutch conquest of the Banda Islands Banda Islands (now Indonesia) 1620 1621 3000 [ 375 ] 4000 [ 375 ] The Dutch conquest of the Banda Islands is widely considered to have amounted to genocide. [ 376 ] [ 377 ] Following Bandanese Islanders' refusal to abide by treaties to sell nutmeg and mace exclusively to the VOC for less in exchange, Jan Pieterszoon Coen led a campaign to depopulate the islands through a combination of massacres and starvation, with some Bandanese taken as prisoners. Many drowned attempting to flee. The VOC subsequently imported enslaved peoples to work on their plantations. [ 378 ] [ 379 ] Estimated that 23% were killed or starved, 13% taken prisoner, 34% fled, and 30% drowned. [ 375 ] Taíno genocide Hispaniola 1492 1514 68,000 [ 380 ] 968,000 [ 380 ] The Taíno genocide refers to the extermination of the indigenous population of Hispaniola due to forced labour and exploitation by the Spanish. Andrés Reséndez argues that even though disease was a factor, the native population would have rebounded the same way Europeans did during the Black Death if it were not for their constant enslavement in the island's gold and silver mines. [ 381 ] [ 382 ] According to anthropologist Jason Hickel , a third of Arawak workers died every six months from lethal forced labour in the mines. [ 383 ] 68% to over 96% of the Taíno population perished under Spanish rule. [ 380 ] Albigensian Crusade (Cathar genocide) Languedoc (now France) 1209 1229 200,000 [ 384 ] 1,000,000 [ 385 ] The Albigensian Crusade was a 20-year military campaign initiated by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism , a Christian sect, in Languedoc , in southern France. The Catholic Church considered them heretics and ordered that they should be completely eradicated. [ 386 ] Raphael Lemkin referred to the Albigensian Crusade as "one of the most conclusive cases of genocide in religious history". [ 387 ] Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Solveig Björnson describe it as "the first ideological genocide." [ 388 ] See also Casualty recording Democide Denial of genocides of Indigenous peoples Genocidal massacre Genocide of indigenous peoples Genocides in history Hamoodur Rahman Commission List of convicted war criminals List of ethnic cleansing campaigns List of ongoing armed conflicts List of people indicted in the International Criminal Court List of war crimes List of wars by death toll Political extermination campaigns Anti-communist mass killings Dirty War Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66 Mass killings of landlords under Mao Zedong (1949–1951) Mass killings under communist regimes Operation Condor Red Terror (Ethiopia) White Terror (Spain) Notes ^ 3,404 killed between 2014–2022, [ 59 ] and 14,755 killed since the February 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine [ 60 ] ^ Eastern Pygmy population was reduced to 90,000 after a campaign that killed 60,000 [ 84 ] implying a 40% decline ^ a b Total number of Serbs, Jews and Roma killed. Excluding the Jews sent to the German extermination camps. ^ Although ethnic cleansings and massacres began in the early 1800s, particularly under the command of the Tsarist Russian general Grigory Zass , the mass deportations, mass murders and extermination operations — where most deaths occurred — started in 1864. ^ Only the range of deaths caused by massacred ^ The total population decline of the period overall ^ Genocide education scholar Thomas Keefe – "The preparation (Stage 7) for genocide, specifically the transfer of population that "Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part" as stated in Article II of the UNCPPCG is clear in the Trail of Tears and other deportations of Native American populations from land seized for the benefit of European-American populations." [ 329 ] Muscogee Nation Historic and Cultural Preservation Manager Rae Lynn Butler – "really was about extinguishing a race of people"; Archivist at the Cherokee Heritage Center Jerrid Miller – "The Trail of Tears was outright genocide". [ 330 ] Sociologist and historian Vahakn Dadrian lists the expulsion of the Cherokee as an example of utilitarian genocide, stating "the expulsion and decimation of the Cherokee Indians from the territories of the State of Georgia is symbolic of the pattern of perpetration inflicted upon the American Indian by Whites in North America." [ 331 ] Genocide scholar Adam Jones – "Forced relocations of Indian populations often took the form of genocidal death marches, most infamously the "Trails of Tears" of the Cherokee and Navajo nations, which killed between 20 and 40 per cent of the targeted populations en route. The barren "tribal reservations" to which survivors were consigned exacted their own grievous toll through malnutrition and disease." [ 332 ] Cherokee politician Bill John Baker – "this ruthless [Indian Removal Act] policy subjected 46,000 Indians—to a forced migration under punishing conditions […] amounted to genocide, the ethnic cleansing of men, women and children, motivated by racial hatred and greed, and carried out through sadism and violence." [ 333 ] Sociologist James V. Fenelon and historian Clifford E. Trafzer – "Instead the national government and its leaders have offered a systemic denial of genocide, the occurrence of which would be contrary to the principles of a democratic and just society. "Denial of massive death counts is common among those whose forefathers were the perpetrators of the genocide" (Stannard, 1992, p. 152) with motives of protecting "the moral reputations of those people and that country responsible," including some scholars. It took 50 years of scholarly debate for the academy to recognize well-documented genocides of the Indian removals in the 1830s, including the Cherokee Trail of Tears, as with other nations of the "Five Civilized" southeastern tribes." [ 334 ] Genocide education scholar Thomas Keefe – "The preparation (Stage 7) for genocide, specifically the transfer of population that "Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part" as stated in Article II of the UNCPPCG is clear in the Trail of Tears and other deportations of Native American populations from land seized for the benefit of European-American populations." [ 329 ] Muscogee Nation Historic and Cultural Preservation Manager Rae Lynn Butler – "really was about extinguishing a race of people"; Archivist at the Cherokee Heritage Center Jerrid Miller – "The Trail of Tears was outright genocide". [ 330 ] Sociologist and historian Vahakn Dadrian lists the expulsion of the Cherokee as an example of utilitarian genocide, stating "the expulsion and decimation of the Cherokee Indians from the territories of the State of Georgia is symbolic of the pattern of perpetration inflicted upon the American Indian by Whites in North America." [ 331 ] Genocide scholar Adam Jones – "Forced relocations of Indian populations often took the form of genocidal death marches, most infamously the "Trails of Tears" of the Cherokee and Navajo nations, which killed between 20 and 40 per cent of the targeted populations en route. The barren "tribal reservations" to which survivors were consigned exacted their own grievous toll through malnutrition and disease." [ 332 ] Cherokee politician Bill John Baker – "this ruthless [Indian Removal Act] policy subjected 46,000 Indians—to a forced migration under punishing conditions […] amounted to genocide, the ethnic cleansing of men, women and children, motivated by racial hatred and greed, and carried out through sadism and violence." [ 333 ] Sociologist James V. Fenelon and historian Clifford E. Trafzer – "Instead the national government and its leaders have offered a systemic denial of genocide, the occurrence of which would be contrary to the principles of a democratic and just society. "Denial of massive death counts is common among those whose forefathers were the perpetrators of the genocide" (Stannard, 1992, p. 152) with motives of protecting "the moral reputations of those people and that country responsible," including some scholars. It took 50 years of scholarly debate for the academy to recognize well-documented genocides of the Indian removals in the 1830s, including the Cherokee Trail of Tears, as with other nations of the "Five Civilized" southeastern tribes." [ 334 ] ^ Political scientist Michael Rogin – "To face responsibility for specific killings might have led to efforts to stop it; to avoid individual deaths turned Indian removal into a theory of genocide." [ 336 ] Indigenous studies scholar Nicky Michael and historian Beverly Jean Smith – "Over one-fourth died on the forced death marches of the 1830s. By any United Nations standard, these actions can be equated with genocide and ethnic cleansing." [ 337 ] Historian Jim Piecuch argues that the Trail of Tears constitutes one tool in the genocide of Native Americans over the three centuries since the beginning of colonization in north America. [ 338 ] Political scientist Andrew R. Basso – "The Cherokee Trail of Tears should be understood within the context of colonial genocide in the Americas. This is yet another chapter of colonial forces acting against an indigenous group in order to secure rich and fertile lands, resources, and living spaces." [ 339 ] Political scientist Barbara Harff – "One of the most enduring and abhorrent problems of the world is genocide, which is neither particular to a specific race, class, or nation, nor rooted in any one ethnocentric view of the world. […] Often democratic institutions are cited as safeguards against mass excesses. In view of the treatment of Amerindians by agents of the U.S. government, this view is unwarranted. For example, the thousands of Cherokees who died during the Trail of Tears (Cherokee Indians were forced to march in 1838–1839 from Appalachia to Oklahoma) testify that even a democratic system may tum against its people." [ 340 ] Legal scholar Rennard Strickland – "There were, of course, great and tragic Indian massacres and bitter exoduses, illegal even under the laws of war. We know these acts of genocide by place names – Sand Creek, the Battle of Washita, Wounded Knee – and by their tragic poetic codes – the Trail of Tears, the Long Walk, the Cheyenne Autumn. But ... genocidal objectives have been carried out under color of law – in de Tocqueville's phrase, "legally, philanthropically, without shedding blood, and without violating a single great principle of morality in the eyes of the word." These were legally enacted policies whereby a way of life, a culture, was deliberately obliterated. As the great Indian orator Dragging Canoe concluded, "Whole Indian Nations have melted away like balls of snow in the sun leaving scarcely a name except as imperfectly recorded by their destroyers"." [ 341 ] Legal scholars Christopher Turner and Mary Ellen Turpel-Lafond reiterate Strickland's assessment. [ 342 ] Attorney Maria Conversa – "The theft of ancestral tribal lands, the genocide of tribal members, public hostility towards Native peoples, and irreversible oppression--these are the realities that every indigenous person has had to face because of colonization. By recognizing and respecting the Muscogee Creek Nation's authority to criminally sentence its own members, the United States Supreme Court could have taken a small step towards righting these wrongs." [ 343 ] Historian David Stannard and ethnic studies scholar Ward Churchill have both identified the trail of tears as part of the United States history of genocidal actions against indigenous nations. [ 344 ] [ 345 ] Sociologist Benjamin P. Bowser, psychologist Carol O. Word, and Kate Shaw – "There was a pattern to Indian genocide. One-by-one, each Native state was defeated militarily; successive Native generations fought and were defeated as well. As settlers became more numerous and stronger militarily, Indians became fewer and weaker militarily. In one Indian nation after the other, resistance eventually collapsed due to the death toll from violence. Then, survivors were displaced from their ancestral lands, which had sustained them for generations. […] Starting in 1830, surviving Native people, mostly Cherokee, in the Eastern US were ordered by President Andrew Jackson to march up to two thousand miles and to cross the Mississippi River to settle in Oklahoma. Thousands died on the Trail of Tears. This pattern of defeat, displacement, and victimization repeated itself in the American West. From this history, Native Americans were victims of all five Lemkin specified genocidal acts." [ 346 ] Sociologist and psychologist Laurence French wrote that the trail of tears was at least a campaign of cultural genocide. [ 347 ] Cultural studies scholar Melissa Slocum – "Rarely is the conversation about the impact of genocide on today's generations or the overall steps that lead to genocide. As well, most curricula in the education system, from kindergarten up through to college, does not discuss in detail American Indian genocide beyond possibly a quick one-day mention of the Cherokee Trail of Tears." [ 348 ] English and literary scholar Thir Bahadur Budhathoki – "On the basis of the basic concept of genocide as propounded by Rephael Lemkin, the definitions of the UN Convention and other genocide scholars, sociological perspective of genocide-modernity nexus and the philosophical understanding of such crime as an evil in its worst possible form, the fictional representation of the entire process of Cherokee removal including its antecedents and consequences represented in these novels, is genocidal in nature. However, the American government, that mostly represents the perpetrators of the process, and the Euro-American culture of the United States considered as the mainstream culture, have not acknowledged the Native American tragedy as genocide." [ 349 ] Political scientist Michael Rogin – "To face responsibility for specific killings might have led to efforts to stop it; to avoid individual deaths turned Indian removal into a theory of genocide." [ 336 ] Indigenous studies scholar Nicky Michael and historian Beverly Jean Smith – "Over one-fourth died on the forced death marches of the 1830s. By any United Nations standard, these actions can be equated with genocide and ethnic cleansing." [ 337 ] Historian Jim Piecuch argues that the Trail of Tears constitutes one tool in the genocide of Native Americans over the three centuries since the beginning of colonization in north America. [ 338 ] Political scientist Andrew R. Basso – "The Cherokee Trail of Tears should be understood within the context of colonial genocide in the Americas. This is yet another chapter of colonial forces acting against an indigenous group in order to secure rich and fertile lands, resources, and living spaces." [ 339 ] Political scientist Barbara Harff – "One of the most enduring and abhorrent problems of the world is genocide, which is neither particular to a specific race, class, or nation, nor rooted in any one ethnocentric view of the world. […] Often democratic institutions are cited as safeguards against mass excesses. In view of the treatment of Amerindians by agents of the U.S. government, this view is unwarranted. For example, the thousands of Cherokees who died during the Trail of Tears (Cherokee Indians were forced to march in 1838–1839 from Appalachia to Oklahoma) testify that even a democratic system may tum against its people." [ 340 ] Legal scholar Rennard Strickland – "There were, of course, great and tragic Indian massacres and bitter exoduses, illegal even under the laws of war. We know these acts of genocide by place names – Sand Creek, the Battle of Washita, Wounded Knee – and by their tragic poetic codes – the Trail of Tears, the Long Walk, the Cheyenne Autumn. But ... genocidal objectives have been carried out under color of law – in de Tocqueville's phrase, "legally, philanthropically, without shedding blood, and without violating a single great principle of morality in the eyes of the word." These were legally enacted policies whereby a way of life, a culture, was deliberately obliterated. As the great Indian orator Dragging Canoe concluded, "Whole Indian Nations have melted away like balls of snow in the sun leaving scarcely a name except as imperfectly recorded by their destroyers"." [ 341 ] Legal scholars Christopher Turner and Mary Ellen Turpel-Lafond reiterate Strickland's assessment. [ 342 ] Attorney Maria Conversa – "The theft of ancestral tribal lands, the genocide of tribal members, public hostility towards Native peoples, and irreversible oppression--these are the realities that every indigenous person has had to face because of colonization. By recognizing and respecting the Muscogee Creek Nation's authority to criminally sentence its own members, the United States Supreme Court could have taken a small step towards righting these wrongs." [ 343 ] Historian David Stannard and ethnic studies scholar Ward Churchill have both identified the trail of tears as part of the United States history of genocidal actions against indigenous nations. [ 344 ] [ 345 ] Sociologist Benjamin P. Bowser, psychologist Carol O. Word, and Kate Shaw – "There was a pattern to Indian genocide. One-by-one, each Native state was defeated militarily; successive Native generations fought and were defeated as well. As settlers became more numerous and stronger militarily, Indians became fewer and weaker militarily. In one Indian nation after the other, resistance eventually collapsed due to the death toll from violence. Then, survivors were displaced from their ancestral lands, which had sustained them for generations. […] Starting in 1830, surviving Native people, mostly Cherokee, in the Eastern US were ordered by President Andrew Jackson to march up to two thousand miles and to cross the Mississippi River to settle in Oklahoma. Thousands died on the Trail of Tears. This pattern of defeat, displacement, and victimization repeated itself in the American West. From this history, Native Americans were victims of all five Lemkin specified genocidal acts." [ 346 ] Sociologist and psychologist Laurence French wrote that the trail of tears was at least a campaign of cultural genocide. [ 347 ] Cultural studies scholar Melissa Slocum – "Rarely is the conversation about the impact of genocide on today's generations or the overall steps that lead to genocide. As well, most curricula in the education system, from kindergarten up through to college, does not discuss in detail American Indian genocide beyond possibly a quick one-day mention of the Cherokee Trail of Tears." [ 348 ] English and literary scholar Thir Bahadur Budhathoki – "On the basis of the basic concept of genocide as propounded by Rephael Lemkin, the definitions of the UN Convention and other genocide scholars, sociological perspective of genocide-modernity nexus and the philosophical understanding of such crime as an evil in its worst possible form, the fictional representation of the entire process of Cherokee removal including its antecedents and consequences represented in these novels, is genocidal in nature. However, the American government, that mostly represents the perpetrators of the process, and the Euro-American culture of the United States considered as the mainstream culture, have not acknowledged the Native American tragedy as genocide." [ 349 ] ^ eg. Thirty Years' War (4.5 to 8 million deaths), Japanese war crimes (30 million deaths), the Red Terror (50,000 to 200,000 deaths), the Great Purge (0.7 to 1.2 million deaths), the Great Leap Forward and the famine which followed it (15 to 55 million deaths). [ 1 ] ^ Per the Gaza Health Ministry and Government Information Office, [ 23 ] which has previously been deemed reliable by prominent and independent organizations. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] In the same period at least 700 Palestinians have been killed in the West Bank . [ 26 ] ^ Using methods described in The Lancet , [ 27 ] Devi Sridhar , the chair of global health at the University of Edinburgh , wrote in a September 2024 editorial that "the total deaths since the conflict began would be estimated at about 335,500 in total [by the end of 2024]". [ 28 ] ^ Quote: "To conclude: the Germans committed genocide against the Polish population. The very term genocide comes from the 1944 book of the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin, whose study of Nazi-occupied Europe focused on the German attack on the Poles. Not only did the Nazis seek ultimately to eliminate the Polish nation 'as such', but they engaged in each of the acts identified by the 1949 Genocide Convention as signifiers of the 'intent to destroy'" [ 227 ] ^ "In the 1860s Russia killed 1.5 million Circassians, half of their population, and expelled the other half from their lands." Ahmed 2013 , p. 357 ^ Variously specified as 1770, [ 358 ] "c. 1770" [ 359 ] or 1795) [ 360 ] ^ Variously specified as 1828, [ 360 ] 1830, [ 359 ] or 1880. [ 358 ] ^ In an account of the war, Wei Yuan wrote that about 40% of the Dzungar households were killed by smallpox , 20% fled to Russia or the Kazakh Khanate , and 30% were killed by the army, leaving no yurts in an area of several thousands of Chinese miles except those of the surrendered. [ 363 ] [ 366 ] [ 367 ] Clarke wrote 80%, or between 480,000 and 600,000 people, were killed between 1755 and 1758 in what "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people." [ 363 ] [ 368 ] Historian Peter Perdue has shown that the extermination of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor. [ 363 ] Although this "deliberate use of massacre" has been largely ignored by modern scholars, [ 363 ] Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence". [ 369 ] References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} McKenna, Erin; Pratt, Scott L. (2015). American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present . Bloomsbury . p. 375. ^ "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide" (PDF) . The UN . 1948 . Retrieved 17 September 2025 . ^ "Coining a Word and Championing a Cause: The Story of Raphael Lemkin" . Holocaust Encyclopedia . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . Archived from the original on 23 June 2023 . Retrieved 23 September 2021 . ^ Bachman 2022 , p. 48. ^ Irvin-Erickson 2023 , p. 20. ^ a b Irvin-Erickson 2023 , pp. 20–21. ^ Bachman 2021b , p. 1021. ^ Kiernan 2023 , p. 6. ^ a b Curthoys & Docker 2008 , pp. 13–14. ^ Irvin-Erickson 2023 , p. 22. ^ Bachman 2021b , p. 1020. ^ Weiss-Wendt 2017 , p. 4. ^ Bachman 2022 , p. 53. ^ Irvin-Erickson 2023 , p. 8. ^ Weiss-Wendt 2017 , pp. 267–268, 283. ^ Schabas 2010 , p. 123. ^ Ozoráková 2022 , p. 281. ^ "Genocide: The legal basis for universal jurisdiction" (PDF) . Amnesty International . September 2021. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 December 2024. ^ Moses, A. Dirk (2021). The Problems of Genocide: Permanent Security and the Language of Transgression . Cambridge University Press . pp. 1– 16. ISBN 978-1-316-21730-6 . ^ Jones, Adams (2024). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (4th ed.). Routledge . pp. 24– 29. ISBN 978-1-032-02810-1 . There is something of a consensus that group 'destruction' must involve physical liquidation. ^ a b c Narea, Nicole; Samuel, Sigal (13 November 2023). "How to think through allegations of genocide in Gaza" . Vox . New York, NY. Archived from the original on 9 July 2024 . Retrieved 2 July 2024 . ^ Burga 2023 . ^ "Reported impact snapshot – Gaza Strip (10 December 2025)" . Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs . 10 December 2025. ^ Prothero, Mitchell (25 January 2024). "Israeli Intelligence Has Deemed Hamas-Run Health Ministry's Death Toll Figures Generally Accurate" . Vice News . Archived from the original on 3 March 2024. ^ Huynh, Benjamin Q.; Chin, Elizabeth T.; Spiegel, Paul B. (6 December 2023). "No evidence of inflated mortality reporting from the Gaza Ministry of Health". The Lancet . 403 (10421): 23– 24. doi : 10.1016/S0140-6736(23)02713-7 . PMID 38070526 . ^ Siddiqui, Usaid; Najjar, Farah (20 September 2024). "Israel's war on Gaza updates: 'Netanyahu knows Americans can't stop him' – Here's what happened today" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 21 September 2024. ^ Khatib, Rasha; McKee, Martin ; Yusuf, Salim (5 July 2024). "Counting the dead in Gaza: difficult but essential" . The Lancet . 404 (10449). Elsevier BV: 237– 238. doi : 10.1016/s0140-6736(24)01169-3 . ISSN 0140-6736 . PMID 38976995 . Applying a conservative estimate of four indirect deaths per one direct death to the 37 396 deaths reported, it is not implausible to estimate that up to 186 000 or even more deaths could be attributable to the current conflict in Gaza. Using the 2022 Gaza Strip population estimate of 2 375 259, this would translate to 7.9% of the total population in the Gaza Strip. ^ Sridhar, Devi (5 September 2024). "Scientists are closing in on the true, horrifying scale of death and disease in Gaza" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 30 January 2025 . Retrieved 13 September 2024 . ^ Murphy 2025 : "U.N. experts said in a report on Tuesday that Israel committed the crime against humanity of 'extermination' by killing civilians sheltering in schools and religious sites in Gaza, part of a 'concerted campaign to obliterate Palestinian life. ' " "Israel's Crime of Extermination, Acts of Genocide in Gaza" . Human Rights Watch . 19 December 2024. Archived from the original on 18 September 2025 . Retrieved 16 September 2025 . Condon & Condon 2024 Bayoumi 2025 : "...today it is Israel's acts of extermination and genocide of Palestinians in Gaza, funded and enabled at every turn by a complicit west..." Nashed 2025 : " 'The fact that the claims made by the RSF in Sudan resemble the claims Israel is making in Gaza … reveals the emergence of a template to commit mass extermination and even genocide,' said Luigi Daniele, a senior lecturer on IHL at Nottingham Law School." Murphy 2025 : "U.N. experts said in a report on Tuesday that Israel committed the crime against humanity of 'extermination' by killing civilians sheltering in schools and religious sites in Gaza, part of a 'concerted campaign to obliterate Palestinian life. ' " "Israel's Crime of Extermination, Acts of Genocide in Gaza" . Human Rights Watch . 19 December 2024. Archived from the original on 18 September 2025 . Retrieved 16 September 2025 . Condon & Condon 2024 Bayoumi 2025 : "...today it is Israel's acts of extermination and genocide of Palestinians in Gaza, funded and enabled at every turn by a complicit west..." Nashed 2025 : " 'The fact that the claims made by the RSF in Sudan resemble the claims Israel is making in Gaza … reveals the emergence of a template to commit mass extermination and even genocide,' said Luigi Daniele, a senior lecturer on IHL at Nottingham Law School." ^ "Israel has committed genocide in the Gaza Strip, UN Commission finds" . OHCHR . 2025-09-16 . Retrieved 2025-09-21 . ^ Sources that explicitly mention or directly imply an expert consensus recognizing genocide in Gaza: Journal of Genocide Research : Sultany 2024 , pp. 1–26: "Despite Israel’s indignation over the charge, and its invocation of the Holocaust to neutralize the accusation against it, there is an increasing legal consensus that Israel is committing genocide in Gaza. Different actors have acknowledged that Israel’s actions violate elements of the Genocide Convention and stressed the need to prevent genocide. Continued contestation notwithstanding, this consensus is emerging because the evidence is overwhelming. This emerging consensus strengthens the legal case against Israel." Journal of Genocide Research : Shaw 2025 , pp. 1–15: "Indeed, the evidence of genocide accumulated so quickly in late 2023 that South Africa was soon preparing a historic case against Israel in the International Court of Justice, which it submitted on 28 December. The genocidal logic was so inescapable that weeks later, the Court delivered the first of three provisional measures rulings containing instructions to Israel, which recognized a "plausible risk" of prejudice to the rights of the Palestinians in Gaza under the Genocide Convention. By the end of 2024, when Amnesty International published a comprehensively evidenced and legally argued case, the consensus that Israel was committing genocide was becoming overwhelming." The Guardian (News): "Israel committing genocide in Gaza, world's top scholars on the crime say" . The Guardian . 1 September 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . The world's leading genocide scholars' association has backed a resolution stating that Israel's actions in Gaza meet the legal definition of the crime. The Washington Post (Analysis/Column): Tharoor 2025 : "In May, the Dutch newspaper NRC surveyed seven prominent genocide scholars who unanimously concurred that genocide in Gaza was taking place." Reuters (News): van den Berg 2025 : "Eighty-six percent of those who voted among the 500-member International Association of Genocide Scholars backed the resolution declaring Israel's 'policies and actions in Gaza' had met the legal definition set out in Article II of the 1948 UN convention on genocide." PBS NewsHour (News): "Leading genocide scholars' organization says Israel is committing genocide in Gaza" . PBS NewsHour . 1 September 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . The largest professional organization of scholars studying genocide said Monday that Israel is committing genocide in Gaza. Middle East Eye (Report on Dutch investigation): "Top genocide scholars unanimous that Israel is committing genocide in Gaza: Dutch investigation" . Middle East Eye . 17 May 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . The paper interviewed seven renowned genocide and Holocaust researchers from six countries - including Israel - all of whom described the Israeli campaign in Gaza as genocidal. Many said their peers in the field share this assessment. NRC summary (UWA repository clipping to original NRC piece): "Seven renowned scientists almost unanimous: Israel is committing genocide in Gaza" . UWA Profiles and Research Repository . 14 May 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . NRC spoke to seven renowned genocide researchers about Gaza. They are not nearly as divided as public opinion: without exception, they qualify the Israeli actions as 'genocidal'. And according to them, almost all their colleagues agree with that. Arab Center Washington DC (Policy Analysis): Asi 2025 : "...a growing consensus among experts and human rights organizations holds that genocide in Gaza is not a risk but a reality." Democracy Now! (Interview): " "I'm a Genocide Scholar. I Know It When I See It": Prof. Omer Bartov on the Growing Consensus on Gaza" . Democracy Now! . 17 July 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . [Interviewer:] Professor Bartov, can you talk about the genocide scholars across the world who have come to the same conclusion?... [Bartov:] ...over time, many genocide scholars who are — and legal experts, experts in international law, who, like me, have been very cautious about applying this term [genocide], have gradually come to the conclusion that what we're watching is genocide. And that's important, in the sense that there is now, I think, a growing consensus over that view. Center for International Policy (Policy Journal): "Growing Consensus on Israel's Atrocities in Gaza" . Center for International Policy . 30 May 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . [There is a] Growing Consensus on Israel's Atrocities in Gaza... Prominent Israel experts identifying a genocide in Gaza include Omer Bartov, Daniel Blatman, Amos Goldberg, Lee Mordechai, and Raz Segal, with Shmuel Lederman calling it the "consensus" view among genocide researchers. Journal of Genocide Research : Sultany 2024 , pp. 1–26: "Despite Israel’s indignation over the charge, and its invocation of the Holocaust to neutralize the accusation against it, there is an increasing legal consensus that Israel is committing genocide in Gaza. Different actors have acknowledged that Israel’s actions violate elements of the Genocide Convention and stressed the need to prevent genocide. Continued contestation notwithstanding, this consensus is emerging because the evidence is overwhelming. This emerging consensus strengthens the legal case against Israel." Journal of Genocide Research : Shaw 2025 , pp. 1–15: "Indeed, the evidence of genocide accumulated so quickly in late 2023 that South Africa was soon preparing a historic case against Israel in the International Court of Justice, which it submitted on 28 December. The genocidal logic was so inescapable that weeks later, the Court delivered the first of three provisional measures rulings containing instructions to Israel, which recognized a "plausible risk" of prejudice to the rights of the Palestinians in Gaza under the Genocide Convention. By the end of 2024, when Amnesty International published a comprehensively evidenced and legally argued case, the consensus that Israel was committing genocide was becoming overwhelming." The Guardian (News): "Israel committing genocide in Gaza, world's top scholars on the crime say" . The Guardian . 1 September 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . The world's leading genocide scholars' association has backed a resolution stating that Israel's actions in Gaza meet the legal definition of the crime. The Washington Post (Analysis/Column): Tharoor 2025 : "In May, the Dutch newspaper NRC surveyed seven prominent genocide scholars who unanimously concurred that genocide in Gaza was taking place." Reuters (News): van den Berg 2025 : "Eighty-six percent of those who voted among the 500-member International Association of Genocide Scholars backed the resolution declaring Israel's 'policies and actions in Gaza' had met the legal definition set out in Article II of the 1948 UN convention on genocide." PBS NewsHour (News): "Leading genocide scholars' organization says Israel is committing genocide in Gaza" . PBS NewsHour . 1 September 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . The largest professional organization of scholars studying genocide said Monday that Israel is committing genocide in Gaza. Middle East Eye (Report on Dutch investigation): "Top genocide scholars unanimous that Israel is committing genocide in Gaza: Dutch investigation" . Middle East Eye . 17 May 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . The paper interviewed seven renowned genocide and Holocaust researchers from six countries - including Israel - all of whom described the Israeli campaign in Gaza as genocidal. Many said their peers in the field share this assessment. NRC summary (UWA repository clipping to original NRC piece): "Seven renowned scientists almost unanimous: Israel is committing genocide in Gaza" . UWA Profiles and Research Repository . 14 May 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . NRC spoke to seven renowned genocide researchers about Gaza. They are not nearly as divided as public opinion: without exception, they qualify the Israeli actions as 'genocidal'. And according to them, almost all their colleagues agree with that. Arab Center Washington DC (Policy Analysis): Asi 2025 : "...a growing consensus among experts and human rights organizations holds that genocide in Gaza is not a risk but a reality." Democracy Now! (Interview): " "I'm a Genocide Scholar. I Know It When I See It": Prof. Omer Bartov on the Growing Consensus on Gaza" . Democracy Now! . 17 July 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . [Interviewer:] Professor Bartov, can you talk about the genocide scholars across the world who have come to the same conclusion?... [Bartov:] ...over time, many genocide scholars who are — and legal experts, experts in international law, who, like me, have been very cautious about applying this term [genocide], have gradually come to the conclusion that what we're watching is genocide. And that's important, in the sense that there is now, I think, a growing consensus over that view. Center for International Policy (Policy Journal): "Growing Consensus on Israel's Atrocities in Gaza" . Center for International Policy . 30 May 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . [There is a] Growing Consensus on Israel's Atrocities in Gaza... Prominent Israel experts identifying a genocide in Gaza include Omer Bartov, Daniel Blatman, Amos Goldberg, Lee Mordechai, and Raz Segal, with Shmuel Lederman calling it the "consensus" view among genocide researchers. ^ Pieris, Mohan (19 November 2024). A genocide is unfolding before our eyes: History will not forgive our inaction, UN Special Committee warns General Assembly 4th Committee report (Speech). Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights . Archived from the original on 14 April 2025 . Retrieved 9 April 2025 . Our report leaves no room for ambiguity. A genocide is unfolding before our eyes. Failing to act now – failing to put an end to this atrocity crime – will tear apart the very foundation of the international rule of law we have collectively built to protect peace, security, and the well-being of all. Our inaction today is setting a perilous precedent for tomorrow. Think about it. ^ "Israel has committed genocide in the Gaza Strip, UN Commission finds" . OHCHR . 16 September 2025. Archived from the original on 16 September 2025 . Retrieved 16 September 2025 . ^ Notable examples: Amnesty International : Amnesty International report 2024 , p. 13: "This report focuses on the Israeli authorities' policies and actions in Gaza as part of the military offensive they launched in the wake of the Hamas-led attacks on 7 October 2023 while situating them within the broader context of Israel's unlawful occupation, and system of apartheid against Palestinians in Gaza, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Israel. It assesses allegations of violations and crimes under international law by Israel in Gaza within the framework of genocide under international law, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to believe that Israel's conduct in Gaza following 7 October 2023 amounts to genocide." Médecins Sans Frontières : Médecins Sans Frontières 2025 : "Our decision to describe what’s happening in Gaza as a 'genocide' is based on nearly two years of extensive, firsthand information from our teams, who are witnessing massive levels of death and destruction by Israeli forces, a campaign of ethnic cleansing and the almost total dismantling of the health care system." B'Tselem : B'Tselem 2025 , p. 86: "The review presented in this report leaves no room for doubt: since October 2023, the Israeli regime has been responsible for carrying out genocide against the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. Killing tens of thousands of people; causing bodily or mental harm to hundreds of thousands more; destroying homes and civilian infrastructure on a massive scale; starvation, displacement, and denying humanitarian aid – all this is being perpetrated systematically, as part of a coordinated attack aimed at annihilating all facets of life in the Gaza Strip." Human Rights Watch : "Israel's Crime of Extermination, Acts of Genocide in Gaza" . Human Rights Watch . 19 December 2024. Archived from the original on 18 September 2025 . Retrieved 4 September 2025 . Physicians for Human Rights–Israel : Kottasová & Salman 2025 International Federation for Human Rights : "The unfolding genocide against the Palestinians must stop immediately" . International Federation for Human Rights . 12 December 2023. Archived from the original on 16 December 2023 . Retrieved 13 December 2023 . Amnesty International : Amnesty International report 2024 , p. 13: "This report focuses on the Israeli authorities' policies and actions in Gaza as part of the military offensive they launched in the wake of the Hamas-led attacks on 7 October 2023 while situating them within the broader context of Israel's unlawful occupation, and system of apartheid against Palestinians in Gaza, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Israel. It assesses allegations of violations and crimes under international law by Israel in Gaza within the framework of genocide under international law, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to believe that Israel's conduct in Gaza following 7 October 2023 amounts to genocide." Médecins Sans Frontières : Médecins Sans Frontières 2025 : "Our decision to describe what’s happening in Gaza as a 'genocide' is based on nearly two years of extensive, firsthand information from our teams, who are witnessing massive levels of death and destruction by Israeli forces, a campaign of ethnic cleansing and the almost total dismantling of the health care system." B'Tselem : B'Tselem 2025 , p. 86: "The review presented in this report leaves no room for doubt: since October 2023, the Israeli regime has been responsible for carrying out genocide against the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. Killing tens of thousands of people; causing bodily or mental harm to hundreds of thousands more; destroying homes and civilian infrastructure on a massive scale; starvation, displacement, and denying humanitarian aid – all this is being perpetrated systematically, as part of a coordinated attack aimed at annihilating all facets of life in the Gaza Strip." Human Rights Watch : "Israel's Crime of Extermination, Acts of Genocide in Gaza" . Human Rights Watch . 19 December 2024. Archived from the original on 18 September 2025 . Retrieved 4 September 2025 . Physicians for Human Rights–Israel : Kottasová & Salman 2025 International Federation for Human Rights : "The unfolding genocide against the Palestinians must stop immediately" . International Federation for Human Rights . 12 December 2023. Archived from the original on 16 December 2023 . Retrieved 13 December 2023 . ^ Mohyeldin & Hamdan 2024 De Vogli et al. 2025 , pp. 688–689 van Laarhoven, Peek & Walters 2025 Tharoor 2025 Swart 2025 , p. 3: "South Africa's actions led to an ever-growing consensus in international legal circles that Israel is committing genocide" Mohyeldin & Hamdan 2024 De Vogli et al. 2025 , pp. 688–689 van Laarhoven, Peek & Walters 2025 Tharoor 2025 Swart 2025 , p. 3: "South Africa's actions led to an ever-growing consensus in international legal circles that Israel is committing genocide" ^ Albanese 2024 , p. 1: "By analysing the patterns of violence and Israeli policies in its onslaught on Gaza, the present report concludes that there are reasonable grounds to believe that the threshold indicating that Israel has committed genocide has been met" Burga 2023 Corder 2024 Dumper & Badran 2024 , p. 2: "In this context we should not overlook the latest turning point in the history of Palestine – the attack by Hamas on 7th October 2023 on Israeli settlements adjacent to Gaza and the subsequent genocidal war that the state of Israel has carried out in the Gaza Strip." Gritten 2025 International Federation for Human Rights 2024 : "One year ago, the FIDH International Board, its governing body elected by all its member organisations, recognised, after extensive debate and examination, that Israel was carrying out genocide against the Palestinian people in Gaza" " 'It Is Important to Call a Genocide a Genocide,' Consider Suspending Israel's Credential as UN Member State, Experts Tell Palestinian Rights Committee" . UN News . United Nations . 31 October 2024. Archived from the original on 5 November 2024. Lawless 2024 Narea 2024 Quigley 2024 "Rights expert finds 'reasonable grounds' genocide is being committed in Gaza" . UN News . United Nations . 26 March 2024. Archived from the original on 28 March 2025 . Retrieved 2 April 2025 . Speri 2024 "UN Special Committee finds Israel's warfare methods in Gaza consistent with genocide, including use of starvation as weapon of war" . OHCHR . 14 November 2024. Archived from the original on 8 May 2025 . Retrieved 13 May 2025 . Albanese 2024 , p. 1: "By analysing the patterns of violence and Israeli policies in its onslaught on Gaza, the present report concludes that there are reasonable grounds to believe that the threshold indicating that Israel has committed genocide has been met" Burga 2023 Corder 2024 Dumper & Badran 2024 , p. 2: "In this context we should not overlook the latest turning point in the history of Palestine – the attack by Hamas on 7th October 2023 on Israeli settlements adjacent to Gaza and the subsequent genocidal war that the state of Israel has carried out in the Gaza Strip." Gritten 2025 International Federation for Human Rights 2024 : "One year ago, the FIDH International Board, its governing body elected by all its member organisations, recognised, after extensive debate and examination, that Israel was carrying out genocide against the Palestinian people in Gaza" " 'It Is Important to Call a Genocide a Genocide,' Consider Suspending Israel's Credential as UN Member State, Experts Tell Palestinian Rights Committee" . UN News . United Nations . 31 October 2024. Archived from the original on 5 November 2024. Lawless 2024 Narea 2024 Quigley 2024 "Rights expert finds 'reasonable grounds' genocide is being committed in Gaza" . UN News . United Nations . 26 March 2024. Archived from the original on 28 March 2025 . Retrieved 2 April 2025 . Speri 2024 "UN Special Committee finds Israel's warfare methods in Gaza consistent with genocide, including use of starvation as weapon of war" . OHCHR . 14 November 2024. Archived from the original on 8 May 2025 . Retrieved 13 May 2025 . ^ "Genocide Emergency: Gaza 11 July 2025" . Genocide Watch . 14 July 2025. Archived from the original on 31 August 2025 . Retrieved 8 September 2025 . Israel has engaged in all of the processes of genocide described in Genocide Watch's powerful model of the genocidal process, the Ten Stages of genocide: classification, symbolization, discrimination, dehumanization, organization, polarization, preparation, persecution, extermination, and denial. "Statement on Why We Call the Israeli Attack on Gaza Genocide" . Lemkin Institute for Genocide Prevention . 29 December 2023. Archived from the original on 20 August 2025 . Retrieved 8 September 2025 . "Genocide Emergency: Gaza 11 July 2025" . Genocide Watch . 14 July 2025. Archived from the original on 31 August 2025 . Retrieved 8 September 2025 . 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If in fact 304,250 Darfuris have died violently, and more than 240,000 have died from causes other than violent killing (see mortality study from The Lancet, January 2010, below), then total mortality in Darfur and eastern Chad now exceeds 500,000. ^ a b Williams 2012 , p. 192. ^ Elhag 2014 , p. 210. ^ "Darfur" . encyclopedia.ushmm.org . Retrieved 2 August 2023 . ^ a b c Seshadri, Raja (7 November 2005). "Pygmies in the Congo Basin and Conflict" . Case Study 163 . The Inventory of Conflict & Environment, American University . Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 . Retrieved 21 July 2012 . During their offensive against the civilian population of the Ituri region, the rebel groups left more than 60,000 dead and over 100,000 displaced. […] Fatality Level of Dispute (military and civilian fatalities): 70,000 estimated ^ a b Penketh, Anne (7 July 2004). "Extermination of the pygmies" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 21 December 2018 . 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S2CID 154818651 . ^ a b c d McDoom, Omar Shahabudin (2020). "Contested Counting: Toward a Rigorous Estimate of the Death Toll in the Rwandan Genocide" (PDF) . Journal of Genocide Research . 22 (1): 83– 93. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2019.1703252 . S2CID 214032255 . I have estimated between 491,000 and 522,000 Tutsi, nearly two thirds of Rwanda's pre-genocide Tutsi population, were killed between 6 April and 19 July 1994. I calculated this death toll by subtracting my estimate of between 278,000 and 309,000 Tutsi survivors from my estimate of a baseline Tutsi population of almost exactly 800,000, or 10.8% of the overall population, on the eve of the genocide. ^ a b Guichaoua, André (2 January 2020). "Counting the Rwandan Victims of War and Genocide: Concluding Reflections". Journal of Genocide Research . 22 (1): 125– 141. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2019.1703329 . ISSN 1462-3528 . S2CID 213471539 . ^ "Commemoration of International Day of Reflection on the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda – Message of the UNOV/ UNODC Director-General/ Executive Director" . United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 18 January 2021 . ^ a b Meierhenrich, Jens (2020). "How Many Victims Were There in the Rwandan Genocide? A Statistical Debate". Journal of Genocide Research . 22 (1): 72– 82. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2019.1709611 . S2CID 213046710 . Despite the various methodological disagreements among them, none of the scholars who participated in this forum gives credence to the official figure of 1,074,107 victims... Given the rigour of the various quantitative methodologies involved, this forum's overarching finding that the death toll of 1994 is nowhere near the one-million-mark is – scientifically speaking – incontrovertible. ^ Reydams, Luc (2020). " 'More than a million': the politics of accounting for the dead of the Rwandan genocide" . Review of African Political Economy . 48 (168): 235– 256. doi : 10.1080/03056244.2020.1796320 . S2CID 225356374 . The government eventually settled on 'more than a million', a claim which few outside Rwanda have taken seriously. ^ McDoom, Omar (2020). "Contested Counting: Toward a Rigorous Estimate of the Death Toll in the Rwandan Genocide" . Journal of Genocide Research . 22 (1): 83– 93. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2019.1703252 . S2CID 214032255 . Archived from the original on 31 March 2022 . Retrieved 31 March 2022 . In comparison with estimates at the higher and lower ends, my estimate is significantly lower than the Government of Rwanda's genocide census figure of 1,006,031 Tutsi killed. I believe this number is not credible. ^ a b Calic, Marie–Janine (2012). "Ethnic Cleansing and War Crimes, 1991–1995" . In Ingrao, Charles W.; Emmert, Thomas A. (eds.). 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Retrieved February 4, 2025 . The inquiry reportedly determined that there had been 460 victims of the 48-hour massacre and lists the names of 269 Palestinians, 119 Lebanese, 11 Syrians, 32 Pakistanis or Iranians, two Egyptians, two Algerians and 25 unidentified persons. ^ Kapeliouk, Amnon (1984). Jahshan, Khalil (ed.). Sabra & Shatila: Inquiry Into a Massacre . Association of Arab-American University Graduates. ISBN 0-937694-63-0 . ^ Fisk, Robert (2001). Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War . Oxford University Press . pp. 382– 383. ISBN 978-0-19-280130-2 . Quandt, William B. (2001). Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict Since 1967 . University of California Press . p. 266. ISBN 978-0-520-24631-7 . Alpher, Yossi (2015). Periphery: Israel's Search for Middle East Allies . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 48. ISBN 978-1-4422-3101-6 . Gonzalez, Nathan (2013). The Sunni-Shia Conflict: Understanding Sectarian Violence in the Middle East . Nortia Media Ltd. p. 113. 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Archived from the original on 18 February 2024. ^ Heuveline 2001 . ^ Shawcross 1985 , pp. 115–116. ^ Frey 2009 , p. 83 . ^ Etcheson 2005 , p. 119; Heuveline 1998 , pp. 49–65; Terry 2002 , p. 116 ; Heuveline 2001 ^ The CGP, 1994–2008 Cambodian Genocide Program, Yale University . ^ DeMello 2013 , p. 86. ^ "Mapping of mass graves" . Documentation Center of Cambodia . Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. ^ Kiernan, Ben (2019). "Genocidal targeting: Two groups of victims in Pol Pot's Cambodia". In Bushnell, P. Timothy; Shlapentokh, Vladimir; Vanderpool, Christopher; Sundram, Jeyaratnam (eds.). State Organized Terror: The Case Of Violent Internal Repression . Routledge . ISBN 978-1-000-31305-5 . ^ Ellis-Petersen, Hannah (16 November 2018). "Khmer Rouge leaders found guilty of genocide in Cambodia's 'Nuremberg' moment" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 15 January 2024 . Retrieved 25 November 2020 . ^ Etcheson 2005 , p. 119. ^ Heuveline 1998 . ^ Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine. The 2005 report of the UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict-related deaths of 102,800 (+/− 12,000). Of these, the report says that approximately 18,600 (+/− 1,000) were either killed or disappeared, and that approximately 84,000 (+/− 11,000) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality. These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically-based principal finding. The report did not provide an upper bound, however, CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict-related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183,000. The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings. * This estimates comes from taking the minimum killed violently applying the 70% violent death responsibility given to Indonesian military combined with the minimum starved. "Conflict-related Deaths in Timor Leste, 1954–1999. The Findings of the CAVR Report" (PDF) . "The CAVR Report" . Archived from the original on 13 May 2012. ^ "Conflict-related Deaths in Timor Leste, 1954–1999. The Findings of the CAVR Report" . cavr-timorleste.org . Archived from the original on 13 May 2012 . Retrieved 16 April 2018 . ^ Payaslian, Simon . "20th Century Genocides" . Oxford bibliographies . Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. ^ "Genocide Studies Program: East Timor" . Yale University . Archived from the original on 26 March 2022. ^ "Chega! The CAVR Report" . Archived from the original on 13 May 2012. ^ a b Dummett, Mark (16 December 2011). "How one newspaper report changed world history" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 16 June 2023 . Retrieved 4 August 2020 . ^ While the official Pakistani government report ( Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report 1974 ) estimated that the Pakistani army was responsible for 26,000 killings in total, other sources have proposed various estimates ranging between 200,000 and 3 million. Indian Professor Sarmila Bose recently expressed the view that a truly impartial study has never been done, while Bangladeshi ambassador Shamsher M. Chowdhury has suggested that a joint Pakistan-Bangladeshi commission be formed to properly investigate the event. Chowdury, Bose comments – Dawn Newspapers Online. Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the 20th Century: Bangladesh – Matthew White's website. ^ Jahan 2013 , p. 256. ^ Bass 2013a , p. 198:"The Nixon administration had ample evidence not just of the scale of the massacres, but also of their ethnic targeting of the Hindu minority—what Blood had condemned as genocide. This was common knowledge throughout the Nixon administration." ^ Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report 1974 . ^ "Bangladesh" . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . Archived from the original on 4 July 2024 . Retrieved 16 October 2023 . ^ Rummel, R.J. (January 1997). Death By Government . Routledge . p. 331. ISBN 1-56000-927-6 . The human death toll over only 267 days was incredible. Just to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics published in Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee, the Pakistani army killed 100,000 Bengalis in Dacca, 150,000 in Khulna, 75,000 in Jessore, 95,000 in Comilla, and 100,000 in Chittagong. For eighteen districts the total is 1,247,000 killed. This was an incomplete toll, and to this day no one really knows the final toll. Some estimates of the democide (i.e. Rummel's 'death by government') are much lower—one is of 300,000 dead—but most range from 1 million to 3 million. ... The Pakistani army and allied paramilitary groups killed about one out of every sixty-one people in Pakistan overall; one out of every twenty-five Bengalis, Hindus, and others in East Pakistan. If the rate of killing for all of Pakistan is annualised over the years the Yahya martial law regime was in power (March 1969 to December 1971), then this one regime was more lethal than that of the Soviet Union, China under the communists, or Japan under the military (even through World War II). ^ Simpson, Brad (2014). "The Biafran secession and the limits of self-determination". Journal of Genocide Research . 16 ( 2– 3): 337– 354. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2014.936708 . ISSN 1462-3528 . S2CID 71738867 . ^ Chuku, Gloria (2017). "Women and the Nigeria-Biafra War". Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide . Routledge . pp. 329– 359. doi : 10.4324/9781315229294-15 . ISBN 978-1-315-22929-4 . ^ Njoku, Carol Ijeoma (December 2013). "A Paradox of International Criminal Justice: The Biafra Genocide". Journal of Asian and African Studies . 48 (6): 710– 726. doi : 10.1177/0021909613506453 . S2CID 144513341 . ^ Cookman, Claude (October 2008). "Gilles Caron's Coverage of the Crisis in Biafra". Visual Communication Quarterly . 15 (4): 226– 242. doi : 10.1080/15551390802415063 . S2CID 143736733 . ^ Desgrandchamps, Marie-Luce (2012). " 'Organising the unpredictable': the Nigeria–Biafra war and its impact on the ICRC". International Review of the Red Cross . 94 (888): 1409– 1432. doi : 10.1017/S1816383113000428 . S2CID 146648472 . ^ McNeil, Brian (2014). " 'And starvation is the grim reaper': the American Committee to Keep Biafra Alive and the genocide question during the Nigerian civil war, 1968–70". Journal of Genocide Research . 16 ( 2– 3): 317– 336. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2014.936723 . S2CID 70911056 . ^ Moses 2021 , p. 443. ^ Anthony, Douglas (24 October 2018). "What Are They Observing?" . Journal of African Military History . 2 (2): 87. doi : 10.1163/24680966-00202001 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 – via brill.com. ^ Heerten, Lasse; Moses, A. Dirk (2017). "The Nigeria-Biafra War: Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide". Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide: The Nigeria-Biafra War, 1967–1970 . Routledge . ISBN 978-1-315-22929-4 . ^ Doron, Roy (2014). "Marketing genocide: Biafran propaganda strategies during the Nigerian civil war, 1967–70". Journal of Genocide Research . 16 ( 2– 3): 227– 246. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2014.936702 . S2CID 143769339 . ^ Nweke, Obinna Chukwunenye (2023). "Hunger as a weapon of war: Biafra, social media and the politics of famine remembrance" . Third World Quarterly . 45 (2): 314– 331. doi : 10.1080/01436597.2023.2182283 . ISSN 0143-6597 . ^ Mudge, George Alfred (1970). "Starvation As A Means Of Warfare". The International Lawyer . 4 (2): 228– 268. ISSN 0020-7810 . JSTOR 40704626 . ^ Namely the 83% of the "fully identified" 42,275 civilians killed by human rights violations during the Guatemalan Civil War. See CEH 1999 , p. 17, and "Press Briefing: Press conference by members of the Guatemala Historical Clarification Commission" . United Nations. 1 March 1999. Archived from the original on 14 November 2023 . Retrieved 13 August 2016 . ^ Applying the same proportion as for the fully identified victims to the estimated total amount of person killed or disappeared during the Guatemalan civil war (at least 200,000 ). See CEH 1999 , p. 17. ^ "Press Briefing: Press conference by members of the Guatemala Historical Clarification Commission" . United Nations. 1 March 1999. Archived from the original on 14 November 2023 . Retrieved 13 August 2016 . ^ CEH 1999 . ^ Malkin, Elisabeth (16 May 2013). "Trial on Guatemalan Civil War Carnage Leaves Out U.S. Role" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 24 June 2024 . Retrieved 7 July 2023 . The U.S. played a very powerful and direct role in the life of this institution, the army, that went on to commit genocide ^ Bevins, Vincent (2020). The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World . PublicAffairs . pp. 225– 228. ISBN 978-1-5417-4240-6 . ^ "Group says files show U.S. knew of Guatemala abuses" . Daily News . New York. Associated Press . 19 March 2009. Archived from the original on 30 October 2016 . Retrieved 29 October 2016 . ^ Blakeley, Ruth (2009). State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South . Routledge . pp. 91–94 . ISBN 978-0-415-68617-4 . ^ CEH 1999 , p. 20. ^ Foster, Lynn V. (2002). Handbook to Life in the Ancient Maya World . Oxford University Press . p. 84. ISBN 978-0-8160-4148-0 . ^ CEH 1999 , p. 23. ^ Veerasingham, Ramanan (11 December 2013). "Sri Lanka guilty of genocide against Eelam Tamils with UK, US complicity: PPT" . Journalists for Democracy in Sri Lanka (JDS) . Archived from the original on 3 December 2023 . Retrieved 7 May 2024 . ^ Fernando 2014 , pp. 28–35 Kingsbury, Damien (2012). Sri Lanka and the Responsibility to Protect: Politics, Ethnicity and Genocide . Routledge . pp. 82– 93. ISBN 978-0-415-58884-3 . Short 2016 , pp. 93–126 Harman, William (1 July 2021). "Dying to be Remembered: Tamil Warriors' Desecrated Burial Plots (Tuyilum Illam) in Sri Lanka's Civil War" . Nidan: International Journal for Indian Studies . 6 (1): 66– 87. doi : 10.36886/nidan.2021.6.1.5 . Fernando 2014 , pp. 28–35 Kingsbury, Damien (2012). Sri Lanka and the Responsibility to Protect: Politics, Ethnicity and Genocide . Routledge . pp. 82– 93. ISBN 978-0-415-58884-3 . Short 2016 , pp. 93–126 Harman, William (1 July 2021). "Dying to be Remembered: Tamil Warriors' Desecrated Burial Plots (Tuyilum Illam) in Sri Lanka's Civil War" . Nidan: International Journal for Indian Studies . 6 (1): 66– 87. doi : 10.36886/nidan.2021.6.1.5 . ^ MacDermot, Niall, ed. (December 1983). "THE REVIEW" (PDF) . ICJ Review (32). International Commission of Jurists : 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2025. ^ Pohl, J. Otto (June 2000). "Stalin's genocide against the "Repressed Peoples" ". Journal of Genocide Research . 2 (2): 267– 293. doi : 10.1080/713677598 . ^ Grieb 2014 , p. 930. ^ Werth 2004 , p. 73. ^ Stephen Wheatcroft. "The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45" (PDF) . Sovietinfo.tripod.com . Retrieved 17 February 2015 . ^ Philip Boobbyer (2000). The Stalin Era . Psychology Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-415-18298-0 . ^ "The Soviet Massive Deportations - A Chronology | Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance - Réseau de recherche" . www.sciencespo.fr (in French). 18 April 2019 . Retrieved 20 July 2025 . ^ "The Massive Deportation of the Chechen People: How and why Chechens were Deported | Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance - Réseau de recherche" . www.sciencespo.fr (in French). 29 April 2019 . Retrieved 20 July 2025 . ^ Schmaltz, Eric J.; Sinner, Samuel D. (September 2002). " "You will die under ruins and snow": The Soviet repression of Russian Germans as a case study of successful genocide". Journal of Genocide Research . 4 (3): 327– 356. doi : 10.1080/14623520220151943 . ^ Buckley, Ruble & Hofmann 2008 , p. 204. ^ Pohl 2022 , p. 8. ^ Legters 1992 , p. 104; Fisher 2014 , p. 150; Allworth 1998 , p. 216 ^ Garrard, John (1993-07-07). World War 2 and the Soviet People: Selected Papers from the Fourth World Congress for Soviet and East European Studies, Harrogate, 1990 . Springer. p. 168. ISBN 978-1-349-22796-9 . ^ Buckley, Cynthia J.; Ruble, Blair A.; Hofmann, Erin Trouth (2008). Migration, Homeland, and Belonging in Eurasia . Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-8018-9075-8 . ^ Allworth, Edward (1998). The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland: Studies and Documents . Durham: Duke University Press . p. 6 . ISBN 978-0-8223-1994-8 . LCCN 97019110 . OCLC 610947243 . ^ Wong, Tom K. (2015). Rights, Deportation, and Detention in the Age of Immigration Control. Stanford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 9780804794572 . LCCN 2014038930. page 68 ^ Bidlack, Richard; Lomagin, Nikita (2012). The Leningrad Blockade, 1941-1944: A New Documentary History from the Soviet Archives . Yale University Press . p. 1. ISBN 978-0-300-11029-6 . ^ Vihavainen, Timo ; Schrey-Vasara, Gabriele (2011). "Opfer, Täter, Betrachter: Finnland und die Leningrader Blockade" [Victims, Perpetrators, Observers: Finland and the Leningrad Blockade]. Osteuropa (in German). 61 (8/9): 48– 63. JSTOR 44936431 . ^ Siegl, Elfie (2011). "Die doppelte Tragödie: Anna Reid über die Leningrader Blockade" [The Double Tragedy: Anna Reid on the Leningrad Blockade]. Osteuropa (in German). 61 (8/9): 358– 363. JSTOR 44936455 . ^ a b c Krasman, Noah (2 October 2023). "The Paradox of Genocide in Modern Russia: Evolving Narratives of the Siege of Leningrad During the "Great Patriotic Operation" " . Journal of Genocide Research . 25 ( 3– 4): 403– 417. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2023.2214408 . As determined by scholars and the recent court decision in St. Petersburg, the siege was a "war crime, a crime against humanity, and genocide." ^ a b Glantz, David (2001). The Siege of Leningrad 1941–44: 900 Days of Terror . Zenith Press, Osceola, WI. ISBN 0-7603-0941-8 . ^ Riep, Leonhard (2020). "The Production of the Muselmann and the Singularity of Auschwitz: A Critique of Adriana Cavarero's Account of the "Auschwitz Event" " (PDF) . Hypatia . 35 (4): 635. doi : 10.1017/hyp.2020.41 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 January 2023. ...between 5 and 6 million. According to Wolfgang Benz, at least 5.29 million up to around 6 million Jews of every age were murdered (Benz 1991, 17), whereas Raul Hilberg counts 5.1 million dead (Hilberg 2003, 1320–21) Fischel 2020 , p. 10 : "The number of Jews killed by the Germans in the Holocaust cannot be precisely calculated. Various historians, however, have provided estimates that range between 4,204,000 and 7,000,000, with the use of the round figure of six million Jews murdered as the best estimate to describe the immensity of the Nazi genocide. The Germans exterminated approximately 54 percent of the Jews within their reach..." Roth, John K. (2020). Sources of Holocaust Insight: Learning and Teaching about the Genocide . Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers . p. 1n1. ISBN 978-1-5326-7418-1 – via Google Books . ...Raul Hilberg... 5.1 million... Israel Gutman and Robert Rozett... between 5–5 and 5.8 million... Wolfgang Benz... 6.2 million. The figures remain imprecise for several reasons, including... Rummel, R.J. (2017) [1978]. "Democide in Totalitarian States" . In Charny, Israel W. (ed.). The widening circle of genocide . Routledge . ISBN 978-1-351-29406-5 – via Google Books . 4,204,400 to 4,575,400... the lowest count by any reputable study. Oman, Nathan (2016). The dignity of commerce: markets and the moral foundations of contract law . University of Chicago Press . p. 203n64. ISBN 978-0-226-41552-9 – via Google Books . Bloxham... "Between 5,100,000 and 6,200,000... Stier, Oren Baruch (2015). Holocaust Icons: Symbolizing the Shoah in History and Memory . Rutgers University Press . ISBN 978-0-8135-7404-2 – via Google Books . ... between five and six million. The late Raul Hilberg, for example, political scientist and widely acknowledged dean of Holocaust historiography, estimated 5.1 million Jewish victims, and that number did not change in the third edition of his monumental work. This indicates, one might presume, that he was satisfied with his rigorous investigation into this figure... The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust offers a number of "more than" five million in its definition of the Holocaust.18 In 2007 the Division of the Senior Historian at the USHMM developed a series of estimates (dependent on means of counting) of between 5.65 million and 5.93 million, based on published accounts by Hilberg and others as well as on Soviet documents available only since 1991... No estimate has gone higher than six million. Rubinstein, William D. (2014) [2004]. Genocide . Routledge . ISBN 978-1-317-86995-5 – via Google Books . The number of Jews killed at the hands of the Nazis is invariably given, in shorthand terms at any rate, as 6 million, a figure which has, of course, entered the common consciousness and is endlessly repeated.122 It appears likely, however, that this number is too high by a considerable amount, as some careful Holocaust scholars such as Gerald Reitlinger and Raul Hilberg have pointed out. Reitlinger's early (1953) but carefully argued estimate of between 4,194,000 and 4,581,000 Jewish deaths is certainly the lowest ever offered by a serious historian; Hilberg's more recent, but even more carefully argued estimate of 5,100,000... appears to be the next lowest among reputable scholars... it appears to this historian that Reitlinger's figures are probably most nearly correct, with the figure of Jewish victims of the Holocaust numbering about 4.7 million, although there is a wide margin of imprecision. Given that about 2.7 million Jews perished in the six major extermination camps, a figure of 6 million Jewish dead necessarily means that 3.3 million perished in other ways: this is very difficult to believe and is almost certainly an exaggeration. In demographic terms, there are two ways of approaching this question: to compare the number of Jews in Nazi-occupied countries in September 1939 with those alive in May 1945 (bearing in mind such other factors as the escape of refugees and battle deaths), and to provide an estimate of the number of Jews who perished by method of death in the extermination camps, at the hands of the Einsatzgruppen, etc. Both are fraught with difficulties, especially the former Hayes, Peter; Roth, John K. (2012) [2010]. The Oxford Handbook of Holocaust Studies . Oxford University Press . p. 197. ISBN 978-0-19-165079-6 – via Google Books . Nevertheless, scholarly research, aided by recently opened archives and computerized data processing capacities, has put statistical estimates on a firmer footing than was possible in earlier decades. In previous stages of research, estimates of the Jewish victims ranged from 4,202,000—4,575,400 (Reitlinger 1961: 533–46), to 5.1 million (Hilberg 1961: 767), to 5,820,960 (Robinson 1971'. 889), to 6,093,000 (Lestchinsky 1948:60). At the end of the 1980s two different teams, one headed by a German scholar, another by an Israeli, meticulously reviewed all the available data and arrived at the following numbers for Jewish fatalities during the Holocaust: 5,596,000 to 5,860,149 (Gutman 1990: 1799) and 5.29 million to slightly more than 6 million (Benz 1991: 17). The new Yad Vashem museum, which opened in 2005, mentions 5,786,748 Jewish victims. One can be skeptical of such precision, but the most current research reliably calculates a total number of victims close to the now iconic figure Six Million Benz, Wolfgang (2006). A Concise History of the Third Reich (1st ed.). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press . p. 232. ISBN 0-520-23489-8 . At least six million human beings were deliberately and systematically murdered because they were Jews. Benz, Wolfgang (1999). The Holocaust: A German Historian Examines the Genocide (1st ed.). New York: Columbia University Press . pp. 12, 152– 153. ISBN 978-1-317-86995-5 . Six million Jews (not fewer, most probably more) were murdered in the course of the Final Solution of the Jewish question, Bracher, Karl Dietrich (1970). The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure and Effects of National Socialism (1st ed.). New York: Praeger Publishers. p. 430. The genocide of the Jews — according to Eichmann 's figures more than 6 million (4 million in extermination camps) had been murdered by the summer of 1944 . . . Estimates of the total losses range from 5 to 7 million. At any rate, the total number of Jews in Europe declined from 9.2 to 3.1 million. "Yad Vashem has recovered the names of 5 million Jews murdered in the Holocaust" . Yad Vashem . 11 November 2025. Archived from the original on 6 January 2026 . Retrieved 22 November 2025 . Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center, has recovered the names of five million Jews of the six million murdered in the Holocaust . . . There are still an estimated one million names of Jewish victims who are unknown and many will likely remain so forever. Riep, Leonhard (2020). "The Production of the Muselmann and the Singularity of Auschwitz: A Critique of Adriana Cavarero's Account of the "Auschwitz Event" " (PDF) . Hypatia . 35 (4): 635. doi : 10.1017/hyp.2020.41 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 January 2023. ...between 5 and 6 million. According to Wolfgang Benz, at least 5.29 million up to around 6 million Jews of every age were murdered (Benz 1991, 17), whereas Raul Hilberg counts 5.1 million dead (Hilberg 2003, 1320–21) Fischel 2020 , p. 10 : "The number of Jews killed by the Germans in the Holocaust cannot be precisely calculated. Various historians, however, have provided estimates that range between 4,204,000 and 7,000,000, with the use of the round figure of six million Jews murdered as the best estimate to describe the immensity of the Nazi genocide. The Germans exterminated approximately 54 percent of the Jews within their reach..." Roth, John K. (2020). Sources of Holocaust Insight: Learning and Teaching about the Genocide . Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers . p. 1n1. ISBN 978-1-5326-7418-1 – via Google Books . ...Raul Hilberg... 5.1 million... Israel Gutman and Robert Rozett... between 5–5 and 5.8 million... Wolfgang Benz... 6.2 million. The figures remain imprecise for several reasons, including... Rummel, R.J. (2017) [1978]. "Democide in Totalitarian States" . In Charny, Israel W. (ed.). The widening circle of genocide . Routledge . ISBN 978-1-351-29406-5 – via Google Books . 4,204,400 to 4,575,400... the lowest count by any reputable study. Oman, Nathan (2016). The dignity of commerce: markets and the moral foundations of contract law . University of Chicago Press . p. 203n64. ISBN 978-0-226-41552-9 – via Google Books . Bloxham... "Between 5,100,000 and 6,200,000... Stier, Oren Baruch (2015). Holocaust Icons: Symbolizing the Shoah in History and Memory . Rutgers University Press . ISBN 978-0-8135-7404-2 – via Google Books . ... between five and six million. The late Raul Hilberg, for example, political scientist and widely acknowledged dean of Holocaust historiography, estimated 5.1 million Jewish victims, and that number did not change in the third edition of his monumental work. This indicates, one might presume, that he was satisfied with his rigorous investigation into this figure... The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust offers a number of "more than" five million in its definition of the Holocaust.18 In 2007 the Division of the Senior Historian at the USHMM developed a series of estimates (dependent on means of counting) of between 5.65 million and 5.93 million, based on published accounts by Hilberg and others as well as on Soviet documents available only since 1991... No estimate has gone higher than six million. Rubinstein, William D. (2014) [2004]. Genocide . Routledge . ISBN 978-1-317-86995-5 – via Google Books . The number of Jews killed at the hands of the Nazis is invariably given, in shorthand terms at any rate, as 6 million, a figure which has, of course, entered the common consciousness and is endlessly repeated.122 It appears likely, however, that this number is too high by a considerable amount, as some careful Holocaust scholars such as Gerald Reitlinger and Raul Hilberg have pointed out. Reitlinger's early (1953) but carefully argued estimate of between 4,194,000 and 4,581,000 Jewish deaths is certainly the lowest ever offered by a serious historian; Hilberg's more recent, but even more carefully argued estimate of 5,100,000... appears to be the next lowest among reputable scholars... it appears to this historian that Reitlinger's figures are probably most nearly correct, with the figure of Jewish victims of the Holocaust numbering about 4.7 million, although there is a wide margin of imprecision. Given that about 2.7 million Jews perished in the six major extermination camps, a figure of 6 million Jewish dead necessarily means that 3.3 million perished in other ways: this is very difficult to believe and is almost certainly an exaggeration. In demographic terms, there are two ways of approaching this question: to compare the number of Jews in Nazi-occupied countries in September 1939 with those alive in May 1945 (bearing in mind such other factors as the escape of refugees and battle deaths), and to provide an estimate of the number of Jews who perished by method of death in the extermination camps, at the hands of the Einsatzgruppen, etc. Both are fraught with difficulties, especially the former Hayes, Peter; Roth, John K. (2012) [2010]. The Oxford Handbook of Holocaust Studies . Oxford University Press . p. 197. ISBN 978-0-19-165079-6 – via Google Books . Nevertheless, scholarly research, aided by recently opened archives and computerized data processing capacities, has put statistical estimates on a firmer footing than was possible in earlier decades. In previous stages of research, estimates of the Jewish victims ranged from 4,202,000—4,575,400 (Reitlinger 1961: 533–46), to 5.1 million (Hilberg 1961: 767), to 5,820,960 (Robinson 1971'. 889), to 6,093,000 (Lestchinsky 1948:60). At the end of the 1980s two different teams, one headed by a German scholar, another by an Israeli, meticulously reviewed all the available data and arrived at the following numbers for Jewish fatalities during the Holocaust: 5,596,000 to 5,860,149 (Gutman 1990: 1799) and 5.29 million to slightly more than 6 million (Benz 1991: 17). The new Yad Vashem museum, which opened in 2005, mentions 5,786,748 Jewish victims. One can be skeptical of such precision, but the most current research reliably calculates a total number of victims close to the now iconic figure Six Million Benz, Wolfgang (2006). A Concise History of the Third Reich (1st ed.). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press . p. 232. ISBN 0-520-23489-8 . At least six million human beings were deliberately and systematically murdered because they were Jews. Benz, Wolfgang (1999). The Holocaust: A German Historian Examines the Genocide (1st ed.). New York: Columbia University Press . pp. 12, 152– 153. ISBN 978-1-317-86995-5 . Six million Jews (not fewer, most probably more) were murdered in the course of the Final Solution of the Jewish question, Bracher, Karl Dietrich (1970). The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure and Effects of National Socialism (1st ed.). New York: Praeger Publishers. p. 430. The genocide of the Jews — according to Eichmann 's figures more than 6 million (4 million in extermination camps) had been murdered by the summer of 1944 . . . Estimates of the total losses range from 5 to 7 million. At any rate, the total number of Jews in Europe declined from 9.2 to 3.1 million. "Yad Vashem has recovered the names of 5 million Jews murdered in the Holocaust" . Yad Vashem . 11 November 2025. Archived from the original on 6 January 2026 . Retrieved 22 November 2025 . Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center, has recovered the names of five million Jews of the six million murdered in the Holocaust . . . There are still an estimated one million names of Jewish victims who are unknown and many will likely remain so forever. ^ Bracher, Karl Dietrich (1970). The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure and Effects of National Socialism (1st ed.). New York: Praeger Publishers. p. 430. Estimates of the total losses range from 5 to 7 million. ^ Fischel 2020 , p. 10 . ^ Landau, Ronnie S. (2016). The Nazi Holocaust: Its History and Meaning (3rd ed.). I. B. Tauris . p. 3. ISBN 978-0-85772-843-2 . ^ Herf, Jeffrey C. (2024). "The Long Term and the Short Term: Antisemitism and the Holocaust". In Weitzman, Mark; Williams, Robert J.; Wald, James (eds.). The Routledge History of Antisemitism (1st ed.). Abingdon and New York: Routledge . p. 278. doi : 10.4324/9780429428616 . ISBN 978-1-138-36944-3 . ^ Gerlach, Christian (2016). The Extermination of the European Jews (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 99– 100. ISBN 978-1-139-03418-0 . ^ Stone, Lewi (2019). "Quantifying the Holocaust: Hyperintense kill rates during the Nazi genocide" . Science Advances . 5 (1) eaau7292. Bibcode : 2019SciA....5.7292S . doi : 10.1126/sciadv.aau7292 . PMC 6314819 . PMID 30613773 . ^ Stone, Dan (2023). The Holocaust: An Unfinished History (1st ed.). Pelican Books . p. 191. ISBN 978-0-241-38871-6 . ^ For a listing of the number of murdered Jews, detailed by country, see Dawidowicz, Lucy (2010). The War Against the Jews: 1933–1945 . Open Road Media. Appendix A. ISBN 978-1-4532-0306-4 . ^ Rosenberg, Alan (1979). "The Genocidal Universe: A Framework for Understanding the Holocaust". European Judaism: A Journal for the New Europe . 13 (1): 29– 34. ISSN 0014-3006 . JSTOR 41442658 . ^ Krammer, Arnold (2010). War Crimes, Genocide, and the Law: A Guide to the Issues . Contemporary Military, Strategic, and Security Issues. Praeger. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-313-35937-8 . ^ Richie, Alexandra (27 January 2024). "The Origins of International Holocaust Remembrance Day" . The National WWII Museum | New Orleans . Retrieved 11 April 2024 . ^ "Remaining Jewish Population of Europe in 1945" . Holocaust Encyclopedia . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 13 June 2018. According to the American Jewish Yearbook , the Jewish population of Europe was about 9.5 million in 1933. In 1950, the Jewish population of Europe was about 3.5 million. ^ Berenbaum, Michael (2006). The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . pp. 16, 220. ISBN 978-0-8018-8358-3 . ^ a b Yeomans, Rory (2013). Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945 . University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-8229-7793-3 . Although the estimates of the number of Serbs murdered by the regime vary, even the most conservative figures suggest that out of a pre-war population of 1.9 million, at least 200,000 and possibly as many as 500,000 died at the hands of Ustasha death squads, were executed, or perished in the state's concentration camps. ^ a b "Axis Invasion of Yugoslavia – Croatia" . Holocaust Encyclopedia . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . 2010. Archived from the original on 14 January 2024 . Retrieved 12 August 2016 . ^ a b "The JUST Act Report: Croatia" . state.gov . U.S. Department of State. In all, approximately 30,000 Jews (between 75–80 percent of the Jews within the NDH) died during the Holocaust, the majority at the hands of the Ustasha, although the NDH also transferred some 7,000 Jews to the Nazis to be deported to Auschwitz... The NDH also killed an estimated 25,000 or more Roma men, women, and children, the vast majority of the Roma population under its control. ^ a b Geiger 2012 . ^ Redžić, Enver (2005). Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War . London; New York: Frank Cass . p. 155. ISBN 978-0-7146-5625-0 – via Google Books . Klemenčič, Matjaž; Žagar, Mitja (2004). The former Yugoslavia's diverse peoples: a reference sourcebook . ABC-CLIO . p. 184. ISBN 978-1-57607-294-3 – via Google Books . Hoare, Marko Attila (2006). Genocide and Resistance in Hitler's Bosnia: The Partisans and the Chetniks, 1941–1943 . Oxford University Press . p. 154. ISBN 0-19-726380-1 – via Google Books . Tomasevich 2001 , pp. 379, 747 Redžić, Enver (2005). Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War . London; New York: Frank Cass . p. 155. ISBN 978-0-7146-5625-0 – via Google Books . Klemenčič, Matjaž; Žagar, Mitja (2004). The former Yugoslavia's diverse peoples: a reference sourcebook . ABC-CLIO . p. 184. ISBN 978-1-57607-294-3 – via Google Books . Hoare, Marko Attila (2006). Genocide and Resistance in Hitler's Bosnia: The Partisans and the Chetniks, 1941–1943 . Oxford University Press . p. 154. ISBN 0-19-726380-1 – via Google Books . Tomasevich 2001 , pp. 379, 747 ^ Geiger 2012 , pp. 77–121. ^ Furber, David; Lower, Wendy (2008). "Colonialism and genocide in Nazi-occupied Poland and Ukraine" . In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History . Berghahn Books . p. 393. ISBN 978-1-78238-214-0 – via Google Books . ^ Bauer, Yehuda (1999). "Comparison of Genocides". In Chorbajian, Levon ; Shirinian, George (eds.). Studies in Comparative Genocide . Palgrave Macmillan . pp. 31– 43. doi : 10.1007/978-1-349-27348-5_3 . ISBN 978-1-349-27348-5 . According to Polish sources, about three million ethnic Poles lost their lives during the war, or about 10 per cent of the Polish nation(...) large numbers were murdered, or died as a result of direct German actions such as denying food or medical treatment to Poles, or incarceration in concentration camps. There is no way of estimating the exact proportions, but I believe it would be difficult to deny that we have here a case of mass murder directed against Poles. German plans regarding Poles talked about denationalizing the Polish people, or in other words, making them into individuals who would no longer have any national identity(...)This is a case of genocide – a purposeful attempt toeliminate an ethnicity or a nation, accompanied by the murder of large numbers of the targeted group. ^ a b "Polish Victims" . Holocaust Encyclopedia . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . Retrieved 30 October 2020 . It is estimated that the Germans killed between 1.8 and 1.9 million non-Jewish Polish civilians during World War II. In addition, the Germans murdered at least 3 million Jewish citizens of Poland. ^ Cherry, Robert D. ; Orla-Bukowska, Annamaria (2007). Rethinking Poles and Jews: Troubled Past, Brighter Future . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 52. ISBN 978-0-7425-4666-0 – via Google Books . ...and the ruthlessness of German rule in Poland, where three million gentiles also perished and the punishment for hiding a Jew was execution of captured rescuers and their immediate families. ^ a b Banki & Pawlikowski 2001 , p. 93: "...Along with those three million Polish Jews, three million Polish civilians were murdered as well...." ^ Kulesza 2004 , PDF, p. 29. ^ Gushee 2012 , pp. 313–314. ^ Kiernan, Ben; Lower, Wendy; Naimark, Norman; Straus, Scott, eds. (2023). "15: The Nazis and the Slavs - Poles and Soviet Prisoners of War". The Cambridge World History of Genocide . Vol. 3: Genocide in the Contemporary Era, 1914– 2020. Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108767118 . ISBN 978-1-108-48707-8 . ^ "Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939–1945" . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . Archived from the original on 25 December 2024 . Retrieved 12 April 2024 . ^ Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust . Columbia University Press . p. 47. ISBN 978-0-231-50590-1 . Retrieved 5 July 2016 – via Google Books . ^ Hancock, Ian (2005), "True Romanies and the Holocaust: A Re-evaluation and an overview" , The Historiography of the Holocaust , Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 383– 396, ISBN 978-1-4039-9927-6 , archived from the original on 28 September 2011 ^ Ignác, Benjamin (2 August 2018). "Why it is important to remember the Roma Holocaust?" . European Roma Rights Centre . Archived from the original on 9 September 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2023 . ^ Davis, Mark (5 May 2015). "How World War II shaped modern Germany" . euronews . Archived from the original on 7 April 2024. ^ "Holocaust Encyclopedia – Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939–1945" . USHMM . Archived from the original on 5 August 2011 . Retrieved 9 August 2011 . ^ Milton, Sybil (February 1992). "Nazi Policies towards Roma and Sinti 1933–1945" . Journal of Gypsy Lore Society . 2 (1): 1– 18 . Retrieved 12 August 2016 . ^ "The NKVD Mass Secret National Operations (August 1937 - November 1938) | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network" . www.sciencespo.fr . 15 April 2019 . Retrieved 21 July 2025 . ^ Kotliartchouk, Andrej (February 2025). "Understanding Stalin's Terror against Western Minorities: The National Operations of the NKVD in Contemporary Academic Research" . The Historical Journal . 68 (1): 239– 257. doi : 10.1017/S0018246X24000487 . ISSN 0018-246X . ^ Savin, Andrey. "Ethnification of Stalinism? Ethnic Cleansings and the NKVD Order No 00447 in a Comparative Perspective". In Andrej Kotljarchuk & Olle Sundström (ed.). Ethnic and Religious Minorities in Stalin's Soviet Union: New Dimensions of Research . p. 63. ^ Ellman 2007 Sebag-Montefiore, Simon (2003). Stalin. The Court of the Red Tsar . New York: Vintage Books . p. 229. ISBN 1-4000-7678-1 . Naimark, Norman M. (November 2016). Genocide: A World History . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-063772-9 . Ellman 2007 Sebag-Montefiore, Simon (2003). Stalin. The Court of the Red Tsar . New York: Vintage Books . p. 229. ISBN 1-4000-7678-1 . Naimark, Norman M. (November 2016). Genocide: A World History . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-063772-9 . ^ Ellman 2007 , p. 686. ^ The Great Purge in Ukraine The German Operation of the NKVD (1937–8) ByVolodymyr Semystyaha, Igor Tatarinov Book The Routledge History of Genocide Edition 1st Edition First Published 2015 Imprint Routledge Pages 22 eBook ISBN 9781315719054 ^ Maria Cristina Fumagalli (2015). On the Edge: Writing the Border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic . Liverpool University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-78138-757-3 . ^ Turits 2004 , p. 161. ^ Cadeau, Sabine F. (2022). More than a Massacre: Racial Violence and Citizenship in the Haitian–Dominican Borderlands . Cambridge University Press . doi : 10.1017/9781108942508 . ISBN 978-1-108-94250-8 . S2CID 249325622 . ^ Turits 2002 , p. 590. ^ Maria Cristina Fumagalli (2015). On the Edge: Writing the Border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic . Liverpool University Press . p. 20. ISBN 978-1-78138-757-3 . ^ Cambeira, Alan (1997). Quisqueya la bella (1996 ed.). M. E. Sharpe . p. 182. ISBN 1-56324-936-7 . anyone of African descent found incapable of pronouncing correctly, that is, to the complete satisfaction of the sadistic examiners, became a condemned individual. This holocaust is recorded as having a death toll reaching thirty thousand innocent souls, Haitians as well as Dominicans. ^ Paulino, Edward (16 February 2016). Dividing Hispaniola: The Dominican Republic's Border Campaign against Haiti, 1930–1961 . University of Pittsburgh Press . ISBN 978-0-8229-8103-9 – via Google Books . ^ Turits 2002 , p. 630. ^ Naimark 2010 , p. 70. ^ a b Naimark 2010 , pp. 70, 147. ^ Rozenas, Arturas; Zhukov, Yuri M. (2019). "Mass Repression and Political Loyalty: Evidence from Stalin's 'Terror by Hunger' ". American Political Science Review . 113 (2): 571. doi : 10.1017/S0003055419000066 . S2CID 143428346 . Similar to famines in Ireland in 1846–1851 (Ó Gráda 2007) and China in 1959–1961 (Meng, Qian and Yared 2015), the politics behind Holodomor have been a focus of historiographic debate. The most common interpretation is that Holodomor was 'terror by hunger' (Conquest 1987, 224), 'state aggression' (Applebaum 2017) and 'clearly premeditated mass murder' (Snyder 2010, 42). Others view it as an unintended by-product of Stalin's economic policies (Kotkin 2017; Naumenko 2017), precipitated by natural factors like adverse weather and crop infestation (Davies and Wheatcroft 1996; Tauger 2001). ^ Andriewsky, Olga (2015). "Towards a Decentred History: The Study of the Holodomor and Ukrainian Historiography" . East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies . 2 (1): 37. doi : 10.21226/T2301N . Historians of Ukraine are no longer debating whether the Famine was the result of natural causes (and even then not exclusively by them). The academic debate appears to come down to the issue of intentions, to whether the special measures undertaken in Ukraine in the winter of 1932–33 that intensified starvation were aimed at Ukrainians as such. ^ Grynevych, Liudmyla [in Ukrainian] (2008). "The Present State of Ukrainian Historiography on the Holodomor and Prospects for Its Development". The Harriman Review . 16 (2). Harriman Institute : 10– 20. doi : 10.7916/d8-enqm-hy61 . ^ Ellman 2007 . ^ Ohayon 2016 . ^ a b c Duggan, Christopher (2008). The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796 . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt . p. 497. ISBN 978-0-618-35367-5 . ^ a b Wright, John (1982). A History of Modern Libya . Archived from the original on 21 September 2023. ^ Mann, Michael (2006). The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing . Cambridge University Press . p. 309. ISBN 978-0-521-53854-1 – via Google Books . ^ Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (23 March 2011). Making of Modern Libya, The: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance (Second ed.). SUNY Press . p. 146. ISBN 978-1-4384-2893-2 – via Google Books . ^ Totten, Samuel ; Bartrop, Paul Robert (2008). Dictionary of Genocide: A-L . ABC-CLIO . p. 259. ISBN 978-0-313-34642-2 . ^ Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (2023), Kiernan, Ben; Naimark, Norman; Straus, Scott; Lower, Wendy (eds.), "Eurocentrism, Silence and Memory of Genocide in Colonial Libya, 1929–1934" , The Cambridge World History of Genocide: Volume 3: Genocide in the Contemporary Era, 1914–2020 , The Cambridge World History of Genocide, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , pp. 118– 140, ISBN 978-1-108-76711-8 , retrieved 10 December 2023 ^ The Report: Libya 2008 . Oxford Business Group. 2008. p. 17. ^ Duggan 2007 , p. 497. ^ Pappé, Ilan (2005). The Modern Middle East . Routledge . p. 26. ISBN 0-415-21409-2 . ^ Cardoza, Anthony L. (2006). Benito Mussolini: the first fascist . Pearson Longman . p. 109. ^ Bloxham & Moses 2010 , p. 358. ^ Bijak, Jakub; Lubman, Sarah (2016). "The Disputed Numbers: In Search of the Demographic Basis for Studies of Armenian Population Losses, 1915–1923". The Armenian Genocide Legacy . Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-137-56163-3 . ^ Morris & Ze'evi 2019 , p. 1. ^ Robertson, Geoffrey (2016). "Armenia and the G-word: The Law and the Politics". The Armenian Genocide Legacy . Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 69– 83. ISBN 978-1-137-56163-3 . Put another way – if these same events occurred today, there can be no doubt that prosecutions before the ICC of Talaat and other CUP officials for genocide, for persecution and for other crimes against humanity would succeed. Turkey would be held responsible for genocide and for persecution by the ICJ and would be required to make reparation.14 That Court would also hold Germany responsible for complicity with the genocide and persecution, since it had full knowledge of the massacres and deportations and decided not to use its power and influence over the Ottomans to stop them. But to the overarching legal question that troubles the international community today, namely whether the killings of Armenians in 1915 can properly be described as a genocide, the analysis in this chapter returns are sounding affirmative answer. ^ Lattanzi, Flavia (2018). "The Armenian Massacres as the Murder of a Nation?". The Armenian Massacres of 1915–1916 a Hundred Years Later: Open Questions and Tentative Answers in International Law . Springer International Publishing. pp. 27– 104. ISBN 978-3-319-78169-3 . Starting from the claim by the Armenian community and the majority of historians that the 1915–1916 Armenian massacres and deportations constitute genocide as well as Turkey's fierce opposition to such a qualification, this paper investigates the possibility of identifying those massacres and deportations as the destruction of a nation. On the basis of a thorough analysis of the facts and the required mental element, the author shows that a deliberate destruction, in a substantial part, of the Armenian Christian nation as such, took place in those years. To come to this conclusion, this paper borrows the very same determinants as those used in the case-law of the Military Tribunals in occupied Germany, the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda in genocide cases. ^ "The Armenian Genocide (1915–16): In Depth" . Holocaust Encyclopedia . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . Archived from the original on 20 October 2023 . Retrieved 30 October 2020 . Although the term genocide was not coined until 1944, most scholars agree that the mass murder of Armenians fits this definition. The CUP government systematically used an emergency military situation to effect a long-term population policy aimed at strengthening Muslim Turkish elements in Anatolia at the expense of the Christian population (primarily Armenians, but also Christian Assyrians). Ottoman, Armenian, US, British, French, German, and Austrian documents from the time reveal that the CUP leadership intentionally targeted the Armenian population of Anatolia. ^ Morris & Ze'evi 2019 , pp. 3–5. ^ Suny, Ronald Grigor (2015). "They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide . Princeton University Press . p. xxi. ISBN 978-1-4008-6558-1 . ^ Pamuk, Şevket (2018). Uneven Centuries: Economic Development of Turkey since 1820 . Princeton University Press . p. 50. ISBN 978-0-691-18498-2 . ^ Travis, Hannibal (December 2006). Native Christians Massacred': The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians During World War I . Genocide Studies and Prevention. Vol. 1. pp. 327– 371. ^ Ze'evi, Dror ; Morris, Benny (2020). "Response to Critique: The thirty-year genocide. Turkey's destruction of its Christian minorities, 1894–1924, by Benny Morris and Dror Ze'evi, Cambridge, MA, and London, Harvard University Press, 2019, 672 pp., USD$35.00 (hardcover), ISBN 9780674916456". Journal of Genocide Research . 22 (4): 561– 566. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2020.1735600 . S2CID 216395523 . ^ Sjöberg, Erik (2016). The Making of the Greek Genocide: Contested Memories of the Ottoman Greek Catastrophe . Berghahn Books . p. 234. ISBN 978-1-78533-326-2 . Activists tend to inflate the overall total of Ottoman Greek deaths, from the cautious estimates between 300,000 to 700,000... ^ Halo, Thea (2017). Shirinian, George (ed.). Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks, 1913-1923 . Berghahn Books . p. 314. ISBN 978-1-78533-433-7 . Clearly, by the time of the exchange, there had been ten years of atrocities against the Ottoman Greek populations in Thrace, Western Asia Minor, and Pontos, with a death toll estimated at 1.2 million Ottoman Greeks. ^ Varnava, Andrekos (2016). "Book Review: Denial of Violence: Ottoman Past, Turkish Present and Collective Violence against the Armenians, 1789–2009" . Genocide Studies and Prevention . 10 (1): 121– 123. doi : 10.5038/1911-9933.10.1.1403 . ISSN 1911-0359 . ^ Barth, Boris (2006). Genozid. Völkermord im 20. Jahrhundert. Geschichte, Theorien, Kontroversen [ Genocide: Genocide in the 20th Century: History, theories, controversies ] (in German). München: C. H. Beck . ISBN 978-3-40652-865-1 . ^ Jones 2010 , p. 163 . ^ Meichanetsidis, Vasileios (2015). "The Genocide of the Greeks of the Ottoman Empire, 1913–1923: A Comprehensive Overview" . Genocide Studies International . 9 (1): 104– 173. doi : 10.3138/gsi.9.1.06 . ISSN 2291-1847 . S2CID 154870709 . The genocide was committed by two subsequent and chronologically, ideologically, and organically interrelated and interconnected dictatorial and chauvinist regimes: (1) the regime of the CUP, under the notorious triumvirate of the three pashas (Üç Paşalar), Talât, Enver, and Cemal, and (2) the rebel government at Samsun and Ankara, under the authority of the Grand National Assembly (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi) and Kemal. Although the process had begun before the Balkan Wars, the final and most decisive period started immediately after WWI and ended with the almost total destruction of the Pontic Greeks ^ Weisband, Edward (2017). The Macabresque: Human Violation and Hate in Genocide, Mass Atrocity and Enemy-Making . Oxford University Press . p. 262. ISBN 978-0-19-067789-3 – via Google Books . ^ Law I, Jacobs A, Kaj N, Pagano S, Koirala BS (20 October 2014). Mediterranean racisms: connections and complexities in the racialization of the Mediterranean region . Basingstoke: Springer. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-137-26347-6 . OCLC 893607294 – via Google Books . ^ Lagos, Ioannis. "Parliamentary question | EU recognition of the genocide of Greeks in Asia Minor | E-004308/2021" . European Parliament . Archived from the original on 16 September 2025 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ a b c Nuhn 1989 . ^ Whitaker Report 1985 . ^ Moses 2008 , p. 296; Sarkin-Hughes 2008 , p. 142; Schaller 2008 , p. 296; Friedrichsmeyer, Lennox & Zantop 1998 , p. 87; Nuhn 1989 ; Hoffmann 2007 , p. 33 ^ "Germany admits Namibia genocide" . BBC News . 14 August 2004. Archived from the original on 27 February 2024 . Retrieved 20 February 2016 . ^ "German minister says sorry for genocide in Namibia" . The Guardian . 16 August 2004. Archived from the original on 24 September 2023 . Retrieved 20 February 2016 . ^ "UN Whitaker Report on Genocide, 1985" . Prevent Genocide International. Archived from the original on 11 February 2024. paragraphs 14 to 24, pages 5 to 10 ^ a b Chapman 2010 , p. 544. ^ a b Adhikari, Mohamed ; Carmichael, Cathie; Jones, Adam ; Kapila, Shruti; Naimark, Norman ; Weitz, Eric D. (2018). "Genocide and Global and/or World History: Reflections". Journal of Genocide Research . 20 (1): 134– 153. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2017.1363476 . S2CID 80081680 . ^ Gigoux 2022 , pp. 1–2. ^ Harambour 2019a , p. ?. ^ Gardini 1984 . ^ Ray 2007 , p. 95. ^ Richmond 2013 ; Levene 2005 , p. 301: "..anything between 1 and 1.5 million Circassians perished either directly, or indirectly, as a result of the Russian military campaign"; Human Rights Association 2023 : "Tsarist Russia pursued a policy of total extermination in the east of the Caucasus, in Dagestan and the Chechen-Ingush region, without discriminating between women and children throughout the war. More than one million Circassians were massacred and many more were exiled from their homeland."; Genel Komite 2014 ^ Shenfield 1999 , p. 154: "The number who died in the Circassian catastrophe of the 1860s could hardly, therefore, be less than one million, and may well have been closer to one-and-a-half million"; Richmond 2013 ; Genel Komite 2014 ; Ahmed 2013 , p. 357: "In the 1860s Russia killed 1.5 million Circassians, half of their population, and expelled the other half from their lands." ^ Messenger, Evan (6 December 2023). "The Circassian Genocide: The Forgotten Tragedy of the First Modern Genocide" . American University: Journal of International Service . The corroboration between both Turkish and Russian documents puts the number of Circassian deaths by military operations and pre-planned massacres between 1.5 – 2 million; ... ^ Richmond 2013 , pp. 1–2; Shenfield 1999 , p. 154; King 2008 ; Jones 2016 , p. 109 ^ * "UNPO: The Circassian Genocide" . unpo.org . 2 November 2009. Archived from the original on 23 May 2024 . Retrieved 26 September 2020 . Javakhishvili, Niko (20 December 2012). "Coverage of The tragedy public Thought (later half of the 19th century)" . justicefornorthcaucasus.info . Tbilisi State University . Retrieved 1 June 2015 . "Postanovleniye Verkhovnogo Soveta K-BSSR ob osuzhdenii genotsida cherkesov ot 7 fevralya 1992 g. N° 977-XII-B" Постановление Верховного Совета К-БССР об осуждении геноцида черкесов от 7 февраля 1992 г. N° 977-XII-B [Decree of the Supreme Council of the K-BSSR on the condemnation of the genocide of the Circassians of February 7, 1992 N ° 977-XII-B]. elot.ru . Archived from the original on 15 July 2012 . Retrieved 13 August 2012 . "Postanovleniye Parlamenta Kabardino-Balkarskoy Respubliki ot 12.05.1994 № 21-P-P (ob obrashchenii v Gosdumu s voprosom priznaniya genotsida cherkesov) Nedostupnaya ssylka" Постановление Парламента Кабардино-Балкарской Республики от 12.05.1994 № 21-П-П (об обращении в Госдуму с вопросом признания геноцида черкесов) Недоступная ссылка [Decree of the Parliament of the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic of May 12, 1994 No. 21-P-P (on applying to the State Duma with the issue of recognizing the genocide of the Circassians) Unavailable link]. parlament-kbr.ru (in Russian). September 2021. [ permanent dead link ] "Postanovleniye GS — Khase Respubliki Adygeya ot 29.04.1996 № 64-1 «Ob obrashchenii k Gosudarstvennoy Dume Federal'nogo Sobraniya Rossiyskoy Federatsii»" Постановление ГС — Хасэ Республики Адыгея от 29.04.1996 № 64-1 «Об обращении к Государственной Думе Федерального Собрания Российской Федерации» [Decree of the State Council – Khase of the Republic of Adygea dated April 29, 1996 No. 64-1 "On Appeal to the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation"]. pravoteka.ru (in Russian). Javakhishvili, Niko (20 December 2012). "Coverage of The tragedy public Thought (later half of the 19th century)" . justicefornorthcaucasus.info . Tbilisi State University . Retrieved 1 June 2015 . "Postanovleniye Verkhovnogo Soveta K-BSSR ob osuzhdenii genotsida cherkesov ot 7 fevralya 1992 g. N° 977-XII-B" Постановление Верховного Совета К-БССР об осуждении геноцида черкесов от 7 февраля 1992 г. N° 977-XII-B [Decree of the Supreme Council of the K-BSSR on the condemnation of the genocide of the Circassians of February 7, 1992 N ° 977-XII-B]. elot.ru . Archived from the original on 15 July 2012 . Retrieved 13 August 2012 . "Postanovleniye Parlamenta Kabardino-Balkarskoy Respubliki ot 12.05.1994 № 21-P-P (ob obrashchenii v Gosdumu s voprosom priznaniya genotsida cherkesov) Nedostupnaya ssylka" Постановление Парламента Кабардино-Балкарской Республики от 12.05.1994 № 21-П-П (об обращении в Госдуму с вопросом признания геноцида черкесов) Недоступная ссылка [Decree of the Parliament of the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic of May 12, 1994 No. 21-P-P (on applying to the State Duma with the issue of recognizing the genocide of the Circassians) Unavailable link]. parlament-kbr.ru (in Russian). September 2021. [ permanent dead link ] "Postanovleniye GS — Khase Respubliki Adygeya ot 29.04.1996 № 64-1 «Ob obrashchenii k Gosudarstvennoy Dume Federal'nogo Sobraniya Rossiyskoy Federatsii»" Постановление ГС — Хасэ Республики Адыгея от 29.04.1996 № 64-1 «Об обращении к Государственной Думе Федерального Собрания Российской Федерации» [Decree of the State Council – Khase of the Republic of Adygea dated April 29, 1996 No. 64-1 "On Appeal to the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation"]. pravoteka.ru (in Russian). ^ Sources: Shenfield 1999 , pp. 149–162: "The number who died in the Circassian catastrophe of the 1860s could hardly, therefore, have been fewer than one million, and may well have been closer to one-and-a-half million" Richmond 2013 King 2008 Cataliotti, Joseph (22 October 2023). "Circassian Genocide: Overview & History" . Study.com . Archived from the original on 20 March 2023. "Circassian Genocide on its 159th Anniversary" . Human Rights Association . 21 May 2023. Archived from the original on 22 August 2023. Shenfield 1999 , pp. 149–162: "The number who died in the Circassian catastrophe of the 1860s could hardly, therefore, have been fewer than one million, and may well have been closer to one-and-a-half million" Richmond 2013 King 2008 Cataliotti, Joseph (22 October 2023). "Circassian Genocide: Overview & History" . Study.com . Archived from the original on 20 March 2023. "Circassian Genocide on its 159th Anniversary" . Human Rights Association . 21 May 2023. Archived from the original on 22 August 2023. ^ a b c d Richmond 2013 , back cover. ^ a b Yemelianova, Galina (April 2014). "Islam, nationalism and state in the Muslim Caucasus" . Caucasus Survey . 1 (2): 3. doi : 10.1080/23761199.2014.11417291 . ^ Üstel, Aziz. "Soykırım mı; işte Çerkes soykırımı" [Is it genocide; here is the Circassian genocide]. star.com.tr (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 20 October 2023 . Retrieved 26 September 2020 . ^ Capobianco, Michael (2012). Blood on the Shore: The Circassian Genocide ^ Gazetesi, Jıneps (2 September 2013). "Velyaminov, Zass ve insan kafası biriktirme hobisi" [Velyaminov, Zass and his hobby of collecting human heads]. Jıneps Gazetesi (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 27 December 2024 . Retrieved 26 September 2020 . ^ Richmond 2013 , p. 132: "If we assume that Berzhe's middle figure of 50,000 was close to the number who survived to settle in the lowlands, then between 95 percent and 97 percent of all Circassians were killed outright, died during Evdokimov's campaign, or were deported." ^ Rosser-Owen, Isla. "The First Circassian Exodus to the Ottoman Empire (1858–1867), and the Ottoman Response, based on the accounts of Contemporary British Observers" (PDF) . Circassianworld . Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 February 2024. ^ King, Charles. The Ghost of Freedom: A History of the Caucasus . p. 95. ^ Madley, Benjamin. An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846–1873 . ^ a b "California Genocide" . PBS . Archived from the original on 8 July 2007 . Retrieved 8 January 2007 . ^ Adhikari, Mohamed (25 July 2022). Destroying to Replace: Settler Genocides of Indigenous Peoples . Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. pp. 72– 115. ISBN 978-1-64792-054-8 . Archived from the original on March 26, 2023 . Retrieved March 21, 2023 . ^ a b c Tatz, Colin (2006). "Confronting Australian Genocide". In Maaka, Roger; Andersen, Chris (eds.). The Indigenous Experience: Global Perspectives . Aboriginal History. Vol. 25. Canadian Scholars Press . pp. 16– 36. ISBN 978-1-55130-300-0 . PMID 19514155 . ^ a b Evans, Raymond; Ørsted–Jensen, Robert (2014-07-09). " "I Cannot Say the Numbers that Were Killed": Assessing Violent Mortality on the Queensland Frontier". AHA (paper). University of Queensland: Social Science Research Network . SSRN 2467836 . ^ Ørsted-Jensen 2011 . ^ Gibbons, Ray. "The Partial Case for Queensland Genocide" . Academia . Archived from the original on 27 December 2023. Baldry, Hannah; McKeon, Alisa; McDougal, Scott (2015). "Queensland's Frontier Killing Times – Facing Up to Genocide" . QUT Law Review . 15 (1): 92– 113. doi : 10.5204/qutlr.v15i1.583 . ISSN 2201-7275 . Palmer, Alison (1998). "Colonial and modern genocide: explanations and categories". Ethnic and Racial Studies . 21 (1): 89– 115. doi : 10.1080/014198798330115 . Gibbons, Ray. "The Partial Case for Queensland Genocide" . Academia . Archived from the original on 27 December 2023. Baldry, Hannah; McKeon, Alisa; McDougal, Scott (2015). "Queensland's Frontier Killing Times – Facing Up to Genocide" . QUT Law Review . 15 (1): 92– 113. doi : 10.5204/qutlr.v15i1.583 . ISSN 2201-7275 . Palmer, Alison (1998). "Colonial and modern genocide: explanations and categories". Ethnic and Racial Studies . 21 (1): 89– 115. doi : 10.1080/014198798330115 . ^ Kopel, Dave; Gallant, Paul; Eisen, Joanne D. (2003-04-11). "A Moriori Lesson: a brief history of pacifism" . National Review . ^ "Tommy Solomon" . Archived from the original on 23 January 2016. ^ Davis, Denise; Solomon, Māui. "Moriori – The impact of new arrivals" . Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Archived from the original on 19 May 2021 . Retrieved 16 May 2021 . ^ a b "The Genocide" . Moriori Genocide . Archived from the original on 11 December 2023 . Retrieved 19 October 2018 . ^ King, Michael (2011). The Silence Beyond . Penguin . p. 190. ISBN 978-1-4596-2301-9 . ^ Davis, Denise; Solomon, Māui (28 October 2008). "Moriori: The impact of new arrivals" . Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand . NZ Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Archived from the original on 2009-01-03 . Retrieved 2009-02-07 . ^ King, Michael (2000). Moriori: a People Rediscovered (Revised ed.). Viking Books . pp. 57– 58. ISBN 0-14-010391-0 . ^ King, Michael (1989). Moriori: A People Rediscovered . Auckland : Viking. p. 136. ^ a b Michael, Nicky; Smith, Beverly Jean; Lowe, William (2021). "Reclaiming Social Justice and Human Rights: The 1830 Indian Removal Act and the Ethnic Cleansing of Native American Tribes". Journal of Health and Human Experience . 6 (1): 25–39 [31]. ^ Minges, Patrick (1998). "Beneath the Underdog: Race, Religion, and the Trail of Tears" . US Data Repository. Archived from the original on October 11, 2013 . Retrieved January 13, 2013 . ^ Keefe, Thomas E. (13–14 April 2019). Native American Genocide: Realities and Denials . First International Conference of the Center for Holocaust, Genocide & Human Rights Studies, University of North Carolina. Charlotte. p. 21. ^ Martin Rogers, Janna Lynell (July 2019). Decolonizing Cherokee History 1790-1830s: American Indian Holocaust, Genocidal Resistance, and Survival (MA). Oklahoma State University . p. 63. ^ Dadrian, Vahakn N. (1975). 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Overall, then, although the U.S. policy of removal was not intended to kill as many Indians as possible, answering the question of genocide for this particular phase of United States–Indian relations with an absolute "no" too easily dismisses the matter. ... In its outcome and in the means used to gain compliance, the policy had genocidal dimensions. ^ Lutz, Regan A. (June 1995). West of Eden: The Historiography of the Trail of Tears (PhD). University of Toledo . pp. 216– 217. ^ Michael, Smith & Lowe 2021 , p. 27. ^ Piecuch, Jim (7 December 2014). "Perspective 1: three Centuries of Genocide". In Bartrop, Paul R. ; Jacobs, Steven Leonard (eds.). Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection . ABC-CLIO . ISBN 978-1-61069-363-9 . ^ Basso, Andrew R. (6 March 2016). "Towards a Theory of Displacement Atrocities: The Cherokee Trail of Tears, The Herero Genocide, and The Pontic Greek Genocide". 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"Can there be genocide without the intent to commit genocide?". Journal of Genocide Research . 9 (4): 661–674 [669]. doi : 10.1080/14623520701644457 . ^ MacDonald, David B. (2015). "Canada's history wars: indigenous genocide and public memory in the United States, Australia and Canada". Journal of Genocide Research . 17 (4): 411–431 [415]. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2015.1096583 . ^ Bowser, Benjamin P.; Word, Carl O.; Shaw, Kate (2021). "Ongoing Genocides and the Need for Healing: The Cases of Native and African Americans" . Genocide Studies and Prevention . 15 (3): 83–99 [86]. doi : 10.5038/1911-9933.15.3.1785 . ^ French, Laurence (June 1978). "The Death of a Nation". American Indian Journal . 4 (6): 2–9 [2]. ^ Slocum, Melissa Michal (2018). "There Is No Question of American Indian Genocide". Transmotion . 4 (2): 1– 30 [4]. doi : 10.22024/UniKent/03/tm.651 . ^ Budhathoki, Thir Bahadur (December 2013). Literary Rendition of Genocide in Cherokee Fiction (MPhil). 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The Great Rebellion and the Haitian slave uprising are two examples of what we refer to as "subaltern genocide": cases in which subaltern actors—those objectively oppressed and disempowered—adopt genocidal strategies to vanquish their[...] – Also stated in Jones, Adam (26 June 2013). "11: "Subaltern genocide: Genocides by the oppressed." " . The Scourge of Genocide: Essays and Reflections . Routledge . p. 169. ISBN 978-1-135-04715-3 – via Google Books . A contrasting view is given by Gaffield, Julia (6 August 2021). "Five myths about the Haitian Revolution" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 5 October 2024 . Anti-colonialism is not genocide. ^ Moses, A. Dirk ; Stone, Dan (2013). Colonialism and Genocide . Routledge . p. 63. ISBN 978-1-317-99753-5 . ^ Forde, James (2020). The Early Haitian State and the Question of Political Legitimacy: American and British Representations of Haiti, 1804—1824 . Springer. p. 40. ISBN 978-3-030-52608-5 . ^ a b c d Adhikari, Mohamed (2023). 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Hispanic American Historical Review . 82 (3): 589– 635. doi : 10.1215/00182168-82-3-589 . S2CID 143872486 . Archived from the original on 13 February 2017 . Retrieved 26 June 2020 . Turits, Richard Lee (2004). Foundations of Despotism: Peasants, the Trujillo Regime, and Modernity in Dominican History . Stanford University Press . De Vogli, Roberto; Montomoli, Jonathan; Abu-Sittah, Ghassan; Pappé, Ilan (2025). "Break the selective silence on the genocide in Gaza". The Lancet . 406 (10504). Supplementary appendix pp. 3–4 . doi : 10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01541-7 . PMID 40752501 . Wei, Yuan (1842). Shèng wǔ jì 聖武記 [ The Legend of the Sacred Warriors ] (in Chinese). Vol. 4. Jì shù shí wàn hù zhōng, xiān dòu sǐzhě shí zhī sì, jì cuàn rù èluósī hāsàkè zhě shí zhī èr, zú jiān yú dàbīng zhě shí zhī sān. Chú fùrú chōng shǎng wài, zhìjīn wéi lái jiàng shòu tún zhī è lǔ tè ruògān hù, biān shè zuǒ lǐng áng jí, cǐwài shù qiān lǐ jiān, wú wǎlá yī zhān zhàng. 計數十萬戶中，先痘死者十之四，繼竄入俄羅斯哈薩克者十之二，卒殲於大兵者十之三。除婦孺充賞外，至今惟來降受屯之厄鲁特若干戶，編設佐領昂吉，此外數千里間，無瓦剌一氊帳。 [Among the hundreds of thousands of households, four out of ten died of pox first, two out of ten fled into Russian Kazakhs, and three out of ten were killed by the soldiers. In addition to the generous rewards for women and children, so far only a few families from Erut who have come to the camp have set up assistants and leaders Angji. In addition, there is not a single tent with tiles or tiles for thousands of miles.] Weiss-Wendt, Anton (2017). The Soviet Union and the Gutting of the UN Genocide Convention . University of Wisconsin Press . ISBN 978-0-299-31290-9 . Werth, Nicolas (2004). "Strategies of Violence in the Stalinist USSR" . In Rousso, Henry ; Golsan, Richard Joseph (eds.). Stalinism and Nazism: History and Memory Compared . University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-9000-6 . LCCN 2003026805 . "Revised and Updated Report on the Question of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide". Whitaker Report . United Nations. 1985. According to the 1985 United Nations' Whitaker Report, some 65,000 Herero (80 per cent of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Nama (50% of the total Nama population) were killed between 1904 and 1907 Williams, Dianne (2012). Race, Ethnicity, and Crime (soft cover ed.). Algora Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87586-915-5 . Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote v t e Genocide v t e Genocides ( chronological list ) Before 1490 Destruction of Carthage (146 BCE) Asiatic Vespers (88 BCE) Gauls (50s BCE) Eburones Bar Kokhba (132–136) Ancestral Puebloans (800s) Harrying of the North (1069–1070) Mongol conquests (1200s–1360s) Cathars (1209–1229) Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate (1311) Timurid conquests (1393–1394) Guanches (1402–1496) 1490 to 1912 Taíno (1493–1550) Jaragua massacre (1503) Ainu (1500s–) Indigenous peoples in Brazil 11th Parallel massacre (1963) Tanaru (1970s–2009) Helmet massacre (1988) Akuntsu (1990) Haximu (1993) Yanomami (2019–2023) Aztecs (1521) Kashmiri Shias (1548–1872) Huguenots (1572) Kalinago (1626) Indigenous peoples in the United States Pequots (1636–1638) Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Huron Sullivan Expedition (1779) Indian removal (1830–1847) Trail of Tears (1830–1850) California (1846–1873) Dakota (1862) Osage Indian murders (1918–1931) Cultural genocide Indigenous peoples in Canada Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Beothuk (1700s–1800s) Residential school system (1874–1996) Sixties Scoop (1951–1985) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate (1648–1657) 1740 Batavia massacre (1740) Great Gypsy Round-up (1749) Dzungars (1750s) Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II (1780–1783) Chechens (1785–2017) French Hatians (1804) Meiteis (1819–1826) Indigenous peoples in Australia Black War (1825–1832) Stolen Generations (1869–1977) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Pacification of Algeria (1830–1875) El Ouffia Charrúa (1831) Moriori (1835) Assyrians in Hakkari (1843–1846) Manchus (1850–1864) Circassians (1860s) Mapuche (1870s–1884) Indigenous peoples in Putumayo (1879–1913) Congolese (1885–1908) Hazaras (1888–1893) Selknam (1890s–1900s) Hamidian massacres (1894–1896) Herero and Nama (1904–1907) Ukame (1905–1907) Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) 1913 to 1945 Late Ottoman genocides Greeks (1913–1923) Pontic Greeks Thracian Bulgarians (1913) Assyrians (1915–1919) Armenians (1915–1917) Christians in Diyarbekir (1915) Kurds (1916–1934) Indigenous peoples in Venezuela Pemon Kyrgyz (1916–1917) Jews during the Russian Civil War (1917–1920) Russian White Terror Cossacks (1919–1933) Ingrian Finns (1920s–1930s) Volga Tatars and Germans (1921–1922) Kantō Massacre (1923) Napalpí massacre (1924) Swiss Yenish, Sinti, and Manouche (1926–1973) Japanese war crimes in the Pacific War Manchukuo (1931–1945) Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938) Three Alls policy (1940–1942) Sook Ching (1942) Nanshitou massacre (1942–1945) Libyan Arabs (1929–1934) Kazakhs (1930–1933) La Matanza (1932) Holodomor (1932–1933) Simele massacre (1933) Romani Holocaust (1935–1945) Spanish White Terror (1936–1947) Yekatit 12 (1937) Polish Operation (1937–1938) Alevi Kurds (1937–1938) Parsley massacre (1937) Generalplan Ost (1939–1945) Poland Baltic lands Croatia Czech lands Ukraine Hunger Plan The Holocaust (1941–1945) German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs (1941–1945) Serbs in Croatia (1941–1945) Muslims and Croats in Serbia (1941–1945) Volhynian and Eastern Galician Poles (1943–1945) Chechens and Ingush (1944–1948) Crimean Tatars (1944–1948) 1946 to 1999 Hyderabadi Muslims (1948) Indigenous peoples in Paraguay (1956–1989) Maya (1962–1996) Papua (1962–) Arab and Indian Zanzibaris (1964) 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom (1966) Biafra (1966–1970) Equatoguinean (1969–1979) Feyli Kurds (1970–2003) Bangladesh (1971) Acholi and Lango (1972–1979) Burundi 1972 1993 East Timor (1974–1999) Cambodian (1975–1979) Jummas (1977–1997) Afghans (1979–1989) Baganda (1981–1985) Iran massacres 1981–1982 1988 Hama massacre (1982) Sabra and Shatila massacre (1982) Sri Lankan Tamils (1983–2009) Gukurahundi (1983–1987) Anfal (1986–1989) Isaaq (1987–1989) National Population Program (1987–2002) Ahwaris (1991–2003) Bosnian (1992–1995) Srebrenica massacre Rwandan (1994) Hutus during the First Congo War (1996–1997) 21st century Effacer le tableau (2002–2003) Darfur genocide 2003–2005 2023– Masalit genocide (2023–) Iraqi Sunni Arabs (2003–) Iraqi Turkmen (2014–2017) Yazidis (2014–2017) Shias under ISIS (2014–) Christians under ISIS (2014–) Rohingyas, Kachins, and other Burmese Muslims (2017–) Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs (2020–2022) Ukrainians, Crimean Tatars, and other Ukrainian nationals (2022–) Bucha massacre (2022) Gaza genocide (2023–) Before 1490 Destruction of Carthage (146 BCE) Asiatic Vespers (88 BCE) Gauls (50s BCE) Eburones Bar Kokhba (132–136) Ancestral Puebloans (800s) Harrying of the North (1069–1070) Mongol conquests (1200s–1360s) Cathars (1209–1229) Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate (1311) Timurid conquests (1393–1394) Guanches (1402–1496) Before 1490 Destruction of Carthage (146 BCE) Asiatic Vespers (88 BCE) Gauls (50s BCE) Eburones Bar Kokhba (132–136) Ancestral Puebloans (800s) Harrying of the North (1069–1070) Mongol conquests (1200s–1360s) Cathars (1209–1229) Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate (1311) Timurid conquests (1393–1394) Guanches (1402–1496) Destruction of Carthage (146 BCE) Asiatic Vespers (88 BCE) Gauls (50s BCE) Eburones Eburones Bar Kokhba (132–136) Ancestral Puebloans (800s) Harrying of the North (1069–1070) Mongol conquests (1200s–1360s) Cathars (1209–1229) Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate (1311) Timurid conquests (1393–1394) Guanches (1402–1496) 1490 to 1912 Taíno (1493–1550) Jaragua massacre (1503) Ainu (1500s–) Indigenous peoples in Brazil 11th Parallel massacre (1963) Tanaru (1970s–2009) Helmet massacre (1988) Akuntsu (1990) Haximu (1993) Yanomami (2019–2023) Aztecs (1521) Kashmiri Shias (1548–1872) Huguenots (1572) Kalinago (1626) Indigenous peoples in the United States Pequots (1636–1638) Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Huron Sullivan Expedition (1779) Indian removal (1830–1847) Trail of Tears (1830–1850) California (1846–1873) Dakota (1862) Osage Indian murders (1918–1931) Cultural genocide Indigenous peoples in Canada Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Beothuk (1700s–1800s) Residential school system (1874–1996) Sixties Scoop (1951–1985) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate (1648–1657) 1740 Batavia massacre (1740) Great Gypsy Round-up (1749) Dzungars (1750s) Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II (1780–1783) Chechens (1785–2017) French Hatians (1804) Meiteis (1819–1826) Indigenous peoples in Australia Black War (1825–1832) Stolen Generations (1869–1977) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Pacification of Algeria (1830–1875) El Ouffia Charrúa (1831) Moriori (1835) Assyrians in Hakkari (1843–1846) Manchus (1850–1864) Circassians (1860s) Mapuche (1870s–1884) Indigenous peoples in Putumayo (1879–1913) Congolese (1885–1908) Hazaras (1888–1893) Selknam (1890s–1900s) Hamidian massacres (1894–1896) Herero and Nama (1904–1907) Ukame (1905–1907) Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) 1490 to 1912 Taíno (1493–1550) Jaragua massacre (1503) Ainu (1500s–) Indigenous peoples in Brazil 11th Parallel massacre (1963) Tanaru (1970s–2009) Helmet massacre (1988) Akuntsu (1990) Haximu (1993) Yanomami (2019–2023) Aztecs (1521) Kashmiri Shias (1548–1872) Huguenots (1572) Kalinago (1626) Indigenous peoples in the United States Pequots (1636–1638) Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Huron Sullivan Expedition (1779) Indian removal (1830–1847) Trail of Tears (1830–1850) California (1846–1873) Dakota (1862) Osage Indian murders (1918–1931) Cultural genocide Indigenous peoples in Canada Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Beothuk (1700s–1800s) Residential school system (1874–1996) Sixties Scoop (1951–1985) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate (1648–1657) 1740 Batavia massacre (1740) Great Gypsy Round-up (1749) Dzungars (1750s) Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II (1780–1783) Chechens (1785–2017) French Hatians (1804) Meiteis (1819–1826) Indigenous peoples in Australia Black War (1825–1832) Stolen Generations (1869–1977) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Pacification of Algeria (1830–1875) El Ouffia Charrúa (1831) Moriori (1835) Assyrians in Hakkari (1843–1846) Manchus (1850–1864) Circassians (1860s) Mapuche (1870s–1884) Indigenous peoples in Putumayo (1879–1913) Congolese (1885–1908) Hazaras (1888–1893) Selknam (1890s–1900s) Hamidian massacres (1894–1896) Herero and Nama (1904–1907) Ukame (1905–1907) Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) Taíno (1493–1550) Jaragua massacre (1503) Jaragua massacre (1503) Ainu (1500s–) Indigenous peoples in Brazil 11th Parallel massacre (1963) Tanaru (1970s–2009) Helmet massacre (1988) Akuntsu (1990) Haximu (1993) Yanomami (2019–2023) 11th Parallel massacre (1963) Tanaru (1970s–2009) Helmet massacre (1988) Akuntsu (1990) Haximu (1993) Yanomami (2019–2023) Aztecs (1521) Kashmiri Shias (1548–1872) Huguenots (1572) Kalinago (1626) Indigenous peoples in the United States Pequots (1636–1638) Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Huron Sullivan Expedition (1779) Indian removal (1830–1847) Trail of Tears (1830–1850) California (1846–1873) Dakota (1862) Osage Indian murders (1918–1931) Cultural genocide Pequots (1636–1638) Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Huron Huron Sullivan Expedition (1779) Indian removal (1830–1847) Trail of Tears (1830–1850) California (1846–1873) Dakota (1862) Osage Indian murders (1918–1931) Cultural genocide Indigenous peoples in Canada Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Beothuk (1700s–1800s) Residential school system (1874–1996) Sixties Scoop (1951–1985) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Beaver Wars (1609–1701) Beothuk (1700s–1800s) Residential school system (1874–1996) Sixties Scoop (1951–1985) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate (1648–1657) 1740 Batavia massacre (1740) Great Gypsy Round-up (1749) Dzungars (1750s) Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II (1780–1783) Chechens (1785–2017) French Hatians (1804) Meiteis (1819–1826) Indigenous peoples in Australia Black War (1825–1832) Stolen Generations (1869–1977) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Black War (1825–1832) Stolen Generations (1869–1977) Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Pacification of Algeria (1830–1875) El Ouffia El Ouffia Charrúa (1831) Moriori (1835) Assyrians in Hakkari (1843–1846) Manchus (1850–1864) Circassians (1860s) Mapuche (1870s–1884) Indigenous peoples in Putumayo (1879–1913) Congolese (1885–1908) Hazaras (1888–1893) Selknam (1890s–1900s) Hamidian massacres (1894–1896) Herero and Nama (1904–1907) Ukame (1905–1907) Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) 1913 to 1945 Late Ottoman genocides Greeks (1913–1923) Pontic Greeks Thracian Bulgarians (1913) Assyrians (1915–1919) Armenians (1915–1917) Christians in Diyarbekir (1915) Kurds (1916–1934) Indigenous peoples in Venezuela Pemon Kyrgyz (1916–1917) Jews during the Russian Civil War (1917–1920) Russian White Terror Cossacks (1919–1933) Ingrian Finns (1920s–1930s) Volga Tatars and Germans (1921–1922) Kantō Massacre (1923) Napalpí massacre (1924) Swiss Yenish, Sinti, and Manouche (1926–1973) Japanese war crimes in the Pacific War Manchukuo (1931–1945) Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938) Three Alls policy (1940–1942) Sook Ching (1942) Nanshitou massacre (1942–1945) Libyan Arabs (1929–1934) Kazakhs (1930–1933) La Matanza (1932) Holodomor (1932–1933) Simele massacre (1933) Romani Holocaust (1935–1945) Spanish White Terror (1936–1947) Yekatit 12 (1937) Polish Operation (1937–1938) Alevi Kurds (1937–1938) Parsley massacre (1937) Generalplan Ost (1939–1945) Poland Baltic lands Croatia Czech lands Ukraine Hunger Plan The Holocaust (1941–1945) German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs (1941–1945) Serbs in Croatia (1941–1945) Muslims and Croats in Serbia (1941–1945) Volhynian and Eastern Galician Poles (1943–1945) Chechens and Ingush (1944–1948) Crimean Tatars (1944–1948) 1913 to 1945 Late Ottoman genocides Greeks (1913–1923) Pontic Greeks Thracian Bulgarians (1913) Assyrians (1915–1919) Armenians (1915–1917) Christians in Diyarbekir (1915) Kurds (1916–1934) Indigenous peoples in Venezuela Pemon Kyrgyz (1916–1917) Jews during the Russian Civil War (1917–1920) Russian White Terror Cossacks (1919–1933) Ingrian Finns (1920s–1930s) Volga Tatars and Germans (1921–1922) Kantō Massacre (1923) Napalpí massacre (1924) Swiss Yenish, Sinti, and Manouche (1926–1973) Japanese war crimes in the Pacific War Manchukuo (1931–1945) Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938) Three Alls policy (1940–1942) Sook Ching (1942) Nanshitou massacre (1942–1945) Libyan Arabs (1929–1934) Kazakhs (1930–1933) La Matanza (1932) Holodomor (1932–1933) Simele massacre (1933) Romani Holocaust (1935–1945) Spanish White Terror (1936–1947) Yekatit 12 (1937) Polish Operation (1937–1938) Alevi Kurds (1937–1938) Parsley massacre (1937) Generalplan Ost (1939–1945) Poland Baltic lands Croatia Czech lands Ukraine Hunger Plan The Holocaust (1941–1945) German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs (1941–1945) Serbs in Croatia (1941–1945) Muslims and Croats in Serbia (1941–1945) Volhynian and Eastern Galician Poles (1943–1945) Chechens and Ingush (1944–1948) Crimean Tatars (1944–1948) Late Ottoman genocides Greeks (1913–1923) Pontic Greeks Thracian Bulgarians (1913) Assyrians (1915–1919) Armenians (1915–1917) Christians in Diyarbekir (1915) Kurds (1916–1934) Greeks (1913–1923) Pontic Greeks Pontic Greeks Thracian Bulgarians (1913) Assyrians (1915–1919) Armenians (1915–1917) Christians in Diyarbekir (1915) Kurds (1916–1934) Indigenous peoples in Venezuela Pemon Pemon Kyrgyz (1916–1917) Jews during the Russian Civil War (1917–1920) Russian White Terror Russian White Terror Cossacks (1919–1933) Ingrian Finns (1920s–1930s) Volga Tatars and Germans (1921–1922) Kantō Massacre (1923) Napalpí massacre (1924) Swiss Yenish, Sinti, and Manouche (1926–1973) Japanese war crimes in the Pacific War Manchukuo (1931–1945) Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938) Three Alls policy (1940–1942) Sook Ching (1942) Nanshitou massacre (1942–1945) Manchukuo (1931–1945) Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938) Three Alls policy (1940–1942) Sook Ching (1942) Nanshitou massacre (1942–1945) Libyan Arabs (1929–1934) Kazakhs (1930–1933) La Matanza (1932) Holodomor (1932–1933) Simele massacre (1933) Romani Holocaust (1935–1945) Spanish White Terror (1936–1947) Yekatit 12 (1937) Polish Operation (1937–1938) Alevi Kurds (1937–1938) Parsley massacre (1937) Generalplan Ost (1939–1945) Poland Baltic lands Croatia Czech lands Ukraine Hunger Plan Poland Baltic lands Croatia Czech lands Ukraine Hunger Plan The Holocaust (1941–1945) German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs (1941–1945) Serbs in Croatia (1941–1945) Muslims and Croats in Serbia (1941–1945) Volhynian and Eastern Galician Poles (1943–1945) Chechens and Ingush (1944–1948) Crimean Tatars (1944–1948) 1946 to 1999 Hyderabadi Muslims (1948) Indigenous peoples in Paraguay (1956–1989) Maya (1962–1996) Papua (1962–) Arab and Indian Zanzibaris (1964) 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom (1966) Biafra (1966–1970) Equatoguinean (1969–1979) Feyli Kurds (1970–2003) Bangladesh (1971) Acholi and Lango (1972–1979) Burundi 1972 1993 East Timor (1974–1999) Cambodian (1975–1979) Jummas (1977–1997) Afghans (1979–1989) Baganda (1981–1985) Iran massacres 1981–1982 1988 Hama massacre (1982) Sabra and Shatila massacre (1982) Sri Lankan Tamils (1983–2009) Gukurahundi (1983–1987) Anfal (1986–1989) Isaaq (1987–1989) National Population Program (1987–2002) Ahwaris (1991–2003) Bosnian (1992–1995) Srebrenica massacre Rwandan (1994) Hutus during the First Congo War (1996–1997) 1946 to 1999 Hyderabadi Muslims (1948) Indigenous peoples in Paraguay (1956–1989) Maya (1962–1996) Papua (1962–) Arab and Indian Zanzibaris (1964) 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom (1966) Biafra (1966–1970) Equatoguinean (1969–1979) Feyli Kurds (1970–2003) Bangladesh (1971) Acholi and Lango (1972–1979) Burundi 1972 1993 East Timor (1974–1999) Cambodian (1975–1979) Jummas (1977–1997) Afghans (1979–1989) Baganda (1981–1985) Iran massacres 1981–1982 1988 Hama massacre (1982) Sabra and Shatila massacre (1982) Sri Lankan Tamils (1983–2009) Gukurahundi (1983–1987) Anfal (1986–1989) Isaaq (1987–1989) National Population Program (1987–2002) Ahwaris (1991–2003) Bosnian (1992–1995) Srebrenica massacre Rwandan (1994) Hutus during the First Congo War (1996–1997) Hyderabadi Muslims (1948) Indigenous peoples in Paraguay (1956–1989) Maya (1962–1996) Papua (1962–) Arab and Indian Zanzibaris (1964) 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom (1966) Biafra (1966–1970) Equatoguinean (1969–1979) Feyli Kurds (1970–2003) Bangladesh (1971) Acholi and Lango (1972–1979) Burundi 1972 1993 1972 1993 East Timor (1974–1999) Cambodian (1975–1979) Jummas (1977–1997) Afghans (1979–1989) Baganda (1981–1985) Iran massacres 1981–1982 1988 1981–1982 1988 Hama massacre (1982) Sabra and Shatila massacre (1982) Sri Lankan Tamils (1983–2009) Gukurahundi (1983–1987) Anfal (1986–1989) Isaaq (1987–1989) National Population Program (1987–2002) Ahwaris (1991–2003) Bosnian (1992–1995) Srebrenica massacre Srebrenica massacre Rwandan (1994) Hutus during the First Congo War (1996–1997) 21st century Effacer le tableau (2002–2003) Darfur genocide 2003–2005 2023– Masalit genocide (2023–) Iraqi Sunni Arabs (2003–) Iraqi Turkmen (2014–2017) Yazidis (2014–2017) Shias under ISIS (2014–) Christians under ISIS (2014–) Rohingyas, Kachins, and other Burmese Muslims (2017–) Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs (2020–2022) Ukrainians, Crimean Tatars, and other Ukrainian nationals (2022–) Bucha massacre (2022) Gaza genocide (2023–) 21st century Effacer le tableau (2002–2003) Darfur genocide 2003–2005 2023– Masalit genocide (2023–) Iraqi Sunni Arabs (2003–) Iraqi Turkmen (2014–2017) Yazidis (2014–2017) Shias under ISIS (2014–) Christians under ISIS (2014–) Rohingyas, Kachins, and other Burmese Muslims (2017–) Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs (2020–2022) Ukrainians, Crimean Tatars, and other Ukrainian nationals (2022–) Bucha massacre (2022) Gaza genocide (2023–) Effacer le tableau (2002–2003) Darfur genocide 2003–2005 2023– Masalit genocide (2023–) 2003–2005 2023– Masalit genocide (2023–) Masalit genocide (2023–) Iraqi Sunni Arabs (2003–) Iraqi Turkmen (2014–2017) Yazidis (2014–2017) Shias under ISIS (2014–) Christians under ISIS (2014–) Rohingyas, Kachins, and other Burmese Muslims (2017–) Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs (2020–2022) Ukrainians, Crimean Tatars, and other Ukrainian nationals (2022–) Bucha massacre (2022) Bucha massacre (2022) Gaza genocide (2023–) Terms Cultural genocide Democide Autogenocide Domicide Ecocide Ethnocide Eugenics Gendercide Androcide Femicide Transfemicide Transgender genocide Genocide Convention Genocide of indigenous peoples Memoricide Policide Politicide Classicide Eliticide Utilitarian genocide War of annihilation Cultural genocide Democide Autogenocide Autogenocide Domicide Ecocide Ethnocide Eugenics Gendercide Androcide Femicide Transfemicide Transgender genocide Androcide Femicide Transfemicide Transgender genocide Genocide Convention Genocide of indigenous peoples Memoricide Policide Politicide Classicide Eliticide Classicide Eliticide Eliticide Utilitarian genocide War of annihilation Methods Death marches Death squads Ethnic cleansing Extermination camp Forced adoption Forced assimilation Forced conversion Incitement Massacres Killing Fields Pogroms Mass killing Rape Settler colonialism Urbicide Death marches Death squads Ethnic cleansing Extermination camp Forced adoption Forced assimilation Forced conversion Incitement Massacres Killing Fields Pogroms Killing Fields Pogroms Mass killing Rape Settler colonialism Urbicide Denial The Holocaust Trivialization Armenian Japanese history textbook controversies Nanjing Serbian Bosnian Rwandan Holodomor Cambodian Indigenous Gaza The Holocaust Trivialization Trivialization Armenian Japanese history textbook controversies Nanjing Serbian Bosnian Rwandan Holodomor Cambodian Indigenous Gaza Issues Definitions Names of the Holocaust Terminology of the Armenian genocide Holocaust terminology Genocide law Prevention Effects on young survivors Politics of recognition Justification Mass killings under communist regimes Anti-communist mass killings Definitions Names of the Holocaust Terminology of the Armenian genocide Holocaust terminology Names of the Holocaust Terminology of the Armenian genocide Holocaust terminology Genocide law Prevention Effects on young survivors Politics of recognition Justification Mass killings under communist regimes Anti-communist mass killings Legal proceedings Holocaust trials (1943–2022) Krasnodar trial (1943) Kharkov trial (1943) Épuration légale (1944–1951) Majdanek trials (1944–1989) Chełmno trials (1945–2001) Dachau trials (1945–1947) Belsen trials (1945–1948) Euthanasia trials (1945–1949) Nuremberg trial (1945–1946) Minsk trial (1945–1946) Riga trial (1946) Stutthof trials (1946–1947) Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials (1946–1953) Supreme National Tribunal (1946–1948) Hamburg 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Biography 2 Family and personal life 3 Works Toggle Works subsection 3.1 Novel 3.2 Other books 3.3 Children literature 3.4 Songs 3.5 Plays 3.6 Incomplete plays 3.7 Film 3.8 Poems 3.1 Novel 3.2 Other books 3.3 Children literature 3.4 Songs 3.5 Plays 3.6 Incomplete plays 3.7 Film 3.8 Poems 4 Stamp 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Jyoti Prasad Agarwala অসমীয়া বাংলা हिन्दी Malagasy മലയാളം مصرى ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Русский Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Jyoti Prasad Agarwala Agarwala on a 2004 stamp of India Born ( 1903-06-17 ) 17 June 1903 Tamulbari Tea Estate, Dibrugarh district , Assam, India Died 17 January 1951 (1951-01-17) (aged 47) Tezpur , Darrang , Assam Other names Rupkonwar Occupations .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Lyricist music composer poet dramatist writer filmmaker film director film producer independence activist Lyricist music composer poet dramatist writer filmmaker film director film producer independence activist Years active 1932–1951 Spouse Devajani Bhuyan Children 7 Jyoti Prasad Agarwala (17 June 1903 – 17 January 1951) was a noted Indian playwright, songwriter, poet, writer and film maker from Assam . He was deeply revered for his creative vision and output and is popularly called the Rupkonwar of Assamese culture. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] In fact, he is regarded as the founder of Assamese cinema for Joymoti (1935). [ 5 ] He was also active as freedom fighter and involved in India's independence movement Quit India Movement . His death day anniversary (17 January) is observed as Silpi divas (Artists' Day) his honor. Biography Jyoti Prasad Agarwala was born on 17 June 1903 to an Agrawal family, to Paramananda Agarwala(1869–1934) and Kiranmoyee Devi(Died in 1933) at Tamulbari Tea Estate. His uncles were renowned poets Chandra Kumar Agarwala and Ananda Chandra Agarwala . His forefather, Nabrangram Agarwala(1811–1865), had come to Assam in 1811 from the Marwar region in Rajasthan . After completing his studies in various schools in Assam and Calcutta , he matriculated in 1921. He went to Edinburgh in 1926 to study economics, but returned in 1930 before completing his course. On his way back, he spent seven months at the UFA studio in Germany learning film-making. After his return to Assam, he continued his activities for Indian independence that had disrupted his studies earlier and in 1932 he was imprisoned for fifteen months. He established the Chitraban Studio at the Bholaguri Tea Estate and began filming the movie Joymoti around the end of 1933. This was the first film from Assam . The film, released in 1935, was based on a play by Laxminath Bezbarua about the heroic Ahom princess Sati Joymoti imprisoned and tortured by a repressive Ahom swargadeo. In 1936 he married Devajani Bhuyan. In 1941 he participated in the freedom movement, and in 1942, he went underground to escape British repression. Toward the end of his life he moved from a romantic to a more radical vision, which was reflected in his works. [ 6 ] He died of cancer on 17 January 1951 at his residence Poki in Tezpur , Assam , India. Family and personal life Jyoti Prasad Agarwala shared a deeply devoted marriage with his wife, Late Devajani Agarwala, whom he married in 1936. Together, they built a large and close-knit family. They had two sons— Late Chinmay Agarwala and Late Biswendu Agarwala—and five daughters: Jaisree, married to Late Satyabrat Chaliha; Jnanashree, married to Late Prof.Priyalal Pathak; Satyasree, married to Late Anil Das; Hemasree, married to Late Anal Chaliha; and Manasree, married to Late Jogen Hazarika. Jyoti Prasad Agarwala was known not only for his contributions to society but also for his personal values. He was regarded as a visionary, a compassionate father, and a devoted husband. His strong sense of responsibility and integrity shaped the way he guided his family. He always upheld fairness, kindness, and education as core principles, nurturing his children with a clear vision for a dignified and meaningful life. His legacy continues through the values he instilled in the generations that followed. Today, his legacy is carried forward not only by his children and grandchildren but also by sixteen great-grandchildren, born to the grandchildren of his five daughters. Through them, the family continues to grow, honouring his ideals and preserving the lineage he nurtured with such care. Works Short Stories Rupohi (ৰূপহী) Bogitora (বগীতৰা) Xontora (সোণতৰা) Xuntir Abhimaan (সোণটিৰ অভিমান) Zuzaru (যুঁজাৰু) Xotir Xuworoni (সতীৰ সোঁৱৰণী) Xondhya (সন্ধ্যা) Pratnatattikar Kalaaghumati (প্ৰত্নতাত্ত্বিকৰ কলাঘুমটি) Neela Charai (নীলা চৰাই) and more. Novel Amar Gaon(আমাৰ গাঁও) Other books Jyotidhara(জ্যোতিধৰা) Chandrakumar Agarwala(চন্দ্ৰ কুমাৰ আগৰৱালা) Background of Assamese Architecture(অসমীয়া শিল্পকলাৰ ইতিহাস) Children literature He wrote about thirteen children's poems, among which Kumpur Xopon (কুম্পুৰ সপোন) is noteworthy. Songs Jyoti Prasad Agarwala had written around 300+ songs, many of which he had set to music himself. Collectively, these songs are called Jyoti xongit (জ্যোতি সংগীত). [ 7 ] Plays Sonit Kunwori(শোণিত কুঁৱৰী) (1925) Karengar Ligiri(কাৰেঙৰ লিগিৰী) (1930) Rupalim(ৰূপালীম) (1938) Nimati Konya(নিমাতী কইনা) (1964) Xonpokhilee(সোণপখিলী) Khanikar(খনিকৰ) (1977) Lobhita(লভিতা) (1945) Incomplete plays Kanaklata(কনকলতা) Sundarknowar(সুন্দৰ কোঁৱৰ) Sonpakhilee(সোণপখিলী) Film Agarwala is lauded as the creator of Assamese cinema . In a period that saw the beginning of Indian Cinema, with. Joymoti (জয়মতী) [ 8 ] (1935) Indramalati (ইন্দ্ৰমালতী) [ 9 ] (1939) Poems Jyoti Raamaayon (জ্যোতি ৰামায়ণ) – Poetry Collection Luitor Paaror Agnixur (লুইতৰ পাৰৰ অগ্নিসুৰ) – Poetry Collection, 1971 Stamp In honor of Agarwala's contributions to Assamese literature and film, the Government of Assam issued a commemorative stamp of "Agarwala" in 2004. It was pushed for by the AGP and approved by the Prime Minister of India in mid-2004. [ 10 ] See also List of Indian poets Assamese literature History of Assamese literature List of Assamese-language poets Jyoti Chitraban Film and Television Institute List of Assamese writers with their pen names References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "All Assam theatres to be renovated: Actor" . www.telegraphindia.com . Retrieved 24 November 2019 . ^ "Jyotiprasad Agarwala : The Sagacious Artist » Northeast Today" . Northeast Today . 17 January 2019 . Retrieved 24 November 2019 . ^ Baruah, Parthajit (5 October 2018). "Giving voice to the voiceless" . The Hindu . ISSN 0971-751X . Retrieved 24 November 2019 . ^ "Xilpi'r Xonkolpo: Zubeen Garg leads artiste protests against Citizenship Bill" . The Indian Express . 18 January 2019 . Retrieved 24 November 2019 . ^ Piracy, bad halls, poor story-line killing Assamese cinema . The Hindu . 20 September 2006 ^ PadmaHriday Sangrakshan Sangrahalay Life Archived 28 February 2004 at the Wayback Machine ^ PadmaHriday Sangrakshan Sangrahalay Music Archived 11 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ Joymati (1935) . IMDB ^ Jyotiprasad Agarwala (1903–1951) . IMDB ^ Centre clears stamp on Jyoti Prasad NENA – 22 July 2003 External links Rupaliparda.com – About Jyoti Prasad Agarwalla Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States United States Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz Other IdRef Open Library 2 Yale LUX IdRef Open Library 2 2 Yale LUX 1903 births 1951 deaths Musicians from Assam Assamese-language poets Dramatists and playwrights from Assam Assamese-language film directors People from Sonitpur district 20th-century Indian poets 20th-century Indian musicians 20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights Film directors from Assam Poets from Assam Writers from Assam Writers from Northeast India Assamese-language lyricists Deaths from cancer in India Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from November 2018 Use Indian English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English Articles with hCards Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 27 November 2025, at 11:58 (UTC) . 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Glavna stranica Istaknuti članci Nedavne izmjene Nasumičan članak Pomoć Pijaca Radionica Novosti Discord Doniranje Izrada računa Prijava Doniranje Izrada računa Prijava Wikipedija : Opće odricanje odgovornosti Afrikaans Alemannisch Aragonés العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Boarisch Bikol Central Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bamanankan বাংলা བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Буряад Català 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Cebuano کوردی Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eʋegbe Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Võro Føroyskt Français Nordfriisk Furlan Gaeilge 贛語 Gàidhlig Galego Avañe'ẽ Bahasa Hulontalo ગુજરાતી Hawaiʻi עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Igbo Ilokano ГӀалгӀай Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული ភាសាខ្មែរ ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 کٲشُر Kurdî Kernowek Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Limburgs Ligure Lingála ລາວ Lietuvių Latviešu Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Malti Mirandés မြန်မာဘာသာ مازِرونی Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाली Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Diné bizaad Chi-Chewa Occitan ଓଡ଼ିଆ Ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Papiamentu Pälzisch Polski پښتو Português Runa Simi Română Tarandíne Русский संस्कृतम् Саха тыла Sardu Scots سنڌي සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Gagana Samoa ChiShona Soomaaliga Shqip Српски / srpski Sunda Svenska Kiswahili ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ தமிழ் ತುಳು తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkmençe Tagalog Türkçe Татарча / tatarça Удмурт ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük Winaray 吴语 IsiXhosa მარგალური ייִדיש 中文 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 IsiZulu Projekt Razgovor Latinica Ћирилица Prikaži Uredi Uredi kod Historija Prikaži Uredi Uredi kod Historija Šta vodi ovamo Povezane izmjene Trajna veza Podaci o stranici Skrati URL Preuzmi QR kod Izrada knjige Preuzmi kao PDF Verzija za štampanje Wikimedia Commons MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Višejezični Wikizvor Wikispecies Wikidata Vikifunkcije Wiktionary Stavka na Wikipodacima .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Opće odricanje odgovornosti Odricanje odgovornosti za sadržaj Odricanje odgovornosti za pravni sadržaj Odricanje odgovornosti za medicinski sadržaj Odricanje odgovornosti za rizik Odricanje odgovornosti za ankete Opće odricanje odgovornosti Odricanje odgovornosti za sadržaj Odricanje odgovornosti za pravni sadržaj Odricanje odgovornosti za medicinski sadržaj Odricanje odgovornosti za rizik Odricanje odgovornosti za ankete Wikipedija ne jamči valjanost Wikipedija je internetska enciklopedija otvorenog sadržaja koja funkcionira na temelju volonterske suradnje pojedinaca i skupina pojedinaca, s zajedničkim ciljem stvaranja izvora ljudskog znanja. Ustrojstvo projekta omogućava svakoj osobi s vezom na Internet i preglednikom World Wide Weba mijenjanje sadržaja enciklopedije. Molimo shvatite da nijedan podatak koji ovdje pronađete nije nužno provjeren od strane profesionalaca, niti ovdjeprisutni mogu osigurati potpunu, točnu ili pouzdanu informaciju. To ne znači da u Wikipediji nećete pribaviti vrijednu i točnu informaciju, naprotiv, najčešće hoćete. Međutim, Wikipedija ne može jamčiti valjanost pronađenih informacija. Sadržaj članaka može u svakom trenutku biti izmijenjen, vandaliziran ili preinačen od strane pojedinca čije mišljenje nije odraz znanja iz tog područja. Nema formalnog recenziranja sadržaja Trenutno radimo na načinima odabiranja i isticanja pouzdanih inačica članaka. Naša aktivna zajednica urednika pri praćenju i mijenjanju sadržaja koristi alate poput pohrane nedavnih promjena i novih stranica . No Wikipedija se ne pregledava ujednačeno, a čitatelji se, iako mogu ispravljati greške, ne nalaze pod pravnom obvezom, pa informacije koje ovdje pročitate nemaju naznačeno jamstvo ispravnosti za bilo kakvo korištenje. Čak i ravnopravno i nepristrano vrednovani ili izabrani članci zadržavaju vjerojatnost naknadnog neprikladnog uređivanja. Nema ugovora, licenca je ograničena Molimo, shvatite da doprinose u vidu informacija dajete slobodno, i pritom ne dolazi ni do kakavog sporazuma između vas i vlasnika ili korisnika stranica, vlasnika poslužitelja na kojima su postavljene, pojedinih suradnika Wikipedije , administratora projekta, "sysopa" ili ikoga tko je na bilo koji način povezan s ovim ili nekim od sestrinskih projekata. Ta ista osoba ne može izravno odgovarati na vaše optužbe. Dodijeljena vam je ograničena licenca s pravom kopiranja cjelokupnog sadržaja ovih stranica, no ona ne podrazumijeva niti dovodi do ugovorne ili izvanugovorne odgovornosti Wikipedije ili njenih agenata, članova, organizatora ili drugih korisnika. Jedini pravni sporazum između vas i Wikipedije u svezi s korištenjem ili mijenjanjem ovdje prisutnih podataka je GNU licenca za slobodnu dokumentaciju (GFDL); nijedan član Wikipedije nije odgovoran za promjene, preinake, modifikacije ili brisanje podataka koje ste dodali Wikipediji ili ijednom drugom povezanom projektu. Zaštitni znaci Zaštitni znakovi, zbirni i znakovi službe, patentna prava, prava identiteta ili slična spomenuta, korištena ili u Wikipedijinim člancima navedena prava, su imovina svojih vlasnika. Njihova pojavnost na ovim stranicama ne znači da ih možete koristiti za svrhu drugačiju od iste ili slične informacijske namjene, a u skladu s namjerom autora enciklopedijskih članaka u skladu s GFDL dozvolom. Osim ako nije drugačije navedeno, siteovi Wikipedia i Wikimedia ne podržavaju niti su ni na koji način povezani s nositeljima tih prava, pa kao takva Wikipedija ne jamči pravo na korištenje inače zaštićene građe. Takvo ili slično nematerijalno vlasništvo koristite na vlastiti rizik. Sudska nadležnost i propisnost sadržaja Podaci objavljeni u Wikipediji možda krše zakone države iz koje pregledate te podatke. Wikipedijina baza podataka nalazi se na poslužitelju u saveznoj državi Florida u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama , te se održava u skladu s uputama o čuvanju koje pružaju mjesni i federalni zakoni. Zakonska regulativa u vašoj zemlji možda ne štiti ili ne dopušta istu slobodu govora ili kopiranja. Wikipedija ne potiče kršenje zakona, niti se može smatrati odgovornom za zlodjela koja proizlaze iz vašeg povezivanja na ovu domenu, korištenja, reprodukcije ili objavljivanja informacija koje ovdje pronađete. Savjet od neprofesionalaca Ako trebate savjet u nekom području (medicina, pravo, financije, ili vezano uz određeni rizik), molimo potražite stručnjaka koji je licenciran, poznat ili prihvaćen u svom području. Za posebna odricanja pogledajte Wikipedia:Korištenje na vlastiti rizik , Wikipedia:Wikipedija ne daje medicinske savjete i Wikipedia:Wikipedija ne daje pravne savjete . Zahvaljujemo na vremenu koje ste utrošili na čitanje ove stranice; nastavite uživati u blagodatima Wikipedije ! Wikipedijina odricanja odgovornosti Ova stranica posljednji je put izmijenjena 6. februara 2025. u 19:05. Tekst je dostupan pod licencom Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike ; mogu se primijeniti i dodatni uslovi. Za više informacija pogledajte Uslove korištenja . Pravila o privatnosti O projektu Odricanje odgovornosti Kodeks ponašanja Programeri Statistika Izjava o kolačićima Mobilni prikaz
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https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedija:Op%C4%87e_odricanje_odgovornosti
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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–15 of 15 results for author: Dessì, R Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10567 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CY cs.HC cs.LG cs.MA Generative AI collective behavior needs an interactionist paradigm Authors: Laura Ferrarotti , Gian Maria Campedelli , Roberto Dessì , Andrea Baronchelli , Giovanni Iacca , Kathleen M. Carley , Alex Pentland , Joel Z. Leibo , James Evans , Bruno Lepri Abstract : In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together… ▽ More In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together with their capability of adaptation through in-context learning--motivates the need for an interactionist paradigm consisting of alternative theoretical foundations, methodologies, and analytical tools, in order to systematically examine how prior knowledge and embedded values interact with social context to shape emergent phenomena in multi-agent generative AI systems. We propose and discuss four directions that we consider crucial for the development and deployment of LLM-based collectives, focusing on theory, methods, and trans-disciplinary dialogue. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10567 [ pdf , ps , other ] Generative AI collective behavior needs an interactionist paradigm Authors: Laura Ferrarotti , Gian Maria Campedelli , Roberto Dessì , Andrea Baronchelli , Giovanni Iacca , Kathleen M. Carley , Alex Pentland , Joel Z. Leibo , James Evans , Bruno Lepri Abstract : In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together… ▽ More In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together with their capability of adaptation through in-context learning--motivates the need for an interactionist paradigm consisting of alternative theoretical foundations, methodologies, and analytical tools, in order to systematically examine how prior knowledge and embedded values interact with social context to shape emergent phenomena in multi-agent generative AI systems. We propose and discuss four directions that we consider crucial for the development and deployment of LLM-based collectives, focusing on theory, methods, and trans-disciplinary dialogue. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2511.05171 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI cs.SD Model Merging Improves Zero-Shot Generalization in Bioacoustic Foundation Models Authors: Davide Marincione , Donato Crisostomi , Roberto Dessi , Emanuele Rodolà , Emanuele Rossi Abstract : Foundation models capable of generalizing across species and tasks represent a promising new frontier in bioacoustics, with NatureLM being one of the most prominent examples. While its domain-specific fine-tuning yields strong performance on bioacoustic benchmarks, we observe that it also introduces trade-offs in instruction-following flexibility. For instance, NatureLM achieves high accuracy when… ▽ More Foundation models capable of generalizing across species and tasks represent a promising new frontier in bioacoustics, with NatureLM being one of the most prominent examples. While its domain-specific fine-tuning yields strong performance on bioacoustic benchmarks, we observe that it also introduces trade-offs in instruction-following flexibility. For instance, NatureLM achieves high accuracy when prompted for either the common or scientific name individually, but its accuracy drops significantly when both are requested in a single prompt. We address this by applying a simple model merging strategy that interpolates NatureLM with its base language model, recovering instruction-following capabilities with minimal loss of domain expertise. Finally, we show that the merged model exhibits markedly stronger zero-shot generalization, achieving over a 200% relative improvement and setting a new state-of-the-art in closed-set zero-shot classification of unseen species. △ Less Submitted 19 November, 2025; v1 submitted 7 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.05171 [ pdf , ps , other ] Model Merging Improves Zero-Shot Generalization in Bioacoustic Foundation Models Authors: Davide Marincione , Donato Crisostomi , Roberto Dessi , Emanuele Rodolà , Emanuele Rossi Abstract : Foundation models capable of generalizing across species and tasks represent a promising new frontier in bioacoustics, with NatureLM being one of the most prominent examples. While its domain-specific fine-tuning yields strong performance on bioacoustic benchmarks, we observe that it also introduces trade-offs in instruction-following flexibility. For instance, NatureLM achieves high accuracy when… ▽ More Foundation models capable of generalizing across species and tasks represent a promising new frontier in bioacoustics, with NatureLM being one of the most prominent examples. While its domain-specific fine-tuning yields strong performance on bioacoustic benchmarks, we observe that it also introduces trade-offs in instruction-following flexibility. For instance, NatureLM achieves high accuracy when prompted for either the common or scientific name individually, but its accuracy drops significantly when both are requested in a single prompt. We address this by applying a simple model merging strategy that interpolates NatureLM with its base language model, recovering instruction-following capabilities with minimal loss of domain expertise. Finally, we show that the merged model exhibits markedly stronger zero-shot generalization, achieving over a 200% relative improvement and setting a new state-of-the-art in closed-set zero-shot classification of unseen species. △ Less Submitted 19 November, 2025; v1 submitted 7 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2410.07109 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.CY cs.MA I Want to Break Free! Persuasion and Anti-Social Behavior of LLMs in Multi-Agent Settings with Social Hierarchy Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli , Nicolò Penzo , Massimo Stefan , Roberto Dessì , Marco Guerini , Bruno Lepri , Jacopo Staiano Abstract : As LLM-based agents become increasingly autonomous and will more freely interact with each other, studying the interplay among them becomes crucial to anticipate emergent phenomena and potential risks. In this work, we provide an in-depth analysis of the interactions among agents within a simulated hierarchical social environment, drawing inspiration from the Stanford Prison Experiment. Leveraging… ▽ More As LLM-based agents become increasingly autonomous and will more freely interact with each other, studying the interplay among them becomes crucial to anticipate emergent phenomena and potential risks. In this work, we provide an in-depth analysis of the interactions among agents within a simulated hierarchical social environment, drawing inspiration from the Stanford Prison Experiment. Leveraging 2,400 conversations across six LLMs (i.e., LLama3, Orca2, Command-r, Mixtral, Mistral2, and gpt4.1) and 240 experimental scenarios, we analyze persuasion and anti-social behavior between a guard and a prisoner agent with differing objectives. We first document model-specific conversational failures in this multi-agent power dynamic context, thereby narrowing our analytic sample to 1,600 conversations. Among models demonstrating successful interaction, we find that goal setting significantly influences persuasiveness but not anti-social behavior. Moreover, agent personas, especially the guard's, substantially impact both successful persuasion by the prisoner and the manifestation of anti-social actions. Notably, we observe the emergence of anti-social conduct even in absence of explicit negative personality prompts. These results have important implications for the development of interactive LLM agents and the ongoing discussion of their societal impact. △ Less Submitted 4 November, 2025; v1 submitted 9 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. arXiv:2410.07109 [ pdf , ps , other ] I Want to Break Free! Persuasion and Anti-Social Behavior of LLMs in Multi-Agent Settings with Social Hierarchy Authors: Gian Maria Campedelli , Nicolò Penzo , Massimo Stefan , Roberto Dessì , Marco Guerini , Bruno Lepri , Jacopo Staiano Abstract : As LLM-based agents become increasingly autonomous and will more freely interact with each other, studying the interplay among them becomes crucial to anticipate emergent phenomena and potential risks. In this work, we provide an in-depth analysis of the interactions among agents within a simulated hierarchical social environment, drawing inspiration from the Stanford Prison Experiment. Leveraging… ▽ More As LLM-based agents become increasingly autonomous and will more freely interact with each other, studying the interplay among them becomes crucial to anticipate emergent phenomena and potential risks. In this work, we provide an in-depth analysis of the interactions among agents within a simulated hierarchical social environment, drawing inspiration from the Stanford Prison Experiment. Leveraging 2,400 conversations across six LLMs (i.e., LLama3, Orca2, Command-r, Mixtral, Mistral2, and gpt4.1) and 240 experimental scenarios, we analyze persuasion and anti-social behavior between a guard and a prisoner agent with differing objectives. We first document model-specific conversational failures in this multi-agent power dynamic context, thereby narrowing our analytic sample to 1,600 conversations. Among models demonstrating successful interaction, we find that goal setting significantly influences persuasiveness but not anti-social behavior. Moreover, agent personas, especially the guard's, substantially impact both successful persuasion by the prisoner and the manifestation of anti-social actions. Notably, we observe the emergence of anti-social conduct even in absence of explicit negative personality prompts. These results have important implications for the development of interactive LLM agents and the ongoing discussion of their societal impact. △ Less Submitted 4 November, 2025; v1 submitted 9 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024. arXiv:2306.14209 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Deep image prior inpainting of ancient frescoes in the Mediterranean Alpine arc Authors: Fabio Merizzi , Perrine Saillard , Oceane Acquier , Elena Morotti , Elena Loli Piccolomini , Luca Calatroni , Rosa Maria Dessì Abstract : The unprecedented success of image reconstruction approaches based on deep neural networks has revolutionised both the processing and the analysis paradigms in several applied disciplines. In the field of digital humanities, the task of digital reconstruction of ancient frescoes is particularly challenging due to the scarce amount of available training data caused by ageing, wear, tear and retouch… ▽ More The unprecedented success of image reconstruction approaches based on deep neural networks has revolutionised both the processing and the analysis paradigms in several applied disciplines. In the field of digital humanities, the task of digital reconstruction of ancient frescoes is particularly challenging due to the scarce amount of available training data caused by ageing, wear, tear and retouching over time. To overcome these difficulties, we consider the Deep Image Prior (DIP) inpainting approach which computes appropriate reconstructions by relying on the progressive updating of an untrained convolutional neural network so as to match the reliable piece of information in the image at hand while promoting regularisation elsewhere. In comparison with state-of-the-art approaches (based on variational/PDEs and patch-based methods), DIP-based inpainting reduces artefacts and better adapts to contextual/non-local information, thus providing a valuable and effective tool for art historians. As a case study, we apply such approach to reconstruct missing image contents in a dataset of highly damaged digital images of medieval paintings located into several chapels in the Mediterranean Alpine Arc and provide a detailed description on how visible and invisible (e.g., infrared) information can be integrated for identifying and reconstructing damaged image regions. △ Less Submitted 11 December, 2023; v1 submitted 25 June, 2023; originally announced June 2023. Comments: 26 pages arXiv:2306.14209 [ pdf , other ] Deep image prior inpainting of ancient frescoes in the Mediterranean Alpine arc Authors: Fabio Merizzi , Perrine Saillard , Oceane Acquier , Elena Morotti , Elena Loli Piccolomini , Luca Calatroni , Rosa Maria Dessì Abstract : The unprecedented success of image reconstruction approaches based on deep neural networks has revolutionised both the processing and the analysis paradigms in several applied disciplines. In the field of digital humanities, the task of digital reconstruction of ancient frescoes is particularly challenging due to the scarce amount of available training data caused by ageing, wear, tear and retouch… ▽ More The unprecedented success of image reconstruction approaches based on deep neural networks has revolutionised both the processing and the analysis paradigms in several applied disciplines. In the field of digital humanities, the task of digital reconstruction of ancient frescoes is particularly challenging due to the scarce amount of available training data caused by ageing, wear, tear and retouching over time. To overcome these difficulties, we consider the Deep Image Prior (DIP) inpainting approach which computes appropriate reconstructions by relying on the progressive updating of an untrained convolutional neural network so as to match the reliable piece of information in the image at hand while promoting regularisation elsewhere. In comparison with state-of-the-art approaches (based on variational/PDEs and patch-based methods), DIP-based inpainting reduces artefacts and better adapts to contextual/non-local information, thus providing a valuable and effective tool for art historians. As a case study, we apply such approach to reconstruct missing image contents in a dataset of highly damaged digital images of medieval paintings located into several chapels in the Mediterranean Alpine Arc and provide a detailed description on how visible and invisible (e.g., infrared) information can be integrated for identifying and reconstructing damaged image regions. △ Less Submitted 11 December, 2023; v1 submitted 25 June, 2023; originally announced June 2023. Comments: 26 pages arXiv:2304.01662 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.CL Cross-Domain Image Captioning with Discriminative Finetuning Authors: Roberto Dessì , Michele Bevilacqua , Eleonora Gualdoni , Nathanael Carraz Rakotonirina , Francesca Franzon , Marco Baroni Abstract : Neural captioners are typically trained to mimic human-generated references without optimizing for any specific communication goal, leading to problems such as the generation of vague captions. In this paper, we show that fine-tuning an out-of-the-box neural captioner with a self-supervised discriminative communication objective helps to recover a plain, visually descriptive language that is more… ▽ More Neural captioners are typically trained to mimic human-generated references without optimizing for any specific communication goal, leading to problems such as the generation of vague captions. In this paper, we show that fine-tuning an out-of-the-box neural captioner with a self-supervised discriminative communication objective helps to recover a plain, visually descriptive language that is more informative about image contents. Given a target image, the system must learn to produce a description that enables an out-of-the-box text-conditioned image retriever to identify such image among a set of candidates. We experiment with the popular ClipCap captioner, also replicating the main results with BLIP. In terms of similarity to ground-truth human descriptions, the captions emerging from discriminative finetuning lag slightly behind those generated by the non-finetuned model, when the latter is trained and tested on the same caption dataset. However, when the model is used without further tuning to generate captions for out-of-domain datasets, our discriminatively-finetuned captioner generates descriptions that resemble human references more than those produced by the same captioner without finetuning. We further show that, on the Conceptual Captions dataset, discriminatively finetuned captions are more helpful than either vanilla ClipCap captions or ground-truth captions for human annotators tasked with an image discrimination task. △ Less Submitted 4 April, 2023; originally announced April 2023. Comments: CVPR 2023 arXiv:2304.01662 [ pdf , other ] Cross-Domain Image Captioning with Discriminative Finetuning Authors: Roberto Dessì , Michele Bevilacqua , Eleonora Gualdoni , Nathanael Carraz Rakotonirina , Francesca Franzon , Marco Baroni Abstract : Neural captioners are typically trained to mimic human-generated references without optimizing for any specific communication goal, leading to problems such as the generation of vague captions. In this paper, we show that fine-tuning an out-of-the-box neural captioner with a self-supervised discriminative communication objective helps to recover a plain, visually descriptive language that is more… ▽ More Neural captioners are typically trained to mimic human-generated references without optimizing for any specific communication goal, leading to problems such as the generation of vague captions. In this paper, we show that fine-tuning an out-of-the-box neural captioner with a self-supervised discriminative communication objective helps to recover a plain, visually descriptive language that is more informative about image contents. Given a target image, the system must learn to produce a description that enables an out-of-the-box text-conditioned image retriever to identify such image among a set of candidates. We experiment with the popular ClipCap captioner, also replicating the main results with BLIP. In terms of similarity to ground-truth human descriptions, the captions emerging from discriminative finetuning lag slightly behind those generated by the non-finetuned model, when the latter is trained and tested on the same caption dataset. However, when the model is used without further tuning to generate captions for out-of-domain datasets, our discriminatively-finetuned captioner generates descriptions that resemble human references more than those produced by the same captioner without finetuning. We further show that, on the Conceptual Captions dataset, discriminatively finetuned captions are more helpful than either vanilla ClipCap captions or ground-truth captions for human annotators tasked with an image discrimination task. △ Less Submitted 4 April, 2023; originally announced April 2023. Comments: CVPR 2023 arXiv:2302.09865 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG Can discrete information extraction prompts generalize across language models? Authors: Nathanaël Carraz Rakotonirina , Roberto Dessì , Fabio Petroni , Sebastian Riedel , Marco Baroni Abstract : We study whether automatically-induced prompts that effectively extract information from a language model can also be used, out-of-the-box, to probe other language models for the same information. After confirming that discrete prompts induced with the AutoPrompt algorithm outperform manual and semi-manual prompts on the slot-filling task, we demonstrate a drop in performance for AutoPrompt prompt… ▽ More We study whether automatically-induced prompts that effectively extract information from a language model can also be used, out-of-the-box, to probe other language models for the same information. After confirming that discrete prompts induced with the AutoPrompt algorithm outperform manual and semi-manual prompts on the slot-filling task, we demonstrate a drop in performance for AutoPrompt prompts learned on a model and tested on another. We introduce a way to induce prompts by mixing language models at training time that results in prompts that generalize well across models. We conduct an extensive analysis of the induced prompts, finding that the more general prompts include a larger proportion of existing English words and have a less order-dependent and more uniform distribution of information across their component tokens. Our work provides preliminary evidence that it's possible to generate discrete prompts that can be induced once and used with a number of different models, and gives insights on the properties characterizing such prompts. △ Less Submitted 7 March, 2023; v1 submitted 20 February, 2023; originally announced February 2023. Comments: Published as conference paper at ICLR 2023 arXiv:2302.09865 [ pdf , other ] Can discrete information extraction prompts generalize across language models? Authors: Nathanaël Carraz Rakotonirina , Roberto Dessì , Fabio Petroni , Sebastian Riedel , Marco Baroni Abstract : We study whether automatically-induced prompts that effectively extract information from a language model can also be used, out-of-the-box, to probe other language models for the same information. After confirming that discrete prompts induced with the AutoPrompt algorithm outperform manual and semi-manual prompts on the slot-filling task, we demonstrate a drop in performance for AutoPrompt prompt… ▽ More We study whether automatically-induced prompts that effectively extract information from a language model can also be used, out-of-the-box, to probe other language models for the same information. After confirming that discrete prompts induced with the AutoPrompt algorithm outperform manual and semi-manual prompts on the slot-filling task, we demonstrate a drop in performance for AutoPrompt prompts learned on a model and tested on another. We introduce a way to induce prompts by mixing language models at training time that results in prompts that generalize well across models. We conduct an extensive analysis of the induced prompts, finding that the more general prompts include a larger proportion of existing English words and have a less order-dependent and more uniform distribution of information across their component tokens. Our work provides preliminary evidence that it's possible to generate discrete prompts that can be induced once and used with a number of different models, and gives insights on the properties characterizing such prompts. △ Less Submitted 7 March, 2023; v1 submitted 20 February, 2023; originally announced February 2023. Comments: Published as conference paper at ICLR 2023 arXiv:2302.08913 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.LG Referential communication in heterogeneous communities of pre-trained visual deep networks Authors: Matéo Mahaut , Francesca Franzon , Roberto Dessì , Marco Baroni Abstract : As large pre-trained image-processing neural networks are being embedded in autonomous agents such as self-driving cars or robots, the question arises of how such systems can communicate with each other about the surrounding world, despite their different architectures and training regimes. As a first step in this direction, we systematically explore the task of referential communication in a comm… ▽ More As large pre-trained image-processing neural networks are being embedded in autonomous agents such as self-driving cars or robots, the question arises of how such systems can communicate with each other about the surrounding world, despite their different architectures and training regimes. As a first step in this direction, we systematically explore the task of referential communication in a community of heterogeneous state-of-the-art pre-trained visual networks, showing that they can develop, in a self-supervised way, a shared protocol to refer to a target object among a set of candidates. This shared protocol can also be used, to some extent, to communicate about previously unseen object categories of different granularity. Moreover, a visual network that was not initially part of an existing community can learn the community's protocol with remarkable ease. Finally, we study, both qualitatively and quantitatively, the properties of the emergent protocol, providing some evidence that it is capturing high-level semantic features of objects. △ Less Submitted 8 April, 2025; v1 submitted 4 February, 2023; originally announced February 2023. Comments: Published in the Transactions of Machine Learning Research arXiv:2302.08913 [ pdf , other ] Referential communication in heterogeneous communities of pre-trained visual deep networks Authors: Matéo Mahaut , Francesca Franzon , Roberto Dessì , Marco Baroni Abstract : As large pre-trained image-processing neural networks are being embedded in autonomous agents such as self-driving cars or robots, the question arises of how such systems can communicate with each other about the surrounding world, despite their different architectures and training regimes. As a first step in this direction, we systematically explore the task of referential communication in a comm… ▽ More As large pre-trained image-processing neural networks are being embedded in autonomous agents such as self-driving cars or robots, the question arises of how such systems can communicate with each other about the surrounding world, despite their different architectures and training regimes. As a first step in this direction, we systematically explore the task of referential communication in a community of heterogeneous state-of-the-art pre-trained visual networks, showing that they can develop, in a self-supervised way, a shared protocol to refer to a target object among a set of candidates. This shared protocol can also be used, to some extent, to communicate about previously unseen object categories of different granularity. Moreover, a visual network that was not initially part of an existing community can learn the community's protocol with remarkable ease. Finally, we study, both qualitatively and quantitatively, the properties of the emergent protocol, providing some evidence that it is capturing high-level semantic features of objects. △ Less Submitted 8 April, 2025; v1 submitted 4 February, 2023; originally announced February 2023. Comments: Published in the Transactions of Machine Learning Research arXiv:2302.07842 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Augmented Language Models: a Survey Authors: Grégoire Mialon , Roberto Dessì , Maria Lomeli , Christoforos Nalmpantis , Ram Pasunuru , Roberta Raileanu , Baptiste Rozière , Timo Schick , Jane Dwivedi-Yu , Asli Celikyilmaz , Edouard Grave , Yann LeCun , Thomas Scialom Abstract : This survey reviews works in which language models (LMs) are augmented with reasoning skills and the ability to use tools. The former is defined as decomposing a potentially complex task into simpler subtasks while the latter consists in calling external modules such as a code interpreter. LMs can leverage these augmentations separately or in combination via heuristics, or learn to do so from demo… ▽ More This survey reviews works in which language models (LMs) are augmented with reasoning skills and the ability to use tools. The former is defined as decomposing a potentially complex task into simpler subtasks while the latter consists in calling external modules such as a code interpreter. LMs can leverage these augmentations separately or in combination via heuristics, or learn to do so from demonstrations. While adhering to a standard missing tokens prediction objective, such augmented LMs can use various, possibly non-parametric external modules to expand their context processing ability, thus departing from the pure language modeling paradigm. We therefore refer to them as Augmented Language Models (ALMs). The missing token objective allows ALMs to learn to reason, use tools, and even act, while still performing standard natural language tasks and even outperforming most regular LMs on several benchmarks. In this work, after reviewing current advance in ALMs, we conclude that this new research direction has the potential to address common limitations of traditional LMs such as interpretability, consistency, and scalability issues. △ Less Submitted 15 February, 2023; originally announced February 2023. arXiv:2302.07842 [ pdf , ps , other ] Augmented Language Models: a Survey Authors: Grégoire Mialon , Roberto Dessì , Maria Lomeli , Christoforos Nalmpantis , Ram Pasunuru , Roberta Raileanu , Baptiste Rozière , Timo Schick , Jane Dwivedi-Yu , Asli Celikyilmaz , Edouard Grave , Yann LeCun , Thomas Scialom Abstract : This survey reviews works in which language models (LMs) are augmented with reasoning skills and the ability to use tools. The former is defined as decomposing a potentially complex task into simpler subtasks while the latter consists in calling external modules such as a code interpreter. LMs can leverage these augmentations separately or in combination via heuristics, or learn to do so from demo… ▽ More This survey reviews works in which language models (LMs) are augmented with reasoning skills and the ability to use tools. The former is defined as decomposing a potentially complex task into simpler subtasks while the latter consists in calling external modules such as a code interpreter. LMs can leverage these augmentations separately or in combination via heuristics, or learn to do so from demonstrations. While adhering to a standard missing tokens prediction objective, such augmented LMs can use various, possibly non-parametric external modules to expand their context processing ability, thus departing from the pure language modeling paradigm. We therefore refer to them as Augmented Language Models (ALMs). The missing token objective allows ALMs to learn to reason, use tools, and even act, while still performing standard natural language tasks and even outperforming most regular LMs on several benchmarks. In this work, after reviewing current advance in ALMs, we conclude that this new research direction has the potential to address common limitations of traditional LMs such as interpretability, consistency, and scalability issues. △ Less Submitted 15 February, 2023; originally announced February 2023. arXiv:2302.04761 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL Toolformer: Language Models Can Teach Themselves to Use Tools Authors: Timo Schick , Jane Dwivedi-Yu , Roberto Dessì , Roberta Raileanu , Maria Lomeli , Luke Zettlemoyer , Nicola Cancedda , Thomas Scialom Abstract : Language models (LMs) exhibit remarkable abilities to solve new tasks from just a few examples or textual instructions, especially at scale. They also, paradoxically, struggle with basic functionality, such as arithmetic or factual lookup, where much simpler and smaller models excel. In this paper, we show that LMs can teach themselves to use external tools via simple APIs and achieve the best of… ▽ More Language models (LMs) exhibit remarkable abilities to solve new tasks from just a few examples or textual instructions, especially at scale. They also, paradoxically, struggle with basic functionality, such as arithmetic or factual lookup, where much simpler and smaller models excel. In this paper, we show that LMs can teach themselves to use external tools via simple APIs and achieve the best of both worlds. We introduce Toolformer, a model trained to decide which APIs to call, when to call them, what arguments to pass, and how to best incorporate the results into future token prediction. This is done in a self-supervised way, requiring nothing more than a handful of demonstrations for each API. We incorporate a range of tools, including a calculator, a Q\&A system, two different search engines, a translation system, and a calendar. Toolformer achieves substantially improved zero-shot performance across a variety of downstream tasks, often competitive with much larger models, without sacrificing its core language modeling abilities. △ Less Submitted 9 February, 2023; originally announced February 2023. arXiv:2302.04761 [ pdf , other ] Toolformer: Language Models Can Teach Themselves to Use Tools Authors: Timo Schick , Jane Dwivedi-Yu , Roberto Dessì , Roberta Raileanu , Maria Lomeli , Luke Zettlemoyer , Nicola Cancedda , Thomas Scialom Abstract : Language models (LMs) exhibit remarkable abilities to solve new tasks from just a few examples or textual instructions, especially at scale. They also, paradoxically, struggle with basic functionality, such as arithmetic or factual lookup, where much simpler and smaller models excel. In this paper, we show that LMs can teach themselves to use external tools via simple APIs and achieve the best of… ▽ More Language models (LMs) exhibit remarkable abilities to solve new tasks from just a few examples or textual instructions, especially at scale. They also, paradoxically, struggle with basic functionality, such as arithmetic or factual lookup, where much simpler and smaller models excel. In this paper, we show that LMs can teach themselves to use external tools via simple APIs and achieve the best of both worlds. We introduce Toolformer, a model trained to decide which APIs to call, when to call them, what arguments to pass, and how to best incorporate the results into future token prediction. This is done in a self-supervised way, requiring nothing more than a handful of demonstrations for each API. We incorporate a range of tools, including a calculator, a Q\&A system, two different search engines, a translation system, and a calendar. Toolformer achieves substantially improved zero-shot performance across a variety of downstream tasks, often competitive with much larger models, without sacrificing its core language modeling abilities. △ Less Submitted 9 February, 2023; originally announced February 2023. arXiv:2210.11512 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL Communication breakdown: On the low mutual intelligibility between human and neural captioning Authors: Roberto Dessì , Eleonora Gualdoni , Francesca Franzon , Gemma Boleda , Marco Baroni Abstract : We compare the 0-shot performance of a neural caption-based image retriever when given as input either human-produced captions or captions generated by a neural captioner. We conduct this comparison on the recently introduced ImageCoDe data-set (Krojer et al., 2022) which contains hard distractors nearly identical to the images to be retrieved. We find that the neural retriever has much higher per… ▽ More We compare the 0-shot performance of a neural caption-based image retriever when given as input either human-produced captions or captions generated by a neural captioner. We conduct this comparison on the recently introduced ImageCoDe data-set (Krojer et al., 2022) which contains hard distractors nearly identical to the images to be retrieved. We find that the neural retriever has much higher performance when fed neural rather than human captions, despite the fact that the former, unlike the latter, were generated without awareness of the distractors that make the task hard. Even more remarkably, when the same neural captions are given to human subjects, their retrieval performance is almost at chance level. Our results thus add to the growing body of evidence that, even when the ``language'' of neural models resembles English, this superficial resemblance might be deeply misleading. △ Less Submitted 27 April, 2023; v1 submitted 20 October, 2022; originally announced October 2022. Comments: Accepted as a short paper at EMNLP 2022 arXiv:2210.11512 [ pdf , other ] Communication breakdown: On the low mutual intelligibility between human and neural captioning Authors: Roberto Dessì , Eleonora Gualdoni , Francesca Franzon , Gemma Boleda , Marco Baroni Abstract : We compare the 0-shot performance of a neural caption-based image retriever when given as input either human-produced captions or captions generated by a neural captioner. We conduct this comparison on the recently introduced ImageCoDe data-set (Krojer et al., 2022) which contains hard distractors nearly identical to the images to be retrieved. We find that the neural retriever has much higher per… ▽ More We compare the 0-shot performance of a neural caption-based image retriever when given as input either human-produced captions or captions generated by a neural captioner. We conduct this comparison on the recently introduced ImageCoDe data-set (Krojer et al., 2022) which contains hard distractors nearly identical to the images to be retrieved. We find that the neural retriever has much higher performance when fed neural rather than human captions, despite the fact that the former, unlike the latter, were generated without awareness of the distractors that make the task hard. Even more remarkably, when the same neural captions are given to human subjects, their retrieval performance is almost at chance level. Our results thus add to the growing body of evidence that, even when the ``language'' of neural models resembles English, this superficial resemblance might be deeply misleading. △ Less Submitted 27 April, 2023; v1 submitted 20 October, 2022; originally announced October 2022. Comments: Accepted as a short paper at EMNLP 2022 arXiv:2107.01366 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG Can Transformers Jump Around Right in Natural Language? Assessing Performance Transfer from SCAN Authors: Rahma Chaabouni , Roberto Dessì , Eugene Kharitonov Abstract : Despite their practical success, modern seq2seq architectures are unable to generalize systematically on several SCAN tasks. Hence, it is not clear if SCAN-style compositional generalization is useful in realistic NLP tasks. In this work, we study the benefit that such compositionality brings about to several machine translation tasks. We present several focused modifications of Transformer that g… ▽ More Despite their practical success, modern seq2seq architectures are unable to generalize systematically on several SCAN tasks. Hence, it is not clear if SCAN-style compositional generalization is useful in realistic NLP tasks. In this work, we study the benefit that such compositionality brings about to several machine translation tasks. We present several focused modifications of Transformer that greatly improve generalization capabilities on SCAN and select one that remains on par with a vanilla Transformer on a standard machine translation (MT) task. Next, we study its performance in low-resource settings and on a newly introduced distribution-shifted English-French translation task. Overall, we find that improvements of a SCAN-capable model do not directly transfer to the resource-rich MT setup. In contrast, in the low-resource setup, general modifications lead to an improvement of up to 13.1% BLEU score w.r.t. a vanilla Transformer. Similarly, an improvement of 14% in an accuracy-based metric is achieved in the introduced compositional English-French translation task. This provides experimental evidence that the compositional generalization assessed in SCAN is particularly useful in resource-starved and domain-shifted scenarios. △ Less Submitted 16 September, 2021; v1 submitted 3 July, 2021; originally announced July 2021. Comments: BlackboxNLP workshop, EMNLP 2021 arXiv:2107.01366 [ pdf , other ] Can Transformers Jump Around Right in Natural Language? Assessing Performance Transfer from SCAN Authors: Rahma Chaabouni , Roberto Dessì , Eugene Kharitonov Abstract : Despite their practical success, modern seq2seq architectures are unable to generalize systematically on several SCAN tasks. Hence, it is not clear if SCAN-style compositional generalization is useful in realistic NLP tasks. In this work, we study the benefit that such compositionality brings about to several machine translation tasks. We present several focused modifications of Transformer that g… ▽ More Despite their practical success, modern seq2seq architectures are unable to generalize systematically on several SCAN tasks. Hence, it is not clear if SCAN-style compositional generalization is useful in realistic NLP tasks. In this work, we study the benefit that such compositionality brings about to several machine translation tasks. We present several focused modifications of Transformer that greatly improve generalization capabilities on SCAN and select one that remains on par with a vanilla Transformer on a standard machine translation (MT) task. Next, we study its performance in low-resource settings and on a newly introduced distribution-shifted English-French translation task. Overall, we find that improvements of a SCAN-capable model do not directly transfer to the resource-rich MT setup. In contrast, in the low-resource setup, general modifications lead to an improvement of up to 13.1% BLEU score w.r.t. a vanilla Transformer. Similarly, an improvement of 14% in an accuracy-based metric is achieved in the introduced compositional English-French translation task. This provides experimental evidence that the compositional generalization assessed in SCAN is particularly useful in resource-starved and domain-shifted scenarios. △ Less Submitted 16 September, 2021; v1 submitted 3 July, 2021; originally announced July 2021. Comments: BlackboxNLP workshop, EMNLP 2021 arXiv:2106.04258 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG cs.MA Interpretable agent communication from scratch (with a generic visual processor emerging on the side) Authors: Roberto Dessì , Eugene Kharitonov , Marco Baroni Abstract : As deep networks begin to be deployed as autonomous agents, the issue of how they can communicate with each other becomes important. Here, we train two deep nets from scratch to perform realistic referent identification through unsupervised emergent communication. We show that the largely interpretable emergent protocol allows the nets to successfully communicate even about object types they did n… ▽ More As deep networks begin to be deployed as autonomous agents, the issue of how they can communicate with each other becomes important. Here, we train two deep nets from scratch to perform realistic referent identification through unsupervised emergent communication. We show that the largely interpretable emergent protocol allows the nets to successfully communicate even about object types they did not see at training time. The visual representations induced as a by-product of our training regime, moreover, show comparable quality, when re-used as generic visual features, to a recent self-supervised learning model. Our results provide concrete evidence of the viability of (interpretable) emergent deep net communication in a more realistic scenario than previously considered, as well as establishing an intriguing link between this field and self-supervised visual learning. △ Less Submitted 15 October, 2021; v1 submitted 8 June, 2021; originally announced June 2021. Comments: Accepted at NeurIPS 2021 arXiv:2106.04258 [ pdf , other ] Interpretable agent communication from scratch (with a generic visual processor emerging on the side) Authors: Roberto Dessì , Eugene Kharitonov , Marco Baroni Abstract : As deep networks begin to be deployed as autonomous agents, the issue of how they can communicate with each other becomes important. Here, we train two deep nets from scratch to perform realistic referent identification through unsupervised emergent communication. We show that the largely interpretable emergent protocol allows the nets to successfully communicate even about object types they did n… ▽ More As deep networks begin to be deployed as autonomous agents, the issue of how they can communicate with each other becomes important. Here, we train two deep nets from scratch to perform realistic referent identification through unsupervised emergent communication. We show that the largely interpretable emergent protocol allows the nets to successfully communicate even about object types they did not see at training time. The visual representations induced as a by-product of our training regime, moreover, show comparable quality, when re-used as generic visual features, to a recent self-supervised learning model. Our results provide concrete evidence of the viability of (interpretable) emergent deep net communication in a more realistic scenario than previously considered, as well as establishing an intriguing link between this field and self-supervised visual learning. △ Less Submitted 15 October, 2021; v1 submitted 8 June, 2021; originally announced June 2021. Comments: Accepted at NeurIPS 2021 arXiv:1911.01892 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI Focus on What's Informative and Ignore What's not: Communication Strategies in a Referential Game Authors: Roberto Dessì , Diane Bouchacourt , Davide Crepaldi , Marco Baroni Abstract : Research in multi-agent cooperation has shown that artificial agents are able to learn to play a simple referential game while developing a shared lexicon. This lexicon is not easy to analyze, as it does not show many properties of a natural language. In a simple referential game with two neural network-based agents, we analyze the object-symbol mapping trying to understand what kind of strategy w… ▽ More Research in multi-agent cooperation has shown that artificial agents are able to learn to play a simple referential game while developing a shared lexicon. This lexicon is not easy to analyze, as it does not show many properties of a natural language. In a simple referential game with two neural network-based agents, we analyze the object-symbol mapping trying to understand what kind of strategy was used to develop the emergent language. We see that, when the environment is uniformly distributed, the agents rely on a random subset of features to describe the objects. When we modify the objects making one feature non-uniformly distributed,the agents realize it is less informative and start to ignore it, and, surprisingly, they make a better use of the remaining features. This interesting result suggests that more natural, less uniformly distributed environments might aid in spurring the emergence of better-behaved languages. △ Less Submitted 5 November, 2019; originally announced November 2019. Comments: 3rd NeurIPS Workshop on Emergent Communication arXiv:1911.01892 [ pdf , ps , other ] Focus on What's Informative and Ignore What's not: Communication Strategies in a Referential Game Authors: Roberto Dessì , Diane Bouchacourt , Davide Crepaldi , Marco Baroni Abstract : Research in multi-agent cooperation has shown that artificial agents are able to learn to play a simple referential game while developing a shared lexicon. This lexicon is not easy to analyze, as it does not show many properties of a natural language. In a simple referential game with two neural network-based agents, we analyze the object-symbol mapping trying to understand what kind of strategy w… ▽ More Research in multi-agent cooperation has shown that artificial agents are able to learn to play a simple referential game while developing a shared lexicon. This lexicon is not easy to analyze, as it does not show many properties of a natural language. In a simple referential game with two neural network-based agents, we analyze the object-symbol mapping trying to understand what kind of strategy was used to develop the emergent language. We see that, when the environment is uniformly distributed, the agents rely on a random subset of features to describe the objects. When we modify the objects making one feature non-uniformly distributed,the agents realize it is less informative and start to ignore it, and, surprisingly, they make a better use of the remaining features. This interesting result suggests that more natural, less uniformly distributed environments might aid in spurring the emergence of better-behaved languages. △ Less Submitted 5 November, 2019; originally announced November 2019. Comments: 3rd NeurIPS Workshop on Emergent Communication arXiv:1905.08527 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG CNNs found to jump around more skillfully than RNNs: Compositional generalization in seq2seq convolutional networks Authors: Roberto Dessì , Marco Baroni Abstract : Lake and Baroni (2018) introduced the SCAN dataset probing the ability of seq2seq models to capture compositional generalizations, such as inferring the meaning of "jump around" 0-shot from the component words. Recurrent networks (RNNs) were found to completely fail the most challenging generalization cases. We test here a convolutional network (CNN) on these tasks, reporting hugely improved perfo… ▽ More Lake and Baroni (2018) introduced the SCAN dataset probing the ability of seq2seq models to capture compositional generalizations, such as inferring the meaning of "jump around" 0-shot from the component words. Recurrent networks (RNNs) were found to completely fail the most challenging generalization cases. We test here a convolutional network (CNN) on these tasks, reporting hugely improved performance with respect to RNNs. Despite the big improvement, the CNN has however not induced systematic rules, suggesting that the difference between compositional and non-compositional behaviour is not clear-cut. △ Less Submitted 21 May, 2019; originally announced May 2019. Comments: accepted as a short paper at ACL 2019 arXiv:1905.08527 [ pdf , other ] CNNs found to jump around more skillfully than RNNs: Compositional generalization in seq2seq convolutional networks Authors: Roberto Dessì , Marco Baroni Abstract : Lake and Baroni (2018) introduced the SCAN dataset probing the ability of seq2seq models to capture compositional generalizations, such as inferring the meaning of "jump around" 0-shot from the component words. Recurrent networks (RNNs) were found to completely fail the most challenging generalization cases. We test here a convolutional network (CNN) on these tasks, reporting hugely improved perfo… ▽ More Lake and Baroni (2018) introduced the SCAN dataset probing the ability of seq2seq models to capture compositional generalizations, such as inferring the meaning of "jump around" 0-shot from the component words. Recurrent networks (RNNs) were found to completely fail the most challenging generalization cases. We test here a convolutional network (CNN) on these tasks, reporting hugely improved performance with respect to RNNs. Despite the big improvement, the CNN has however not induced systematic rules, suggesting that the difference between compositional and non-compositional behaviour is not clear-cut. △ Less Submitted 21 May, 2019; originally announced May 2019. Comments: accepted as a short paper at ACL 2019 arXiv:1810.07652 [ pdf , other ] eess.AS cs.CL cs.LG cs.SD stat.ML Fine-tuning on Clean Data for End-to-End Speech Translation: FBK @ IWSLT 2018 Authors: Mattia Antonino Di Gangi , Roberto Dessì , Roldano Cattoni , Matteo Negri , Marco Turchi Abstract : This paper describes FBK's submission to the end-to-end English-German speech translation task at IWSLT 2018. Our system relies on a state-of-the-art model based on LSTMs and CNNs, where the CNNs are used to reduce the temporal dimension of the audio input, which is in general much higher than machine translation input. Our model was trained only on the audio-to-text parallel data released for the… ▽ More This paper describes FBK's submission to the end-to-end English-German speech translation task at IWSLT 2018. Our system relies on a state-of-the-art model based on LSTMs and CNNs, where the CNNs are used to reduce the temporal dimension of the audio input, which is in general much higher than machine translation input. Our model was trained only on the audio-to-text parallel data released for the task, and fine-tuned on cleaned subsets of the original training corpus. The addition of weight normalization and label smoothing improved the baseline system by 1.0 BLEU point on our validation set. The final submission also featured checkpoint averaging within a training run and ensemble decoding of models trained during multiple runs. On test data, our best single model obtained a BLEU score of 9.7, while the ensemble obtained a BLEU score of 10.24. △ Less Submitted 16 October, 2018; originally announced October 2018. Comments: 6 pages, 2 figures, system description at the 15th International Workshop on Spoken Language Translation (IWSLT) 2018 arXiv:1810.07652 [ pdf , other ] Fine-tuning on Clean Data for End-to-End Speech Translation: FBK @ IWSLT 2018 Authors: Mattia Antonino Di Gangi , Roberto Dessì , Roldano Cattoni , Matteo Negri , Marco Turchi Abstract : This paper describes FBK's submission to the end-to-end English-German speech translation task at IWSLT 2018. Our system relies on a state-of-the-art model based on LSTMs and CNNs, where the CNNs are used to reduce the temporal dimension of the audio input, which is in general much higher than machine translation input. Our model was trained only on the audio-to-text parallel data released for the… ▽ More This paper describes FBK's submission to the end-to-end English-German speech translation task at IWSLT 2018. Our system relies on a state-of-the-art model based on LSTMs and CNNs, where the CNNs are used to reduce the temporal dimension of the audio input, which is in general much higher than machine translation input. Our model was trained only on the audio-to-text parallel data released for the task, and fine-tuned on cleaned subsets of the original training corpus. The addition of weight normalization and label smoothing improved the baseline system by 1.0 BLEU point on our validation set. The final submission also featured checkpoint averaging within a training run and ensemble decoding of models trained during multiple runs. On test data, our best single model obtained a BLEU score of 9.7, while the ensemble obtained a BLEU score of 10.24. △ Less Submitted 16 October, 2018; originally announced October 2018. Comments: 6 pages, 2 figures, system description at the 15th International Workshop on Spoken Language Translation (IWSLT) 2018 About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Description 2 Biology and ecology 3 Conservation 4 References 5 External links Golden-mantled ground squirrel Asturianu Български Català Cebuano Deutsch Diné bizaad Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge 한국어 Italiano Kotava Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Polski Русский Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikispecies Wikidata item Golden-mantled ground squirrel Conservation status Least Concern ( IUCN 3.1 ) [ 1 ] Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Rodentia Family: Sciuridae Genus: Callospermophilus Species: C. lateralis Binomial name Callospermophilus lateralis ( Say , 1823) Synonyms Spermophilus lateralis Spermophilus lateralis The golden-mantled ground squirrel ( Callospermophilus lateralis ) is a ground squirrel native to western North America . It is distributed in the Rocky Mountains of British Columbia and Alberta , and through much of the western United States. [ 1 ] Description This ground squirrel is generally about 23 to 29 cm (9.1 to 11.4 in) in length. The weight range for adults is between 120 and 394 grams (0.26 to 0.86 lbs.) [ citation needed ] It has whitish or yellow-gray underparts. The tail is brown to black with buff edges and a yellowish to reddish underside. It has pale rings around the eyes. The "mantle" across the shoulders is tawny to reddish, with males having a deeper reddish tinge. This species is distinguished from similar ground squirrels by a black-bordered white stripe down each side of the back and is distinguished from similar looking chipmunks by its lack of facial stripes. [ 2 ] Some authors describe many subspecies of this taxon. [ 3 ] Biology and ecology This species occurs in forests, chaparral , meadow margins, and sagebrush, especially in areas with many rocks or forest litter that provides shelter. It is associated with many kinds of coniferous trees, aspen , and manzanita . [ 2 ] It is omnivorous , feeding on pine nuts , acorns , herbs and shrubs, fungi, many kinds of insects, eggs, young birds, lizards, carrion, and human foods when available. [ 2 ] This species caches food near its burrow, especially during the late summer and fall. [ 2 ] The squirrel has also been known to "beg" for human food at the wildlife urban interface. [ 4 ] This species hibernates over the winter. During the summers they gain extra weight in order to prepare for hibernation. [ 4 ] The squirrels hibernate in dens that can reach up to 100 feet in length although they are typically shallow in depth. [ 5 ] The breeding season commences when males and females emerge from hibernation in the spring. Most broods are born in July. A female has two to eight young per litter, with an average of five. There is no paternal care of the offspring. Juveniles resemble adults by 40 days of age. The life span of this ground squirrel is up to about seven years. [ 2 ] Most adults are independent, rarely cooperating, and usually competing for resources. They may assemble at sites with abundant food but develop a group hierarchy. Adults reside alone in burrows, creating nests for hibernation or rearing of young. This species has been known to nest in structures, such as roofs. [ 2 ] This species becomes vocal when it feels threatened, making squeaking noises or growling. However, it is generally not a very vocal species. [ 4 ] Predators of this squirrel include snakes, foxes, weasels, and bears. [ 1 ] It may carry the Rocky Mountain wood tick , a vector of Rocky Mountain spotted fever and other diseases. [ 1 ] Conservation This is a common and widespread species that is not considered to be threatened. [ 1 ] References ^ a b c d e .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Cassola, F. (2016). " Callospermophilus lateralis " . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016 e.T42468A22265474. doi : 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T42468A22265474.en . Retrieved 19 February 2022 . ^ a b c d e f Bartels, M. A. and D. P. Thompson. Spermophilus lateralis . Archived 2007-07-11 at the Wayback Machine In : Wilson, D. E. & D. M. Reeder (Eds). 2005. Mammal Species of the World. A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.), Johns Hopkins University Press. ^ Callospermophilus lateralis . Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). ^ a b c Evans, Adare (November 2016). "Golden-Mantled Ground Squirrel" (PDF) . Wildlife Express (Idaho Fish and Game) . 30 . ^ Fraley, John (2018). "Golden-Mantled Ground Squirrel" . Montana Outdoors . External links NatureServe. 2017. Callospermophilus lateralis . NatureServe Explorer V.7.1 Accessed 6 September 2017. Golden-mantled Ground Squirrel. Archived 2012-07-18 at the Wayback Machine North American Mammals. Smithsonian Museum of Natural History. Media from Commons Taxa from Wikispecies .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Living species of tribe Marmotini (ground squirrels) v t e Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Rodentia Suborder: Sciuromorpha Family: Sciuridae Subfamily: Xerinae Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Rodentia Suborder: Sciuromorpha Family: Sciuridae Subfamily: Xerinae Ammospermophilus (antelope squirrels) Harris's antelope squirrel (A. harrisii) Espíritu Santo antelope squirrel (A. insularis) Texas antelope squirrel (A. interpres) White-tailed antelope squirrel (A. leucurus) San Joaquin antelope squirrel (A. nelsoni) Harris's antelope squirrel (A. harrisii) Espíritu Santo antelope squirrel (A. insularis) Texas antelope squirrel (A. interpres) White-tailed antelope squirrel (A. leucurus) San Joaquin antelope squirrel (A. nelsoni) Callospermophilus (golden-mantled ground squirrels) Golden-mantled ground squirrel (C. lateralis) Sierra Madre ground squirrel (C. madrensis) Cascade golden-mantled ground squirrel (C. saturatus) Golden-mantled ground squirrel (C. lateralis) Sierra Madre ground squirrel (C. madrensis) Cascade golden-mantled ground squirrel (C. saturatus) Cynomys (prairie dogs) Gunnison's prairie dog (C. gunnisoni) White-tailed prairie dog (C. leucurus) Black-tailed prairie dog (C. ludovicianus) Mexican prairie dog (C. mexicanus) Utah prairie dog (C. parvidens) Gunnison's prairie dog (C. gunnisoni) White-tailed prairie dog (C. leucurus) Black-tailed prairie dog (C. ludovicianus) Mexican prairie dog (C. mexicanus) Utah prairie dog (C. parvidens) Eutamias Siberian chipmunk (E. sibiricus) Siberian chipmunk (E. sibiricus) Ictidomys (little ground squirrels) Mexican ground squirrel (I. mexicanus) Rio Grande ground squirrel (I. parvidens ) Thirteen-lined ground squirrel (I. tridecemlineatus) Mexican ground squirrel (I. mexicanus) Rio Grande ground squirrel (I. parvidens ) Thirteen-lined ground squirrel (I. tridecemlineatus) Marmota (marmots) Subgenus Marmota : Gray marmot (M. baibacina) Bobak marmot (M. bobak) Alaska marmot (M. broweri) Black-capped marmot (M. camtschatica) Long-tailed marmot (M. caudata) Himalayan marmot (M. himalayana) Alpine marmot (M. marmota) Menzbier's marmot (M. menzbieri) Groundhog or woodchuck (M. monax) Tarbagan marmot (M. sibirica) Subgenus Petromarmota : Hoary marmot (M. caligata) Yellow-bellied marmot (M. flaviventris) Olympic marmot (M. olympus) Vancouver Island marmot (M. vancouverensis) Bobak marmot (M. bobak) Alaska marmot (M. broweri) Black-capped marmot (M. camtschatica) Long-tailed marmot (M. caudata) Himalayan marmot (M. himalayana) Alpine marmot (M. marmota) Menzbier's marmot (M. menzbieri) Groundhog or woodchuck (M. monax) Tarbagan marmot (M. sibirica) Subgenus Petromarmota : Hoary marmot (M. caligata) Yellow-bellied marmot (M. flaviventris) Olympic marmot (M. olympus) Vancouver Island marmot (M. vancouverensis) Neotamias (western chipmunks) Alpine chipmunk (N. alpinus) Yellow-pine chipmunk (N. amoenus) Buller's chipmunk (N. bulleri) Gray-footed chipmunk (N. canipes) Gray-collared chipmunk (N. cinereicollis) Cliff chipmunk (N. dorsalis) Durango chipmunk (N. durangae) Merriam's chipmunk (N. merriami) Least chipmunk (N. minimus) California chipmunk (N. obscurus) Yellow-cheeked chipmunk (N. ochrogenys) Palmer's chipmunk (N. palmeri) Panamint chipmunk (N. panamintinus) Long-eared chipmunk (N. quadrimaculatus) Colorado chipmunk (N. quadrivittatus) Red-tailed chipmunk (N. ruficaudus) Hopi chipmunk (N. rufus) Allen's chipmunk (N. senex) Siskiyou chipmunk (N. siskiyou) Sonoma chipmunk (N. sonomae) Lodgepole chipmunk (N. speciosus) Townsend's chipmunk (N. townsendii) Uinta chipmunk (N. umbrinus) Alpine chipmunk (N. alpinus) Yellow-pine chipmunk (N. amoenus) Buller's chipmunk (N. bulleri) Gray-footed chipmunk (N. canipes) Gray-collared chipmunk (N. cinereicollis) Cliff chipmunk (N. dorsalis) Durango chipmunk (N. durangae) Merriam's chipmunk (N. merriami) Least chipmunk (N. minimus) California chipmunk (N. obscurus) Yellow-cheeked chipmunk (N. ochrogenys) Palmer's chipmunk (N. palmeri) Panamint chipmunk (N. panamintinus) Long-eared chipmunk (N. quadrimaculatus) Colorado chipmunk (N. quadrivittatus) Red-tailed chipmunk (N. ruficaudus) Hopi chipmunk (N. rufus) Allen's chipmunk (N. senex) Siskiyou chipmunk (N. siskiyou) Sonoma chipmunk (N. sonomae) Lodgepole chipmunk (N. speciosus) Townsend's chipmunk (N. townsendii) Uinta chipmunk (N. umbrinus) Notocitellus Tropical ground squirrel (N. adocetus) Ring-tailed ground squirrel (N. annulatus) Tropical ground squirrel (N. adocetus) Ring-tailed ground squirrel (N. annulatus) Otospermophilus (rock squirrels) Baja California rock squirrel (O. atricapillus) California ground squirrel (O. beecheyi) Douglas ground squirrel (O. douglasii) Rock squirrel (O. variegatus) Baja California rock squirrel (O. atricapillus) California ground squirrel (O. beecheyi) Douglas ground squirrel (O. douglasii) Rock squirrel (O. variegatus) Poliocitellus Franklin's ground squirrel (P. franklinii) Franklin's ground squirrel (P. franklinii) Sciurotamias (Asian rock squirrels) Père David's rock squirrel (S. davidianus) Forrest's rock squirrel (S. forresti) Père David's rock squirrel (S. davidianus) Forrest's rock squirrel (S. forresti) Spermophilus sensu stricto (Old World ground squirrels) Alashan ground squirrel (S. alashanicus) Brandt’s ground squirrel ( S. brevicauda ) European ground squirrel (S. citellus) Daurian ground squirrel (S. dauricus) Red-cheeked ground squirrel (S. erythrogenys) Yellow ground squirrel (S. fulvus) Russet ground squirrel (S. major) Caucasian mountain ground squirrel (S. musicus) Tian Shan ground squirrel (S. nilkaensis) Pallid ground squirrel ( S. pallidicauda ) Little ground squirrel (S. pygmaeus) Relict ground squirrel ( S. relictus ) Speckled ground squirrel (Spermophilus suslicus) Taurus ground squirrel (Spermophilus taurensis) Asia Minor ground squirrel (Spermophilus xanthoprymnus) Alashan ground squirrel (S. alashanicus) Brandt’s ground squirrel ( S. brevicauda ) European ground squirrel (S. citellus) Daurian ground squirrel (S. dauricus) Red-cheeked ground squirrel (S. erythrogenys) Yellow ground squirrel (S. fulvus) Russet ground squirrel (S. major) Caucasian mountain ground squirrel (S. musicus) Tian Shan ground squirrel (S. nilkaensis) Pallid ground squirrel ( S. pallidicauda ) Little ground squirrel (S. pygmaeus) Relict ground squirrel ( S. relictus ) Speckled ground squirrel (Spermophilus suslicus) Taurus ground squirrel (Spermophilus taurensis) Asia Minor ground squirrel (Spermophilus xanthoprymnus) Tamias Eastern chipmunk (T. striatus) Eastern chipmunk (T. striatus) Urocitellus (Holarctic ground squirrels) Uinta ground squirrel (U. armatus) Belding's ground squirrel (U. beldingi) Northern Idaho ground squirrel (U. brunneus) Merriam's ground squirrel (U. canus) Columbian ground squirrel (U. columbianus) Wyoming ground squirrel (U. elegans) Southern Idaho ground squirrel (U. endemicus) Piute ground squirrel (U. mollis) Arctic ground squirrel (U. parryii) Richardson's ground squirrel (U. richardsonii) Townsend's ground squirrel (U. townsendii) Long-tailed ground squirrel (U. undulatus) Washington ground squirrel (U. washingtoni) Uinta ground squirrel (U. armatus) Belding's ground squirrel (U. beldingi) Northern Idaho ground squirrel (U. brunneus) Merriam's ground squirrel (U. canus) Columbian ground squirrel (U. columbianus) Wyoming ground squirrel (U. elegans) Southern Idaho ground squirrel (U. endemicus) Piute ground squirrel (U. mollis) Arctic ground squirrel (U. parryii) Richardson's ground squirrel (U. richardsonii) Townsend's ground squirrel (U. townsendii) Long-tailed ground squirrel (U. undulatus) Washington ground squirrel (U. washingtoni) Xerospermophilus (pygmy ground squirrels) Mohave ground squirrel (X. mohavensis) Perote ground squirrel (X. perotensis) Spotted ground squirrel (X. spilosoma) Round-tailed ground squirrel (X. tereticaudus) Mohave ground squirrel (X. mohavensis) Perote ground squirrel (X. perotensis) Spotted ground squirrel (X. spilosoma) Round-tailed ground squirrel (X. tereticaudus) Category Taxon identifiers Spermophilus lateralis Wikidata : Q1334879 ADW : Spermophilus_lateralis CoL : 6YX8W EPPO : CITELA GBIF : 2437297 IRMNG : 10593277 ITIS : 180154 MSW : 12401029 Open Tree of Life : 604319 Paleobiology Database : 51702 Wikidata : Q1334879 ADW : Spermophilus_lateralis CoL : 6YX8W EPPO : CITELA GBIF : 2437297 IRMNG : 10593277 ITIS : 180154 MSW : 12401029 Open Tree of Life : 604319 Paleobiology Database : 51702 Callospermophilus lateralis Wikidata : Q21727451 Wikispecies : Callospermophilus lateralis BOLD : 741557 CoL : PW74 EoL : 328006 GBIF : 7593288 iNaturalist : 180010 ITIS : 930305 IUCN : 42468 MDD : 1001711 NatureServe : 2.102855 NCBI : 76772 Open Tree of Life : 604319 Paleobiology Database : 457833 Wikidata : Q21727451 Wikispecies : Callospermophilus lateralis BOLD : 741557 CoL : PW74 EoL : 328006 GBIF : 7593288 iNaturalist : 180010 ITIS : 930305 IUCN : 42468 MDD : 1001711 NatureServe : 2.102855 NCBI : 76772 Open Tree of Life : 604319 Paleobiology Database : 457833 Sciurus lateralis Wikidata : Q122930766 GBIF : 9249293 Wikidata : Q122930766 GBIF : 9249293 IUCN Red List least concern species Callospermophilus Fauna of the Northwestern United States Fauna of the Southwestern United States Rodents of Canada Rodents of the United States Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands Fauna of the Great Basin Fauna of the Rocky Mountains Fauna of the Sierra Nevada (United States) Mammals described in 1823 Taxa named by Thomas Say Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with 'species' microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2023 Taxonbars with multiple manual Wikidata items Taxonbars with automatically added original combinations This page was last edited on 28 September 2025, at 00:27 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life Toggle Early life subsection 1.1 Childhood and early education 1.2 World War II 1.3 University, marriage and politics 1.1 Childhood and early education 1.2 World War II 1.3 University, marriage and politics 2 Early career (1951–1955) Toggle Early career (1951–1955) subsection 2.1 Litigation practice 2.2 Forming the PAP 2.1 Litigation practice 2.2 Forming the PAP 3 Leader of the Opposition (1955–1959) Toggle Leader of the Opposition (1955–1959) subsection 3.1 Strikes and power struggle 3.2 Merdeka talks 3.3 1957 and 1959 elections 3.1 Strikes and power struggle 3.2 Merdeka talks 3.3 1957 and 1959 elections 4 Prime Minister, State of Singapore (1959–1963) Toggle Prime Minister, State of Singapore (1959–1963) subsection 4.1 First years in power 4.2 PAP split of 1961 4.3 Leadup to referendum and merger 4.4 Operation Coldstore detentions 4.1 First years in power 4.2 PAP split of 1961 4.3 Leadup to referendum and merger 4.4 Operation Coldstore detentions 5 Prime Minister, Singapore in Malaysia (1963–1965) Toggle Prime Minister, Singapore in Malaysia (1963–1965) subsection 5.1 Elections and tensions 5.2 Malaysian Malaysia and separation 5.1 Elections and tensions 5.2 Malaysian Malaysia and separation 6 Prime Minister, Republic of Singapore (1965–1990) Toggle Prime Minister, Republic of Singapore (1965–1990) subsection 6.1 Defence 6.2 Economy 6.3 Anti-corruption measures 6.4 Population policies 6.5 Water resources 6.6 Environment 6.7 Foreign policy 6.7.1 Malaysia and Mahathir Mohamad 6.7.2 Indonesia 6.7.3 United States 6.7.4 China 6.7.5 United Kingdom 6.7.6 Australia 6.7.7 Cambodia 6.1 Defence 6.2 Economy 6.3 Anti-corruption measures 6.4 Population policies 6.5 Water resources 6.6 Environment 6.7 Foreign policy 6.7.1 Malaysia and Mahathir Mohamad 6.7.2 Indonesia 6.7.3 United States 6.7.4 China 6.7.5 United Kingdom 6.7.6 Australia 6.7.7 Cambodia 6.7.1 Malaysia and Mahathir Mohamad 6.7.2 Indonesia 6.7.3 United States 6.7.4 China 6.7.5 United Kingdom 6.7.6 Australia 6.7.7 Cambodia 7 Senior Minister (1990–2004) Toggle Senior Minister (1990–2004) subsection 7.1 Condominium rebates 7.1 Condominium rebates 8 Minister Mentor (2004–2011) 9 Illness and death 10 Legacy 11 Legal suits Toggle Legal suits subsection 11.1 Action against Far Eastern Economic Review 11.2 Action against J.B. Jeyaretnam 11.3 Action against Devan Nair 11.4 International Herald Tribune defamation case 11.1 Action against Far Eastern Economic Review 11.2 Action against J.B. Jeyaretnam 11.3 Action against Devan Nair 11.4 International Herald Tribune defamation case 12 Political positions Toggle Political positions subsection 12.1 Criticism of Chinese marginalisation 12.2 Eugenics 12.3 Islam 12.4 Homosexuality 12.5 Corporal punishment 12.6 Press 12.7 Immigration 12.1 Criticism of Chinese marginalisation 12.2 Eugenics 12.3 Islam 12.4 Homosexuality 12.5 Corporal punishment 12.6 Press 12.7 Immigration 13 Personal life 14 Cultural depictions 15 Awards 16 See also 17 Notes 18 References Toggle References subsection 18.1 Works cited 18.1 Works cited 19 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 19.1 Primary sources 19.2 Other sources 19.1 Primary sources 19.2 Other sources 20 External links Lee Kuan Yew Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Bikol Central Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Madhurâ Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk پنجابی پښتو ភាសាខ្មែរ Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский संस्कृतम् Scots Simple English سنڌي Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Volapük 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikidata item The Honourable Lee Kuan Yew GCMG CH SPMJ DK Lee in 1975 1st Prime Minister of Singapore In office 5 June 1959 – 28 November 1990 Monarchs .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Elizabeth II (1959–1963) Putra of Perlis (1963–1965) Elizabeth II (1959–1963) Putra of Perlis (1963–1965) President Yusof Ishak Benjamin Sheares Devan Nair Wee Kim Wee Yusof Ishak Benjamin Sheares Devan Nair Wee Kim Wee Deputy Toh Chin Chye Goh Keng Swee S. Rajaratnam Goh Chok Tong Ong Teng Cheong Toh Chin Chye Goh Keng Swee S. Rajaratnam Goh Chok Tong Ong Teng Cheong Preceded by Office established Lim Yew Hock (Chief Minister of Singapore) Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Secretary-General of the People's Action Party In office 20 October 1957 – 14 November 1992 Chairman Toh Chin Chye Ong Teng Cheong Toh Chin Chye Ong Teng Cheong Preceded by T. T. Rajah Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong In office 21 November 1954 – 3 August 1957 Preceded by Position established Succeeded by T. T. Rajah 1st Leader of the Opposition In office 22 April 1955 – 31 March 1959 Chief Minister David Marshall Lim Yew Hock Preceded by Position established Succeeded by Lim Yew Hock Ministerial offices Minister Mentor of Singapore In office 12 August 2004 – 20 May 2011 Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Office abolished Senior Minister of Singapore In office 28 November 1990 – 12 August 2004 Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong Preceded by S. Rajaratnam Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Ministerial offices Minister Mentor of Singapore In office 12 August 2004 – 20 May 2011 Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Office abolished Senior Minister of Singapore In office 28 November 1990 – 12 August 2004 Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong Preceded by S. Rajaratnam Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Parliamentary offices Member of the Malaysian Parliament for Singapore In office 2 November 1963 – 9 August 1965 [ 1 ] Parliamentary offices Member of the Malaysian Parliament for Singapore In office 2 November 1963 – 9 August 1965 [ 1 ] Member of Parliament for Tanjong Pagar GRC In office 21 August 1991 – 23 March 2015 Preceded by Constituency established Succeeded by PAP held Majority All elections: N/A (walkover) Member of Parliament for Tanjong Pagar SMC In office 2 April 1955 – 26 April 1957 Preceded by Constituency established In office 29 June 1957 – 14 August 1991 Succeeded by Constituency abolished Majority 1955: 5,121 (66.53%) 1957: 3,392 (49.51%) 1959: 4,512 (42.08%) 1963: 2,780 (25.94%) 1968: 8,580 (88.68%) 1972: 6,114 (68.16%) 1976: 8,764 (78.06%) 1980: 11,175 (88.35%) 1984: N/A (walkover) 1988: 10,876 (63.20%) 1955: 5,121 (66.53%) 1957: 3,392 (49.51%) 1959: 4,512 (42.08%) 1963: 2,780 (25.94%) 1968: 8,580 (88.68%) 1972: 6,114 (68.16%) 1976: 8,764 (78.06%) 1980: 11,175 (88.35%) 1984: N/A (walkover) 1988: 10,876 (63.20%) Personal details Born Harry Lee Kuan Yew ( 1923-09-16 ) 16 September 1923 Singapore Died 23 March 2015 (2015-03-23) (aged 91) Singapore Resting place Mandai Crematorium and Columbarium Party People's Action Party Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Kwa Geok Choo ( m. 1950; died 2010) Children Lee Hsien Loong (son) Lee Wei Ling (daughter) Lee Hsien Yang (son) Lee Hsien Loong (son) Lee Wei Ling (daughter) Lee Hsien Yang (son) Parents Lee Chin Koon (father) Chua Jim Neo (mother) Lee Chin Koon (father) Chua Jim Neo (mother) Relatives Lee family Education Raffles College London School of Economics Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge ( BA ) Raffles College London School of Economics Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge ( BA ) Signature Chinese name Chinese 李光耀 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Lǐ Guāngyào Bopomofo ㄌㄧˇ ㄍㄨㄤ ㄧㄠˋ Wade–Giles Li 3 Kuang 1 -yao 4 Tongyong Pinyin Lǐ Guang-yào Yale Romanization Lǐ Gwāngyàu IPA [lì kwáŋ.jâʊ] Hakka Romanization Li2 Gong1 Yau5 Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Leíh Gwōngjiuh Jyutping lei5 gwong1 jiu6 IPA [lej˩˧ kʷɔŋ˥ jiw˨] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Lí Kong-iāu Teochew Peng'im Li6 Guang1 Iou7 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Lǐ Guāngyào Bopomofo ㄌㄧˇ ㄍㄨㄤ ㄧㄠˋ Wade–Giles Li 3 Kuang 1 -yao 4 Tongyong Pinyin Lǐ Guang-yào Yale Romanization Lǐ Gwāngyàu IPA [lì kwáŋ.jâʊ] Hakka Romanization Li2 Gong1 Yau5 Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Leíh Gwōngjiuh Jyutping lei5 gwong1 jiu6 IPA [lej˩˧ kʷɔŋ˥ jiw˨] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Lí Kong-iāu Teochew Peng'im Li6 Guang1 Iou7 Lee Kuan Yew [ a ] GCMG CH SPMJ DK (born Harry Lee Kuan Yew ; 16 September 1923 – 23 March 2015), often referred to by his initials LKY , was a Singaporean statesman and barrister who was the first prime minister of Singapore from 1959 to 1990. A founding father of the modern Singaporean state, his authoritarian political leadership transformed post-independence Singapore into a highly developed country and one of the four Asian Tigers . Born in Singapore during British colonial rule to a family of Chinese descent, Lee studied law in England at Cambridge University and was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1950. Shortly after, he returned to Singapore and practised law, founding the law firm Lee & Lee . In 1954, Lee co-founded the People's Action Party (PAP), which won significant support among the working class and trade unions in the lead up to the 1955 general election , securing him a seat in the Tanjong Pagar division and making him the de facto leader of the opposition . In 1959, Lee led the PAP to its first electoral victory , becoming Singapore's first prime minister. Seeking sovereignty from the British Empire , Lee led Singapore to a merger with Malaya along with Sarawak and Sabah , forming Malaysia in 1963. Racial strife and ideological differences later led to Singapore's expulsion from Malaysia and consequent independence in 1965. Lee oversaw major economic reforms and urban development, instituting policies promoting meritocracy , multiracialism and anti-corruption . His administration, generally characterised as an illiberal democracy with nanny state tendencies, restricted press freedoms , public assembly , labour activism and civil liberties . From 1968 to 1981 , Singapore was a de facto one-party state , with the PAP facing no opposition in Parliament. Although Lee maintained legal and institutional procedures that formally characterised Singapore as a democratic parliamentary republic , he employed defamation laws , detention without trial and social engineering to ensure continued electoral success. In justifying his policies, Lee was a major proponent of Asian values , arguing that communitarianism and limited human rights were necessary for the social cohesion , political stability and rapid economic development of Singapore. Lee stepped down as prime minister in 1990 but continued to serve in the Cabinet as senior minister until 2004 and subsequently as minister mentor until his retirement in 2011. Throughout his political career, he remained an influential figure in shaping Singapore's domestic and foreign policies, at the same time serving as an advisor to foreign leaders as an elder statesman. Lee died of pneumonia on 23 March 2015 at the age of 91. In Singapore, Lee is widely regarded as instrumental in the development of Singapore's economy , bureaucracy , education system , foreign policy , public housing and healthcare . The Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy at the National University of Singapore is named in his honor. Following his death, a week of national mourning was announced, during which approximately 1.7 million people paid their respects at tribute sites around the country. Early life Childhood and early education Harry Lee Kuan Yew was born on 16 September 1923, the first child of Lee Chin Koon , who was born in Semarang during Dutch colonial rule and subsequently moved to Singapore, [ 2 ] and Chua Jim Neo , at 92 Kampong Java Road in Singapore, then part of the Straits Settlements . [ 3 ] Both of Lee's parents were English-educated third-generation Peranakan Chinese , [ 4 ] with his paternal side being of Hakka descent from Dabu County . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] He was named 'Kuan Yew', [ b ] meaning 'light and brightness', alternately meaning 'bringing great glory to one's ancestors'. Lee's paternal grandfather Lee Hoon Leong, who was described as "especially westernised", had worked on British ships as a purser , and hence gave Lee the Western name 'Harry'. [ 7 ] While the family spoke English as its first language, Lee also learned Malay. [ 3 ] Lee had three brothers and one sister, all of whom lived to old age. [ 8 ] Lee was not close to his father, who worked as a storekeeper within the Shell Oil Company and had a gambling addiction. His mother Chua often stood up against her husband for his poor financial management and parenting skills. [ 9 ] The family was considered prosperous with a high social standing compared to recent immigrants, and had the means to hire servants. [ 10 ] During the Great Depression the family fortunes declined considerably, though Lee's father retained his job at Shell. [ 3 ] Later in life, Lee described his father as a man with a nasty temper, and he credited his mother with holding the family together amidst her husband's gambling addiction. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] In 1930, Lee enrolled at Telok Kurau English School where he spent six years of his primary education. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Attending Raffles Institution in 1935, Lee did poorly in his first two years but later topped the Junior Cambridge examinations. [ 15 ] He also joined the Scouts and partook in several physical activities such as cricket, tennis, swimming as well as debates. [ 16 ] Lee was the top scorer in the Senior Cambridge examinations in 1940 across the Straits Settlements and Malaya, earning the John Anderson scholarship to attend Raffles College, as well as the Tan Jiak Kim scholarship. [ 16 ] [ c ] During the prize-awarding ceremony, Lee met his future wife Kwa Geok Choo ; she was the only girl at the school. [ 15 ] Lee's subsequent university studies at Raffles College were disrupted by the onset of World War II in Asia, with the school being converted into a medical facility in 1941. The war arrived in December of that year and following the British surrender in February 1942, the Japanese occupation of Singapore began. [ 17 ] World War II Lee was amongst the Chinese men rounded up by the Japanese Sook Ching operation. By his own account, he feared getting caught by the Kempeitai (military police) and reported with a friend to be screened. He attempted to leave the next morning but was ordered to join a group of already segregated men. Lee requested to collect his clothes first and managed to spend a second night in the dormitory before successfully leaving the site the next day when a different guard cleared him through. [ 18 ] He later learned that the group of men were likely taken to the beach and executed. [ 19 ] Lee obtained a Japanese language proficiency certificate in August 1942 and worked in a friend's company and then the Kumiai , which controlled essential items. [ 20 ] He got a job with the Japanese propaganda department ( Hōdōbu ) in late 1943 and worked for the Japanese occupation force as an English specialist. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Working at the top of the Cathay Building , he was assigned to listen to Allied radio stations for Morse code signals. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] By late 1944, Lee knew Japan had suffered major setbacks and planned to move to the Cameron Highlands with his family to avoid a possible British invasion. He was tipped off that he was being followed and abandoned the plan. [ 26 ] He engaged in private enterprises and black market sales for the rest of the war. [ 27 ] During this time, Lee helped develop a glue based on tapioca, which he sold under the name Stikfas, as a means to support himself during the war. [ 28 ] The Stikfas logo later appeared on the base of his wedding cake. [ 29 ] The rapid Japanese victory in the Malaya and Singapore campaign had a major impact on Lee as he recalled: "In 70 days of surprises, upsets and stupidities, British colonial society was shattered, and with it all the assumptions of the Englishman's superiority". [ 30 ] In a radio broadcast made in 1961, Lee said he "emerged [from the war] determined that no one—neither Japanese nor British—had the right to push and kick us around... (and) that we could govern ourselves." [ 31 ] It also influenced his perceptions of raw power and the effectiveness of harsh punishment in deterring crime. [ 32 ] University, marriage and politics Lee chose not to return to Raffles College after the war and pursued higher education in the United Kingdom. [ 9 ] He sailed from Singapore in 1946 on his 23rd birthday on the MV Britannic , arriving in the UK on 3 October. [ 33 ] He initially enrolled at the London School of Economics , but found himself disliking life in the British capital. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] He visited Cambridge in November and was introduced to W. S. Thatcher , Censor of Fitzwilliam House. He was admitted into the following year's Lent term and matriculated in January 1947, reading law at Fitzwilliam College . [ 36 ] Prior to his departure from Singapore, Lee had begun a relationship with Kwa, with whom he had kept in contact during the war. They married in secret at Stratford-upon-Avon in December. [ 9 ] Lee achieved a first class result in both the Prelims and Part I of the Tripos , and graduated with a Starred First for Part II Law in 1949. As the top student of his cohort, he was awarded the Fitzwilliam's Whitlock Prize; Lee was called to the bar from the Middle Temple in 1950. [ 36 ] If you value fairness and social justice, not only to the people of Britain but also to the millions of British subjects in the colonies, return another Labour government. If you value fairness and social justice, not only to the people of Britain but also to the millions of British subjects in the colonies, return another Labour government. During his studies, Lee's political convictions and anti-colonial sentiments were hardened by personal experiences and an increasing belief that the British were ruling Singapore for their own benefit. He supported the Labour Party against the Conservatives whom he perceived as opposing decolonisation . [ 38 ] In the leadup to the 1950 United Kingdom general election , Lee engaged in politics for the first time and actively campaigned for a friend, David Widdicombe in Totnes constituency, driving Widdicombe around in a lorry and delivering several speeches on his behalf. [ 39 ] Before returning to Singapore, Lee dropped his English name, Harry. [ d ] Notwithstanding, even until the end of his life, old friends and relatives referred to him as Harry. [ 41 ] Early career (1951–1955) Litigation practice Lee and his wife returned to Singapore in August 1950 on board the MS Willem Ruys . [ 42 ] He joined the Laycock and Ong law firm founded by British lawyer John Laycock . [ 43 ] Laycock was a co-founder of the pro-British Progressive Party and Lee represented the party during the 1951 legislative council election as an election agent. [ 44 ] Lee was called to the Singapore bar on 7 August 1951. [ 45 ] During the postal union strike in May 1952, Lee negotiated a settlement marking his first step into the labour movement. [ 46 ] In due course, Lee represented nearly fifty trade unions and associations against the British authorities on a pro bono basis. [ 47 ] The disputes often centered around wages and Laycock eventually requested Lee to cease taking on such cases as it was hurting the firm. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ] In May 1954, the left-wing University Socialist Club published an article 'Aggression in Asia' in the club's magazine The Fajar , and the student editors were charged with sedition. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Lee became junior counsel to Denis Pritt . The court quashed the charges and the two counsel gained a reputation through the trial, with Lee thereafter becoming a "major leader" of the movement against British rule. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] During the same year, Lee also appealed on behalf of the students arrested during the 13 May incident . The colonial government upheld the sentences, though the case enhanced Lee's reputation as a "left-wing lawyer" and marked his first involvement with the Chinese intelligentsia. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Forming the PAP During his studies in Britain, Lee met Goh Keng Swee and Toh Chin Chye via the Malayan Forum . [ 57 ] The forum sought to promote an independent Malaya which included Singapore and met at 44 Bryanston Square in London. [ 58 ] [ 59 ] Lee and his contemporaries deliberately avoided the topic of forming a political party to avoid charges of subversion , beginning work on forming a political party only after returning to Singapore. [ 60 ] Lee had sought to build support among the English-educated, Malay, and Indian communities by taking on cases against the British authorities. In the course of his work, Lee became acquainted with the journalist Sinnathamby Rajaratnam ; Abdul Samad Ismail , a writer for the Malay newspaper Utusan Melayu ; and Devan Nair . [ 61 ] He next turned his attention to the Chinese-speaking majority and was introduced to Lim Chin Siong and Fong Swee Suan, leaders of the influential bus and factories unions. While the unions had been infiltrated by communists, Lee consciously sought their support as he wanted a popular front. [ 62 ] With elections approaching in 1955, Lee and his associates debated the name, ideology, and policies of the party they wanted to create at 38 Oxley Road . [ 63 ] The People's Action Party (PAP) was inaugurated on 21 November 1954 at the Victoria Memorial Hall . As the party still lacked members, trade union leaders rounded up an estimated audience of 800 to 1,500 supporters. [ 64 ] Lee had also invited Tunku Abdul Rahman and Tan Cheng Lock , presidents of the United Malays National Organisation and Malayan Chinese Association . In his inaugural speech, Lee denounced the British for the slow transition to self-rule, demanded their immediate withdrawal, and said that the PAP would pursue a Singapore-Malaya union. Lee became secretary-general of the party, a post he held until 1992, barring a brief period in 1957 when the post was taken up by T. T. Rajah . [ 65 ] [ 66 ] In July 1953, Governor John Nicoll initiated the Rendel Commission to provide for a transition to self-rule. The commission created the legislative assembly and opened 25 of 32 seats for direct contest in the upcoming 1955 election . The PAP and Labour Front , led by Lee and David Marshall respectively, both criticised the concessions as "inadequate". The PAP faced manpower constraints but decided to prioritise resources and contest four seats as a protest gesture. [ 67 ] In a rally speech, Lee said he chose the Tanjong Pagar division as it was a "working class area" and that he did not want to represent "wealthy merchants or landlords". [ 68 ] During the campaigning period, the British press labelled Lee as a " commissar " and accused the PAP of being a "communist-backed party". [ 69 ] Democratic Party (DP) challenger Lam Thian also capitalised on Lee's inability to converse in Chinese. Lee's proposal for a multilingual debate was never reciprocated by Thian, though he eventually made his maiden Chinese speech after several hours of coaching. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] On polling day, 2 April, the ruling Progressive Party captured only four seats, shocking both the British establishment and its opposition. Lee defeated his competitors and won Tanjong Pagar, with the PAP winning three of their four contested seats. He pledged to work with Marshall and the new Labour Front government. [ 72 ] As independent member Ahmad Ibrahim joined PAP following the election, PAP had 4 members in the Assembly and thus Lee became the new Leader of the Opposition. [ 73 ] Leader of the Opposition (1955–1959) Strikes and power struggle Any man in Singapore who wants to carry the Chinese-speaking people with him cannot afford to be anti-Communist. The Chinese are very proud of China. If I had to choose between colonialism and communism, I would vote for communism and so would the great majority. Any man in Singapore who wants to carry the Chinese-speaking people with him cannot afford to be anti-Communist. The Chinese are very proud of China. If I had to choose between colonialism and communism, I would vote for communism and so would the great majority. On 23 April 1955, workers from the Hock Lee Amalgamated Bus Company began a strike under the direction of Fong Swee Suan, leader of the Singapore Buses Workers' Union (SBWU). [ 75 ] [ 76 ] As SBWU's legal advisor, Lee worked with Marshall's government to negotiate a resolution, which was initially agreed by the SBWU but then reneged on by the company. [ 77 ] Seeking to exert greater pressure, Lee, Fong and Lim Chin Siong addressed the strikers on 1 May ( May Day ), where Lee called the government a "half-past six democracy". [ 78 ] The strike subsequently escalated into a riot on 12 May . [ 79 ] Lee, Marshall and the company agreed on a further resolution on 14 May, which conceded to several of the strikers' demands. [ 80 ] In an emergency legislative assembly sitting on 16 May, Chief Secretary William Goode accused Lee of losing control of the PAP to Lim. [ 77 ] Lee was constrained between defending the actions of his colleagues and denouncing them, instead reiterating the PAP's committal to non-violence. [ 81 ] Marshall defended him and the PAP as "decent men" against Goode's accusations and called upon the party to "purge themselves of communists". [ 77 ] [ 80 ] The riot led the public to perceive the PAP as being led by "young, immature and troublesome politicians", resulting in a shortfall of new members. [ 82 ] It deepened the divide between two emerging factions, with Lee's faction advocating Fabian 's brand of socialism for gradual reform and Lim's faction, later described by Fong as "favour(ing) a more radical approach". [ 83 ] Lee was convinced that Lim and Fong's influence were pushing the party toward "political disaster". [ 74 ] After consulting his allies Toh Chin Chye , S. Rajaratnam and Byrne , Lee censured the two men privately and demanded they change strategies or leave the party. [ 84 ] By 1956, Lee believed that the PAP "had been captured by the communists" and privately endorsed the Labour Front government purge of suspected "leftists" in the aftermath of the 1956 Chinese middle schools riots . The arrestees included his rival Lim and several other PAP members. [ 85 ] When other leftist members captured six seats in the PAP central executive committee (CEC) elections on 4 August 1957, [ 86 ] Lee refused to allow his allies to assume their appointments and said that his faction had "lost their moral right" to enforce the party's founding philosophy. [ 87 ] Overtures were made by fellow CEC member T. T. Rajah to remain in his post, to which he declined. [ 86 ] The government arrested the leftist leaders on 22 August [ 88 ] [ 89 ] and Lee was restored as secretary-general on 20 October. He later blamed the attempted takeover on lax admission rules to the party [ 90 ] [ 91 ] and permanently distrusted the leftists thereafter. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] On 23 November 1958, the party constitution was amended to implement a cadre system. [ 91 ] The right to vote in party elections and run for office were revoked from ordinary party members, whom now had to seek approval from the CEC to be a cadre and regain these privileges. [ 92 ] Lee credited the Vatican system where the pope pre-selects its cardinals for the idea. [ 93 ] Merdeka talks The Labour Front government's conciliatory approach to the Hock Lee strikers led to a drastic increase in strikes. [ 80 ] Frustrated by his limited powers, Marshall demanded further constitutional reforms towards the aim of "true self-government". Lee supported Marshall in his efforts, though he initially threatened an opposition boycott over wording disputes in the agreement. [ 94 ] Between 1956 and 1958, there were three rounds of constitutional talks. [ 95 ] Lee was part of Marshall's 13-member delegation to London in April 1956. Marshall's demands for independence were repeatedly rejected by Colonial Secretary Alan Lennox-Boyd and Lee departed early over Marshall's refusal to compromise. [ 96 ] [ 97 ] He criticised Marshall for his "political ineptitude" in the British press and received widespread media and radio coverage. [ 98 ] He returned to London in March 1957 as part of a five-member delegation led by the new chief minister Lim Yew Hock . [ 99 ] Britain conceded to Singapore's self-governance but also demanded that a tripartite Internal Security Council be established, which proved controversial back home. [ 99 ] Marshall challenged Lee to seek a fresh mandate from his Tanjong Pagar constituents, which Lee accepted. [ 100 ] In the June 1957 by-elections , Lee was reelected with 68.1% of the vote. [ 101 ] Lee returned to London for the third and final talks in May 1958, [ 102 ] where it was agreed that Singapore would assume self-governance with a Yang di-Pertuan Negara as head of state, with Britain retaining control of defence and foreign policy. [ 103 ] The British House of Lords passed the State of Singapore Act on 24 July 1958, which received royal assent on 1 August, and became law following the subsequent general election. [ 104 ] 1957 and 1959 elections As the 1957 City Council election in December approached, a Hokkien-speaking candidate, Ong Eng Guan , became the PAP's new face to the Chinese electorate. [ 89 ] The 32-seat city council's functions were restricted to up-keeping public amenities within city limits, but party leaders decided to contest the election as a "dry run" for the upcoming general election. [ 105 ] Lee limited the PAP to contesting 14 seats to avoid provoking the government and formed an electoral pact with the Labour Front and United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) to jointly tackle the new Liberal Socialist Party . [ e ] [ 107 ] The PAP campaigned on a slogan to "sweep the city clean" [ 106 ] and emerged with 13 seats, allowing it to form a minority administration with UMNO's support. Lee and the rest of the CEC unanimously endorsed Ong to become mayor . [ 105 ] External image Portrait of Lee being sworn in as Prime Minister of Singapore National Heritage Board Early in 1959, Communications and Works Minister Francis Thomas received evidence of corruption on Education Minister Chew Swee Kee . Thomas brought the evidence to Lee after the chief minister dismissed the matter. [ 108 ] Lee tabled a motion in the assembly on 17 February, which forced Chew's resignation. [ 108 ] As the expiry of the assembly's term approached, the PAP was initially split on whether to capture power but Lee chose to proceed. [ 109 ] While picking the candidates, Lee deliberately chose people from different racial and education backgrounds to repair the party's image of being run by intellectuals. [ 110 ] In the 1959 general election held on 30 May 1959, the PAP won a landslide victory with 43 of the 51 seats, though with only 53.4% of the popular vote which Lee noted. [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The PAP's victory reportedly created a dilemma within the 12-member CEC as there was no formal process in place to choose a prime minister-elect. [ 112 ] A vote was purportedly held between Lee and Ong Eng Guan and after both men received six votes, party chairman Toh Chin Chye cast the tie-breaking vote for Lee. [ 113 ] When interviewed nearly five decades later, Toh and one other party member recalled the vote, but Lee and several others denied the account. [ 113 ] Lee was summoned by Governor William Goode to form a new government on 1 June, to which he requested the release of arrested PAP members. [ 114 ] On 3 June, Singapore became a self-governing state, ending 140 years of direct British rule. [ 114 ] Lee was sworn in as Prime Minister of Singapore on 5 June at City Hall , along with the rest of his Cabinet . [ 114 ] Prime Minister, State of Singapore (1959–1963) First years in power Lee's first speech as prime minister to a 50,000-strong audience at the Padang sought to dampen his supporters' euphoria of the PAP's electoral win. [ 111 ] In the first month of Lee taking power, Singapore experienced an economic slump as foreign capital fell and Western businesses and expatriates left for Kuala Lumpur in Malaya, fearing the new government's anti-colonial zeal. [ 111 ] As part of an 'anti-yellow culture' drive, Lee banned jukeboxes and pinball machines, while the police under Home Affairs Minister Ong Pang Boon raided pubs and pornography publications. [ f ] [ 115 ] The government cracked down on secret societies , prostitution and other illegal activities, with TIME magazine later reporting that a full week passed without "kidnapping, extortion or gangland rumble(s)" for the first time. [ 115 ] Lee also spearheaded several 'mobilisation campaigns' to clean the city, introduced air-conditioning to government offices, and slashed the salaries of civil servants. The last act provoked anger from the sector, which Lee justified as necessary to balance the budget. [ 116 ] In February 1960, the Housing and Development Board (HDB) superseded the Singapore Improvement Trust (SIT) and assumed responsibility of public housing . With strong government support, the HDB under chairman Lim Kim San completed more flats in three years than its predecessor did in thirty-two. [ 117 ] Government expenditure for public utilities, healthcare and education also increased significantly. [ 117 ] By the end of the year, however, unemployment began to rise drastically as the economy slowed. Lee reversed anti-colonial policies and launched a five-year plan to build new industries, seeking to attract foreign investors and rival Hong Kong . [ 118 ] [ 119 ] Jurong , a swampland to the island's western coast was chosen to be the site of a new industrial estate and would house steel mills, shipyards, and oil refineries, though Finance Minister Goh Keng Swee was initially worried the venture would fail. [ 120 ] The government promoted multiculturalism by recognising Chinese, English, Malay, and Tamil as the official languages of the new state and sought to create a new national Malayan identity. The Ministry of Culture under S. Rajaratnam held free outdoor concerts with every ethnic race represented in the performances. [ 121 ] Lee also introduced the People's Association , a government-linked organisation to run community centers and youth clubs, with its leaders trained to spread the PAP's ideology. [ 121 ] Youth unemployment was alleviated by the establishment of work brigades. [ 121 ] PAP split of 1961 Lee took measures to secure his position in the aftermath of the 1957 party elections. In 1959, he delayed the release of leftist PAP members arrested under the former Labour Front government and appointed five of its leaders, [ g ] including Lim Chin Siong, as parliamentary secretaries lacking political power. [ 114 ] [ 123 ] Lee clashed further with Lim when the government sought to create a centralised labour union in the first half of 1960. [ 124 ] Trouble also arose from former mayor and Minister of National Development Ong Eng Guan , who Lee had appointed in recognition of Ong's contribution to the PAP's electoral win. [ 124 ] [ 125 ] Ong's relocation of his ministry to his Hong Lim stronghold and continued castigation of the British and civil servants was regarded by his colleagues as disruptive and Lee removed several portfolios from Ong's purview in February 1960. [ 125 ] [ 126 ] In the party conference on 18 June 1960, Ong filed "16 resolutions" against the leadership, accusing Lee of failing to seek party consensus when deciding policy, not adhering to anti-colonialism and suspending left-wing unions. [ 127 ] Lee regarded it as a move to split the party and together with his allies expelled Ong from the party. [ 128 ] Ong resigned his seat in December, precipitating the Hong Lim by-election on in April 1961 which he won against a PAP candidate. [ 126 ] [ 129 ] The death of the PAP assemblyman for Anson that April triggered a second by-election. For the first time, Lim's faction openly revolted against Lee and endorsed Workers' Party chairman David Marshall who won the seat. [ 126 ] [ 130 ] Lee assumed responsibility for the two by-election defeats and submitted his resignation to party chairman Toh Chin Chye on 17 July. Toh rejected it and upheld Lee's mandate. [ 131 ] Lee moved a motion of confidence in his own government in the early hours of 21 July after a thirteen-hour debate which had begun the preceding day, narrowly surviving it with 27 "Ayes", 8 "Noes" and 16 abstentions. [ 132 ] The PAP now commanded a single seat majority in the 51-seat assembly after 13 of its members had abstained. [ 133 ] Lee expelled the 13 who had broken ranks in addition to Lim, Fong and Woodhull. [ 133 ] Leadup to referendum and merger Lee and his colleagues believed that Singapore could only survive through merger with Malaya and was unwilling to call for complete independence. [ 134 ] Merger would allow goods to be exported to the peninsula under a common market , while devolving unpopular internal security measures to Kuala Lumpur . [ 134 ] [ 135 ] Malaya's ruling Alliance Party coalition dominated by the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) had repeatedly opposed the scheme and was apprehensive that Singapore's Chinese majority would reduce 'Malay political supremacy'. [ 136 ] Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman backtracked after the PAP's Hong Lim by-election defeat, fearing a "pro-communist government" in Singapore should Lee fall from power. [ 135 ] On 27 May 1961, Tunku announced that Malaya, Singapore, and the British colonies of North Borneo and Sarawak should pursue "political and economic cooperation". [ 135 ] Lee endorsed the program six days later and commenced negotiations on the formation of Malaysia. [ 135 ] In August 1961, Lee and Tunku agreed that Singapore's defence, foreign affairs and internal security would be transferred to the federal government, while education and labour policy remained with the state government. [ 135 ] [ 137 ] Lim Chin Siong and his supporters saw Lee's ceding control of internal security—then controlled by the Internal Security Council with British, Malayan, Singaporean representatives—to the federal government as a threat as Tunku was convinced they were communists. [ 135 ] In a meeting with British Commissioner General Lord Selkirk , Selkirk reaffirmed that the British would not suspend Singapore's constitution should Lee be voted out. [ 135 ] Lee saw the meeting as a British endorsement of Lim and accused it as a plot against his government. [ 138 ] On 13 August, Lim founded the Barisan Sosialis and became its secretary-general, with 35 of 51 branches of the PAP defecting. [ 133 ] [ 139 ] Lee anticipated a Barisan win in the next election and saw 'independence through merger' as the only means for the PAP to retain power. [ 136 ] Beginning on 13 September 1961, Lee gave twelve multilingual radio speeches outlining the benefits of merger in what he called the 'Battle for Merger'. The speeches proved to be a massive success for Lee's campaign, while Barisan's demands for equal airtime were rejected. [ 140 ] Lee employed full use of state resources to suppress his opponents by revoking the Barisan's printing permits, banning or relocating its rallies, and purging its supporters from the government, while the judiciary and police engaged to "obstruct, provoke and isolate" the party. [ 141 ] The Barisan lambasted Lee for securing only 15 seats in the Malaysian parliament for Singapore in contrast to North Borneo (16) and Sarawak (24), despite both having a combined population well below Singapore's 1.7 million. [ 142 ] Singapore citizens would also be categorised as "nationals" and not be granted Malaysian citizenship. [ 142 ] [ 143 ] On 6 December, the legislative assembly voted 33–0 in favour of the agreements struck by Lee and Tunku, which the Barisan boycotted. [ 144 ] A referendum for merger was scheduled for 1 September 1962. Lee ensured that the ballot lacked a "no" option, with all three options having varying terms for admission into Malaysia. [ 142 ] The ballot was crafted by Lee and Goh Keng Swee to capitalise on a mistake which the Barisan had made the previous year. The Barisan had inadvertently endorsed merger under terms "like Penang " (a state of Malaya) with full citizenship rights, not realising that Malayan law entitled only a native-born to qualify for automatic citizenship, which would disenfranchise nearly one third of those eligible to vote; [ 145 ] it issued a clarification but never recovered from the mistake. [ 146 ] Lee placed the flag of Singapore alongside option A with the terms of Singapore retaining control of education and labour policy, while portraying the Barisan's choice as option B favouring entry into the federation with no special rights, next to the flag of Penang . [ 147 ] When Lim called for his supporters to submit blank votes , Lee countered that blank votes would count as a vote for the majority choice. 71% eventually voted for option A, while 26% cast blank votes. [ 148 ] In November, Lee embarked on a ten-month visit to all fifty-one constituencies, prioritising those with the highest count of blank votes. [ 149 ] Operation Coldstore detentions The Malayan government considered the arrests of Singapore's left-wing groups as non-negotiable for the formation of Malaysia. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] Tunku felt that Lee lacked the initiative to suppress "pro-communist elements" and warned that a Malay-led dictatorship would be instated to prevent a "socialist majority" in the next Malayan election. [ 144 ] As the Malayans increased pressure on the Internal Security Council (ISC) to take action, Lee began supporting the idea of a purge in March 1962. [ 152 ] The Malayan and Singapore special branches collaborated on an arrest list of major opposition members, though doubts arose if Lim Chin Siong and Fong Swee Suan could be classified as 'communists'. [ 152 ] Up until the end of November 1962, the British declined to support the operation without a pretext, noting that Lim and the Barisan Sosialis had not broken any laws. [ 153 ] The Brunei revolt on 8 December led by A. M. Azahari provided a "heaven-sent opportunity" to take action, as Lim had met Azahari on 3 December. [ 154 ] The Malayan government convened the ISC to discuss the operation, while Singapore's Special Branch produced alleged evidence of the communist control of Barisan. [ 154 ] On 13 December, Lord Selkirk gave his authorisation for the arrests to proceed on 16 December. However, Lee's attempt to add two Malayan parliamentarians opposed to the formation of Malaysia into the arrest list caused the Malayan representative to rescind his consent, stopping the operation. [ 154 ] Tunku suspected that Lee was trying to eliminate his entire opposition, while Lee felt that Tunku was evading his shared responsibility for the arrests. [ 149 ] An ISC meeting was scheduled to be held on 1 February 1963 to remount the operation. [ 155 ] During the interim period, Lee had added three names from the United People's Party, one of them being former PAP minister Ong Eng Guan. [ 155 ] Selkirk expressed concerns that Ong's arrest lacked any justification and Lee conceded that it was meant as a "warning" to Ong. [ 155 ] Tunku told Geofroy Tory , the British High Commissioner in Kuala Lumpur on 30 January, that 'if this operation failed, merger with Singapore was off'. [ 155 ] Selkirk was pressured to put his reservations aside and finally consented. [ 155 ] On 2 February, Operation Coldstore commenced across Singapore, with 113 detained including Lim and 23 others from Barisan Sosialis. [ 156 ] [ 157 ] Lee offered Lim a path into exile which Lim rejected. [ 158 ] The Malayans and British later pressured Lee to retract his comment when he said he "disapproved" of the operation. [ 156 ] In his memoirs, Lee portrayed himself as reluctant in supporting the operation, though declassified British documents revealed that Lee was "somewhat more enthusiastic" than he eventually admitted. [ 159 ] Prime Minister, Singapore in Malaysia (1963–1965) Elections and tensions On 31 August 1963, Lee declared Singapore's independence in a ceremony at the Padang and pledged loyalty to the federal government. [ 160 ] With the conclusion of the trials of Barisan Sosialis' leaders, Lee dissolved the legislative assembly on 3 September and called for a snap election . [ 161 ] [ 162 ] He touted "independence through merger" as a success and utilised television and the mass media effectively. [ 163 ] In conjunction with Sabah (formerly North Borneo) and Sarawak , Lee proclaimed Singapore as part of Malaysia in a second ceremony on 16 September accompanied by a military parade. [ 164 ] [ h ] Lim Chin Siong's arrest had, however, generated widespread sympathy for the Barisan and a close result was predicted. Australian and British officials expected a Barisan win. [ 165 ] When the PAP defeated the Barisan in a landslide victory on 21 September, it was seen as a public endorsement of merger and Lee's socio-economic policies. [ 163 ] [ 166 ] Relations between the PAP and Malaysia's ruling Alliance Party quickly deteriorated as Lee began espousing his policies to the rest of the country. The United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) was also shocked by the loss of three Malay-majority seats to the PAP in the recent 1963 Singapore election. [ 167 ] Ultra-nationalists within UMNO alleged that Lee sought to overthrow the Malay monarchies and infringe on rural life . [ 167 ] Lee's attempts to reconcile the PAP with UMNO were rebuffed as the latter remained committed to the Malaysian Chinese Association . [ 167 ] Further hostility ensued when the PAP decided to contest in the 1964 Malaysian general election in contravention of a gentlemen's agreement that it disavow itself from peninsula politics, but PAP already regarded the agreement to be rendered moot as the Alliance contested the 1963 Singapore state election and broke the agreement first. [ 168 ] Lee's speeches in Malaysia attracted large crowds and he expected the PAP to win at least seven parliamentary seats. [ 169 ] The party ultimately won only one seat in Bangsar , Selangor under Devan Nair. [ 168 ] Lee and other party insiders later conceded that UMNO's portrayal of the PAP as a "Chinese party" and its lack of grassroots in the peninsula had undermined its support from the Malay majority. [ 168 ] [ 170 ] Ethnic tensions had risen prior to the April election when UMNO secretary-general Syed Jaafar Albar utilised the Utusan Melayu to accuse Lee of evicting Malays from their homes in March 1964. [ 171 ] Lee explained personally to the affected neighbourhoods that the scheme was part of an urban renewal plan and that eviction notices had been sent to everyone irrespective of race. [ 172 ] Albar responded by warning Lee to not "treat the sons of the soil as step-children" and led calls for the deaths of Lee and Social Affairs Minister Othman bin Wok on 12 July. [ 172 ] On 21 July, the 1964 race riots in Singapore erupted during a celebration of Prophet Muhammad's birthday , lasting four days, killing 22 and injuring 461. [ 173 ] Further riots occurred in late-August and early-September resulting in communities self-segregating from each other, which Lee characterised as "terribly disheartening" and against "everything we had believed in and worked for". [ 171 ] Lee never forgot the Malay PAP leaders who stood against UMNO during the turmoil and as late as 1998, paid tribute to them for Singapore's survival. [ 174 ] Malaysian Malaysia and separation Lee's perceptions that merger was becoming infeasible was also due to the federal government's obstruction of his industrialisation program and its imposition of new taxes on Singapore in the November 1964 federal budget. [ 172 ] Tunku mentioned to deputy prime minister Goh Keng Swee in December 1964 about his desire to have Singapore “hived off” from Malaysia. [ 175 ] Lee authorized Goh to renegotiate with Deputy Prime Minister Abdul Razak Hussein on Singapore's place in the federation in early 1965. [ 172 ] Seeking to provide an alternative to the Alliance Party government, Lee and his colleagues formed the Malaysian Solidarity Convention (MSC) with the Malayan and Sarawakian opposition on 9 May, with its goals for a Malaysian Malaysia and race-blind society. [ 172 ] [ 176 ] The MSC was seen by UMNO as a threat to the Malay monopoly of power and special rights granted to Malays under Article 153 . [ 177 ] [ 178 ] UMNO supreme council member and future prime minister Mahathir Mohamad called the PAP "pro-Chinese, communist-oriented and positively anti-Malay", while others called for Lee's arrest under the Internal Security Act for trying to split the federation. [ 177 ] [ 179 ] Mathathir in his speech stated the huaren (ethnic Chinese) of Singapore were of "the insular, selfish and arrogant type of which Mr. Lee is a good example...They are in fact Chinese first, seeing China as the center of the world and Malaysia as a very poor second". [ 180 ] Such fears were sincerely felt by the UMNO leaders as one UMNO politician who was friendly with Lee privately told him: "You Chinese are too energetic and clever for us...we cannot stand the pressure". [ 181 ] Many UMNO politicians felt threatened by Lee, a politician who sought to appeal to both ethnic Chinese and Malay voters. [ 180 ] Albar warned in a speech that the Malay voters of Singapore must have been "misled" into voting for the PAP, and the UNMO would not allow this to happen in the next election. [ 180 ] Lee later wrote of Tunku that was "a nice man", but "he was a prince who understood power and knew how to use it. He did not carry a big stick, but he had many hatchet-bearers who would do the job for him while he looked the other way and appeared as benign as ever". [ 180 ] Tunku was a Malay aristocrat who spent his undergraduate years at Cambridge by his own admission on "fast women" rather than studying and whom Lee contemptuously noted had been awarded a degree at Cambridge that he did not deserve solely because he was an aristocrat. [ 182 ] Tunku in turn felt threatened by Lee, a man who had worked his way up via his intelligence and self-discipline, which made him very different from the people in his world. [ 182 ] On 26 May 1965, Lee addressed the Malaysian parliament for the final time, delivering his speech entirely in the Malay language. He challenged the Alliance Party to commit itself to a Malaysian Malaysia and denounce its extremists, and also argued that the PAP could better uplift the livelihood of the Malays. [ 177 ] Then-social affairs minister Othman Wok later recounted: "I noticed that while he was speaking, the Alliance leaders sitting in front of us, they sank lower and lower because they were embarrassed this man (Lee) could speak Malay better than them". [ 183 ] Then-national development minister Lim Kim San also noted: "That was the turning point. They perceived [Lee] as a dangerous man who could one day be the prime minister of Malaya. This was the speech that changed history." [ 183 ] Prime Minister Tunku labelled the speech as the final straw which contributed to his decision in July 1965, while being treated for shingles in London, [ 184 ] [ 185 ] that Singapore's secession was necessary. [ 186 ] The more extreme UMNO politicians such as Albar were pressing to have Lee arrested and martial law proclaimed, but Tunku chose to accept Singapore's secession instead. [ 182 ] The British government received allegations of a plot to arrest Lee, and thus the British prime minister Harold Wilson quietly pressured Tunku against taking any such action, warning of potential repercussions on the Malaysian government. [ 182 ] As Britain was defending Malaysia from Indonesian attempts to annex the country, Britain was in a strong position to apply pressure on Malaysia. Lee in his memoirs stated that Singapore owed Wilson a major debt for his role in pressuring Tunku for a peaceful resolution of the crisis, calling Wilson a "good friend". [ 187 ] On 13 July 1965, Deputy Prime Minister Goh Keng Swee met with Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak Hussein and Home Affairs Minister Ismail Abdul Rahman , in Razak's office while Tunku was still overseas, being treated for shingles. Goh proposed separation of Singapore from Malaysia, before reporting back to Lee about the proposal. [ 188 ] Lee agreed, and during another meeting between Goh, Razak and Ismail on 20 July 1965, Goh told the Malaysians that Lee had given the greenlight for separation arrangements to be done quickly. [ 185 ] [ 188 ] Lee then summoned Law Minister E. W. Barker to draft documents effecting Singapore's separation from the federation and its proclamation of independence. To ensure that a 1962 agreement to draw water from Johor was retained, Lee insisted that it be enshrined in the separation agreement and Malaysian constitution. [ 189 ] The negotiations of post-separation relations were held in utmost secrecy and Lee tried to prevent secession to the last minute, trying to convince Tunku upon his return from London to continue negotiating a looser confederation. However, Tunku's mind was already made up. [ 188 ] Lee was persuaded to finally relent by Goh on 7 August. [ 177 ] [ 190 ] That day, Lee and several cabinet ministers signed the separation agreement at Razak's home, which stipulated continued co-operation in trade and mutual defence. [ 191 ] Cabinet ministers Toh Chin Chye and S. Rajaratnam , were asked to meet Lee in Kuala Lumpur. Upon being informed of the impending separation, they refused to sign the agreement at first and were distraught at the idea, before the fear of further violence and bloodshed finally convinced them to sign. [ 192 ] Lee returned to Singapore the following day and convened the rest of his cabinet to sign the document, whereupon it was flown back to Kuala Lumpur. [ 190 ] [ 193 ] On 9 August 1965 at 10am, Tunku convened the Malaysian parliament and moved the Constitution and Malaysia (Singapore Amendment) Bill 1965 , which passed unanimously by a vote of 126–0 with no PAP representatives present. [ 194 ] Singapore's independence was announced locally via radio at the same time and Lee broke the news to senior diplomats and civil servants. [ 193 ] [ 195 ] In a televised press conference that day, Lee fought back tears and briefly stopped to regain his composure as he formally announced the news to an anxious population: [ 196 ] Every time we look back on this moment when we signed this agreement which severed Singapore from Malaysia, it will be a moment of anguish. For me it is a moment of anguish because all my life. ... You see, the whole of my adult life [...] I have believed in Malaysian merger and the unity of these two territories. You know, it's a people connected by geography, economics, and ties of kinship.... We could not achieve multiracialism and integration in Malaysia. [ 197 ] Every time we look back on this moment when we signed this agreement which severed Singapore from Malaysia, it will be a moment of anguish. For me it is a moment of anguish because all my life. ... You see, the whole of my adult life [...] I have believed in Malaysian merger and the unity of these two territories. You know, it's a people connected by geography, economics, and ties of kinship.... We could not achieve multiracialism and integration in Malaysia. [ 197 ] Prime Minister, Republic of Singapore (1965–1990) Despite the momentous event, Lee did not call for the parliament to convene to reconcile the issues that Singapore would face immediately as a new nation. Without giving further instructions on who should act in his absence, he went into isolation for six weeks, unreachable by phone, at Changi Cottage . According to then-deputy prime minister Toh Chin Chye , the parliament hung in "suspended animation" until the sitting in December that year. [ 198 ] In his memoirs, Lee said that he was unable to sleep and was prescribed tranquilizers from doctors. Upon learning of Lee's condition from the British High Commissioner to Singapore, John Robb, the British prime minister, Harold Wilson , expressed concern, in response to which Lee replied: Do not worry about Singapore. My colleagues and I are sane, rational people even in our moments of anguish. We will weigh all possible consequences before we make any move on the political chessboard. [ 200 ] Do not worry about Singapore. My colleagues and I are sane, rational people even in our moments of anguish. We will weigh all possible consequences before we make any move on the political chessboard. [ 200 ] Lee began to seek international recognition of Singapore's independence. Singapore joined the United Nations on 21 September 1965, and founded the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) on 8 August 1967 with four other South-East Asian countries. Lee made his first official visit to Indonesia on 25 May 1973, just a few years after the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation under Sukarno 's regime. Relations between Singapore and Indonesia substantially improved as subsequent visits were made between the two countries. Singapore has never had a dominant culture to which immigrants could assimilate, even though Malay was the dominant language at that time. [ 201 ] Together with efforts from the government and ruling party, Lee tried to create a unique Singaporean identity in the 1970s and 1980s—one which heavily recognised racial consciousness within the umbrella of multiculturalism . Lee and his government stressed the importance of maintaining religious tolerance and racial harmony, and they were ready to use the law to counter any threat that might incite ethnic and religious violence. [ 202 ] [ 203 ] For example, Lee warned against "insensitive evangelisation", by which he referred to instances of Christian proselytising directed at Malays. In 1974 the government advised the Bible Society of Singapore to stop publishing religious material in Malay. [ 204 ] Defence The vulnerability of Singapore was deeply felt, with threats from multiple sources, including the communists and Indonesia with its confrontational stance. Adding to this vulnerability was the impending withdrawal of British forces from East of Suez . As Singapore gained admission to the United Nations, Lee quickly sought international recognition of Singapore's independence. He appointed Goh Keng Swee as Minister for the Interior and Defence to build up the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) and requested help from other countries, particularly Israel and Taiwan, for advice, training and facilities. [ 205 ] In 1967, Lee introduced conscription for all able-bodied male Singaporean citizens 18 years of age to serve National Service (NS) either in the SAF, Singapore Police Force or the Singapore Civil Defence Force . By 1971, Singapore had 17 national service battalions (16,000 men) with 14 battalions (11,000 men) in the reserves. [ 206 ] In 1975, Lee and Republic of China premier Chiang Ching-kuo signed an agreement permitting Singaporean troops to train in Taiwan, under the codename " Project Starlight ". [ 207 ] Economy One of Lee's most urgent tasks upon Singapore's independence was to address high unemployment. Together with his economic aide, Economic Development Board chairman Hon Sui Sen , and in consultation with Dutch economist Albert Winsemius , Lee set up factories and initially focused on the manufacturing industry. Before the British completely withdrew from Singapore in 1971, Lee also persuaded the British not to destroy their dock and had the British naval dockyard later converted for civilian use. Eventually, Lee and his cabinet decided the best way to boost Singapore's economy was to attract foreign investments from multinational corporations (MNCs). By establishing First World infrastructure and standards in Singapore, the new nation could attract American, Japanese and European business. By the 1970s multinational corporations like Texas Instruments , Hewlett-Packard , and General Electric began turning Singapore into a major electronics exporter. [ 208 ] Workers were frequently trained to familiarise themselves with the work systems and cultures of foreign companies. The government also started several new industries, such as steel mills under 'National Iron and Steel Mills', service industries like Neptune Orient Lines , and the Singapore Airlines . [ 209 ] Lee and his cabinet also worked to establish Singapore as an international financial centre. Foreign bankers were assured of the reliability of Singapore's social conditions, with top-class infrastructure and skilled professionals, and investors were made to understand that the Singapore government would pursue sound macroeconomic policies, with budget surpluses , leading to a stable valued Singapore dollar. [ 210 ] Throughout the tenure of his office, Lee placed great importance on developing the economy, and his attention to detail on this aspect went even to the extent of connecting it with other facets of Singapore, including the country's extensive and meticulous tending of its international image of being a "Garden City". [ 211 ] The 1967 "Garden City" planning initiative included prominent roadside greenery along the East Coast Parkway (ECP) highway connecting Singapore Changi Airport with Singapore Central Area . [ 212 ] Anti-corruption measures Lee introduced legislation giving the Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau (CPIB) greater power to conduct arrests, search, call up witnesses, and investigate bank accounts and income-tax returns of suspected persons and their families. [ 213 ] Lee believed that ministers should be well paid in order to maintain a clean and honest government. On 21 November 1986, Lee received a complaint of corruption against then Minister for National Development Teh Cheang Wan . [ 214 ] Lee authorised the CPIB to carry out investigations on Teh, but Teh committed suicide before any charges could be pressed against him. [ 215 ] In 1994, he proposed to link the salaries of ministers, judges, and top civil servants to the salaries of top professionals in the private sector, arguing that this would help recruit and retain talent to serve in the public sector. [ 216 ] Population policies In the late 1960s, fearing that Singapore's growing population might overburden the developing economy, Lee started a " Stop at Two " family planning campaign. Couples were urged to undergo sterilisation after their second child. Third or fourth children were given lower priorities in education and such families received fewer economic rebates . [ 216 ] In 1983, Lee sparked the "Great Marriage Debate" when he encouraged Singapore men to choose highly educated women as wives. [ 217 ] He was concerned that a large number of graduate women were unmarried. [ 218 ] Some sections of the population, including graduate women, were upset by his views. [ 218 ] Nevertheless, a match-making agency, the Social Development Unit (SDU), [ 219 ] was set up to promote socialising among men and women graduates. [ 216 ] In the Graduate Mothers Scheme, Lee also introduced incentives such as tax rebates , schooling, and housing priorities for graduate mothers who had three or four children, in a reversal of the over-successful "Stop at Two" family planning campaign in the 1960s and 1970s. Lee suggested that perhaps the campaign for women's rights had been too successful: Equal employment opportunities, yes, but we shouldn't get our women into jobs where they cannot, at the same time, be mothers...our most valuable asset is in the ability of our people, yet we are frittering away this asset through the unintended consequences of changes in our education policy and equal career opportunities for women. This has affected their traditional role ... as mothers, the creators and protectors of the next generation. Equal employment opportunities, yes, but we shouldn't get our women into jobs where they cannot, at the same time, be mothers...our most valuable asset is in the ability of our people, yet we are frittering away this asset through the unintended consequences of changes in our education policy and equal career opportunities for women. This has affected their traditional role ... as mothers, the creators and protectors of the next generation. — Lee Kuan Yew, "Talent for the future", 14 August 1983 [ 220 ] The uproar over the proposal led to a swing of 12.9 per cent against the PAP government in the 1984 general election . In 1985, some especially controversial portions of the policy, that gave education and housing priorities to educated women, were abandoned or modified. [ 216 ] [ 221 ] By the late 1990s the birth rate had fallen so low that Lee's successor Goh Chok Tong extended these incentives to all married women, and gave even more incentives, such as the "baby bonus" scheme. [ 216 ] Water resources Singapore has traditionally relied on water from Malaysia. However, this reliance has made Singapore subject to the possibility of price increases and allowed Malaysian officials to use the water reliance as political leverage by threatening to cut off supply . To reduce this problem, Lee decided to experiment with water recycling in 1974. [ 222 ] As a result of such efforts, Singapore has achieved self-sufficiency with its water supply since the mid-2010s. [ 223 ] Under Lee tree planting was pursued, in 1963 he began a tree-planting campaign which aimed to plant 10,000 saplings a year and in 1971 a 'Tree-Planting Day' was established. One of the goals of this was to increase rainfall. [ 224 ] [ 225 ] He also made efforts to clean Singapore's waters for collection and use. [ 226 ] Environment Lee envisioned Singapore as a garden city , [ 227 ] declaring that "no other hallmark of success will be more distinctive than that of achieving our position as the cleanest and greenest city in Southeast Asia ". [ 228 ] He later said that " greening is the most cost-effective project I have launched". [ 229 ] Lee set up an 'Anti-Pollution Unit' stating that its importance resided in giving citizens "respite from city centres" and in the small size of Singapore which made it necessary to "preserve a clean and gracious environment for rich and poor alike". [ 230 ] In 1995 Lee declared "I have always believed that a blighted urban landscape, a concrete jungle, destroys the human spirit. We need the greenery of nature to lift our spirits". [ 231 ] Lee saw this as a means of attracting tourists and businesspeople to the city. [ 232 ] He wrote that "without a word being said, they would know that Singaporeans were competent, disciplined, and reliable, a people who would learn the skills they required soon enough". [ 233 ] After independence Lee sought for "some dramatic way to distinguish ourselves from other Third World countries. I settled for a clean and green Singapore" [ 234 ] because "if we had First World standards then business people and tourists would make us a base for their business and tours of the region". [ 235 ] Lee considered air conditioning the most important invention of the 20th century for Singapore. [ 236 ] Air quality relates to work quality and as such Lee made sure air conditioning was installed in the offices of the Singaporean civil service in the 1960s. [ 237 ] Foreign policy Malaysia and Mahathir Mohamad Lee looked forward to improving relationships with Mahathir Mohamad upon the latter's promotion to Deputy Prime Minister. Knowing that Mahathir was in line to become the next Prime Minister of Malaysia , Lee invited Mahathir to visit Singapore in 1978. The first and subsequent visits improved both personal and diplomatic relationships between them. Then UMNO 's Secretary-General Mahathir asked Lee to cut off all links with the Democratic Action Party (DAP); in exchange, Mahathir undertook not to interfere in the affairs of Malay Singaporeans . [ 238 ] In June 1988, Lee and Mahathir reached an agreement in Kuala Lumpur to build the Linggui dam on the Johor River . [ 239 ] Lee said he had made more progress solving bilateral issues with Dr Mahathir from 1981 to 1990 than in the previous 12 years with the latter's two predecessors. [ 179 ] Mahathir ordered the lifting of the ban on the export of construction materials to Singapore in 1981, agreed to sort out Malaysia's claim to Pedra Branca island and affirmed it would honour the 1962 Water Agreement. [ 179 ] One day before Lee left office in November 1990, Malaysia and Singapore signed the Malaysia–Singapore Points of Agreement of 1990 (POA). Malayan Railways (KTM) would vacate the Tanjong Pagar railway station and move to Bukit Timah while all KTM's land between Bukit Timah and Tanjong Pagar would revert to Singapore. Railway land at Tanjong Pagar would be handed over to a private limited company for joint development, the equity of which would be divided 60% to Malaysia and 40% to Singapore. However, Prime Minister Mahathir expressed his displeasure with the POA, for it failed to include a piece of railway land in Bukit Timah for joint development in 1993. Following Lee's death, Mahathir posted a blog post that suggested his respect for Lee despite their differences, stating that while "I am afraid on most other issues we could not agree [...] [h]is passage marks the end of the period when those who fought for independence lead their countries and knew the value of independence. ASEAN lost a strong leadership after President Suharto and Lee Kuan Yew". [ 240 ] Indonesia In March 1967, the president of Indonesia , Sukarno , who had initiated the Konfrontasi , resigned from the presidency under pressure by military general Suharto amidst the 30 September Movement . A clemency plea by President Suharto for Osman bin Mohamed Ali and Harun bin Said, the perpetrators of the MacDonald House bombing in March 1965 during Konfrontasi , was rejected. The Singapore Embassy in Jakarta was occupied on the day of the saboteurs' hanging by 300 students. [ 241 ] [ 242 ] However, Bilateral relations between Singapore and Indonesia would improve after 1973, when Lee visited the graves of Harun and Osman in Indonesia ( nyekar ) and scattered flowers on them. [ 243 ] This was followed by Suharto's visit to Singapore in 1974. [ 244 ] From the 1980s, exchanges would sharply increase between the two countries in politics, tourism, defence, business, and student and community-based exchanges. [ 243 ] Lee and Suharto developed a strong relationship, with the growing trust between both leaders developing into friendship. Lee and Suharto regarded each other as trustworthy and reliable. Lee kept up his relationship with Suharto until his death in 2008, even advising him and his children during the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis which led to Suharto's fall from power. [ 245 ] In 1978, Suharto rallied ASEAN to oppose Australia's newly proclaimed integrated civil aviation policy, which cut Kangaroo Route air access to Singapore while providing inducements to Indonesia and other countries in the region. Suharto believed that ASEAN should not give in to such tactics and inducements, and Australia relented. [ 245 ] Singapore remains a crucial stopover for Kangaroo Route flights between the United Kingdom and Australia. [ 245 ] Singapore and Indonesia entered joint projects such as the Batam Industrial Park, Bintan Resorts , the Riau Water Agreement and the Air Combat Manoeuvring Range in Pekan Baru proceeded smoothly. Swift implementation of factory and hotel development proposals by foreign investors demonstrated Singapore's honesty and reliability to Suharto. [ 245 ] United States In his book The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew , Lee detailed an incident where in 1960, the CIA allegedly attempted to bribe certain members of his party, the PAP, in an attempt to create division and weaken his leadership, however the official had reported the bribery attempt instead of accepting the money. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] According to Lee, this was part of a broader strategy by the United States to influence the political landscape in Southeast Asia during the Cold War. [ 248 ] He mentioned that he confronted the CIA's representative in Singapore and demanded an explanation and compensation for this interference. After having two CIA agents arrested, Lee requested 3.5 million dollars in economic aid in exchange for the covert release of the two agents. The Americans rejected this offer and presented a counter-offer of 3.3 million dollars to be given directly to Lee and the People's Action Party, but the men were later released without any financial exchange. However instead of taking a passive approach, Lee negotiated with the CIA and eventually the US government agreed to pay a sum of 3.3 million dollars in formal economic aid to Singapore, which Lee claimed was to ensure that the U.S. would not interfere in Singapore's internal affairs. Lee revealed this incident in 1965, which led to the Americans to deny it ever occurred; however, Lee later made public a letter of apology from the US Secretary of State Dean Rusk over the incident. [ 249 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] Lee fully supported the US involvement in the Vietnam War . Even as the war began to lose its popularity in the United States, Lee made his first official visit to the United States in October 1967, and declared to President Lyndon B. Johnson that his support for the war in Vietnam was "unequivocal". Lee saw the war as necessary for states in Southeast Asia like Singapore to buy time for stabilising their governments and economies. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] Lee cultivated close relationships with presidents Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan , [ 254 ] as well as former secretaries of state Henry Kissinger [ 255 ] and George Shultz . [ 256 ] In 1967 Nixon, who was running for president in 1968, visited Singapore and met with Lee, who advised that the United States had much to gain by engaging with China, culminating in Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China . [ 257 ] [ 258 ] In the 1980s, closer defence relations between Singapore and the United States enabled Singapore to acquire advanced American weapon platforms and capabilities. The United States provided Singapore with aircraft such as the F-16 and the E-2C airborne early warning (AEW) to strengthen its air defences. [ 259 ] In October 1985, Lee made a state visit to the United States on the invitation of President Reagan and addressed a joint session of the United States Congress . Lee stressed to Congress the importance of free trade and urged it not to turn towards protectionism: It is inherent in America's position as the preeminent economic, political and military power to have to settle and uphold the rules for orderly change and progress... In the interests of peace and security America must uphold the rules of international conduct which rewards peaceful cooperative behaviour and punishes transgressions of the peace. A replay of the depression of the 1930s, which led to World War II, will be ruinous for all. All the major powers of the West share the responsibility of not repeating this mistake. But America's is the primary responsibility, for she is the anchor economy of the free-market economies of the world. [ 254 ] It is inherent in America's position as the preeminent economic, political and military power to have to settle and uphold the rules for orderly change and progress... In the interests of peace and security America must uphold the rules of international conduct which rewards peaceful cooperative behaviour and punishes transgressions of the peace. A replay of the depression of the 1930s, which led to World War II, will be ruinous for all. All the major powers of the West share the responsibility of not repeating this mistake. But America's is the primary responsibility, for she is the anchor economy of the free-market economies of the world. [ 254 ] In May 1988, E. Mason "Hank" Hendrickson was serving as the First Secretary of the United States Embassy when he was expelled by the Singapore government. [ 260 ] [ 261 ] The Singapore government alleged that Hendrickson attempted to interfere in Singapore's internal affairs by cultivating opposition figures in a " Marxist conspiracy ". [ 262 ] Then-First Deputy Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong claimed that Hendrickson's alleged conspiracy could have resulted in the election of 20 or 30 opposition politicians to Parliament, which in his words could lead to "horrendous" effects, possibly even the paralysis and fall of the Singapore government. [ 263 ] In the aftermath of Hendrickson's expulsion, the U.S. State Department praised Hendrickson's performance in Singapore and denied any impropriety in his actions. [ 260 ] The State Department also expelled Robert Chua, a senior-level Singaporean diplomat equal in rank to Hendrickson, from Washington, D.C., in response. [ 264 ] [ 265 ] The State Department's refusal to reprimand Hendrickson, along with its expulsion of the Singaporean diplomat, sparked a rare protest in Singapore by the National Trades Union Congress ; they drove buses around the U.S. embassy, held a rally attended by four thousand workers, and issued a statement deriding the U.S. as "sneaky, arrogant, and untrustworthy". [ 266 ] China Singapore did not establish diplomatic relations with China until the U.S. and Southeast Asia had decided they wanted to do so in order to avoid portraying a pro-China bias. [ 267 ] [ 268 ] His official visits to China starting in 1976 were conducted in English, to assure other countries that he represented Singapore, and not a "Third China" (the first two being the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) and People's Republic of China ). [ 269 ] In November 1978, after China had stabilised following political turmoil in the aftermath of Mao Zedong 's death and the Gang of Four , Deng Xiaoping visited Singapore and met Lee. Deng, who was very impressed with Singapore's economic development, greenery and housing, and later sent tens of thousands of Chinese to Singapore and countries around the world to learn from their experiences and bring back their knowledge as part of the reform and opening up beginning in December 1978. Lee, on the other hand, advised Deng to stop exporting Communist ideologies to Southeast Asia, an advice that Deng later followed. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] This culminated in the exchange of Trade Offices between the two nations in September 1981. [ 272 ] In 1985, commercial air services between mainland China and Singapore commenced [ 273 ] and China appointed Goh Keng Swee , Singapore's finance minister in the post-independence years, as advisor on the development of Special Economic Zones . [ 274 ] On 3 October 1990, Singapore revised diplomatic relations from the Republic of China to the People's Republic of China. United Kingdom Lee developed friendships with Prime Ministers Harold Wilson [ 275 ] and Margaret Thatcher . [ 275 ] Lee regarded Wilson's support and swift recognition of Singapore's independence crucial to Singapore's survival in its early days. Singapore was still heavily dependent on Britain for its defence and economy, and the British military bases were contributing over 20 percent to Singapore's gross national product. About 15 per cent of Singapore's workforce had jobs linked to British military bases on the island. [ 276 ] However, mounting economic problems in Britain led to a weakening faith in the pound sterling, and the Singapore Government began reducing its sterling holdings from about 90 percent to just 50 percent by November 1967, when the Labour government devaluated pound sterling. Chancellor of the Exchequer Roy Jenkins , in a letter to Goh Keng Swee, expressed his “regret that [Singapore] did not take [the UK] into their confidence” when diversifying out of Sterling. To which Goh retorted in reply that Singapore sustained losses of about US$157 million as a result of the pound's devaluation. [ 277 ] No longer able to afford its military commitment in Southeast Asia, Britain announced in January 1968, the total withdrawal of its troops East of Suez, with the pullout from Malaysia and Singapore to be done by 31 March 1971 – four years earlier than planned. The announcement came as a shock to Singapore, because the British had earlier committed to a phased withdrawal. [ 278 ] As the first batch of 900 national servicemen had just started their training on 17 August 1967, Singapore was ill-equipped to take up its own defence. It was projected that about 25,000 base workers in Singapore would be rendered unemployed in 1971 as a result of the military withdrawal. When informed of the decision, Lee's government responded with dismay and anger. Lee threatened to withdraw from the sterling area , give the dockyards to the Japanese, and disrupt British shipping and trade. He also suggested that if the British forces withdrew too quickly, he would have to “hire mercenaries to defend Singapore”. [ 278 ] Lee and Minister for Finance Goh Keng Swee left for London, meeting with British political leaders, rallying for support through television appearances. With intense lobbying by Lee and Goh, the Wilson government went ahead with withdrawal, but agreed to a compromise to extend the withdrawal deadline from March to December 1971. Lee successfully negotiated with the British for a soft loan of £50 million, free transfer of key assets, help with operating air defence systems, and training of military staff. Plans were set up to oversee the conversion and commercialisation of lands and facilities including the naval bases that had belonged to the British, which later proved instrumental in propelling Singapore's shipbuilding industry forward. [ 278 ] Singapore acquired a squadron of British Hawker Hunter planes for its new air force, arriving in Singapore in 1970. To make up for Britain's withdrawal, Singapore's military spending was tripled, and an air force and a navy were added to support the army. When Wilson's Labour government lost the 1970 election to the Conservatives under Edward Heath , the new Conservative government facilitated the Five Power Defence Arrangements , comprising the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia and Singapore, to give a deterrent message that any attack on Singapore or Malaysia would lead to a potential intervention of British, Australian and New Zealand forces. Although most of the British troops had withdrawn from Singapore by October 1971, a small contingent of British, Australian and New Zealand forces stayed on as a token military presence. The last British soldier left Singapore in March 1976. [ 278 ] Lee and Thatcher, who became Britain's prime minister in 1979, admired each other's leadership qualities and had "ideological convergence" in policies like cracking down on trade union power, privatisation, low taxation and trimming the excesses of the welfare state. Lee also advised Thatcher while Britain was negotiating with China on the handover of Hong Kong . [ 279 ] Australia Australia, under Prime Minister Robert Menzies was one of the first countries to recognise Singapore's independence. [ 280 ] However, Lee would later clash with Australian leaders John Gorton and Gough Whitlam who were inclined to pull Australia back from the Five Power Defence Arrangement (FPDA). [ 281 ] Lee clashed fiercely with Whitlam. Whitlam was initially reluctant to take too many of the Vietnamese boat people and tried to make Singapore take the first refugees from the Vietnam War. Lee retorted that Whitlam ‘a very sympathetic Prime Minister who believes the White Australia policy is most deplorable and damnable and here is his chance.’ [ 282 ] Lee criticised Whitlam's pro-Asian rhetoric as political posturing because of his stance on the Vietnam boat refugees, and blocking Asian imports into Australia. In his memoirs, Lee wrote of his verbal jousts with Whitlam at Commonwealth meetings. Lee called Whitlam ‘quick-witted but also quick-tempered’, and was glad to see the end of the ‘acerbic’ Whitlam, calling it ‘a relief when their Governor-General removed Whitlam…’. [ 282 ] Singapore-Australia relations improved with Whitlam's successor, Malcolm Fraser . Lee held him in high regard for his support in confronting communism and defending the FPDA. [ 282 ] However, he urged Fraser to reform the Australian economy, prompting the famous remark from Lee that Australia was in danger of becoming the "poor white trash of Asia" [ 283 ] if it did not open up its economy. The comments were widely circulated in Australian political circles. Bob Hawke , who led the Labor party to a victory over Fraser in 1983, said "I thought [Lee] was right, and his harsh but fair comment helped galvanise my determination to undertake the reforms that would save us from that fate and set us on a better path." [ 283 ] Upon Lee's death, Hawke said "Lee Kuan Yew was a great friend of Australia, if at times an outspoken one". [ 283 ] Singapore was Australia's strongest backer within ASEAN in the effort to create APEC in 1989. [ 282 ] Cambodia Lee opposed the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia in 1978. [ 284 ] The Singapore government organised an international campaign to condemn Vietnam and provided aid to the Khmer Rouge which was fighting against Vietnamese occupation during the Cambodian–Vietnamese War from 1978 to 1989. In his memoirs, Lee recounted that in 1982, "Singapore gave the first few hundreds of several batches of AK-47 rifles, hand grenades, ammunition and communication equipment" to the Khmer Rouge resistance forces. [ 285 ] [ 286 ] Senior Minister (1990–2004) After leading the PAP to victory in seven elections, Lee stepped down on 28 November 1990, handing over the prime ministership to Goh Chok Tong . [ 287 ] By that time, he had become the world's longest-serving prime minister. [ 288 ] This was the first leadership transition since independence. Goh was elected as the new prime minister by the younger ministers then in office. When Goh Chok Tong became head of government, Lee remained in the cabinet with a non-executive position of Senior Minister [ 289 ] and played a role he described as advisory. Lee subsequently stepped down as secretary-general of the PAP and was succeeded by Goh Chok Tong on 2 December 1992. [ 290 ] Condominium rebates In April 1996, Lee and his son, Lee Hsien Loong , disclosed that they had purchased apartments located at Nassim Jade and Scotts 28 from Hotel Properties Ltd, a real estate developer listed on the Stock Exchange of Singapore, at substantial discounts ranging from 5 to 12 per cent. [ 291 ] The dispute arose amidst rampant property speculation in Singapore. [ 292 ] Upon learning of the issue, Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong swiftly initiated an immediate investigation into the matter. While Singapore law permits the provision of special discounts or rebates to relatives and associates of directors, it is imperative that such transactions receive approval from shareholders. [ 293 ] This disclosure prompted sufficient public disquiet for Lee to appear before Parliament to explain the purchases. [ 294 ] Lee said that as he was a prominent figure, the developer had a "legitimate incentive" to provide discounts for publicity, and that he had previously purchased a car and acquired services from his tailor and cobbler at a discount. [ 295 ] The amount saved was donated to charity. [ 292 ] Minister Mentor (2004–2011) In December 2004, Lee stepped down to become Minister Mentor. Expressing concern about the declining proficiency of Mandarin among younger Chinese Singaporeans , he started a year-long campaign called " 华语 Cool! " (Mandarin is Cool!) to garner interest in using Mandarin. [ 296 ] On 13 September 2008, Lee underwent treatment for abnormal heart rhythm ( atrial flutter ) at Singapore General Hospital . The treatment was successful, and he was well enough to address a philanthropy forum via video link from the hospital. [ 297 ] On 28 September 2010, he was hospitalised for a chest infection, cancelling plans to attend the wake of the Senior Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Balaji Sadasivan . [ 298 ] In November 2010, Lee's private conversations with James Steinberg , US Deputy Secretary of State , on 30 May 2009 were among the leaked US Embassy cables . In a US Embassy report classified as "Secret", Lee gave his assessment of a number of Asian leaders and views on political developments in North Asia, including implications for nuclear proliferation. [ 299 ] In January 2011, the Straits Times Press published the book Lee Kuan Yew: Hard Truths To Keep Singapore Going . [ 300 ] Targeted at younger Singaporeans, it was based on 16 interviews with Lee by seven local journalists in 2008–2009. The first print run of 45,000 copies sold out in less than a month after it was launched in January 2011. Another batch of 55,000 copies was made available shortly after. [ 301 ] After the 2011 general elections in which the Workers' Party , a major opposition political party in Singapore, made unprecedented gains by winning a Group Representation Constituency (GRC), Lee announced that he decided to leave the Cabinet for his son, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong , and his team to have a clean slate. [ 302 ] Some analysts, such as Citigroup economist Kit Wei Zheng, believed that the senior Lee had contributed to the PAP's poor performance. [ 303 ] In particular, he stated during campaigning that the voters of Aljunied constituency had "five years to live and repent" if they elected the Workers' Party , which some viewed as having backfired for the PAP as the opposition went on to win Aljunied. [ 304 ] In a column in the Sunday Times on 6 November 2011, Lee's daughter, Lee Wei Ling, revealed that her father had peripheral neuropathy . [ 305 ] In the column, she recounted how she first noticed her father's ailments when she accompanied him to meet the former US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger in Connecticut in October 2009. Wei Ling, a neurologist, "did a few simple neurological tests and decided the nerves to his legs were not working as they should". A day later, when interviewed at a constituency tree-planting event, Lee stated: "I have no doubt at all that this has not affected my mind, my will nor my resolve" and that "people in wheel chairs can make a contribution. I've still got two legs, I will make a contribution". [ 306 ] Illness and death External videos State funeral service for the late Mr Lee Kuan Yew on 29 March 2015 , Prime Minister's Office On 15 February 2013, Lee was admitted to Singapore General Hospital following a prolonged cardiac dysrhythmia , which was followed by a brief stoppage of blood flow to the brain. [ 307 ] [ 308 ] [ 309 ] [ 310 ] For the first time in his career as a Member of Parliament (MP), Lee missed the annual Chinese New Year dinner at his constituency , where he was supposed to be the guest-of-honour. [ 311 ] [ 312 ] He was subsequently discharged, but continued to receive anti-coagulant therapy. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] [ 315 ] The following year, Lee missed his constituency's Chinese New Year dinner for the second consecutive time owing to bodily bacterial invasion. [ 316 ] In April 2014, a photo depicting a thin and frail Lee was released online, drawing strong reactions from netizens. [ 317 ] According to Lee's daughter, Lee Wei Ling, Lee had discussed euthanasia which is not a legal option in Singapore. [ 318 ] [ 319 ] On 5 February 2015, Lee was hospitalised for pneumonia and was put on a ventilator at the intensive care unit of Singapore General Hospital, although his condition was reported initially as "stable". [ 320 ] [ 321 ] A 26 February update stated that he was again being given antibiotics, while being sedated and still under mechanical ventilation. [ 322 ] [ 323 ] From 17 to 22 March, Lee continued weakening as he developed an infection while on life support, and he was described as "critically ill". [ 324 ] [ 325 ] [ 326 ] On 18 March that year, a death hoax website reported false news of Lee's death. The suspect is an unidentified minor who created a false webpage that resembled the PMO official website. [ 327 ] Several international news organisations reported on Lee's death based on this and later retracted their statements. [ 328 ] [ 329 ] On 23 March 2015, Singapore Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced his father's death at the age of 91. [ 330 ] Lee had died at 03:18 Singapore Standard Time ( UTC+08:00 ). [ 330 ] [ 331 ] A week of national mourning took place, [ 332 ] during which time Lee was lying in state at Parliament House . As a mark of respect, State flags at all Government buildings were flown at half-mast . During this time, 1.7 million Singaporean residents as well as world leaders paid tribute to him at Parliament house and community tribute sites throughout the country. [ 333 ] [ 334 ] [ 335 ] A state funeral for Lee was held on 29 March and attended by world leaders. [ 336 ] Later that day, Lee was cremated in a private ceremony at the Mandai Crematorium . [ 337 ] Legacy I'm not saying that everything I did was right, but everything I did was for an honourable purpose. I had to do some nasty things, locking fellows up without trial. I'm not saying that everything I did was right, but everything I did was for an honourable purpose. I had to do some nasty things, locking fellows up without trial. As prime minister from 1959 to 1990, Lee presided over many of Singapore's advancements. He oversaw Singapore's transformation from an island nation with a high illiteracy rate and no natural resources into a developed country with a high-income economy within a single generation, commonly termed (from his autobiography) as 'From the third world to the first world'. [ 339 ] [ 340 ] [ 341 ] [ 342 ] Singapore's gross national product per capita (GNP) rose from $1,240 in 1959 to $18,437 in 1990. The unemployment rate in Singapore dropped from 13.5% in 1959 to 1.7% in 1990. External trade increased from $7.3 billion in 1959 to $205 billion in 1990. In other areas, the life expectancy at birth for Singaporeans rose from 65 years in 1960 to 74 years in 1990. The population of Singapore increased from 1.6 million in 1959 to 3 million in 1990. The number of public flats in Singapore rose from 22,975 in 1959 (then under the Singapore Improvement Trust ) to 667,575 in 1990. The Singaporean literacy rate increased from 52% in 1957 to 90% in 1990. Telephone lines per 100 Singaporeans increased from 3 in 1960 to 38 in 1990. Visitor arrivals to Singapore rose from 100,000 in 1960 to 5.3 million in 1990. [ 343 ] These economic accomplishments were achieved in large part due to Lee's stewardship of public administration through relevant and targeted public policy ; Lee introduced measures to jumpstart manufacturing of finished goods for export ( export-oriented industrialisation ) and sought to create a conducive business environment in the trading nation to attract foreign direct investment (through the establishment of the Economic Development Board , EDB). [ 339 ] [ 344 ] Lee also forged a symbiotic and mutually dependent relationship between the PAP and the national trade union, the National Trades Union Congress (NTUC), whereby the PAP receives a degree of grassroots labour input, whilst NTUC is led by prominent PAP politicians who usually have ministerial portfolios within the Government . [ 345 ] The Government's tight control over trade union activities and industrial relations ensured near-total industrial peace, which was assessed to be a prerequisite for rapid economic development . [ 346 ] Lee was a staunch promoter of economic globalisation and a vocal opponent of protectionism . [ 347 ] [ 348 ] Lee said that Singapore's only natural resources are its people and their strong work ethic. [ 349 ] In addition, Lee was focused on social policies such as improving and mandating higher public standards for education, sanitation and hygiene , whilst concurrently improving public health by expanding modern health care and greatly increasing the quantity and quality of high-rise affordable housing (through the establishment of the Housing and Development Board , HDB) for working- and middle-class families. [ 339 ] [ 344 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] Various world leaders have praised Lee's governance and political achievements. British Foreign Secretary George Brown called Lee "the best bloody Englishman east of Suez". [ 352 ] Former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger once wrote of Lee: "One of the asymmetries of history is the lack of correspondence between the abilities of some leaders and the power of their countries." Former British prime minister Margaret Thatcher praised "his way of penetrating the fog of propaganda and expressing with unique clarity the issues of our time and the way to tackle them". [ 353 ] Former president of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev stated in his memoirs that after the independence of Kazakhstan from the Soviet Union in 1991, he met Lee and stated Lee's "observations and advice became for us [Kazakhstan] guidelines in the development of long-term state strategies." [ 354 ] Lee's achievements in Singapore were a major source of inspiration on Communist leadership in China , who made a major effort, especially under Deng Xiaoping , to emulate his policies of economic growth, entrepreneurship and suppression of dissent . [ 355 ] [ 356 ] From 1996 to 2019, 55,000 Chinese officials were sent to Singapore to study its methods. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] He has also had a major influence on thinking in Russia in recent years. [ 359 ] [ 358 ] On the other hand, proponents of liberal democracy especially in the West criticised Lee's rule as authoritarian and as intolerant of dissent, citing his numerous attempts to sue political opponents and newspapers who express unfavourable opinions of Lee. Reporters Without Borders , an international media advocacy group , requested Lee and other senior Singaporean officials to stop taking libel suits against journalists. [ 360 ] Lee was a co-inventor of " Asian values ". [ 361 ] [ 362 ] [ 363 ] [ 364 ] Lee was criticised for curtailing press freedoms , often imposing limits on public protests which prevented further occurrences, restricting labour movements from industrial action or strike action, suppressing wage growth of skilled workers (in order to be competitive with developing countries ) amid widening and high levels of income inequality along with wealth inequality (relative to other developed countries ), had encouraged an elitist mindset as well as filing defamation lawsuits against prominent political opponents . [ 365 ] [ 366 ] [ 367 ] [ 368 ] [ 369 ] [ 370 ] [ 371 ] However, supporters argued in retrospect that his actions were necessary for the country's early development, and various international political analysts note that Lee's governance was generally pragmatic and benevolent . [ better source needed ] [ 372 ] During the three decades in which Lee held office, Singapore grew from a developing country to one of the most developed nations in Asia and the world. [ 373 ] Singapore was described as an illiberal democracy and a nanny state under his rule. [ 374 ] [ 375 ] [ 376 ] [ 377 ] [ 378 ] Legal suits Action against Far Eastern Economic Review In April 1977, just months after a general election which saw the People's Action Party winning all 69 seats, the Internal Security Department , under orders from Lee, detained Ho Kwon Ping , the Singapore correspondent of the Far Eastern Economic Review , as well as his predecessor Arun Senkuttavan, over their reporting. Ho was detained under the Internal Security Act which allows for indefinite trial, held in solitary confinement for two months, and charged with endangering national security. Following a televised confession in which Ho confessed to "pro-communist activities", [ 379 ] he was fined $3,000. Lee Kuan Yew later charged FEER editor, Derek Davies, of participating in "a diabolical international Communist plot" to poison relations between Singapore and neighbouring Malaysia. In 1987 Lee restricted sale of the Review in Singapore after it published an article about the detention of Roman Catholic church workers , reducing circulation of the magazine from 9,000 to 500 copies, [ 380 ] on the grounds that it was "interfering in the domestic politics of Singapore." [ 381 ] On 24 September 2008 the High Court of Singapore , in a summary judgment by Justice Woo Bih Li , ruled that the Far Eastern Economic Review magazine (Hugo Restall, editor), defamed Lee and his son, the prime minister, Lee Hsien Loong . The court found the 2006 article "Singapore's 'Martyr': Chee Soon Juan " suggested that Lee "ha[d] been running and continue[d] to run Singapore in the same corrupt manner as Durai operated [the National Kidney Foundation] and he ha[d] been using libel actions to suppress those who questioned [him] to avoid exposure of his corruption". [ 382 ] The court ordered the Review, owned by Dow Jones & Company (in turn owned by Rupert Murdoch 's News Corp), to pay damages to the complainants. The magazine appealed but lost. [ 382 ] [ 383 ] Action against J.B. Jeyaretnam Lee commenced proceedings for slander against opposition leader J. B. Jeyaretnam for comments he made at a Workers' Party rally in the 1988 general election . Lee alleged that Jeyaretnam's speech at the rally implied he had tried to cover up the corruption of the former Minister for National Development , Teh Cheang Wan , by aiding and abetting his suicide. The action was heard by Justice Lai Kew Chai , who ruled against Jeyaretnam and ordered him to pay damages of S$260,000 plus costs to Lee. Jeyaretnam lost an appeal against the judgment. Action against Devan Nair In 1999, former president of Singapore Devan Nair , who was living in Canada, remarked in an interview with the Toronto -based The Globe and Mail that Lee's technique of suing his opponents into bankruptcy or oblivion was an abrogation of political rights. Nair also described Lee as "an increasingly self-righteous know-all" surrounded by "department store dummies". In response to these remarks, Lee sued Nair in a Canadian court and Nair countersued. Lee then brought a motion to have Nair's counterclaim thrown out of court, argued that it disclosed no reasonable cause of action and constituted an inflammatory attack on the integrity of the Singaporean government . However, the Ontario Superior Court of Justice refused to throw out the counterclaim, holding that Nair had a reasonable cause of action as Lee had abused the process of litigation. [ 384 ] Lee wrote in one of his memoirs that Nair was forced to resign as president due to his alleged alcoholism , a charge which Nair denied. [ 385 ] International Herald Tribune defamation case In 2010 Lee, together with his son Lee Hsien Loong, and Goh Chok Tong, threatened legal action against The New York Times Company , which owns the International Herald Tribune , regarding an op-ed piece titled "All in the Family" of 15 February 2010 by Philip Bowring , a freelance columnist and former editor of the Far Eastern Economic Review . The International Herald Tribune apologised in March that readers of the article may "infer that the younger Lee did not achieve his position through merit". The New York Times Company and Bowring also agreed to pay S$60,000 to Lee Hsien Loong, S$50,000 to Lee and S$50,000 to Goh (totalling about US$114,000 at the time), in addition to legal costs. The case stemmed from a 1994 settlement between the three Singaporean leaders and the paper about an article, also by Bowring, that referred to "dynastic politics" in East Asian countries, including Singapore. In that settlement, Bowring agreed not to say or imply that the younger Lee had attained his position through nepotism by his father Lee Kuan Yew. In response, media-rights watchdog Reporters Without Borders wrote an open letter to urge Lee and other top officials of the Singapore government to stop taking "libel actions" against journalists. [ 386 ] [ 387 ] [ 388 ] Political positions Criticism of Chinese marginalisation On 15 September 2006, at the Raffles Forum hosted by the School of Public Policy , Lee made a remark as to how the "Malaysian and Indonesian governments systematically marginalise its Chinese people", by bringing up topics such as the May 1998 riots of Indonesia and Ketuanan Melayu , which subsequently caused a short diplomatic spat. [ 389 ] He then described the systematic marginalisation of the Chinese in Malaysia, which aroused a strong response from the Malaysian government. Politicians in Malaysia and Indonesia expressed dissatisfaction with this and demanded the Singaporean government explain and apologise for Lee's remarks. [ 390 ] [ 391 ] Former Malaysian prime minister Mahathir Mohamad criticised Lee Kuan Yew for his "arrogance and disrespect" for neighbouring countries and countered that Malaysia could also question Singapore's marginalisation of its local Malays and other minorities such as the Eurasians and Indians. Former Indonesian president B. J. Habibie also described the " little red dot " term in reference to Singapore as an incentive for Indonesian youth to learn from Singapore's achievements, and that the original intention was distorted. On 30 September, while Lee Kuan Yew apologised to the Malaysian prime minister at the time Abdullah Badawi for his remarks, [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] he did not fully retract his remarks. [ 395 ] [ 396 ] Eugenics Lee expressed views that have been characterised as pro- eugenics . [ 397 ] He maintained that the educational background and intelligence of parents played a decisive role in shaping the abilities of their children, and he promoted policies designed to encourage highly educated women to have more children. Concerned by the sharp decline in Singapore's total fertility rate (TFR), Lee introduced the "Graduate Mothers' Scheme" in 1983, which offered tax incentives for children born to women with university degrees and gave priority in primary school admissions to the children of graduate mothers with three or more offspring. [ 398 ] In his speech at the 1983 National Day Rally , Lee stated that if women graduates "were not in the breeding pool", society might become more "stupid" and that "there will be less bright people to support dumb people in the next generation." [ 399 ] [ 400 ] In June 1984, Lee's government introduced grants for low-income and low-education women to undergo sterilisation . Women whose husbands and themselves lacked passes at the Singapore-Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level and had fewer than three children could receive a $10,000 grant for sterilisation. Sterilised lower-class parents were also given priority in primary school admission for their existing first and second children. The controversy surrounding the proposal contributed to a 12.9 per cent swing against the PAP in the general election later that year , although the party still secured 64 per cent of the popular vote and the vast majority of seats. By 1985, particularly contentious aspects of the policy, such as granting education and housing advantages to educated women, were either abandoned or modified. A proponent of nature over nurture , Lee asserted that " intelligence is 80% nature and 20% nurture " and attributed the achievements of his children to genetics. [ 401 ] Islam In 1999, in a discussion forum, Lee was asked whether the emotional bonds of various ethnic groups in Singapore could be a hurdle to nation building, Lee replied by alluding that an ethnic Malay and highly religious officer of the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) might be hesitant to engage against an hypothetical war with Singapore's direct neighbours such as Malaysia. [ 402 ] In 2011, leaked diplomatic cables attributed to Lee some controversial comments regarding Islam . The cables quoted Lee as having described Islam as a "venomous religion". Lee called the remarks "false" and looked up to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA)'s filenote of the meeting and found no record of the claim, stating that he was referring to extremists such as the Jemaah Islamiyah (JI). He added that he recognises that Muslims in Singapore are largely rational and that one of the solutions to extremism was to give "moderate Muslims the courage to stand up and speak out against radicals who hijacked Islam to recruit volunteers for their violent ends". [ 403 ] [ 404 ] In his book Lee Kuan Yew: Hard Truths to Keep Singapore Going , Lee stated that Singaporean Muslims faced difficulties in integrating because of their religion and urged them to "be less strict on Islamic observances". His remarks drew fire from Malay–Muslim leaders and MPs in Singapore, prompting a strong reaction from his son Lee Hsien Loong , the Prime Minister at that time, who said his views differs from his father and that he values and respects the Malay–Muslim community "who have done a good deal to strengthen our harmony and social cohesion." Lee Kuan Yew eventually made a further comment that his comment was "out of date" and that he recognises the efforts made by Muslims to integrate with the other communities. [ 405 ] [ 406 ] Homosexuality Section 377A of the Penal Code , which was first introduced in 1938 under British colonial rule that criminalised sex between adult males, remained enforced under Lee's premiership. In his later years, Lee appeared to become more supportive of LGBTQ+ issues and rights, expressing a belief that homosexuality was genetic and questioning the rationale behind its criminalisation. [ 407 ] [ 408 ] In 2007, he believed that homosexuality would eventually be accepted in Singapore, but advocated for a measured and "pragmatic approach" toward the matter "to maintain social cohesion." [ 409 ] Section 377A was eventually repealed in 2022. Corporal punishment One of Lee's abiding beliefs was in the efficacy of corporal punishment in the form of caning . [ 410 ] In his autobiography The Singapore Story , Lee described his time at Raffles Institution in the 1930s, mentioning that he was often caned there for chronic lateness by the then headmaster, D. W. McLeod. He added that he never understood why Western educationists were so much against corporal punishment as "it did my fellow students and me no harm". [ 411 ] Lee's government inherited judicial corporal punishment from British rule, but greatly expanded its scope. Under the British, it had been used as a penalty for offences involving personal violence, amounting to a handful of caning sentences per year. The PAP government under Lee extended its use to an ever-expanding range of crimes. [ 412 ] By 1993, it was mandatory for 42 offences and optional for a further 42. [ 413 ] Those routinely ordered by the courts to be caned now include drug addicts and illegal immigrants. From 602 canings in 1987, the figure rose to 3,244 in 1993 [ 414 ] and to 6,404 in 2007. [ 415 ] In 1994, judicial caning was publicised in the rest of the world when an American teenager, Michael P. Fay , was caned under the vandalism legislation. [ 410 ] School corporal punishment (for male students only) was likewise inherited from the British, and is still in use in schools, permitted under legislation from 1957. [ 416 ] Lee also introduced caning in the Singapore Armed Forces , and Singapore is one of the few countries in the world where corporal punishment is an official penalty in military discipline. [ 417 ] Press In his interview with Charlie Rose in October 2000, when asked whether he believed in the idea of a free press, Lee responded "I believe in truth" and "I don't believe that the press should be crusading and putting a spin on things" and asserted that newspapers should keep news reporting and editorials separate. [ 418 ] Immigration Lee believed that the benefits of immigration had to be carefully balanced against the associated "social load". In a speech he made in 1971, Lee explained that it was necessary to have non-Singapore workers take up jobs that Singaporeans were not willing to do, but observed that it was important that the number of such migrant workers be carefully controlled because "[t]hey dirty the place... they litter... if you take too many... they will bring us down to their values because it's easier to be untidy, scruffy, dirty, anti-social than to be disciplined, well-behaved and a good citizen". [ 419 ] Personal life Lee and his wife, Kwa Geok Choo , were married on 30 September 1950. Both spoke English as their first language . Lee first started learning Chinese in 1955, at the age of 32. [ 420 ] [ 421 ] During World War II , he learned the Japanese language to help him survive, and worked as a Japanese translator during the Japanese occupation of Singapore . [ 422 ] Lee and Kwa have two sons and a daughter. [ 423 ] His elder son, Lee Hsien Loong , was the third prime minister of Singapore. Several members of the Lee family hold prominent positions in the Singapore society. His younger son Lee Hsien Yang was president and CEO of SingTel , and Chairman of the Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore (CAAS). [ 424 ] Lee's daughter Lee Wei Ling , a neurologist and epileptologist, was director of the National Neuroscience Institute . Lee's daughter-in-law Ho Ching was executive director and CEO of Temasek Holdings . [ 424 ] [ 425 ] His wife Kwa Geok Choo died on 2 October 2010, at the age of 89. Lee had variously described himself as an agnostic [ 426 ] and a "nominal Buddhist". [ 427 ] He also mentioned that he was brought up in a family which practiced Chinese ancestor worship but stopped after his father died, [ 426 ] and that he "neither [denies] nor [accepts] that there is a God". [ 428 ] [ 429 ] In his later years, Lee practised meditation under the tutelage of Benedictine monk Laurence Freeman , director of the World Community for Christian Meditation . [ 426 ] [ 430 ] Lee was diagnosed with dyslexia in adulthood. [ 431 ] Lee was a founding member of the Fondation Chirac 's honour committee, which was launched by former French president Jacques Chirac to promote world peace. [ 432 ] He was also a member of David Rockefeller 's "International Council", which included Henry Kissinger , Riley P. Bechtel , George Shultz and others. Additionally, he was one of the "Forbes' Brain Trust", along with Paul Johnson and Ernesto Zedillo . Cultural depictions In 1979, oil painter Chua Mia Tee depicted Lee's return from London after the Merdeka Talks . [ 433 ] In the early 1980s, Lee agreed to have a sculpture and oil painting of him done, on the condition that they not be exhibited in his lifetime. The works, respectively by British sculptor Sydney Harpley and American portrait painter Marion Pike , were commissioned by a group of Singaporeans, including first Chief Minister David Marshall . They are now part of the National Heritage Board 's national collection, [ 434 ] but only the bronze bust has gone on public display, briefly at the Istana and Parliament House . [ 435 ] An artist's proof of the sculpture was exhibited in 2025. [ 436 ] In 1991, Chua Mia Tee presented an oil painting of Lee to the Minister himself, depicting him against a backdrop of Singapore's transformation. [ 437 ] The untitled painting was commissioned by fifth president Ong Teng Cheong . [ 438 ] In 1992, artist Lai Kui Fang presented historical oil paintings of Lee's 1959 swearing-in ceremony as prime minister, which are now part of the National Museum of Singapore 's collection. [ 439 ] Also in 1992, watercolourist Ong Kim Seng painted Lee visiting the aftermath of the Bukit Ho Swee fire , based on a 1961 photograph. The painting was reproduced in The Straits Times and sold to an unknown collector. In 2025, Ong recreated the painting, on a larger canvas, for an exhibition. [ 440 ] In 2008, artist Ben Puah unveiled Hero , a solo exhibition of Lee portraits at Forth Gallery. [ 441 ] In 2009, artist Richard Lim Han presented Singapore Guidance Angel , a solo exhibition of Lee portraits at Forth Gallery. [ 442 ] In the same year, freelance designer, Christopher "Treewizard" Pereira, began making caricature figurines of Lee which range from 12 cm to 30 cm. Comics artist and painter Sonny Liew depicted Lee as part of the series Eric Khoo is a Hotel Magnate at Mulan Gallery. [ 443 ] [ 444 ] In addition, Cultural Medallion recipient Tan Swie Hian also began a painting of Lee and his late wife titled A Couple . The painting, which took Tan five years to complete, was partially damaged by a fire in 2013. It depicts Lee and Kwa in their youth, is based on a 1946 black-and-white photograph of the couple in Cambridge University and incorporates in its background Tan's poem in memory of Kwa. A Couple was purchased by art collector Wu Hsioh Kwang. [ 445 ] In 2010, Valentine Willie Fine Art gallery asked 19 local artists to imagine a future without Lee. The resulting exhibition, Beyond LKY , included artist a triptych of Lee as a father figure looming over a tiny kneeling figure with the words, "Papa can you hear me"; an installation of a broken piano with a tape recorder playing a crackling version of Singapore's National Anthem ; white ceramic chains hanging on a wall; and an installation of hammers smashed together. [ 446 ] [ 447 ] That year, Korean artist Kim Dong Yoo depicted Lee in Lee Kuan Yew & Queen Elizabeth II (2010), an oil-on-canvas portrait of Lee using small images of Queen Elizabeth II 's head, a reference to Singapore being a former British colony and current member of the Commonwealth. [ 448 ] Indian-Swiss novelist Meira Chand 's A Different Sky , published by UK's Harvill Secker in 2010, features Lee in his early years as a lawyer and co-founder of the People's Action Party . [ 449 ] In 2011, the iris image of Lee's eye was captured and artistically rendered to resemble a sand art gallery piece. His eye image with his autograph was auctioned off to raise funds for the Singapore Eye Research Institute. [ 450 ] In 2012, urban artist Sam Lo depicted Lee in their controversial Limpeh series, featuring his image in Shepard Fairey -inspired stickers, mirrors and collages. [ 451 ] In 2013, poet Cyril Wong published The Dictator's Eyebrow , a poetry collection revolving around a Lee-like figure and his eyebrow's thirst for recognition and power. [ 452 ] In the same year, a group of Tamil poets from three countries, including Singapore Literature Prize winner Ramanathan Vairavan, produced Lee Kuan Yew 90 , a collection of 90 new poems celebrating Lee's legacy. [ 453 ] Artist Sukeshi Sondhi also staged An Icon & A Legend , a solo exhibition at featuring 20 pop art style paintings of Lee. [ 454 ] Speed painter Brad Blaze was commissioned to craft a portrait of Lee, Trailblazer: Singapore , to raise funds for Reach Community Services Society. [ 455 ] [ 456 ] In August, a bronze bust of Lee, cast by contemporary French artist-sculptor Nacera Kainou, was unveiled at the Singapore University of Technology and Design as an early birthday present to Lee from the Lyon-Singapore Association and the municipality of Lyon. [ 457 ] In 2014, Bruneian painter Huifong Ng landed an exhibition after painting a portrait of Lee. [ 458 ] In May of that year, illustrator Patrick Yee produced the children's picture book A Boy Named Harry: The Childhood of Lee Kuan Yew , published by Epigram Books . The series was later translated into Mandarin. [ 459 ] Chinese artist Ren Zhenyu also created expressionist portraits of Lee in electric hues as part of his Pop and Politics series. Vietnamese artist Mai Huy Dung has crafted a series of oil painting portraits of Lee. [ 460 ] [ 461 ] Ukrainian artist Oleg Lazarenko also depicted Lee as part of his painting Lion of Singapore . [ 462 ] In October 2014, cartoonist Morgan Chua released LKY: Political Cartoons , an anthology of cartoons about Lee published by Epigram Books , featuring a 1971 Singapore Herald cartoon of Lee on a tank threatening to crush a baby representing press freedoms. [ 463 ] The Madame Tussauds Singapore museum also unveiled a wax figure of Lee and his late wife, Madam Kwa Geok Choo seated and smiling together against a backdrop of red flowers formed in the shape of two hearts. The statues were created based on a photograph that was taken by Madam Kwa's niece, Ms Kwa Kim Li, of the pair on Valentine's Day in 2008 at Sentosa . [ 464 ] [ 465 ] In February 2015, weeks before Lee's death, Helmi Yusof of The Business Times reported on how "[i]n the last few years, artworks featuring Lee Kuan Yew have turned into a flourishing cottage industry". [ 466 ] Artworks included Jeffrey Koh's seven LKY Pez candy-dispenser sculptures, paintings of Lee in the manner of Van Gogh , and Korean sculptor Park Seung Mo's three-dimensional image of Lee made using stainless steel wires. [ 467 ] In the same month, illustrator Patrick Yee launched the second title in his picture book series about Lee, called Harry Grows Up: The Early Years of Lee Kuan Yew , at an exhibition at the National Library, Singapore . [ 468 ] In March, Singaporean artist Fan Shaohua and Lebanese-British artist Laudi Abilama exhibited their portraits of Lee. [ 469 ] In the same month, the National Parks Board named a Singapore Botanic Gardens orchid hybrid called the "Aranda Lee Kuan Yew" in honour of Lee's efforts work in conservation and environmentalism. [ 470 ] Also in March, a portrait of Lee by Ong Yi Teck, comprising Lee's name written about 18,000 times, went viral on social media. The portrait was made in tribute to Lee, who was then critically ill. [ 471 ] Days after Lee died in 2015, the Asian edition of Time featured the late Lee Kuan Yew on its cover, [ 472 ] while the 16-year-old blogger Amos Yee released a video, Lee Kuan Yew is Finally Dead! , which criticised Lee and negatively compared him to Jesus Christ . Yee also posted on his blog a stick-figure cartoon depicting Lee having sex with Margaret Thatcher , a personal and political ally of Lee's. [ 473 ] For his actions, Yee was charged with insulting religious feelings and obscenity, and sentenced to four weeks imprisonment despite his youth. [ 474 ] In April 2015, an exhibition of 300 oil paintings on Lee and Singapore opened at Suntec City . Presented by art collector Vincent Chua, The Singapore Story featured 80 portraits of Lee and a life-size statue of Lee shaking hands with Deng Xiaoping when the Chinese statesman visited Singapore in 1978. [ 475 ] [ 476 ] In May, Sonny Liew released his graphic novel The Art of Charlie Chan Hock Chye , in which Lee is central, while Patrick Yee launched the third and final title in his Harry Lee picture book series, Harry Builds a Nation: The Legacy of Lee Kuan Yew , which were later translated to Chinese. [ 477 ] In July 2015, veteran actor Lim Kay Tong portrayed Lee in the historical film 1965 , including a re-enactment of the iconic press conference when Lee announced that Singapore would be separated from Malaysia [ 478 ] That same month, actor Adrian Pang played Lee in The LKY Musical opposite Sharon Au 's Kwa Geok Choo . [ 479 ] In October 2015, sculptor Lim Leong Seng exhibited a 75 cm bronze sculpture he made of Lee, entitled Weathering Storms As One . [ 480 ] In November 2015, the Singaporean Honorary Consulate General in Barcelona unveiled a bust of Lee at Cap Roig Gardens in Costa Brava , [ 481 ] while pop artist Andre Tan showed his series of portraits of Lee, 1965 and Father of the Nation ( 国父 ) at the Affordable Art Fair Singapore. [ 482 ] In 2016, to mark the first death anniversary of Lee, Lee's brother Lee Suan Yew and nephew Shaun Lee completed the art installation by young Singaporeans of Singapore flag erasers put together to form Lee's face, titled Our Father, Our Country, Our Flag . [ 483 ] In 2023, the centenary of Lee's birth, American artist Daniel Arsham was commissioned to create two sculptures of Lee, Eroded Bronze LKY Bust 1:1 and LKY Full Body 1:2 , using bronze, stainless steel, and patina. [ 484 ] They were exhibited, along with AI-generated videos and portraits of Lee, at the immersive exhibition Now Is Not The Time in September. [ 485 ] In the same month, paintings of Lee were exhibited at Tanjong Pagar Community Club in the show LKY100 . [ 486 ] In 2024, Singaporean artist David Chan showed his painting Lee And Raffles – 5 Stars Rising at Art Seasons Gallery's booth at the Art SG fair, where it sold to a collector. [ 487 ] In 2025 , Lee's ten-year death anniversary and "SG60" (Singapore's 60th year of independence), INSTINC gallery's exhibition 10 Years: Remembering LKY showcased artworks reflecting on Lee's legacy, including portraits of Lee by Boo Sze Yang , Chang Hui Fang , and Laudi Abilama ; Justin Lee 's series LKY Quotes ; and Yeo Shih Yun 's screenprint of Lee planting a tree in 1973. [ 488 ] The exhibition was a follow-up to Remembering LKY in 2015. [ 489 ] In July, Cuturi Gallery showcased Singaporean artist Yom Bo Sung's small-scale sculpture of Lee, Elegy , as part of the exhibition Sixty Summers Here . [ 490 ] Also in July, the group exhibition Artist’s Proof: Singapore At 60 showed, alongside an artist's proof of Harpley's bust of Lee, cartoonist Sonny Liew's figurine of Lee, as part of commissioned project "P.A.P. x P.A."; Foo Kwee Horng's painting portrait of Lee, Majulah (2016); a portrait of Lee by Rajesh P Kargutkar; and Jon Chan's oil paintings of the offices of Lee and former political detainee Chia Thye Poh . [ 491 ] [ 492 ] In August, movie director Jack Neo uploaded a music video for his song, "We Are Singapore", including AI-generated images of the late Lee. [ 493 ] Awards Lee received a number of state decorations , including the Order of the Companions of Honour (1970), Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (1972), the Ancient Order of Sikatuna (1974), [ 494 ] the Freedom of the City of London (1982), the Seri Paduka Mahkota Johor (1984), the Nishan-e-Quaid-i-Azam (1988) and the Order of the Rising Sun (1967). [ 495 ] In 1999, Lee was named one of Time 's Most Influential People of the 20th Century. [ 41 ] In 2002, Lee became a fellow of Imperial College London in recognition of his promotion of international trade and industry and development of science and engineering study initiatives with the United Kingdom. [ 496 ] In 2006, Lee was presented with the Woodrow Wilson Award for Public Service by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars . In 2007, Lee was conferred an honorary Doctorate in Law at the Australian National University in Canberra , albeit amid protest from 150 students and staff. [ 497 ] In September 2009, Lee was awarded the Armenian Order of Honor by President Serzh Sargsyan for his activities directed at the establishment and deepening of bilateral cooperation between Armenia and Singapore, during Lee's official visit to Armenia. [ 498 ] In October 2009, the US–Asean Business Council conferred upon Lee its first Lifetime Achievement award, at its 25th anniversary gala dinner in Washington, D.C. His tribute, the former United States Secretary of State and 1973 Nobel Peace Prize winner Henry Kissinger . [ 499 ] A day later he met United States President Barack Obama at the Oval Office in the White House . [ 500 ] [ 501 ] On 15 November 2009, Lee was awarded the Russian Order of Friendship by President Dmitry Medvedev on the sidelines of APEC Singapore 2009 . [ 502 ] On 29 April 2010, Lee was named in the Time 100 list as one of the people who most affect our world. [ 503 ] On 14 January 2011, Lee received the inaugural Gryphon Award from his alma mater, Raffles Institution, given to illustrious Rafflesians who have made exceptional contributions to the nation. [ 504 ] On 19 October 2011, Lee received the Lincoln Medal in Washington DC—an honour reserved for people who have exemplified the legacy and character embodied by Abraham Lincoln . [ 505 ] On 21 February 2012, Lee was conferred the Kazakhstan Order of Friendship by Ambassador Yerlan Baudarbek-Kozhatayev, at The Istana . [ 506 ] On 10 September 2013, Lee was conferred Russia's Order of Honour by Ambassador Leonid Moiseev for his contributions for forging friendship and co-operation with the Russian Federal and scientific and cultural relations development. [ 507 ] On 22 May 2014, the title of Honorary Doctor of the Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was presented by the Russian government to Lee. [ 508 ] In 2016, Lee was conferred the Order of the Paulownia Flowers . The award was backdated to 23 March 2015, the date of his death. [ 509 ] In December 2018, China conferred a posthumous China Reform Friendship Medal on Lee for his "critical role in promoting Singapore's participation in China's reform journey". In former Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping's southern tour , he urged Chinese leaders to learn from the Singapore model. Alan Chan Heng Loon, Singapore–China Foundation chairman and Lee's chief private secretary, said that Mr. Lee's administration did a lot to build China-Singapore ties. [ 510 ] See also Government of Singapore Politics of Singapore Political positions of Lee Kuan Yew Zhonghandi Notes ^ Chinese : See § Chinese name ^ Kuan Yew is a transliteration of a dialect word stemming from the Chinese words 光耀 ( guāng yào ); the Hanyu Pinyin used to romanise the latter word did not exist until 1958. ^ The former college is not to be confused with Raffles Institution which Lee also attended as part of his secondary education. ^ In his memoir The Singapore Story , Lee relates that he tried unsuccessfully to drop 'Harry' when being called to the bar at the Middle Temple, but had stopped using the name by then. He succeeded when called to the Singapore bar the following year. [ 40 ] ^ The Liberal Socialist Party was formed from a merger between the pro-British Democratic Party and Progressive Party . [ 106 ] ^ The term 'yellow culture' refers to 'degenerate' behaviours in contemporary Chinese culture during the era. ^ The five were Lim Chin Siong , Fong Swee Suan, Devan Nair , James Puthucheary and S Woodhull . [ 122 ] ^ Unlike the chief ministers of Sabah and Sarawak , Lee's position as the prime minister of Singapore remained unchanged even with the existence of the prime minister of Malaysia for the entire country. References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "PARLIAMENTARY DEBATES DEWAN RA'AYAT (HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES) OFFICIAL REPORT" (PDF) . 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Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 12 August 2015 . Josey, Alex (2013). Lee Kuan Yew: The Crucial Years . Marshall Cavendish International Asia. ISBN 9789814435499 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 22 March 2015 . Tortajada, Cecilia; Joshi, Yugal; Biswas, Asit K. (2013). The Singapore Water Story: Sustainable Development in an Urban City-state . Routledge. ISBN 9780415657822 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . Plate, Tom (2013). Giants of Asia: Conversations with Lee Kuan Yew . Marshall Cavendish Intl. ISBN 9789814398619 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . Kah Seng, Loh (2013). Squatters into Citizens: The 1961 Bukit Ho Swee Fire and the Making of Modern Singapore . NUS Press. ISBN 9788776941222 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 31 August 2021 . Soo, Kai Poh; Hong, Lysa; Chen, Guofang (2013). The 1963 Operation Coldstore in Singapore, Commemorating 50 years . Strategic Information and Research Development Centre. ISBN 9789670630106 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . Cotterell, Arthur (2014). A History of South-East Asia . Marshall Cavendish International Asia. ISBN 9789814634700 . Barr, Michael D. (2014). The Ruling Elite of Singapore: Networks of Power and Influence . Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9780857723680 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 16 June 2021 . Oei, Anthony (2015). Lee Kuan Yew: Blazing The Freedom Trail . Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 9789814677875 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 28 July 2021 . Yeow, Stephanie (2015). Lee Kuan Yew: A Pictorial Memoir . Straits Times Press. ISBN 9789814642088 . Chew, Melanie (2015). Leaders Of Singapore . World Scientific. ISBN 9789810073336 . Zheng, Yongnian; Liang, Fook Lye (2015). Singapore-China Relations: 50 Years . World Scientific. ISBN 9789814713573 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . Kwa, Chong Guan; Heng, Derek; Borschberg, Peter; Tan, Tai Yong (2019). Seven Hundred Years: A History of Singapore . Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 9789814868334 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 . Jayakumar, Shashi (2021). A History of the People's Action Party, 1985–2021 . NUS Press. ISBN 9789813251281 . Further reading Primary sources Lee, Kuan Yew (1998). The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew . Times Editions. ISBN 9789812049834 . —— (2000). From Third World to First: 1965–2000: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew . HarperCollins . ISBN 9780060197766 . —— (2005). Keeping My Mandarin Alive: Lee Kuan Yew's Language Learning Experience . World Scientific Publishing Company. ISBN 9789812563828 . —— (2011). Hard Truths To Keep Singapore Going . Straits Times Press. ISBN 978-9814266727 . —— (2012). My Lifelong Challenge: Singapore's Bilingual Journey . Straits Times Press. ISBN 9789814342032 . —— (2013a). The Wit and Wisdom of Lee Kuan Yew . Didier Millet. ISBN 9789814385282 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 16 June 2021 . —— (2013b). One Man's View of the World . Straits Times Press. ISBN 9789814342568 . —— (2014). The Battle for Merger . National Archives of Singapore. ISBN 9789814342773 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 16 June 2021 . Other sources Kassim, Yang Razali; Ali, Mushahid, eds. (2016). Reflections: The Legacy of Lee Kuan Yew . Singapore: World Scientific Publishing. doi : 10.1142/9811 . ISBN 978-9814723886 . Allison, Graham T.; Blackwill, Robert D.; Ali, Wyne (2013). Lee Kuan Yew: Grand Master's Insights on China, the United States and the World . The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262019125 . Archived from the original on 31 January 2017 . Retrieved 19 January 2017 . Koh, Buck Song (2011). Brand Singapore: How Nation Branding Built Asia's Leading Global City . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-9814328159 . Plate, Tom (2010). Conversations with Lee Kuan Yew: Citizen Singapore: How to Build a Nation . Giants of Asia Series. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-9812616760 . Barr, Michael D. (2000). Lee Kuan Yew: The Beliefs Behind the Man . Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-0878408160 . Datta-Ray, Sunanda K. (2009). Looking East to Look West: Lee Kuan Yew's Mission India . Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-9814279048 . Gordon, Uri (2000). "Machiavelli's Tiger: Lee Kwan Yew and Singapore's Authoritarian regime" . King, Rodney (2008). The Singapore Miracle, Myth and Reality (2 ed.). Insight Press. ISBN 978-0977556700 . Fernandez, Warren; Tan, Sumiko; Lam, Sally; Tay, Hwee Peng (2015). Lee Kuan Yew: The Man and His Ideas . Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 978-9814677684 . Lama, Murat (2016). Lee Kuan Yew: Singapour et le renouveau de la Chine (in French). Paris: Manitoba/Les Belles Lettres. ISBN 978-2-251-89020-3 . Minchin, James (1986). No Man is an Island: A Study of Singapore's Lee Kuan Yew . Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0868619064 . Bellows, Thomas J. (1989), "Singapore in 1988: The Transition Moves Forward", Asian Survey , 29 (2): 145– 153, doi : 10.2307/2644574 , JSTOR 2644574 External links Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Resources in your library Resources in other libraries @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Lee Kuan Yew at Wikimedia Commons Appearances on C-SPAN Portraits of Lee Kuan Yew at the National Portrait Gallery, London Quotations related to Lee Kuan Yew at Wikiquote Political offices New office Prime Minister of Singapore 1959–1990 Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Preceded by Hon Sui Sen Minister for Finance Acting 1983 Succeeded by Tony Tan Vacant Title last held by S. Rajaratnam 1988 Senior Minister 1990–2004 Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong New office Minister Mentor 2004–2011 Position abolished Parliament of Singapore New constituency Member of Parliament for Tanjong Pagar SMC 1959–1991 Constituency abolished Member of Parliament for Tanjong Pagar GRC 1991–2015 Succeeded by Joan Pereira (Tanjong Pagar ward) Party political offices New office Secretary-General of the People's Action Party 1954–1992 Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Prime ministers of Singapore v t e Lee Kuan Yew (1959–1990) Goh Chok Tong (1990–2004) Lee Hsien Loong (2004–2024) Lawrence Wong (2024–present) Lee Kuan Yew (1959–1990) Goh Chok Tong (1990–2004) Lee Hsien Loong (2004–2024) Lawrence Wong (2024–present) v t e Legal profession in Singapore v t e Executive officers Former Ministers for Law K. M. Byrne E. W. Barker S. Jayakumar K. Shanmugam Minister for Law Edwin Tong Former Attorneys-General Ahmad Mohamed Ibrahim Tan Boon Teik Chan Sek Keong Chao Hick Tin Walter Woon Koh Juat Jong (acting) Sundaresh Menon Steven Chong V. K. Rajah Attorney-General Lucien Wong Former Ministers for Law K. M. Byrne E. W. Barker S. Jayakumar K. Shanmugam K. M. Byrne E. W. Barker S. Jayakumar K. Shanmugam Minister for Law Edwin Tong Edwin Tong Former Attorneys-General Ahmad Mohamed Ibrahim Tan Boon Teik Chan Sek Keong Chao Hick Tin Walter Woon Koh Juat Jong (acting) Sundaresh Menon Steven Chong V. K. Rajah Ahmad Mohamed Ibrahim Tan Boon Teik Chan Sek Keong Chao Hick Tin Walter Woon Koh Juat Jong (acting) Sundaresh Menon Steven Chong V. K. Rajah Attorney-General Lucien Wong Lucien Wong Judicial officers Former Chief Justices Wee Chong Jin Yong Pung How Chan Sek Keong Chief Justice Sundaresh Menon Judges of Appeal Belinda Ang Steven Chong Tay Yong Kwang Judges of the Supreme Court Aedit Abdullah Chan Seng Onn Mavis Chionh Choo Han Teck Chua Lee Meng Vinodh Coomaraswamy Dedar Singh Gill Goh Yihan Hoo Sheau Peng Vincent Hoong Philip Jeyaretnam Kwek Mean Luck Lee Seiu Kin Audrey Lim Andre Maniam S. Mohan Hri Kumar Nair Debbie Ong Pang Khang Chau Andrew Phang Judith Prakash Kannan Ramesh See Kee Oon Tan Siong Thye Teh Hwee Hwee Valerie Thean Woo Bih Li Judicial Commissioners Christopher Tan Kristy Tan Alex Wong Notable former judges Abdul Wahab Ghows J. W. D. Ambrose Andrew Ang Ang Cheng Hock Murray Buttrose F. A. Chua Punch Coomaraswamy D. C. D'Cotta Goh Joon Seng Joseph Grimberg Kan Ting Chiu M. Karthigesu Warren Khoo Clifford Knight T. Kulasekaram Lai Kew Chai Lai Siu Chiu Quentin Loh Philip Pillai A. P. Rajah S. Rajendran Bala Reddy M. P. H. Rubin G. P. Selvam Choor Singh T. S. Sinnathuray Tan Ah Tah Tan Lee Meng Tan Puay Boon Tan Teow Yeow L. P. Thean George Wei Cuthbert Whitton A. V. Winslow Former Chief Justices Wee Chong Jin Yong Pung How Chan Sek Keong Wee Chong Jin Yong Pung How Chan Sek Keong Chief Justice Sundaresh Menon Sundaresh Menon Judges of Appeal Belinda Ang Steven Chong Tay Yong Kwang Belinda Ang Steven Chong Tay Yong Kwang Judges of the Supreme Court Aedit Abdullah Chan Seng Onn Mavis Chionh Choo Han Teck Chua Lee Meng Vinodh Coomaraswamy Dedar Singh Gill Goh Yihan Hoo Sheau Peng Vincent Hoong Philip Jeyaretnam Kwek Mean Luck Lee Seiu Kin Audrey Lim Andre Maniam S. Mohan Hri Kumar Nair Debbie Ong Pang Khang Chau Andrew Phang Judith Prakash Kannan Ramesh See Kee Oon Tan Siong Thye Teh Hwee Hwee Valerie Thean Woo Bih Li Aedit Abdullah Chan Seng Onn Mavis Chionh Choo Han Teck Chua Lee Meng Vinodh Coomaraswamy Dedar Singh Gill Goh Yihan Hoo Sheau Peng Vincent Hoong Philip Jeyaretnam Kwek Mean Luck Lee Seiu Kin Audrey Lim Andre Maniam S. Mohan Hri Kumar Nair Debbie Ong Pang Khang Chau Andrew Phang Judith Prakash Kannan Ramesh See Kee Oon Tan Siong Thye Teh Hwee Hwee Valerie Thean Woo Bih Li Judicial Commissioners Christopher Tan Kristy Tan Alex Wong Christopher Tan Kristy Tan Alex Wong Notable former judges Abdul Wahab Ghows J. W. D. Ambrose Andrew Ang Ang Cheng Hock Murray Buttrose F. A. Chua Punch Coomaraswamy D. C. D'Cotta Goh Joon Seng Joseph Grimberg Kan Ting Chiu M. Karthigesu Warren Khoo Clifford Knight T. Kulasekaram Lai Kew Chai Lai Siu Chiu Quentin Loh Philip Pillai A. P. Rajah S. Rajendran Bala Reddy M. P. H. Rubin G. P. Selvam Choor Singh T. S. Sinnathuray Tan Ah Tah Tan Lee Meng Tan Puay Boon Tan Teow Yeow L. P. Thean George Wei Cuthbert Whitton A. V. Winslow Abdul Wahab Ghows J. W. D. Ambrose Andrew Ang Ang Cheng Hock Murray Buttrose F. A. Chua Punch Coomaraswamy D. C. D'Cotta Goh Joon Seng Joseph Grimberg Kan Ting Chiu M. Karthigesu Warren Khoo Clifford Knight T. Kulasekaram Lai Kew Chai Lai Siu Chiu Quentin Loh Philip Pillai A. P. Rajah S. Rajendran Bala Reddy M. P. H. Rubin G. P. Selvam Choor Singh T. S. Sinnathuray Tan Ah Tah Tan Lee Meng Tan Puay Boon Tan Teow Yeow L. P. Thean George Wei Cuthbert Whitton A. V. Winslow Notable lawyers Ahmad Nizam Abbas Subhas Anandan Lawrence Ang Anil Balchandani Cavinder Bull Harry Elias N. Ganesan Hugh Hickling Michael Hwang Jane Ittogi Glenn Knight Koh Eng Tian Kwa Geok Choo John Laycock Lim Suet Fern Peter Low William Napier Noor Mohamed Marican Quek Mong Hua K. S. Rajah M Ravi Francis Seow Edmund Sim Davinder Singh Harpreet Singh Nehal Song Ong Siang Rajesh Sreenivasan Adrian Tan Tan Choo Leng Josephus Tan Roger Tan Tang Fong Har Teo Soon Kim Thio Shen Yi Eugene Thuraisingam Robert Carr Woods Lionel Yee Stephanie Yuen-Thio Ahmad Nizam Abbas Subhas Anandan Lawrence Ang Anil Balchandani Cavinder Bull Harry Elias N. Ganesan Hugh Hickling Michael Hwang Jane Ittogi Glenn Knight Koh Eng Tian Kwa Geok Choo John Laycock Lim Suet Fern Peter Low William Napier Noor Mohamed Marican Quek Mong Hua K. S. Rajah M Ravi Francis Seow Edmund Sim Davinder Singh Harpreet Singh Nehal Song Ong Siang Rajesh Sreenivasan Adrian Tan Tan Choo Leng Josephus Tan Roger Tan Tang Fong Har Teo Soon Kim Thio Shen Yi Eugene Thuraisingam Robert Carr Woods Lionel Yee Stephanie Yuen-Thio Notable academics Simon Chesterman Leslie Chew Leslie C. Green Harry E. Groves Tommy Koh Lionel A. Sheridan M. Sornarajah Tan Cheng Han David Tan Eugene Tan Tan Yock Lin Simon Tay Thio Li-ann Thio Su Mien Eleanor Wong Simon Chesterman Leslie Chew Leslie C. Green Harry E. Groves Tommy Koh Lionel A. Sheridan M. Sornarajah Tan Cheng Han David Tan Eugene Tan Tan Yock Lin Simon Tay Thio Li-ann Thio Su Mien Eleanor Wong Politicians with legal backgrounds Amrin Amin Chen Show Mao Chia Yong Yong Chiam See Tong Chin Tet Yung Jeannette Chong-Aruldoss Christopher de Souza He Ting Ru Ho Peng Kee J. B. Jeyaretnam Desmond Lee Ellen Lee Lee Kuan Yew Lim Biow Chuan Sylvia Lim Lim Tean Ling How Doong David Marshall Nadia Ahmad Samdin Vikram Nair Ong Kian Min Michael Palmer P. Selvadurai Murali Pillai Indranee Rajah Sin Boon Ann Pritam Singh Hany Soh Tan Chye Cheng Dennis Tan Tang Liang Hong Patrick Tay Edwin Tong Sandrasegaran Woodhull Alvin Yeo Charles Yeo Zhulkarnain Abdul Rahim Amrin Amin Chen Show Mao Chia Yong Yong Chiam See Tong Chin Tet Yung Jeannette Chong-Aruldoss Christopher de Souza He Ting Ru Ho Peng Kee J. B. Jeyaretnam Desmond Lee Ellen Lee Lee Kuan Yew Lim Biow Chuan Sylvia Lim Lim Tean Ling How Doong David Marshall Nadia Ahmad Samdin Vikram Nair Ong Kian Min Michael Palmer P. Selvadurai Murali Pillai Indranee Rajah Sin Boon Ann Pritam Singh Hany Soh Tan Chye Cheng Dennis Tan Tang Liang Hong Patrick Tay Edwin Tong Sandrasegaran Woodhull Alvin Yeo Charles Yeo Zhulkarnain Abdul Rahim Major law firms Allen & Gledhill A&O Shearman Ashurst Clifford Chance Clyde & Co CNPLaw Donaldson & Burkinshaw Drew & Napier Harry Elias Hill Dickinson Lee & Lee Morgan Lewis Stamford Rajah & Tann Rodyk & Davidson Shook Lin & Bok Spruson & Ferguson TSMP Law Corporation Withers KhattarWong WongPartnership Allen & Gledhill A&O Shearman Ashurst Clifford Chance Clyde & Co CNPLaw Donaldson & Burkinshaw Drew & Napier Harry Elias Hill Dickinson Lee & Lee Morgan Lewis Stamford Rajah & Tann Rodyk & Davidson Shook Lin & Bok Spruson & Ferguson TSMP Law Corporation Withers KhattarWong WongPartnership Law schools NUS Faculty of Law SUSS School of Law Yong Pung How School of Law NUS Faculty of Law SUSS School of Law Yong Pung How School of Law Legal organisations Law Society of Singapore Singapore Academy of Law Law Society of Singapore Singapore Academy of Law Member of multiple Parliaments of Singapore .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} v t e Members of the 12th Parliament of Singapore (2011–2015) Speaker: Halimah Yacob Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied WP Chen, S M Lim, S L Low, T K Faisal Singh Ang Mo Kio PAP Ang, H K Singh Intan Lee, H L Seng, H T Yeo, G K Bishan-Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Low, Y L Yam, Z M Yeo, K H Zaqy East Coast PAP Lee Y S Lim S K Lim, S S Maliki Tan, S N Holland-Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Sim, Ann Vivian Jurong PAP Ang, W N Halimah Lee, T S Ong, K H Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Goh, C T Seah, K P Tan, C J Tin, P L Moulmein-Kallang PAP Lui, T Y Phua, L P Tong, C F Yaacob Nee Soon PAP Lee, B W Lim, W K Faishal Shanmugam Tay, T G Pasir Ris-Punggol PAP Gan, T P Puthucheary Low, Penny Teo, C H Teo, S L Zainal Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Lee, G H Ong, T K Nair Tampines PAP Baey, Y K Heng, S K Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Tanjong Pagar PAP Chan, C S Chia, S L Indranee Neo, Lily Lee, K Y West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, M H Iswaran Lim, H K Wong, S T Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Hong Kah North PAP Khor, L S Hougang WP Yaw, S L → Png, E H Joo Chiat PAP Chong, Y F Mountbatten PAP Lim, B C Pioneer PAP Foo, C K Potong Pasir PAP Sitoh, Y P Punggol East PAP→WP Palmer → Lee, L L Radin Mas PAP Tan, C S Sengkang West PAP Lam, P M Whampoa PAP Heng, C H Yuhua PAP Fu, H Y Non-elected members NCMP Giam, Y S Loh, W L Yee, J J NMPs Dhinakaran Faizah Fang, K W Koh, Y M Lien, T C Liew, K E Tan, K B Tan, S S Teo, S S Chia, Y Y Chua, K S Karthikeyan Kuik, S Y Ismail Soh, S L Tan, C L Tan, G K Tan, T Y The party affiliation of each member is indicated right after the constituency he or she represents. PAP : People's Action Party ; SPP : Singapore People's Party ; WP : The Workers' Party For NCMPs, Gerald Giam and Yee Jenn Jong are from the WP, while Lina Loh is from the SPP. NMPs do not belong to any party. There were two terms of NMPs in this parliament, with nine NMPs in each term. Other Current/Former MPs Nav Boxes 1 10 11 12 13 14 15 v t e Members of the 11th Parliament of Singapore (2006–2011) Speaker: Abdullah Tarmugi Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied PAP Lim, H H Phua, S G Yeo, G K Yeo, Y B Zainul Ang Mo Kio PAP Balaji Lam, P M Lee, B W Lee, H L Singh Wee, S K Bishan–Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin East Coast PAP Abdullah Jayakumar Lee Y S Lim S K Tan, S N Holland–Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Lim, S S Vivian Yu-Foo, Y S Hong Kah PAP Ang, M S Khor, L S Yeo, C T Yeo, K H Zaqy Jalan Besar PAP Heng, C H Lee, B Y Neo, Lily Phua, L P Yaacob Jurong PAP Fu, H Y Halimah Lim, B H Ong, C C Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Faishal Goh, C T Lim, B C Ong, S H Seah, K P Pasir Ris–Punggol PAP Ahmad Chong, Y F Low, Penny Palmer Teo, C H Teo, S L Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Shanmugam Lee, G H Lim, W K Maliki Tampines PAP Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Ong, K M Sin, B A Tanjong Pagar PAP Baey, Y K Indranee Koo, T K Lee, K Y Lui, T Y Tan, C S West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, C K Ho, G C Iswaran Lim, H K Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Hougang WP Low, T K Joo Chiat PAP Chan, S S MacPherson PAP Yao, Matthias Nee Soon Central PAP Ong, A H Nee Soon East PAP Ho, P K Potong Pasir SDA Chiam, S T Yio Chu Kang PAP Seng, H T Non-elected members NCMP WP Lim, S L NMPs Banarjee, G Cham, H F Khew, T F Loo, C Y Mehta, K K Olsen, E E Phua, W C Siew, K H Thio, L A Cheng, E L Lee, K H Viswa Tan, B M Straughan, Paulin Teo, S S Wee, Y T Wong, W Y Yeo, W L The party affiliation of each member is indicated right after the constituency he or she represents. PAP : People's Action Party ; SDA : Singapore Democratic Alliance ; WP : The Workers' Party NMPs do not belong to any party. There were two terms of NMPs in this parliament, with nine NMPs in each term. Other Current/Former MPs Nav Boxes 1 10 11 12 13 14 15 v t e Members of the 12th Parliament of Singapore (2011–2015) v t e Speaker: Halimah Yacob Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied WP Chen, S M Lim, S L Low, T K Faisal Singh Ang Mo Kio PAP Ang, H K Singh Intan Lee, H L Seng, H T Yeo, G K Bishan-Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Low, Y L Yam, Z M Yeo, K H Zaqy East Coast PAP Lee Y S Lim S K Lim, S S Maliki Tan, S N Holland-Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Sim, Ann Vivian Jurong PAP Ang, W N Halimah Lee, T S Ong, K H Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Goh, C T Seah, K P Tan, C J Tin, P L Moulmein-Kallang PAP Lui, T Y Phua, L P Tong, C F Yaacob Nee Soon PAP Lee, B W Lim, W K Faishal Shanmugam Tay, T G Pasir Ris-Punggol PAP Gan, T P Puthucheary Low, Penny Teo, C H Teo, S L Zainal Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Lee, G H Ong, T K Nair Tampines PAP Baey, Y K Heng, S K Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Tanjong Pagar PAP Chan, C S Chia, S L Indranee Neo, Lily Lee, K Y West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, M H Iswaran Lim, H K Wong, S T Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Hong Kah North PAP Khor, L S Hougang WP Yaw, S L → Png, E H Joo Chiat PAP Chong, Y F Mountbatten PAP Lim, B C Pioneer PAP Foo, C K Potong Pasir PAP Sitoh, Y P Punggol East PAP→WP Palmer → Lee, L L Radin Mas PAP Tan, C S Sengkang West PAP Lam, P M Whampoa PAP Heng, C H Yuhua PAP Fu, H Y Non-elected members NCMP Giam, Y S Loh, W L Yee, J J NMPs Dhinakaran Faizah Fang, K W Koh, Y M Lien, T C Liew, K E Tan, K B Tan, S S Teo, S S Chia, Y Y Chua, K S Karthikeyan Kuik, S Y Ismail Soh, S L Tan, C L Tan, G K Tan, T Y Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied WP Chen, S M Lim, S L Low, T K Faisal Singh Ang Mo Kio PAP Ang, H K Singh Intan Lee, H L Seng, H T Yeo, G K Bishan-Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Low, Y L Yam, Z M Yeo, K H Zaqy East Coast PAP Lee Y S Lim S K Lim, S S Maliki Tan, S N Holland-Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Sim, Ann Vivian Jurong PAP Ang, W N Halimah Lee, T S Ong, K H Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Goh, C T Seah, K P Tan, C J Tin, P L Moulmein-Kallang PAP Lui, T Y Phua, L P Tong, C F Yaacob Nee Soon PAP Lee, B W Lim, W K Faishal Shanmugam Tay, T G Pasir Ris-Punggol PAP Gan, T P Puthucheary Low, Penny Teo, C H Teo, S L Zainal Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Lee, G H Ong, T K Nair Tampines PAP Baey, Y K Heng, S K Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Tanjong Pagar PAP Chan, C S Chia, S L Indranee Neo, Lily Lee, K Y West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, M H Iswaran Lim, H K Wong, S T Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied WP Chen, S M Lim, S L Low, T K Faisal Singh Chen, S M Lim, S L Low, T K Faisal Singh Ang Mo Kio PAP Ang, H K Singh Intan Lee, H L Seng, H T Yeo, G K Ang, H K Singh Intan Lee, H L Seng, H T Yeo, G K Bishan-Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Low, Y L Yam, Z M Yeo, K H Zaqy Gan, K Y Low, Y L Yam, Z M Yeo, K H Zaqy East Coast PAP Lee Y S Lim S K Lim, S S Maliki Tan, S N Lee Y S Lim S K Lim, S S Maliki Tan, S N Holland-Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Sim, Ann Vivian de Souza Liang, E H Sim, Ann Vivian Jurong PAP Ang, W N Halimah Lee, T S Ong, K H Tharman Ang, W N Halimah Lee, T S Ong, K H Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Goh, C T Seah, K P Tan, C J Tin, P L Fatimah Goh, C T Seah, K P Tan, C J Tin, P L Moulmein-Kallang PAP Lui, T Y Phua, L P Tong, C F Yaacob Lui, T Y Phua, L P Tong, C F Yaacob Nee Soon PAP Lee, B W Lim, W K Faishal Shanmugam Tay, T G Lee, B W Lim, W K Faishal Shanmugam Tay, T G Pasir Ris-Punggol PAP Gan, T P Puthucheary Low, Penny Teo, C H Teo, S L Zainal Gan, T P Puthucheary Low, Penny Teo, C H Teo, S L Zainal Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Lee, G H Ong, T K Nair Hawazi Khaw, B W Lee, G H Ong, T K Nair Tampines PAP Baey, Y K Heng, S K Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Baey, Y K Heng, S K Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Tanjong Pagar PAP Chan, C S Chia, S L Indranee Neo, Lily Lee, K Y Chan, C S Chia, S L Indranee Neo, Lily Lee, K Y West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, M H Iswaran Lim, H K Wong, S T Fong, Jen Foo, M H Iswaran Lim, H K Wong, S T Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Hong Kah North PAP Khor, L S Hougang WP Yaw, S L → Png, E H Joo Chiat PAP Chong, Y F Mountbatten PAP Lim, B C Pioneer PAP Foo, C K Potong Pasir PAP Sitoh, Y P Punggol East PAP→WP Palmer → Lee, L L Radin Mas PAP Tan, C S Sengkang West PAP Lam, P M Whampoa PAP Heng, C H Yuhua PAP Fu, H Y Non-elected members NCMP Giam, Y S Loh, W L Yee, J J NMPs Dhinakaran Faizah Fang, K W Koh, Y M Lien, T C Liew, K E Tan, K B Tan, S S Teo, S S Chia, Y Y Chua, K S Karthikeyan Kuik, S Y Ismail Soh, S L Tan, C L Tan, G K Tan, T Y Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Teo, H P Hong Kah North PAP Khor, L S Khor, L S Hougang WP Yaw, S L → Png, E H Yaw, S L → Png, E H Joo Chiat PAP Chong, Y F Chong, Y F Mountbatten PAP Lim, B C Lim, B C Pioneer PAP Foo, C K Foo, C K Potong Pasir PAP Sitoh, Y P Sitoh, Y P Punggol East PAP→WP Palmer → Lee, L L Palmer → Lee, L L Radin Mas PAP Tan, C S Tan, C S Sengkang West PAP Lam, P M Lam, P M Whampoa PAP Heng, C H Heng, C H Yuhua PAP Fu, H Y Fu, H Y Non-elected members Non-elected members NCMP Giam, Y S Loh, W L Yee, J J Giam, Y S Loh, W L Yee, J J NMPs Dhinakaran Faizah Fang, K W Koh, Y M Lien, T C Liew, K E Tan, K B Tan, S S Teo, S S Chia, Y Y Chua, K S Karthikeyan Kuik, S Y Ismail Soh, S L Tan, C L Tan, G K Tan, T Y Dhinakaran Faizah Fang, K W Koh, Y M Lien, T C Liew, K E Tan, K B Tan, S S Teo, S S Chia, Y Y Chua, K S Karthikeyan Kuik, S Y Ismail Soh, S L Tan, C L Tan, G K Tan, T Y The party affiliation of each member is indicated right after the constituency he or she represents. PAP : People's Action Party ; SPP : Singapore People's Party ; WP : The Workers' Party For NCMPs, Gerald Giam and Yee Jenn Jong are from the WP, while Lina Loh is from the SPP. NMPs do not belong to any party. There were two terms of NMPs in this parliament, with nine NMPs in each term. Other Current/Former MPs Nav Boxes 1 10 11 12 13 14 15 v t e Members of the 11th Parliament of Singapore (2006–2011) v t e Speaker: Abdullah Tarmugi Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied PAP Lim, H H Phua, S G Yeo, G K Yeo, Y B Zainul Ang Mo Kio PAP Balaji Lam, P M Lee, B W Lee, H L Singh Wee, S K Bishan–Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin East Coast PAP Abdullah Jayakumar Lee Y S Lim S K Tan, S N Holland–Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Lim, S S Vivian Yu-Foo, Y S Hong Kah PAP Ang, M S Khor, L S Yeo, C T Yeo, K H Zaqy Jalan Besar PAP Heng, C H Lee, B Y Neo, Lily Phua, L P Yaacob Jurong PAP Fu, H Y Halimah Lim, B H Ong, C C Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Faishal Goh, C T Lim, B C Ong, S H Seah, K P Pasir Ris–Punggol PAP Ahmad Chong, Y F Low, Penny Palmer Teo, C H Teo, S L Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Shanmugam Lee, G H Lim, W K Maliki Tampines PAP Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Ong, K M Sin, B A Tanjong Pagar PAP Baey, Y K Indranee Koo, T K Lee, K Y Lui, T Y Tan, C S West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, C K Ho, G C Iswaran Lim, H K Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Hougang WP Low, T K Joo Chiat PAP Chan, S S MacPherson PAP Yao, Matthias Nee Soon Central PAP Ong, A H Nee Soon East PAP Ho, P K Potong Pasir SDA Chiam, S T Yio Chu Kang PAP Seng, H T Non-elected members NCMP WP Lim, S L NMPs Banarjee, G Cham, H F Khew, T F Loo, C Y Mehta, K K Olsen, E E Phua, W C Siew, K H Thio, L A Cheng, E L Lee, K H Viswa Tan, B M Straughan, Paulin Teo, S S Wee, Y T Wong, W Y Yeo, W L Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied PAP Lim, H H Phua, S G Yeo, G K Yeo, Y B Zainul Ang Mo Kio PAP Balaji Lam, P M Lee, B W Lee, H L Singh Wee, S K Bishan–Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin East Coast PAP Abdullah Jayakumar Lee Y S Lim S K Tan, S N Holland–Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Lim, S S Vivian Yu-Foo, Y S Hong Kah PAP Ang, M S Khor, L S Yeo, C T Yeo, K H Zaqy Jalan Besar PAP Heng, C H Lee, B Y Neo, Lily Phua, L P Yaacob Jurong PAP Fu, H Y Halimah Lim, B H Ong, C C Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Faishal Goh, C T Lim, B C Ong, S H Seah, K P Pasir Ris–Punggol PAP Ahmad Chong, Y F Low, Penny Palmer Teo, C H Teo, S L Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Shanmugam Lee, G H Lim, W K Maliki Tampines PAP Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Ong, K M Sin, B A Tanjong Pagar PAP Baey, Y K Indranee Koo, T K Lee, K Y Lui, T Y Tan, C S West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, C K Ho, G C Iswaran Lim, H K Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied PAP Lim, H H Phua, S G Yeo, G K Yeo, Y B Zainul Lim, H H Phua, S G Yeo, G K Yeo, Y B Zainul Ang Mo Kio PAP Balaji Lam, P M Lee, B W Lee, H L Singh Wee, S K Balaji Lam, P M Lee, B W Lee, H L Singh Wee, S K Bishan–Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin East Coast PAP Abdullah Jayakumar Lee Y S Lim S K Tan, S N Abdullah Jayakumar Lee Y S Lim S K Tan, S N Holland–Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Lim, S S Vivian Yu-Foo, Y S de Souza Liang, E H Lim, S S Vivian Yu-Foo, Y S Hong Kah PAP Ang, M S Khor, L S Yeo, C T Yeo, K H Zaqy Ang, M S Khor, L S Yeo, C T Yeo, K H Zaqy Jalan Besar PAP Heng, C H Lee, B Y Neo, Lily Phua, L P Yaacob Heng, C H Lee, B Y Neo, Lily Phua, L P Yaacob Jurong PAP Fu, H Y Halimah Lim, B H Ong, C C Tharman Fu, H Y Halimah Lim, B H Ong, C C Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Faishal Goh, C T Lim, B C Ong, S H Seah, K P Fatimah Faishal Goh, C T Lim, B C Ong, S H Seah, K P Pasir Ris–Punggol PAP Ahmad Chong, Y F Low, Penny Palmer Teo, C H Teo, S L Ahmad Chong, Y F Low, Penny Palmer Teo, C H Teo, S L Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Shanmugam Lee, G H Lim, W K Maliki Hawazi Khaw, B W Shanmugam Lee, G H Lim, W K Maliki Tampines PAP Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Ong, K M Sin, B A Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Ong, K M Sin, B A Tanjong Pagar PAP Baey, Y K Indranee Koo, T K Lee, K Y Lui, T Y Tan, C S Baey, Y K Indranee Koo, T K Lee, K Y Lui, T Y Tan, C S West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, C K Ho, G C Iswaran Lim, H K Fong, Jen Foo, C K Ho, G C Iswaran Lim, H K Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Hougang WP Low, T K Joo Chiat PAP Chan, S S MacPherson PAP Yao, Matthias Nee Soon Central PAP Ong, A H Nee Soon East PAP Ho, P K Potong Pasir SDA Chiam, S T Yio Chu Kang PAP Seng, H T Non-elected members NCMP WP Lim, S L NMPs Banarjee, G Cham, H F Khew, T F Loo, C Y Mehta, K K Olsen, E E Phua, W C Siew, K H Thio, L A Cheng, E L Lee, K H Viswa Tan, B M Straughan, Paulin Teo, S S Wee, Y T Wong, W Y Yeo, W L Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Teo, H P Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Gan, K Y Hougang WP Low, T K Low, T K Joo Chiat PAP Chan, S S Chan, S S MacPherson PAP Yao, Matthias Yao, Matthias Nee Soon Central PAP Ong, A H Ong, A H Nee Soon East PAP Ho, P K Ho, P K Potong Pasir SDA Chiam, S T Chiam, S T Yio Chu Kang PAP Seng, H T Seng, H T Non-elected members Non-elected members NCMP WP Lim, S L Lim, S L NMPs Banarjee, G Cham, H F Khew, T F Loo, C Y Mehta, K K Olsen, E E Phua, W C Siew, K H Thio, L A Cheng, E L Lee, K H Viswa Tan, B M Straughan, Paulin Teo, S S Wee, Y T Wong, W Y Yeo, W L Banarjee, G Cham, H F Khew, T F Loo, C Y Mehta, K K Olsen, E E Phua, W C Siew, K H Thio, L A Cheng, E L Lee, K H Viswa Tan, B M Straughan, Paulin Teo, S S Wee, Y T Wong, W Y Yeo, W L The party affiliation of each member is indicated right after the constituency he or she represents. PAP : People's Action Party ; SDA : Singapore Democratic Alliance ; WP : The Workers' Party NMPs do not belong to any party. There were two terms of NMPs in this parliament, with nine NMPs in each term. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Historical background 2 Creation Toggle Creation subsection 2.1 Libretto 2.2 Composition 2.3 Instrumentation 2.1 Libretto 2.2 Composition 2.3 Instrumentation 3 Roles 4 Synopsis Toggle Synopsis subsection 4.1 Act 1 4.2 Act 2 4.3 Act 3 4.4 Act 4 4.5 Act 5 4.6 Original libretto ending 4.1 Act 1 4.2 Act 2 4.3 Act 3 4.4 Act 4 4.5 Act 5 4.6 Original libretto ending 5 Reception and performance history Toggle Reception and performance history subsection 5.1 Premiere and early performances 5.2 20th-century revivals 5.1 Premiere and early performances 5.2 20th-century revivals 6 Music 7 Recording history 8 Editions 9 Notes and references Toggle Notes and references subsection 9.1 Notes 9.2 References 9.3 Sources 9.1 Notes 9.2 References 9.3 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links L'Orfeo Azərbaycanca Български Català Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Íslenska Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item L'Orfeo Favola in musica by Claudio Monteverdi Orpheus , the hero of the opera Librettist Alessandro Striggio Language Italian Based on Greek legend of Orpheus Premiere 1607 Carnival season Mantua L'Orfeo ( SV 318) ( .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Italian pronunciation: [lorˈfɛːo] ), or La favola d'Orfeo [la ˈfaːvola dorˈfɛːo] , is a late Renaissance /early Baroque favola in musica , or opera , by Claudio Monteverdi , with a libretto by Alessandro Striggio . It is based on the Greek legend of Orpheus , and tells the story of his descent to Hades and his fruitless attempt to bring his dead bride Eurydice back to the living world. It was written in 1607 for a court performance during the annual Carnival at Mantua . While Jacopo Peri 's Dafne is generally recognised as the first work in the opera genre, and the earliest surviving opera is Peri's Euridice , L'Orfeo is the earliest that is still regularly performed. By the early 17th century the traditional intermedio —a musical sequence between the acts of a straight play—was evolving into the form of a complete musical drama or "opera". Monteverdi's L'Orfeo moved this process out of its experimental era and provided the first fully developed example of the new genre. After its initial performance the work was staged again in Mantua, and possibly in other Italian centres in the next few years. Its score was published by Monteverdi in 1609 and again in 1615. After the composer's death in 1643 the opera went unperformed for many years, and was largely forgotten until a revival of interest in the late 19th century led to a spate of modern editions and performances. At first these performances tended to be concert (unstaged) versions within institutes and music societies, but following the first modern dramatised performance in Paris, in 1911, the work began to be seen in theatres. After the Second World War many recordings were issued, and the opera was increasingly staged in opera houses, although some leading venues resisted it. In 2007, the quatercentenary of the premiere was celebrated by performances throughout the world. In his published score Monteverdi lists around 41 instruments to be deployed, with distinct groups of instruments used to depict particular scenes and characters. Thus strings, harpsichords and recorders represent the pastoral fields of Thrace with their nymphs and shepherds, while heavy brass illustrates the underworld and its denizens. Composed at the point of transition from the Renaissance era to the Baroque , L'Orfeo employs all the resources then known within the art of music, with particularly daring use of polyphony . The work is not orchestrated as such; in the Renaissance tradition instrumentalists followed the composer's general instructions but were given considerable freedom to improvise. Historical background Claudio Monteverdi, born in Cremona in 1567, was a musical prodigy who studied under Marc'Antonio Ingegneri , the maestro di cappella (head of music) at Cremona Cathedral . After training in singing, string playing and composition, Monteverdi worked as a musician in Verona and Milan until, in 1590 or 1591, he secured a post as suonatore di vivuola (viola player) at Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga 's court at Mantua . [ 1 ] Through ability and hard work Monteverdi rose to become Gonzaga's maestro della musica (master of music) in 1601. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Vincenzo Gonzaga's particular passion for musical theatre and spectacle grew from his family connections with the court of Florence . Towards the end of the 16th century innovative Florentine musicians were developing the intermedio —a long-established form of musical interlude inserted between the acts of spoken dramas—into increasingly elaborate forms. [ 2 ] Led by Jacopo Corsi , these successors to the renowned Camerata [ n 1 ] were responsible for the first work generally recognised as belonging to the genre of opera: Dafne , composed by Corsi and Jacopo Peri and performed in Florence in 1598. This work combined elements of madrigal singing and monody with dancing and instrumental passages to form a dramatic whole. Only fragments of its music still exist, but several other Florentine works of the same period— Rappresentatione di Anima, et di Corpo by Emilio de' Cavalieri , Peri's Euridice and Giulio Caccini 's identically titled Euridice —survive complete. These last two works were the first of many musical representations of the Orpheus myth as recounted in Ovid 's Metamorphoses , and as such were direct precursors of Monteverdi's L'Orfeo . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] The Gonzaga court had a long history of promoting dramatic entertainment. A century before Duke Vincenzo's time the court had staged Angelo Poliziano 's lyrical drama La favola di Orfeo , at least half of which was sung rather than spoken. More recently, in 1598 Monteverdi had helped the court's musical establishment produce Giovanni Battista Guarini 's play Il pastor fido , described by theatre historian Mark Ringer as a "watershed theatrical work" which inspired the Italian craze for pastoral drama. [ 7 ] On 6 October 1600, while visiting Florence for the wedding of Maria de' Medici to King Henry IV of France , Duke Vincenzo attended the premiere of Peri's Euridice . [ 6 ] It is likely that his principal musicians, including Monteverdi, were also present at this performance. The Duke quickly recognised the novelty of this new form of dramatic entertainment, and its potential for bringing prestige to those prepared to sponsor it. [ 8 ] Creation Libretto Among those present at the Euridice performance in October 1600 was a young lawyer and career diplomat from Gonzaga's court, Alessandro Striggio , [ 9 ] son of a well-known composer of the same name . The younger Striggio was himself a talented musician; as a 16-year-old, he had played the viol at the wedding festivities of Duke Ferdinando of Tuscany in 1589. Together with Duke Vincent's two young sons, Francesco and Fernandino , he was a member of Mantua's exclusive intellectual society, the Accademia degli Invaghiti [ it ] , which provided the chief outlet for the city's theatrical works. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] It is not clear at what point Striggio began his libretto for L'Orfeo , but work was evidently under way in January 1607. In a letter written on 5 January, Francesco Gonzaga asks his brother, then attached to the Florentine court, to obtain the services of a high quality castrato from the Grand Duke's establishment, for a "play in music" being prepared for the Mantuan Carnival. [ 12 ] Striggio's main sources for his libretto were Books 10 and 11 of Ovid 's Metamorphoses and Book Four of Virgil 's Georgics . These provided him with the basic material, but not the structure for a staged drama; the events of acts 1 and 2 of the libretto are covered by a mere 13 lines in the Metamorphoses . [ 13 ] For help in creating a dramatic form, Striggio drew on other sources—Poliziano's 1480 play, Guarini's Il pastor fido , and Ottavio Rinuccini 's libretto for Peri's Euridice . [ 14 ] The musicologist Gary Tomlinson remarks on the many similarities between Striggio's and Rinuccini's texts, noting that some of the speeches in L'Orfeo "correspond closely in content and even in locution to their counterparts in L'Euridice ". [ 15 ] The critic Barbara Russano Hanning writes that Striggio's verses are less subtle than those of Rinuccini, although the structure of Striggio's libretto is more interesting. [ 10 ] Rinuccini, whose work had been written for the festivities accompanying a Medici wedding, was obliged to alter the myth to provide a "happy ending" suitable for the occasion. By contrast, because Striggio was not writing for a formal court celebration he could be more faithful to the spirit of the myth's conclusion, in which Orfeo is killed and dismembered by deranged maenads or "Bacchantes". [ 14 ] He chose, in fact, to write a somewhat muted version of this bloody finale, in which the Bacchantes threaten Orfeo's destruction but his actual fate is left in doubt. [ 16 ] The libretto was published in Mantua in 1607 to coincide with the premiere and incorporated Striggio's ambiguous ending. However, Monteverdi's score published in Venice in 1609 by Ricciardo Amadino shows an entirely different resolution, with Orpheus transported to the heavens through the intervention of Apollo. [ 10 ] According to Ringer, Striggio's original ending was almost certainly used at the opera's premiere, but there is no doubt that Monteverdi believed the revised ending was aesthetically correct. [ 16 ] The musicologist Nino Pirrotta argues that the Apollo ending was part of the original plan for the work, but was not staged at the premiere because the small room which hosted the event could not contain the theatrical machinery that this ending required. The Bacchantes scene was a substitution; Monteverdi's intentions were restored when this constraint was removed. [ 17 ] Composition When Monteverdi composed L'Orfeo he had a thorough grounding in theatrical music. He had been employed at the Gonzaga court for 16 years, much of it as a performer or arranger of stage music, and in 1604 he had written the ballo Gli amori di Diane ed Endimone for the 1604–05 Mantua Carnival. [ 18 ] The elements from which Monteverdi constructed his first opera score—the aria , the strophic song , recitative , choruses, dances, dramatic musical interludes—were, as conductor Nikolaus Harnoncourt has pointed out, not created by him, but "he blended the entire stock of newest and older possibilities into a unity that was indeed new". [ 19 ] Musicologist Robert Donington writes similarly: "[The score] contains no element which was not based on precedent, but it reaches complete maturity in that recently developed form ... Here are words as directly expressed in music as [the pioneers of opera] wanted them expressed; here is music expressing them ... with the full inspiration of genius." [ 20 ] Monteverdi states the orchestral requirements at the beginning of his published score, but in accordance with the practice of the day he does not specify their exact usage. [ 19 ] At that time it was usual to allow each interpreter of the work freedom to make local decisions, based on the orchestral forces at their disposal. These could differ sharply from place to place. Furthermore, as Harnoncourt points out, the instrumentalists would all have been composers and would have expected to collaborate creatively at each performance, rather than playing a set text. [ 19 ] Another practice of the time was to allow singers to embellish their arias. Monteverdi wrote plain and embellished versions of some arias, such as Orfeo's " Possente spirto ", [ 21 ] but according to Harnoncourt "it is obvious that where he did not write any embellishments he did not want any sung". [ 22 ] Each act of the opera deals with a single element of the story, and each ends with a chorus. Despite the five-act structure, with two sets of scene changes, it is likely that L'Orfeo conformed to the standard practice for court entertainments of that time and was played as a continuous entity, without intervals or curtain descents between acts. It was the contemporary custom for scene shifts to take place in sight of the audience, these changes being reflected musically by changes in instrumentation, key and style. [ 23 ] Instrumentation For the purpose of analysis the music scholar Jane Glover has divided Monteverdi's list of instruments into three main groups: strings, brass and continuo , with a few further items not easily classifiable. [ 24 ] The strings grouping is formed from ten members of the violin family ( viole da brazzo ), two double basses ( contrabassi de viola ), and two kit violins ( violini piccoli alla francese ). The viole da brazzo are in two five-part ensembles, each comprising two violins, two violas and a cello. [ 24 ] The brass group contains four or five trombones ( sackbuts ), three or four trumpets and two cornetts . The continuo forces include two harpsichords ( duoi gravicembani ), a double harp ( arpa doppia ), three chitarroni , two pipe organs ( organi di legno ), three bass viola da gamba , and a regal or small reed organ. Outside of these groupings are two recorders ( flautini alla vigesima secunda ), and possibly one or more citterns —unlisted by Monteverdi, but included in instructions relating to the end of act 4. [ 24 ] Instrumentally, the two worlds represented within the opera are distinctively portrayed. The pastoral world of the fields of Thrace is represented by the strings, harpsichords, harp, organs, recorders and chitarroni. The remaining instruments, mainly brass, are associated with the Underworld, though there is not an absolute distinction; strings appear on several occasions in the Hades scenes. [ 22 ] [ 25 ] Within this general ordering, specific instruments or combinations are used to accompany some of the main characters—Orpheus by harp and organ, shepherds by harpsichord and chitarrone, the Underworld gods by trombones and regal. [ 22 ] All of these musical distinctions and characterisations were in accordance with the longstanding traditions of the Renaissance orchestra, of which the large L'Orfeo ensemble is typical. [ 26 ] Monteverdi instructs his players generally to "[play] the work as simply and correctly as possible, and not with many florid passages or runs". Those playing ornamentation instruments such as strings and flutes are advised to "play nobly, with much invention and variety", but are warned against overdoing it, whereby "nothing is heard but chaos and confusion, offensive to the listener". [ 27 ] Since at no time are all the instruments played together, the number of players needed is less than the number of instruments. Harnoncourt indicates that in Monteverdi's day the numbers of players and singers together, and the small rooms in which performances were held, often meant that the audience barely numbered more than the performers. [ 28 ] Three of the instruments used in the original performance of L'Orfeo have had recent revivals: the cornetto (usually paired with sackbuts), the double harp [ it ] (a multi-course harp with sharps and flats) and the regal (an organ with fractional-length reed pipes ). Instrumental color was widely used in specific dramatic situations during the 17c: in particular the regal was associated with Hades . [ 29 ] Roles In his personaggi listed in the 1609 score, Monteverdi unaccountably omits La messaggera (the Messenger), and indicates that the final chorus of shepherds who perform the moresca (Moorish dance) at the opera's end are a separate group ( che fecero la moresca nel fine ). [ 30 ] Little information is available about who sang the various roles in the first performance. A letter published at Mantua in 1612 records that the distinguished tenor and composer Francesco Rasi took part, and it is generally assumed that he sang the title role. [ 5 ] Rasi could sing in both the tenor and bass ranges "with exquisite style ... and extraordinary feeling". [ 2 ] The involvement in the premiere of a Florentine castrato, Giovanni Gualberto Magli , is confirmed by correspondence between the Gonzaga princes. Magli sang the prologue, Proserpina and possibly one other role, either La messaggera or Speranza. [ 31 ] The musicologist and historian Hans Redlich mistakenly allocates Magli to the role of Orfeo. [ 32 ] A clue about who played Euridice is contained in a 1608 letter to Duke Vincenzo. It refers to "that little priest who performed the role of Euridice in the Most Serene Prince's Orfeo ". This priest was possibly Padre Girolamo Bacchini , a castrato known to have had connections to the Mantuan court in the early 17th century. [ 5 ] The Monteverdi scholar Tim Carter speculates that two prominent Mantuan tenors, Pandolfo Grande and Francesco Campagnola may have sung minor roles in the premiere. [ 33 ] There are solo parts for four shepherds and three spirits. Carter calculates that through the doubling of roles that the text allows, a total of ten singers—three sopranos, two altos, three tenors and two basses—is required for a performance, with the soloists (except Orfeo) also forming the chorus. Carter's suggested role-doublings include La musica with Euridice, Ninfa with Proserpina and La messaggera with Speranza. [ 33 ] Role Voice type [ n 2 ] Appearances Notes La Musica (Music) mezzo-soprano castrato ( en travesti ) Prologue Orfeo ( Orpheus ) tenor or high baritone Act 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Euridice ( Eurydice ) mezzo-soprano castrato (en travesti) Act 1, 4 La messaggera (The Messenger) mezzo-soprano castrato (en travesti) Act 2 Named in the libretto as "Silvia" La Speranza (Hope) mezzo-soprano castrato (en travesti) Act 3 Caronte ( Charon ) bass Act 3 Proserpina mezzo-soprano castrato (en travesti) Act 4 Plutone ( Pluto ) bass Act 4 Apollo tenor Act 5 Ninfa (Nymph) mezzo-soprano castrato (en travesti) Act 1 Eco (Echo) tenor Act 5 Ninfe e pastori (Nymphs and shepherds) mezzo-soprano castratos (en travesti), alto castratos (en travesti), tenors, basses Act 1, 2, 5 Soloists: alto castrato (en travesti), two tenors Spiriti infernali (Infernal spirits) tenors, basses Act 3, 4 Soloists: two tenors, one bass Synopsis The action takes place in two contrasting locations: the fields of Thrace (acts 1, 2 and 5) and the Underworld (acts 3 and 4). An instrumental toccata (English: "tucket", meaning a flourish on trumpets) [ 35 ] precedes the entrance of La musica, representing the "spirit of music", who sings a prologue of five stanzas of verse. After a gracious welcome to the audience she announces that she can, through sweet sounds, "calm every troubled heart". She sings a further paean to the power of music, before introducing the drama's main protagonist, Orfeo, who "held the wild beasts spellbound with his song". [ n 3 ] Act 1 After La musica's final request for silence, the curtain rises on act 1 to reveal a pastoral scene. Orfeo and Euridice enter together with a chorus of nymphs and shepherds, who act in the manner of a Greek chorus , commenting on the action both as a group and as individuals. A shepherd announces that this is the couple's wedding day; the chorus responds, first in a stately invocation ("Come, Hymen , O come") and then in a joyful dance ("Leave the mountains, leave the fountains"). Orfeo and Euridice sing of their love for each other before leaving with most of the group for the wedding ceremony in the temple. Those left on stage sing a brief chorus, commenting on how Orfeo used to be one "for whom sighs were food and weeping was drink" before love brought him to a state of sublime happiness. Act 2 Orfeo returns with the main chorus, and sings with them of the beauties of nature. Orfeo then muses on his former unhappiness, but proclaims: "After grief one is more content, after pain one is happier". The mood of contentment is abruptly ended when La messaggera enters, bringing the news that, while gathering flowers, Euridice has received a fatal snakebite. The chorus expresses its anguish: "Ah, bitter happening, ah, impious and cruel fate!", while the Messaggera castigates herself as the bearing of bad tidings ("For ever I will flee, and in a lonely cavern lead a life in keeping with my sorrow"). Orfeo, after venting his grief and incredulity ("Thou art dead, my life, and I am breathing?"), declares his intention to descend into the Underworld and persuade its ruler to allow Euridice to return to life. Otherwise, he says, "I shall remain with thee in the company of death". He departs, and the chorus resumes its lament. Act 3 Orfeo is guided by Speranza to the gates of Hades. Having pointed out the words inscribed on the gate ("Abandon all hope, ye who enter here"), [ n 4 ] Speranza leaves. Orfeo is now confronted with the ferryman Caronte , who addresses Orfeo harshly and refuses to take him across the river Styx . Orfeo attempts to persuade Caronte by singing a flattering song to him ("Mighty spirit and powerful divinity"), and, although the ferryman is moved by his music ("Indeed thou charmest me, appeasing my heart"), he does not allow him to pass, claiming he is incapable of feeling pity. However, when Orfeo takes up his lyre and plays, Caronte is soothed into sleep. Seizing his chance, Orfeo steals the ferryman's boat and crosses the river, entering the Underworld while a chorus of spirits reflects that nature cannot defend herself against man: "He has tamed the sea with fragile wood, and disdained the rage of the winds." Act 4 In the Underworld, Proserpina , Queen of Hades, who has been deeply affected by Orfeo's singing, petitions King Plutone , her husband, for Euridice's release. Moved by her pleas, Plutone agrees on the condition that, as he leads Euridice towards the world, Orfeo must not look back. If he does, "a single glance will condemn him to eternal loss". Orfeo enters, leading Euridice and singing confidently that on that day he will rest on his wife's white bosom. But as he sings a note of doubt creeps in: "Who will assure me that she is following?". Perhaps, he thinks, Plutone, driven by envy, has imposed the condition through spite? Suddenly distracted by an off-stage commotion, Orfeo looks round; immediately, the image of Euridice begins to fade. She sings, despairingly: "Losest thou me through too much love?" and disappears. Orfeo attempts to follow her but is drawn away by an unseen force. The chorus of spirits sings that Orfeo, having overcome Hades, was in turn overcome by his passions. Act 5 Back in the fields of Thrace, Orfeo has a long soliloquy in which he laments his loss, praises Euridice's beauty and resolves that his heart will never again be pierced by Cupid's arrow. An off-stage echo repeats his final phrases. Suddenly, in a cloud, Apollo descends from the heavens and chastises him: "Why dost thou give thyself up as prey to rage and grief?" He invites Orfeo to leave the world and join him in the heavens, where he will recognise Euridice's likeness in the stars. Orfeo replies that it would be unworthy not to follow the counsel of such a wise father, and together they ascend. A shepherds' chorus concludes that "he who sows in suffering shall reap the fruit of every grace", before the opera ends with a vigorous moresca . Original libretto ending In Striggio's 1607 libretto, Orfeo's act 5 soliloquy is interrupted, not by Apollo's appearance but by a chorus of maenads or Bacchantes—wild, drunken women—who sing of the "divine fury" of their master, the god Bacchus . The cause of their wrath is Orfeo and his renunciation of women; he will not escape their heavenly anger, and the longer he evades them the more severe his fate will be. Orfeo leaves the scene and his destiny is left uncertain, as the Bacchantes devote themselves for the rest of the opera to wild singing and dancing in praise of Bacchus. [ 38 ] The early music authority Claude Palisca believes that the two endings are not incompatible; Orfeo might evade the fury of the Bacchantes and be rescued by Apollo. [ 39 ] However, this alternative ending in any case nearer to original classic myth, where the Bacchantes also appear, but it is made explicit that they torture him to his death, followed by reunion as a shade with Euridice but no apotheosis nor any interaction with Apollo. [ 40 ] Reception and performance history Premiere and early performances The date for the first performance of L'Orfeo , 24 February 1607, is evidenced by two letters, both dated 23 February. In the first, Francesco Gonzaga informs his brother that the "musical play" will be performed tomorrow; it is clear from earlier correspondence that this refers to L'Orfeo . The second letter is from a Gonzaga court official, Carlo Magno, and gives more details: "Tomorrow evening the Most Serene Lord the Prince is to sponsor a [play] in a room in the apartments which the Most Serene Lady had the use of ...it should be most unusual, as all the actors are to sing their parts." [ 12 ] The "Serene Lady" is Duke Vincenzo's widowed sister Margherita Gonzaga d'Este, who lived within the Ducal Palace . The room of the premiere cannot be identified with certainty; according to Ringer, it may have been the Galleria dei Fiumi, which has the dimensions to accommodate a stage and orchestra with space for a small audience. [ 41 ] There is no detailed account of the premiere, although Francesco wrote on 1 March that the work had "been to the great satisfaction of all who heard it", and had particularly pleased the Duke. [ 12 ] The Mantuan court theologian and poet, Cherubino Ferrari wrote that: "Both poet and musician have depicted the inclinations of the heart so skilfully that it could not have been done better ... The music, observing due propriety, serves the poetry so well that nothing more beautiful is to be heard anywhere". [ 12 ] After the premiere Duke Vincenzo ordered a second performance for 1 March; a third performance was planned to coincide with a proposed state visit to Mantua by the Duke of Savoy . Francesco wrote to the Duke of Tuscany on 8 March, asking if he could retain the services of the castrato Magli for a little longer. [ 12 ] However, the visit was cancelled, as was the celebratory performance. [ 42 ] There are suggestions that in the years following the premiere, L'Orfeo may have been staged in Florence, Cremona, Milan and Turin, [ 35 ] though firmer evidence suggests that the work attracted limited interest beyond the Mantuan court. [ 42 ] Francesco may have mounted a production in Casale Monferrato , where he was governor, for the 1609–10 Carnival, and there are indications that the work was performed on several occasions in Salzburg between 1614 and 1619, under the direction of Francesco Rasi. [ 43 ] Years later, during the first flourish of Venetian opera in 1637–43, Monteverdi chose to revive his second opera, L'Arianna there, but not L'Orfeo . [ 42 ] There is some evidence of a performance shortly after Monteverdi's death in Geneva in 1643. [ 35 ] Although according to Carter the work was still admired across Italy in the 1650s, [ 35 ] [ 43 ] it was subsequently forgotten, as largely was Monteverdi, until the revival of interest in his works in the late 19th century. [ 35 ] [ 44 ] 20th-century revivals After years of neglect, Monteverdi's music began to attract the interest of pioneer music historians in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and from the second quarter of the 19th century onwards he is discussed increasingly in scholarly works. [ 43 ] In 1881 a truncated version of the L'Orfeo score, intended for study rather than performance, was published in Berlin by Robert Eitner . [ 45 ] In 1904 the composer Vincent d'Indy produced an edition in French, which comprised only act 2, a shortened act 3 and act 4. This edition was the basis of the first public performance of the work in two-and-a-half centuries, a concert performance at d'Indy's Schola Cantorum on 25 February 1904. [ 46 ] [ 47 ] [ n 5 ] The distinguished writer Romain Rolland , who was present, commended d'Indy for bringing the opera to life and returning it "to the beauty it once had, freeing it from the clumsy restorations which have disfigured it"—presumably a reference to Eitner's edition. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] The d'Indy edition was also the basis of the first modern staged performance of the work, at the Théâtre Réjane , Paris, on 2 May 1911. [ 44 ] An edition of the score by the minor Italian composer Giacomo Orefice (Milan, 1909) received several concert performances in Italy and elsewhere before and after the First World War. This edition was the basis of the opera's United States debut, another concert performance at the New York Met in April 1912. The opera was introduced to London, in d'Indy's edition, when it was sung to piano accompaniment at the Institut Français on 8 March 1924. [ 51 ] The first British staged performance, with only small cuts, was given by the Oxford University Operatic Society on 7 December 1925, using an edition prepared for the event by Jack Westrup . In the London Saturday Review , music critic Dyneley Hussey called the occasion "one of the most important events of recent years"; the production had "indicated at once Monteverdi's claim to rank among the great geniuses who have written dramatic music". [ 52 ] Westrup's edition was revived in London at the Scala Theatre in December 1929, the same year in which the opera received its first US staged performance, at Smith College , Northampton, Massachusetts. [ 44 ] The three Scala performances resulted in a financial disaster, and the opera was not seen again in Britain for 35 years. [ 53 ] Among a flurry of revivals after 1945 was Paul Hindemith 's edition, a full period reconstruction of the work prepared in 1943, which was staged and recorded at the Vienna Festival in 1954. This performance had a great impact on the young Nikolaus Harnoncourt , and was hailed as a masterpiece of scholarship and integrity. [ 54 ] The first staged New York performance, by the New York City Opera under Leopold Stokowski on 29 September 1960, saw the American operatic debut of Gérard Souzay , one of several baritones who have sung the role of Orfeo. The theatre was criticised by New York Times critic Harold C. Schonberg because, to accommodate a performance of Luigi Dallapiccola 's contemporary opera Il prigioniero , about a third of L'Orfeo was cut. Schonberg wrote: "Even the biggest aria in the opera, 'Possente spirito', has a good-sized slash in the middle ... [ L'Orfeo ] is long enough, and important enough, not to mention beautiful enough, to have been the entire evening's opera." [ 55 ] By the latter part of the 20th century the opera was being shown all over the world. In 1965, Sadler's Wells , forerunner of English National Opera (ENO), staged the first of many ENO presentations which would continue into the 21st century. [ 44 ] Among various celebrations marking the opera's 400th anniversary in 2007 were a semi-staged performance at the Teatro Bibiena in Mantua , [ 56 ] a full-scale production by the English Bach Festival (EBF) at the Whitehall Banqueting House in London on 7 February, [ 57 ] and an unconventional production by Glimmerglass Opera in Cooperstown, New York , conducted by Antony Walker and directed by Christopher Alden . [ 58 ] On 6 May 2010 the BBC broadcast a performance of the opera from La Scala , Milan. [ 59 ] Despite the reluctance of some major opera houses to stage L'Orfeo , [ n 6 ] it is a popular work with the leading Baroque ensembles. During the period 2008–10, the French-based Les Arts Florissants , under its director William Christie , presented the Monteverdi trilogy of operas ( L'Orfeo , Il ritorno d'Ulisse and L'incoronazione di Poppea ) in a series of performances at the Teatro Real in Madrid. [ 62 ] Music L'Orfeo is, in Redlich's analysis, the product of two musical epochs. It combines elements of the traditional madrigal style of the 16th century with those of the emerging Florentine mode, in particular the use of recitative and monodic singing as developed by the Camerata and their successors. [ 63 ] In this new style, the text dominates the music; while sinfonias and instrumental ritornelli illustrate the action, the audience's attention is always drawn primarily to the words. The singers are required to do more than produce pleasant vocal sounds; they must represent their characters in depth and convey appropriate emotions. [ 64 ] Monterverdi's recitative style was influenced by Peri's, in Euridice , although in L'Orfeo recitative is less preponderant than was usual in dramatic music at this time. It accounts for less than a quarter of the first act's music, around a third of the second and third acts, and a little under half in the final two acts. [ 65 ] The importance of L'Orfeo is not that it was the first work of its kind, but that it was the first attempt to apply the full resources of the art of music, as then evolved, to the nascent genre of opera. [ 66 ] In particular, Monteverdi made daring innovations in the use of polyphony , of which Palestrina had been the principal exponent. In L'Orfeo , Monteverdi extends the rules, beyond the conventions which polyphonic composers, faithful to Palestrina, had previously considered as sacrosanct. [ 67 ] Monteverdi was not in the generally understood sense an orchestrator; [ 68 ] Ringer finds that it is the element of instrumental improvisation that makes each performance of a Monteverdi opera a "unique experience, and separates his work from the later operatic canon". [ 64 ] The opera begins with a martial-sounding toccata for trumpets which is repeated twice. When played on period wind instruments the sound can be startling to modern audiences; Redlich calls it "shattering". [ 69 ] Such flourishes were the standard signal for the commencement of performances at the Mantuan court; the opening chorus of Monteverdi's 1610 Vespers , also composed for Gonzaga's court, employs the same fanfare. [ 64 ] The toccata acted as a salute to the Duke; according to Donington, if it had not been written, precedent would have required it to be improvised. [ 20 ] As the brass sound of the toccata fades, it is replaced by the gentler tone of the strings ritornello which introduces La musica's prologue. The ritornello is repeated in shortened form between each of the prologue's five verses, and in full after the final verse. Its function within the opera as a whole is to represent the "power of music"; [ 35 ] as such it is heard at the end of act 2, and again at the beginning of act 5, one of the earliest examples of an operatic leitmotiv . [ 70 ] It is temporally structured as a palindrome and its form of strophic variations allows Monteverdi to carefully shape musical time for expressive and structural purposes in the context of seconda prattica . [ 71 ] After the prologue, act 1 follows in the form of a pastoral idyll. Two choruses, one solemn and one jovial are repeated in reverse order around the central love-song "Rosa del ciel" ("Rose of the heavens"), followed by the shepherds' songs of praise. The buoyant mood continues into act 2, with song and dance music influenced, according to Harnoncourt, by Monteverdi's experience of French music. [ 72 ] The sudden entrance of La messaggera with the doleful news of Euridice's death, and the confusion and grief which follow, are musically reflected by harsh dissonances and the juxtaposition of keys. [ 35 ] [ 72 ] The music remains in this vein until the act ends with La musica's ritornello, a hint that the "power of music" may yet bring about a triumph over death. [ 73 ] Monteverdi's instructions as the act concludes are that the violins, the organ and harpsichord become silent and that the music is taken up by the trombones, the cornetts and the regal , as the scene changes to the Underworld. [ 72 ] The centrepiece of act 3, perhaps of the entire opera, is Orfeo's extended aria "Possente spirto e formidabil nume" ("Mighty spirit and powerful divinity"), by which he attempts to persuade Caronte to allow him to enter Hades. Monteverdi's vocal embellishments and virtuoso accompaniment provide what Carter describes as "one of the most compelling visual and aural representations" in early opera. [ 74 ] Instrumental colour is provided by a chitarrone , a pipe-organ, two violins, two cornetts and a double-harp. This array, according to music historian and analyst John Whenham , is intended to suggest that Orfeo is harnessing all the available forces of music to support his plea. [ 75 ] In act 4 the impersonal coldness of the Underworld is broken by the warmth of Proserpina's singing on behalf of Orfeo, a warmth that is retained until the dramatic moment at which Orfeo "looks back". The cold sounds of the sinfonia from the beginning of act 3 then remind us that the Underworld is, after all, entirely devoid of human feeling. [ 72 ] The brief final act, which sees Orfeo's rescue and metamorphosis, is framed by the final appearance of La musica's ritornello and the lively moresca that ends the opera. This dance, says Ringer, recalls the jigs danced at the end of Shakespeare 's tragedies, and provides a means of bringing the audience back to their everyday world, "just as the toccata had led them into another realm some two hours before. The toccata and the moresca unite courtly reality with operatic illusion." [ 76 ] Recording history The first recording of L'Orfeo was issued in 1939, a freely adapted version of Monteverdi's music by Giacomo Benvenuti , [ 77 ] given by the orchestra of La Scala Milan conducted by Ferrucio Calusio . [ 78 ] [ 79 ] In 1949, for the recording of the complete opera by the Berlin Radio Orchestra conducted by Helmut Koch , the new medium of long-playing records (LPs) was used. The advent of LP recordings was, as Harold C. Schonberg later wrote, an important factor in the postwar revival of interest in Renaissance and Baroque music, [ 80 ] and from the mid-1950s recordings of L'Orfeo have been issued on many labels. The 1969 recording by Nikolaus Harnoncourt and the Vienna Concentus Musicus, using Harnoncourt's edition based on period instruments, was praised for "making Monteverdi's music sound something like the way he imagined". [ 81 ] In 1981 Siegfried Heinrich, with the Early Music Studio of the Hesse Chamber Orchestra, recorded a version which re-created the original Striggio libretto ending, adding music from Monteverdi's 1616 ballet Tirsi e Clori for the Bacchante scenes. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] A few dozen commercial audio recordings have been released since 1939. The first video recording was released in 1978, with Nikolaus Harnoncourt (conductor) and Jean-Pierre Ponnelle (director). Since then nine video recordings have been commercially released. See L'Orfeo discography . Editions After the publication of the L'Orfeo score in 1609, the same publisher ( Ricciardo Amadino of Venice) brought it out again in 1615. Facsimiles of these editions were printed in 1927 and 1972 respectively. [ 44 ] Since Eitner's first "modern" edition of L'Orfeo in 1884, and d'Indy's performing edition 20 years later—both of which were abridged and adapted versions of the 1609 score—there have been many attempts to edit and present the work, not all of them published. Most of the editions that followed d'Indy up to the time of the Second World War were arrangements, usually heavily truncated, that provided a basis for performances in the modern opera idiom. Many of these were the work of composers, including Carl Orff (1923 and 1939) and Ottorino Respighi in 1935. [ 35 ] Orff's 1923 score, using a German text, included some period instrumentation, an experiment he abandoned when producing his later version. [ 84 ] In the post-war period, editions have moved increasingly to reflect the performance conventions of Monteverdi's day. This tendency was initiated by two earlier editions, that of Jack Westrup used in the 1925 Oxford performances, [ 85 ] and Gian Francesco Malipiero 's 1930 complete edition which sticks closely to Monteverdi's 1609 original. [ 85 ] After the war, Hindemith's attempted period reconstruction of the work [ 54 ] was followed in 1955 by an edition from August Wenzinger that remained in use for many years. [ 86 ] The next 30 years saw numerous editions, mostly prepared by scholar-performers rather than by composers, generally aiming towards authenticity if not always the complete re-creation of the original instrumentation. These included versions by Raymond Leppard (1965), Denis Stevens (1967), Nikolaus Harnoncourt (1969), Jane Glover (1975), Roger Norrington (1976) and John Eliot Gardiner . [ 35 ] [ 87 ] Only the composers Valentino Bucchi (1967), Bruno Maderna (1967) and Luciano Berio (1984) produced editions based on the convention of a large modern orchestra. [ 85 ] In the 21st century editions continue to be produced, often for use in conjunction with a particular performance or recording. [ 35 ] [ 44 ] Notes and references Notes ^ The Florentine Camerata , led by Giovanni de' Bardi , was a group of scholars and musicians dedicated to the revival of Ancient Greek-style theatre, mainly active in the 1570s and 1580s. Later groups with similar aims are also loosely referred to as "Camerata". [ 4 ] ^ Monteverdi's 1609 score does not specify voice parts, but indicates the required ranges by clef. [ 34 ] In the early productions the principal "high voice" parts were sung by castrati. Modern productions have generally allocated the parts to soprano, alto, tenor and bass singers. See Carter 2002 , pp. 91–97, Glover 1986 , pp. 146–148. ^ English translations quoted in the synopsis are from the version accompanying Nikolaus Harnoncourt's 1969 recording. [ 36 ] ^ The pun (Speranza means "hope") in this quotation from Inferno by Dante Alighieri can be considered, according to John Whenham , as a "learned witticism" on Striggio's part. [ 37 ] ^ There may also have been a concert performance of an excerpt at the Paris Conservatoire in 1832. [ 48 ] ^ For example, as of 2010 the opera remains unstaged at New York Met , the Royal Opera House and Glyndebourne . [ 60 ] [ 61 ] References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Carter, Tim (2007). "Monteverdi, Claudio: Cremona" . In Macy, Laura (ed.). Oxford Music Online . Archived from the original on 1 June 2013 . Retrieved 4 September 2010 . (subscription required) ^ a b c Fenlon 1986a ^ Carter, Tim (2007). "Monteverdi, Claudio: Mantua" . In Macy, Laura (ed.). Oxford Music Online . Archived from the original on 1 June 2013 . Retrieved 4 September 2010 . (subscription required) ^ Ringer 2006 , pp. 12–13. ^ a b c Fenlon 1986a , pp. 1–4 ^ a b Sternfeld 1986 , p. 26 ^ Ringer 2006 , pp. 30–31. ^ Ringer, p. 16 ^ Carter 2002 , p. 38. ^ a b c Hanning, Barbara (2007). "Striggio, Alessandro (Alessandrino)" . In Macy, Laura (ed.). Oxford Music Online . Archived from the original on 1 June 2013 . Retrieved 5 September 2010 . (subscription required) ^ Carter 2002 , p. 48. ^ a b c d e Fenlon 1986b , pp. 167–172 ^ Sternfeld 1986 , pp. 20–25. ^ a b Sternfeld 1986 , pp. 27–30 ^ Tomlinson, Gary (1981). "Madrigal, Monody, and Monteverdi's "via actuale alla imitatione" ". Journal of the American Musicological Society . 34 (1): 60– 108. doi : 10.2307/831035 . JSTOR 831035 . ^ a b Ringer 2006 , pp. 39–40 ^ Pirrotta 1984 , pp. 258–259. ^ Carter 2002 , pp. 143–144. ^ a b c Harnoncourt 1969 , p. 19 ^ a b Donington 1968 , p. 257 ^ Robinson 1972 , p. 61. ^ a b c Harnoncourt 1969 , p. 20 ^ Whenham 1986 , pp. 42–47. ^ a b c Glover 1986 , pp. 139–141 ^ Glover 1986 , p. 142. ^ Beat 1968 , pp. 277–278. ^ Beat 1968 , pp. 280–281. ^ Harnoncourt 1969 , p. 21. ^ Rose, Gloria (1965-10-01). "Agazzari and the Improvising Orchestra" . Journal of the American Musicological Society . 18 (3): 382– 393. doi : 10.2307/830706 . ISSN 0003-0139 . JSTOR 830706 . Archived from the original on 2020-06-01 . Retrieved 2018-04-19 . ^ Glover 1986 , pp. 146–148. ^ Fenlon 1986a , pp. 11–15. ^ Redlich 1952 , p. 15. ^ a b Carter 2002 , pp. 97–98 ^ Zanette, Damian H. (February 2007). "Notes to the transcription of the 1609 Venetian score of L'Orfeo " . Icking Musical Archive. Archived from the original on 1 June 2020 . Retrieved 22 September 2010 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j Whenham, John (2007). "Orfeo (i)" . In Macy, Laura (ed.). Oxford Music Online . Archived from the original on 1 June 2013 . Retrieved 12 September 2010 . (subscription required) ^ Harnoncourt 1969 , pp. 73–96. ^ Whenham 1986 , p. 66. ^ Whenham 1986 , pp. 35–40. ^ Palisca 1981 , p. 39. ^ see, e. g., Ovid , Metamorphoses XI 1-66 ^ Ringer 2006 , p. 36. ^ a b c Fenlon 1986a , pp. 17–19 ^ a b c Carter 2002 , pp. 3–5 ^ a b c d e f Fortune & Whenham 1986 , pp. 173–181 ^ Fortune 1986 , pp. 80–81. ^ Carter 2002 , p. 6. ^ Fortune 1986 , p. 84. ^ Casaglia, Gherardo (2005). "L'Orfeo, 14 April 1832" . L'Almanacco di Gherardo Casaglia (in Italian) . ^ Rolland 1986 , pp. 124–125. ^ Whenham 1986 , p. 196. ^ Howes, Frank (1 June 1924). "Notes on Monteverdi's Orfeo". The Musical Times . 65 (976): 509– 511. doi : 10.2307/913262 . JSTOR 913262 . ^ Hussey, Dyneley (19 December 1925). "Monteverdi at Oxford". The Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art (140): 735. ^ Fortune 1986 , p. 104. ^ a b Fortune 1986 , p. 105 ^ Schonberg, Harold C. (30 September 1960). "2 Works Sung as City Opera Starts Year" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 1 June 2020 . Retrieved 14 September 2010 . (subscription required) ^ Riding, Alan (2007). "400 years on, Opera Looks to the Next Act" . Michigan Radio. Archived from the original on 2012-09-28 . Retrieved 15 September 2010 . ^ Pettit, Stephen (22 March 2007). "The Power of Orfeo" . Prospect (132). Archived from the original on 1 June 2020 . Retrieved 15 September 2010 . ^ Tommasini, Anthony (7 August 2007). "Four Trips to Hell and Back at the Opera" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 1 June 2020 . Retrieved 26 March 2014 . ^ "Monteverdi's L'Orfeo " . BBC Radio 3 . 6 May 2010. Archived from the original on 8 May 2010 . Retrieved 26 March 2014 . ^ "Festival Productions by Season" . Glyndebourne Festival Opera. Archived from the original on 11 June 2016 . Retrieved 11 May 2016 . ^ "Royal Opera House Collections" . The Royal Opera House . Archived from the original on 1 June 2020 . Retrieved 15 September 2010 . ^ "L'Orfeo, de Claudio Monteverdi, en el Teatro Real" . Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport (Spain) . May 2008. Archived from the original on 23 October 2017 . Retrieved 23 October 2017 . ^ Redlich 1952 , p. 99. ^ a b c Ringer 2006 , pp. 27–28 ^ Palisca 1981 , pp. 40–42. ^ Grout 1971 , pp. 53–55. ^ Hull, Robert H. (15 September 1929). "The Development of Harmony". The School Music Review : 111. ^ Westrup, Jack (1940). "Monteverdi and the Orchestra". The Musical Times . 21 (3): 230– 245. doi : 10.1093/ml/XXI.3.230 . (subscription required) ^ Redlich 1952 , p. 97. ^ Grout 1971 , p. 56. ^ Chrissochoidis, I. (2011). "An emblem of modern music: Temporal symmetry in the prologue of l'Orfeo (1607)" . Early Music . 39 (4): 519– 530. doi : 10.1093/em/car082 . ^ a b c d Harnoncourt 1969 , pp. 24–25 ^ Ringer 2006 , pp. 63–64. ^ Carter, Timauthorlink=Tim Carter (musicologist) (1993). "Possento spirto: on taming the power of music". Early Music . 21 (4): 517– 524. doi : 10.1093/earlyj/xxi.4.517 . (subscription required) ^ Whenham 1986 , p. 68. ^ Ringer 2006 , p. 89. ^ Fortune 1986 , p. 93. ^ "Continental Record Issues" . Gramophone . London: Haymarket. June 1944. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012 . Retrieved 18 September 2010 . (subscription required) ^ "Monteverdi – L'Orfeo – Milan 1939 – Calusio" . Amazon.co.uk. Archived from the original on 1 June 2020 . Retrieved 15 September 2010 . ^ Fortune 1986 , p. 109. ^ Arnold, Denis (March 1970). "Monteverdi: L'Orfeo complete" . Gramophone . London: Haymarket. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012 . Retrieved 18 September 2010 . (subscription required) ^ Arnold, Denis (March 1982). "Monteverdi: L'Orfeo" . Gramophone . London: Haymarket. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012 . Retrieved 18 September 2010 . (subscription required) ^ Whenham 1986 , p. 204. ^ Fortune 1986 , pp. 90–91. ^ a b c Fortune 1986 , pp. 96–102 ^ Fortune 1986 , p. 107. ^ Fortune 1986 , pp. 110–118. Sources Beat, Janet E. (1968). " "Monteverdi and the Opera Orchestra of his Time" ". In Arnold, Denis; Fortune, Nigel (eds.). The Monteverdi Companion . London: Faber and Faber. Carter, Tim (2002). Monteverdi's Musical Theatre . New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09676-3 . Donington, Robert (1968). "Monteverdi's First Opera" in Arnold, Denis and Fortune, Nigel (eds): The Monteverdi Companion . London: Faber and Faber. Fenlon, Ian (1986a). "The Mantuan Orfeo" in Whenham, John (ed.): Claudio Monteverdi: Orfeo . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24148-0 . Fenlon, Ian (1986b). "Correspondence relating to the early Mantuan performances" in Whenham, John (ed.): Claudio Monteverdi: Orfeo . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24148-0 . Fortune, Nigel (1986). " "The rediscovery of Orfeo" ". In Whenham, John (ed.). Claudio Monteverdi: Orfeo . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24148-0 . Fortune, Nigel; Whenham, John (1986). " "Modern editions and performances" ". In Whenham, John (ed.). Claudio Monteverdi: Orfeo . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24148-0 . Glover, Jane (1986). "Solving the musical problem" in Whenham, John (ed.): Claudio Monteverdi: Orfeo . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24148-0 . Grout, Donald Jay (1971). A Short History of Opera . New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08978-3 . Harnoncourt, Nikolaus (1969). "Claudio Monteverdi's L'Orfeo: An Introduction" (in notes accompanying TELDEC recording 8.35020 ZA) . Hamburg: Teldec Schallplatten GmbH. Palisca, Claude V. (1981). Baroque Music . Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-055947-4 . Pirrotta, Nino (1984). Music and Culture in Italy from the Middle Ages to the Baroque . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-59108-9 . Redlich, Hans (1952). Claudio Monteverdi: Life and Works . London: Oxford University Press. Ringer, Mark (2006). Opera's First Master: The Musical Dramas of Claudio Monteverdi . Newark, New Jersey: Amadeus Press. ISBN 1-57467-110-3 . Robinson, Michael F. (1972). Opera before Mozart . London: Hutchinson & Co. ISBN 0-09-080421-X . Rolland, Romain (1986). "A review of Vincent d'Indy's performance (Paris 1904)" in Whenham, John (ed.): Claudio Monteverdi: Orfeo . Perkins, Wendy (tr.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24148-0 . Sternfeld, F. W. (1986). "The Orpheus myth and the libretto of Orfeo". In Whenham, John (ed.). Claudio Monteverdi: Orfeo . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24148-0 . Whenham, John (1986). "Five acts, one action" in Claudio Monteverdi: Orfeo . London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24148-0 . Further reading Fabbri, Paolo (1994). Monteverdi . Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-35133-2 . Golomb, Uri (April 2007). "Ars Polemica: Monteverdi's Orfeo as artistic creed" . Goldberg: Early Music Magazine (45): 44– 57. Newby, Elizabeth (1987). A Portrait of the Artist: The Legends of Orpheus and Their Use in Medieval and Renaissance Aesthetics . New York: Garland. ISBN 978-0-8240-8431-8 . Neef, Sigrid , ed. (2000). Opera: Composers, Works, Performers (English ed.). Cologne: Könemann. ISBN 3-8290-3571-3 . Sadie, Stanley , ed. (2004). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Opera . London: Flame Tree Publishing. ISBN 1-84451-026-3 . External links L'Orfeo : Scores at the International Music Score Library Project L'Orfeo libretto in Italian with English translation L'Orfeo libretto in German translation .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Claudio Monteverdi v t e list of operas list of compositions list of operas list of compositions Opera L'incoronazione di Poppea (SV 308) L'Orfeo (SV 318) ( · Musical items · " Possente spirto ") Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (SV 325) Lost operas L'Arianna (SV 291) L'incoronazione di Poppea (SV 308) L'Orfeo (SV 318) ( · Musical items · " Possente spirto ") Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (SV 325) Lost operas L'Arianna (SV 291) L'Arianna (SV 291) Ballet Il ballo delle ingrate (SV 167) Il ballo delle ingrate (SV 167) Scena Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda (SV 153) Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda (SV 153) Sacred music Selva morale e spirituale (SV 252–288) Vespro della Beata Vergine (SV 206 and 206a) Selva morale e spirituale (SV 252–288) Vespro della Beata Vergine (SV 206 and 206a) Depictions The Full Monteverdi (2007 film) The Full Monteverdi (2007 film) Recognitions Monteverdi Choir Monteverdi-Chor Hamburg Monteverdi (crater) Monteverdi Choir Monteverdi-Chor Hamburg Monteverdi (crater) Related Concerted madrigal Garklein recorder Giulio Cesare Monteverdi Origins of opera Prima pratica Seconda pratica Stattkus-Verzeichnis Stile concitato Concerted madrigal Garklein recorder Giulio Cesare Monteverdi Origins of opera Prima pratica Seconda pratica Stattkus-Verzeichnis Stile concitato Category Category v t e Orpheus and Eurydice v t e Characters Eurydice Orpheus Eurydice Orpheus Orphean operas Euridice (1600, Peri) Euridice (1602, Caccini) L'Orfeo (1607, Monteverdi) Orfeo dolente (1616, Belli) La morte d'Orfeo (1619, Landi) Orfeo (1647, Rossi) Orfeo (1672, Sartorio) La descente d'Orphée aux enfers (c. 1686, Charpentier) Orpheus (1726, Telemann) Orfeo ed Euridice (1762, Gluck) discography L'anima del filosofo (1791, Haydn) Orpheus in the Underworld (1858, Offenbach) Orpheus und Eurydike (1921, Krenek) L'Orfeide (1925, Malipiero) Orpheus and Eurydice (1975, Zhurbin, rock opera) The Mask of Orpheus (1986, Birtwistle) The Second Mrs Kong (1994, Birtwistle) The Corridor (2009, Birtwistle) Eurydice (2020, Aucoin) Euridice (1600, Peri) Euridice (1602, Caccini) L'Orfeo (1607, Monteverdi) Orfeo dolente (1616, Belli) La morte d'Orfeo (1619, Landi) Orfeo (1647, Rossi) Orfeo (1672, Sartorio) La descente d'Orphée aux enfers (c. 1686, Charpentier) Orpheus (1726, Telemann) Orfeo ed Euridice (1762, Gluck) discography discography L'anima del filosofo (1791, Haydn) Orpheus in the Underworld (1858, Offenbach) Orpheus und Eurydike (1921, Krenek) L'Orfeide (1925, Malipiero) Orpheus and Eurydice (1975, Zhurbin, rock opera) The Mask of Orpheus (1986, Birtwistle) The Second Mrs Kong (1994, Birtwistle) The Corridor (2009, Birtwistle) Eurydice (2020, Aucoin) Musicals Hadestown Moulin Rouge! The Musical Hadestown Moulin Rouge! The Musical Plays Eurydice / Point of Departure (1941, Anouilh) Orfeu da Conceição (1956, de Moraes) Orpheus Descending (1957, Williams) Eurydice (2003, Ruhl) Eurydice / Point of Departure (1941, Anouilh) Orfeu da Conceição (1956, de Moraes) Orpheus Descending (1957, Williams) Eurydice (2003, Ruhl) Films The Orphic Trilogy The Blood of a Poet (1930) Orphée (1950) Testament of Orpheus (1960) Black Orpheus (1959) Euridice BA 2037 (1975) Parking (1985) Shredder Orpheus (1989) Orfeu (1999) Moulin Rouge! (2001) You Ain't Seen Nothin' Yet! (2012) O'Dessa (2025) The Orphic Trilogy The Blood of a Poet (1930) Orphée (1950) Testament of Orpheus (1960) The Blood of a Poet (1930) Orphée (1950) Testament of Orpheus (1960) Black Orpheus (1959) Euridice BA 2037 (1975) Parking (1985) Shredder Orpheus (1989) Orfeu (1999) Moulin Rouge! (2001) You Ain't Seen Nothin' Yet! (2012) O'Dessa (2025) Poetry Sir Orfeo (c. late thirteenth century) The Tale of Orpheus and Erudices his Quene (c. 1480) Sonnets to Orpheus (1922) " Eurydice " (1999) Sir Orfeo (c. late thirteenth century) The Tale of Orpheus and Erudices his Quene (c. 1480) Sonnets to Orpheus (1922) " Eurydice " (1999) Novels The Einstein Intersection (1967) Gravity's Rainbow (1973) The Medusa Frequency (1987) The Ground Beneath Her Feet (1999) Veniss Underground (2003) " L'Esprit de L'Escalier " (2021) The Einstein Intersection (1967) Gravity's Rainbow (1973) The Medusa Frequency (1987) The Ground Beneath Her Feet (1999) Veniss Underground (2003) " L'Esprit de L'Escalier " (2021) Art Landscape with Orpheus and Eurydice Poem Strip Landscape with Orpheus and Eurydice Poem Strip Albums Reflections (1970) Abattoir Blues / The Lyre of Orpheus (2004) Metamorpheus (2005) Hadestown (2010) Orfeas (2010) Reflektor (2013) Wasteland, Baby! (2019) Reflections (1970) Abattoir Blues / The Lyre of Orpheus (2004) Metamorpheus (2005) Hadestown (2010) Orfeas (2010) Reflektor (2013) Wasteland, Baby! (2019) Ballet Orpheus (1948) Chaconne (1976) Orpheus Alive (2019) Orpheus (1948) Chaconne (1976) Orpheus Alive (2019) Video games Hades (2020) The Battle of Olympus Don't Look Back Hades (2020) The Battle of Olympus Don't Look Back Related The Gaze of Orpheus Orpheus Monument Orpheus no Mado Orphism The Gaze of Orpheus Orpheus Monument Orpheus no Mado Orphism Classical music Opera Music Authority control databases International VIAF GND VIAF GND National United States France BnF data Spain Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Spain Israel Catalonia Other MusicBrainz work MusicBrainz work Operas by Claudio Monteverdi Pastoral operas Italian-language operas Operas 1607 operas Operas about Orpheus Operas based on Metamorphoses Proserpina Pages containing links to subscription-only content Articles with Italian-language sources (it) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Featured articles Pages with Italian IPA Articles with hAudio microformats Works with IMSLP links Articles with International Music Score Library Project links This page was last edited on 15 September 2025, at 10:15 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Christianity Toggle Christianity subsection 1.1 Catholicism 1.2 Eastern Orthodoxy 1.3 Lutheran Churches 1.4 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 1.1 Catholicism 1.2 Eastern Orthodoxy 1.3 Lutheran Churches 1.4 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 2 Buddhism Toggle Buddhism subsection 2.1 Tibetan Buddhism 2.1 Tibetan Buddhism 3 Hinduism 4 Islam 5 Judaism 6 Sikhism 7 Taoism and Chinese folk religion 8 Scientific view Toggle Scientific view subsection 8.1 Exorcism and mental illness 8.1.1 United Kingdom 8.1 Exorcism and mental illness 8.1.1 United Kingdom 8.1.1 United Kingdom 9 Anthropological view 10 Notable exorcisms and exorcists in history 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links Exorcism Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Kiswahili Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Picard Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Exorcism (from Ancient Greek ἐξορκισμός ( exorkismós ) ' binding by oath ' ) is the religious or spiritual practice of evicting demons , jinns , or other malevolent spiritual entities from a person, or an area, that is believed to be possessed. [ 1 ] Depending on the spiritual beliefs of the exorcist , this may be done by causing the entity to swear an oath, performing an elaborate ritual , or simply by commanding it to depart in the name of a higher power. The practice is ancient and part of the belief system of many cultures and religions. Christianity In Christianity , exorcism is the practice of casting out or getting rid of demons . In Christian practice, the person performing the exorcism, known as an exorcist , is a member of a Christian Church , or an individual thought to be graced with special powers or skills. The exorcist may use prayers and religious material, such as set formulae, gestures , symbols , sacred images , sacramentals , etc. The exorcist often invokes God , Jesus or several different angels and archangels to intervene with the exorcism. Protestant Christian exorcists most commonly believe the authority given to them by the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (the Trinity ) is the sole source of their ability to cast out demons. [ 2 ] In general, people considered to be possessed are not regarded as evil unto themselves, nor wholly responsible for their actions, because possession is considered to be the unwilling manipulation by a demon resulting in harm to self or others. Therefore, practitioners regard exorcism as more of a cure than a punishment. The mainstream rituals usually take this into account, making sure that there is no violence to the possessed, only that they be tied down if there is potential for violence. [ 3 ] : 462 Requested and performed exorcisms began to decline in the United States by the 18th century, and occurred rarely until the latter half of the 20th century when the public saw a sharp rise due to the media attention exorcisms received. There was "a 50% increase in the number of exorcisms performed between the early 1960s and the mid-1970s". [ 3 ] : 120 Catholicism In Catholicism, exorcisms are performed in the name of Jesus Christ . [ 4 ] There is a distinction between major exorcisms and minor exorcisms. Minor exorcisms are included in some blessings in which priests create sacramentals , such as blessed salt , and are also found in the ritual Scrutinies of the catechumens . A related practice is deliverance ministry . The distinction between deliverance ministry and exorcism is that exorcism is conducted by priests given special permission from the Catholic Church , while deliverance ministry is prayer for people who are distressed and wish to heal emotional wounds, including those purportedly caused by evil spirits. [ 5 ] The Catholic rite for a formal exorcism, called a "Major Exorcism", is given in Section 11 of the Rituale Romanum . [ 6 ] [ 7 ] The Ritual lists guidelines for conducting an exorcism and determining when a formal exorcism is required. [ 8 ] Priests are instructed to carefully determine that the nature of the condition is not actually a psychological or physical illness before proceeding. [ 4 ] The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops state on their website: "the actual determination of whether a member of the faithful is genuinely possessed by the devil is made by the Church." [ 9 ] In Catholic practice, the person performing the exorcism, known as an exorcist, must be an ordained priest. The exorcist recites prayers according to the rubrics of the rite, and makes use of religious materials such as icons , sacramentals (e.g. holy water ), and holy relics . The exorcist invokes God —specifically the Name of Jesus Christ—as well as the Most Blessed Virgin Mary , saints of the Church Triumphant and the Archangel Michael to intervene with the exorcism. According to Catholic understanding, several weekly exorcisms over many years are sometimes required to expel a deeply entrenched demon. [ 8 ] [ 10 ] Saint Michael's Prayer against Satan and the Rebellious Angels , attributed to Pope Leo XIII , is considered the strongest prayer of the Catholic Church against cases of diabolic possession. [ 11 ] The Holy Rosary also has an exorcistic and intercessory power. [ 12 ] Eastern Orthodoxy The Eastern Orthodox Church has a rich and complex tradition of exorcism. [ 13 ] The practice is traced to biblical accounts of Jesus expelling demons and exhorting his apostles to "cast out devils". [ 14 ] The church views demonic possession as the devil's primary means of enslaving humanity and rebelling against God. Orthodox Christians believe objects, as well as individuals, can be possessed. [ 15 ] As in other Christian churches, Orthodox exorcists expel demons by invoking God through the name of Jesus Christ. [ 16 ] Unlike the Roman Catholic Church , all priests of the Orthodox Church are trained and equipped to perform exorcisms, particularly for the sacrament of baptism . Like their Catholic counterparts, Orthodox priests learn to distinguish demonic possession from mental illness, namely by observing whether the subject reacts negatively to holy relics or places. [ 15 ] All Orthodox liturgical books include prayers of exorcism, namely by Saint Basil and Saint John Chrysostom . Orthodox theology takes a uniquely expansive view of exorcism, believing every Christian undertakes exorcism through their struggle against sin and evil: .mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}} The whole Church, past, present and future, has the task of an exorcist to banish sin, evil, injustice, spiritual death, the devil from the life of humanity ... Both healing and exorcising are ministered through prayers, which spring from faith in God and from love for man ... All the prayers of healing and exorcism, composed by the Fathers of the Church and in use since the third century, begin with the solemn declaration: In Thy Name, O Lord. [ 17 ] The whole Church, past, present and future, has the task of an exorcist to banish sin, evil, injustice, spiritual death, the devil from the life of humanity ... Both healing and exorcising are ministered through prayers, which spring from faith in God and from love for man ... All the prayers of healing and exorcism, composed by the Fathers of the Church and in use since the third century, begin with the solemn declaration: In Thy Name, O Lord. [ 17 ] Additionally, many Orthodox Christians subscribe to the superstition of Vaskania , or the "evil eye", in which those harboring intense jealousy and envy towards others can bring harm to them (akin to a curse) and are, in effect, demonically possessed by these negative emotions . [ 13 ] This belief is most likely rooted in pre-Christian paganism, and although the church rejects the notion that the evil eye can have such power, it does recognize the phenomenon as morally and spiritually undesirable and thus a target for exorcism. [ 15 ] Lutheran Churches From the 16th century onward, Lutheran pastoral handbooks describe the primary symptoms of demonic possession to be knowledge of secret things, knowledge of languages one has never learned, and supernatural strength. [ 18 ] Before conducting a major exorcism, Lutheran liturgical texts state that a physician be consulted in order to rule out any medical or psychiatric illness. [ 18 ] The rite of exorcism centers chiefly around driving out demons "with prayers and contempt" and includes the Apostles' Creed and the Lord's Prayer . [ 18 ] Baptismal liturgies in Lutheran Churches include a minor exorcism . [ 19 ] [ 20 ] The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints While a very rare practice in the Church, there are two methods for performing an exorcism. The first is by anointing with consecrated oil and laying on of hands followed by a blessing on a specific person and commanding the spirit to leave. [ 21 ] The second and most common method is done by "raising the hand to the square" and then "commanding the spirit away in the name of Jesus Christ and with the power or authority of the Melchizedek priesthood". [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Exorcisms can only be performed by someone holding the Melchizedek priesthood , the higher of the two priesthoods of the Church, [ 21 ] and can be performed by anyone holding that priesthood, however they are generally performed by bishops , missionaries , mission presidents , or stake presidents . [ 21 ] Exorcisms are not recorded by the Church and therefore the number of exorcisms performed in the religion are unknown. Demonic possession is rarely talked about in the church. Demonic possession has been talked about twice by Joseph Smith , the founder of the faith. The first time refers to his experience during the First Vision [ 21 ] and he recorded the following in his "1831 account of the First Vision": I kneeled down and began to offer up the desires of my heart to God, I had scarcely done so, when immediately I was seized upon by some power which entirely overcame me and had such astonishing influence over me as to bind my tongue so that I could not speak. Thick darkness gathered around me and it seemed to me for a time as if I were doomed to sudden destruction. But exerting all my powers to call upon God to deliver me out of the power of this enemy which had seized upon me, and at the very moment when I was ready to sink into despair and abandon myself to destruction, not to an imaginary ruin but to the power of some actual being from the unseen world who had such a marvelous power as I had never before felt in any being, just at this moment of great alarm I saw a pillar of light exactly over my head above the brightness of the sun, which descended gradually until it fell upon me. [ 23 ] I kneeled down and began to offer up the desires of my heart to God, I had scarcely done so, when immediately I was seized upon by some power which entirely overcame me and had such astonishing influence over me as to bind my tongue so that I could not speak. Thick darkness gathered around me and it seemed to me for a time as if I were doomed to sudden destruction. But exerting all my powers to call upon God to deliver me out of the power of this enemy which had seized upon me, and at the very moment when I was ready to sink into despair and abandon myself to destruction, not to an imaginary ruin but to the power of some actual being from the unseen world who had such a marvelous power as I had never before felt in any being, just at this moment of great alarm I saw a pillar of light exactly over my head above the brightness of the sun, which descended gradually until it fell upon me. [ 23 ] His second experience comes from a journal entry in which he talks about the time he performed an exorcism on a friend. [ 24 ] [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Buddhism The practice of reciting or listening to the Paritta began very early in the history of Buddhism . It is a Buddhist practice of reciting certain verses and scriptures from Pali Canon in order to ward off misfortune or danger. The belief in the effective spiritual power to heal, or protect, of the Sacca-kiriyā , or asseveration of something quite true is an aspect of the work ascribed to the paritta . [ 25 ] Several scriptures in the Paritta like Metta Sutta , Dhajagga Sutta, or Ratana Sutta can be recited for exorcism purposes, and Āṭānāṭiya Sutta is regarded as particularly effective. [ 26 ] Tibetan Buddhism The ritual of the Exorcising-Ghost day is part of Tibetan tradition. The Tibetan religious ceremony 'Gutor' ༼དགུ་གཏོར་༽, literally offering of the 29th, is held on the 29th of the 12th Tibetan month, with its focus on driving out all negativity, including evil spirits and misfortunes of the past year, and starting the new year in a peaceful and auspicious way. The temples and monasteries throughout Tibet hold grand religious dance ceremonies, with the largest at Potala Palace in Lhasa . Families clean their houses on this day, decorate the rooms and eat a special noodle soup called ' Guthuk '. ༼དགུ་ཐུག་༽ In the evening, the people carry torches, calling out the words of exorcism. [ 27 ] Hinduism In many Hindu traditions, people can be possessed by bhootas, pretas or pisachas , restless and often malignant beings roughly analogous to ghosts, [ 29 ] and to a lesser extent, demons. [ 30 ] Of four Vedas , or holy books, of Hinduism, the Atharva Veda is most focused on knowledge such as exorcism, [ 31 ] magic, and alchemy. [ 32 ] The basic means of exorcism are the mantra (a sacred utterance of certain phonemes or phrases that is often connected to a particular deity) and the yajna (a sacrifice, offering, or ritual done before a sacred fire). These are performed in accordance with Vedic traditions as well as the Tantra , the later esoteric teachings and practices within Hinduism. Within the dominant Hindu sect of Vaishnava , which reveres Vishnu as the supreme being, exorcisms are performed by reciting the names of Narasimha , a fierce avatar of Vishnu that seeks to destroy evil and restore Dharma , or by reading the Bhagavata Purana , a highly revered text that tells the story of good vanquishing evil. Another resource for exorcisms is the Garuda Purana , a vast corpus of literature mostly centered on Vishnu, deals heavily with topics related to death, disease, good versus evil, and spiritual health. [ 33 ] The devotional hymn known as Hanuman Chalisa advises conducting exorcisms by praying to Lord Hanuman , the most devoted follower of Rama , a major Hindu deity. As according to a chaupai (couplet) (भूत पिशाच निकट नहिं आवै। महावीर जब नाम सुनावै॥) of this hymn, merely uttering Hanuman's name terrifies evil spirits into leaving the possessed. Some Hindu temples, most notably the Mehandipur Balaji Temple in Rajasthan, host exorcism rituals that invoke incarnations of Hanuman. [ 30 ] Islam Terms for exorcism practices include ṭard (or dafʿ ) al-shayṭān/al-jinn (expulsion of the demon/the spirit), ʿilāj (treatment), and ibrāʾ al-maṣrūʿ (curing the possessed), but also ruḳya (enchantment or cleansing) [ 34 ] is used to exorcise various spirits. [ 35 ] The Islamic prophet Muhammad taught his followers to read the last three suras from the Quran , Surat al-Ikhlas (The Fidelity), Surat al-Falaq (The Dawn) and Surat an-Nas (Mankind). The permissibility of exorcism, as well as models for its practice, can be traced to Hadiths reporting Muhammad and Jesus performing exorcism rites. [ 35 ] Islamic exorcisms might consist of the treated person lying down, while a sheikh places a hand on a patient's head and recites verses from the Quran, but this is not mandatory. [ 36 ] The drinking or sprinkling of holy water (water from the Zamzam Well ) may also take place along with applying of clean, non-alcohol-based perfumes, called attar . [ 36 ] Specific verses from the Quran are recited that glorify God (e.g., The Throne Verse ( Arabic : آية الكرسي , romanized : Ayatul Kursi )) and invoke God's help. In some cases, the adhan (call for daily prayers) is also read, as this has the effect of repelling non-angelic unseen beings or the jinn . [ 37 ] According to a study by Alean Al-Krenawi and John Graham, the process of Quranic healing in order to exorcise spirits can be divided into three stages: Removing any ( haram ) distractions, such as music instruments, amulets (tabiz) and golden jewelry. All pictures in the room that (it is believed) would allow angels to enter are removed. The healer then tells the client and the family that everything happens by God's will and that he is merely a mediator, also mentioning that other forms of healing, such as by sorcery, are not acceptable to Islam. The healer determines if the client is possessed or not and tries to enter a dialogue with the spirit. The healer might ask the spirit about type ( Zar ("red wind"), Arwah (ghosts), jinn (genii), shayatin (devils), div (demons)), religion, sex or reason for possession. He also asks the client, not the spirit, about dreams and feelings involved in the dream. After that, the healer cleans himself, the room, and asks the people in the room to do the same. The actual exorcism begins by reciting Quranic verses such as Al-Fatiha , Al-Baqara , Al-Baqara 255 , Al-Jinn and three Qul ( Al-Ikhlas , An-Nas and Al-Falaq ), depending on the type of spirit. Other treatments include using honey and water, as a purification ritual to clean the soul and body from sins. [ 38 ] Judaism Josephus reports exorcisms performed by administering poisonous root extracts and others by making sacrifices. [ 39 ] In more recent times, Rabbi Yehuda Fetaya (1859–1942) authored the book Minchat Yahuda , which deals extensively with exorcism, his experience with possessed people, and other subjects of Jewish thought. The book is written in Hebrew and was translated into English. The Jewish exorcism ritual is performed by a rabbi who has mastered Kabbalah . Also present is a minyan (a group of ten adult males), who gather in a circle around the possessed person. The group recites Psalm 91 three times, and then the rabbi blows a shofar (a ram's horn). [ 40 ] The shofar is blown in a certain way, with various notes and tones, in effect to "shatter the body" so that the possessing force will be shaken loose. After it has been shaken loose, the rabbi begins to communicate with it and ask it questions such as why it is possessing the body of the possessed. The minyan may pray for it and perform a ceremony for it in order to enable it to feel safe, and so that it can leave the person's body. [ 40 ] Sikhism Sikhs do not have a belief in demonic possession . Therefore, exorcism is considered a violation of Sikh Code of Conduct. [ 41 ] [ 42 ] Taoism and Chinese folk religion In Taoism , exorcisms are performed when an individual has been possessed by an evil spirit for one of two reasons: The victim has disturbed a ghost, regardless of intent, and the ghost now seeks revenge, or the victim has been targeted by someone using black magic to conjure a ghost to possess them. [ 43 ] The Fashi , who are both Chinese ritual specialists and Taoist priests, are able to conduct particular rituals for exorcism. These rituals will vary between the many sects which are further influenced by the geographic region in which the specific Taoist is from. A Zheng Yi sect Taoist in Beijing may conduct a ritual completely different from a Taoist of the same sect in a southern area such as Hong Kong. For example, the leaders of these exorcism rituals who are tangki that invited the divine powers from the Deities and conduct a dramatic performance to call out against the demons so the village can once again have peace. The leaders strike themselves with various sharp weapons to show their invincibility to ward off the demons and also to let out their blood. This form of blood is considered to be sacred and powerful, so after the rituals, the blood is blotted with talismans and placed on the door of houses as an act of spiritual protection against evil spirits. [ 44 ] Such ritual using blood however is more common among folk sects such as LuShan, and does not take place in more orthodox sects such as QuanZhen or Zheng Yi who are more monastic in nature. However, it is possible that folk Taoists in rural areas descended from orthodox sects may be influenced by local folk religions, so it may be seen. Historically, all Taoist exorcisms include usage of Fulu , chanting, physical gesture like mudras , and praying as a way to drive away the spirit is common in all sects. [ 45 ] Scientific view Demonic possession is not a psychiatric or medical diagnosis recognized by either the DSM-5 or the ICD-10 . Those who profess a belief in demonic possession have sometimes ascribed to possession the symptoms associated with physical or mental illnesses , such as hysteria , mania , psychosis , Tourette's syndrome , epilepsy , schizophrenia or dissociative identity disorder . [ 46 ] [ 47 ] [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Additionally, there is a form of monomania called demonomania or demonopathy in which the patient believes that they are possessed by one or more demons. [ 51 ] According to psychological literature, exorcism may work on people experiencing symptoms of possession by way of placebo effect and the power of suggestion . [ 52 ] [ 53 ] Some cases suggest that supposedly possessed persons are actually narcissists or have low self-esteem and act demonically possessed in order to gain attention. [ 54 ] Within the scientific community, the work of psychiatrist M. Scott Peck , a believer in exorcism, generated significant debate and derision. Much was made of his association with (and admiration for) the controversial Malachi Martin , a Roman Catholic exorcist, despite the fact that Peck consistently called Martin a liar and a manipulator. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Other criticisms leveled against Peck included claims that he had transgressed the boundaries of professional ethics by attempting to persuade his patients to accept Christianity. [ 55 ] Exorcism and mental illness One scholar has described psychosurgery as "Neurosurgical Exorcisms", with trepanation having been widely used to release demons from the brain. [ 57 ] Meanwhile, another scholar has equated psychotherapy with exorcism. [ 58 ] United Kingdom In the UK, the numbers of exorcisms performed were increasing as of 2017 [update] . A Church of England think tank, Theos , stated that the exorcisms mostly took place in charismatic and Pentecostal churches, and also among communities of West African origin. Frequently, the people exorcised were people with mental health problems, who often stopped taking their medications in response to the exorcism. The report described the exorcism as a "well-meaning initiative with the potential for serious harm" with the risk of constituting "psychological abuse". [ 59 ] Anthropological view Religious figures would have been presented with an individual and base their diagnosis of possession upon their own knowledge, which would be based on religious understandings. The occurrence of a possession, has similar characteristics of someone who is experiencing a mental illness. [ 60 ] Characteristics such as an abrupt change in behaviour and demeanor, loss of faith, thoughts of being chosen by a demonic power, experiences in seeing and hearing evil entities, and persistent fear in demonic forces. [ 60 ] These are deemed as unfavorable within religious influence, therefore are treated and diagnosed within religious collectives, as illness. However, not all possessions were deemed as negative, possessions occurring among the higher classes typically went untreated as they were said to be undertaken by benevolent spirits upholding social order; whereas possessions experienced by the powerless were considered as expressing anti-hegemonic sentiment and needed to be treated immediately. [ 61 ] This reflects a style of dichotomy that establishes spiritual possession as an illness which is socially mediated, and reflective of the social climate in which it is produced. Exorcisms are performed in response to spiritual possessions which cause distress or are found to be challenging the status quo and/or hegemonic values within the individual; otherwise, possessions are treated as holy communication from deities. [ 61 ] These illnesses/possessions are culturally constructed as either psychological or spiritual. [ 62 ] Spiritual possession and exorcism come as a pair, representative of social expectations of 'normal' functioning, and can often be engaged as a tool to challenge or maintain religious collective values. The Catholic Church, for example, enters a relationship with the victims of spiritual possession akin to the Shamanistic Complex. [ 63 ] The victim also represents what Nancy Scheper Hughes would call the 'individual body', that is, the victims' personal belief system as a Christian would assist in the healing process. In the sense that their belief that there is a demon within their body and that through the power of Christ the demon can be removed, creates a diagnosis and cure for this illness. A non-Christian may respond differently to this healing process. A non-Christian most likely would not even seek out religious intervention based on their symptoms, they would believe them to from a different illness, and would not find an exorcism an effective treatment. The Shamanistic Complex gives a possible explanation as to what makes an exorcism effective or can increase the effectiveness. Exorcism exists within a realm of cultural healing practices, social processes that are informed by social norms. [ 64 ] This much is true of most other healing practices, inclusive of those focussed on spiritual, psychological, and physical health. As such the systems set out by religious communities, like the Catholic Church, to diagnose and combat spiritual possession as a disease, as only effective as the psychological belief within these aspects. Notable exorcisms and exorcists in history Part of a series on Esotericism Key concepts Western esotericism Arts Science Eastern esotericism Chinese Buddhism African esotericism Alchemy Astrology Egregore Gnosis Hermeticism Kabbalah Magic Metaphysics Mystical theology Mysticism Occult Tantra Traditionalism Western esotericism Arts Science Arts Science Eastern esotericism Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism African esotericism Alchemy Astrology Egregore Gnosis Hermeticism Kabbalah Magic Metaphysics Mystical theology Mysticism Occult Tantra Traditionalism Rites Astral projection Body of light Divination Evocation Exorcism Initiation Invocation Meditation Propitiation Rite of passage Ritual purification Sacrifice Astral projection Body of light Body of light Divination Evocation Exorcism Initiation Invocation Meditation Propitiation Rite of passage Ritual purification Sacrifice Societies A∴A∴ Élus Coëns Freemasonry Golden Dawn Martinism Ordo Templi Orientis Rosicrucianism Tariqa Thelema Theosophy Typhonian Order UR List of magical organizations A∴A∴ Élus Coëns Freemasonry Golden Dawn Martinism Ordo Templi Orientis Rosicrucianism Tariqa Thelema Theosophy Typhonian Order UR List of magical organizations Notable figures Ibn Arabi Blavatsky Böhme Burckhardt Crowley Dee Dionysius Evola Faivre Guénon Gurdjieff Hall Hermes Trismegistus Jung Kremmerz LaVey Lévi Mathers Nasr Oldmeadow Papus Paracelsus Pythagoras Schuon Steiner Waite Ibn Arabi Blavatsky Böhme Burckhardt Crowley Dee Dionysius Evola Faivre Guénon Gurdjieff Hall Hermes Trismegistus Jung Kremmerz LaVey Lévi Mathers Nasr Oldmeadow Papus Paracelsus Pythagoras Schuon Steiner Waite Related topics Academic study of Western esotericism Anthroposophy Esoteric Hitlerism Gnosticism Academic study of Western esotericism Anthroposophy Esoteric Hitlerism Gnosticism .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e (1578) Martha Brossier was a young woman who was made infamous around the year of 1578 for her feigned demonic possession discovered through exorcism proceedings. [ 65 ] : 132 (1619) Mademoiselle Elizabeth de Ranfaing , who having become a widow in 1617 was later sought in marriage by a physician (afterwards burned under judicial sentence for being a practicing magician ). After being rejected, he gave her potions to make her love him which occasioned strange developments in her health and proceeded to continuously give her some other forms of medicament. The maladies which she had were incurable by the various physicians that attended her and eventually led to a recourse of exorcisms as prescribed by several physicians that examined her case. They began to exorcise her in September, 1619. During the exorcisms, the demon that possessed her purportedly made detailed and fluid responses in varying languages including French, Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Italian and was able to know and recite the thoughts and sins of various individuals who examined her. She was further also purported to describe in detail with the use of various languages the rites and secrets of the church to experts in the languages she spoke. There was even a mention of how the demon interrupted an exorcist, who after making a mistake in his recital of an exorcism rite in Latin, corrected his speech and mocked him. [ 65 ] : 138–143 (1778) George Lukins [ 66 ] (1842–1844) Johann Blumhardt performed the exorcism of Gottliebin Dittus over a two-year period in Möttlingen, Germany, from 1842 to 1844. Pastor Blumhardt's parish subsequently experienced growth marked by confession and healing, which he attributed to the successful exorcism. [ 67 ] [ 68 ] (1906) Clara Germana Cele was a South African school girl who claimed to be possessed. [ 69 ] (1947) Art expert Armando Ginesi claims Salvador Dalí received an exorcism from Italian friar Gabriele Maria Berardi while he was in France. Dalí would have created a sculpture of Christ on the cross that he would have given to the friar in thanks. [ 70 ] (1949) A boy identified as Robbie Mannheim [ 71 ] [ 72 ] was the subject of an exorcism in 1949, which became the chief inspiration for The Exorcist , a horror novel and movie written by William Peter Blatty , who heard about the case while he was a student in the class of 1950 at Georgetown University . Robbie was taken into the care of Rev. Luther Miles Schulze , the boy's Lutheran pastor, after psychiatric and medical doctors were unable to explain the disturbing events associated with the teen; the minister then referred the boy to Rev. Edward Hughes , who performed the first exorcism on the teen. [ 73 ] The subsequent exorcism was partially performed in both Cottage City, Maryland , and Bel-Nor, Missouri , [ 74 ] by Father William S. Bowdern , S.J., Father Raymond Bishop S.J. and a then Jesuit scholastic Fr. Walter Halloran , S.J. [ 75 ] (1974) Michael Taylor [ 76 ] (1975) Anneliese Michel was a Catholic woman from Germany who was said to be possessed by six or more demons and subsequently underwent a secret, ten-month-long voluntary exorcism. Two movies, The Exorcism of Emily Rose and Requiem , are loosely based on Anneliese's story. The documentary movie Exorcism of Anneliese Michel [ 77 ] (in Polish, with English subtitles) features the original audio tapes from the exorcism. The two priests and her parents were convicted of negligent manslaughter for failing to call a medical doctor to address her eating disorder as she died weighing only 68 pounds (31 kg). [ 78 ] The case has been labelled a misidentification of mental illness, negligence, abuse, and religious hysteria. [ 79 ] Bobby Jindal , former governor of Louisiana, wrote an essay in 1994 about his personal experience of performing an exorcism on an intimate friend named "Susan" while in college. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] Mother Teresa allegedly underwent an exorcism late in life under the direction of the Archbishop of Calcutta, Henry D'Souza, after he noticed she seemed to be extremely agitated in her sleep and feared she "might be under the attack of the evil one." [ 82 ] (2005) The Tanacu exorcism is a case in which a mentally ill Romanian nun was killed during an exorcism by priest Daniel Petre Corogeanu. The case inspired the movies Beyond the Hills and The Crucifixion . The October 2007 mākutu lifting (ceremonial lifting of a sorcery or witchcraft curse) in the Wellington , New Zealand, suburb of Wainuiomata led to a death by drowning of a woman and the hospitalization of a teen. Five family members were convicted and sentenced to non-custodial sentences. [ 83 ] See also Banishing Deal with the Devil Demonology Demon hunter Gay exorcism International Association of Exorcists Kecak List of exorcists Of Exorcisms and Certain Supplications Obsession (Spiritism) Phurba Sak Yant Spiritual warfare True name Yaktovil Yoruba religion References This article needs more complete citations for verification . Please help add missing citation information so that sources are clearly identifiable. ( March 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Jacobs, Louis (1999). "Exorcism". A Concise Companion to the Jewish Religion . Oxford University Press . doi : 10.1093/acref/9780192800886.001.0001 . ISBN 9780192800886 . ^ Royal, Kenneth (2012). "Investigating the Practice of Christian Exorcism and the Methods Used to Cast out Demons" . The Journal of Christian Ministry – via Academia.edu . ^ a b Martin, Malachi (1976). Hostage to the Devil: The Possession and Exorcism of Five Contemporary Americans . San Francisco: HarperCollins . ISBN 0-06-065337-X . ^ a b Libreria Editrice Vaticana; Pope John Paul II, eds. (28 April 2000), "Sacramentals" , Catechism of the Catholic Church (2ND ed.), Citta del Vaticano: United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, p. 928 , ISBN 978-1-57455-110-5 , retrieved 15 February 2012 ^ Carroll, Rory (9 June 2022). "Irish exorcist calls for extra help for people oppressed by evil spirits" . The Guardian . ^ "The Roman ritual" . www.ewtn.com . Translated by Weller, Philip T. Archived from the original on 16 August 2017 . Retrieved 3 November 2017 . ^ "Rituale Romanum" (PDF) . www.liturgia.it . 10 June 1925. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 September 2013 . Retrieved 2 December 2013 . ^ a b Baglio, Matt (2010). The Rite: the Making of a Modern Exorcist (1st Image ed.). New York: Doubleday . ISBN 978-0-385-52271-7 . ^ "Exorcism | USCCB" . www.usccb.org . Retrieved 26 August 2023 . ^ Amorth, Gabriele (1999). An Exorcist Tells His Story . San Francisco: Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-0-898-70710-6 . Anthropological date collected by Mohr and Royal (2012), in which they surveyed nearly 200 Protestant Christian exorcists, revealed stark contrasts to traditional Catholic practices. ^ Young, Francis (2016). "7 Exorcism in an Age of Doubt: The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries". A History of Exorcism in Catholic Christianity . Palgrave Historical Studies in Witchcraft and Magic (1st ed.). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 188– 191. ISBN 978-3-319-29112-3 . OCLC 948778692 . ^ Longenecker, Dwight (6 October 2016). "How the Rosary is a key weapon in the fight against Satan" . cruxnow.com . Retrieved 31 July 2023 . ^ a b Milosevic, Sasa (17 August 2011). "The Secrets Of Orthodox Exorcists" . HuffPost . Retrieved 19 September 2021 . ^ Matt.10:8; Luke 10:17–20. ^ a b c Papademetriou, George C. "Exorcism in the Orthodox Church – Theology – Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America" . Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America . Retrieved 19 September 2021 . ^ Library of the Greek Fathers and Church Writers, Athens: Apostolike Diakonia 1955, Vol. 3, pp. 288–289) ^ Archbishop Iakovos, Exorcism and Exorcists in the Greek Orthodox Tradition, Sage Chapel, Cornell University, March 10, 1974. ^ a b c Mayes, Benjamin. "Quotes from Lutheran Pastoral Handbooks on the Topic of Demon Possession" . Archived from the original on 27 August 2009 . Retrieved 22 April 2018 . ^ Wagner, C. Peter (16 October 2012). Supernatural Forces in Spiritual Warfare . Destiny Image, Incorporated. p. 106. ISBN 9780768487916 . A brief exorcism found its way into early Lutheran baptismal services and an exorcism prayer formula is recorded in the First Prayer Book of Edward VI (1549). ^ Kolb, Robert; Trueman, Carl R. (17 October 2017). Between Wittenberg and Geneva: Lutheran and Reformed Theology in Conversation . Baker Publishing Group. p. 162. ISBN 9781493411450 . This liturgy retained the minor exorcism (a formal renunciation of the devil's works and ways), which later in the sixteenth century became an issue dividing Lutherans and Calvinists. ^ a b c d e f Taysom, Stephen (18 June 2018). " 'Satan Mourns Naked upon the Earth': Locating Mormon Possession and Exorcism Rituals in the American Religious Landscape, 1830–1977" . Religion and American Culture . 27 (1): 57– 94. doi : 10.1525/rac.2017.27.1.57 . ISSN 1052-1151 . S2CID 151502698 . Archived from the original on 4 July 2021 . Retrieved 4 July 2021 – via Cambridge University Press. ^ a b "Mormon exorcism lore, with Stephen Taysom [MIPodcast #71]" . Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship . Brigham Young University. 27 October 2017. Archived from the original on 20 January 2021 . Retrieved 4 July 2021 . ^ Snell, David (2 September 2017). "3 Times Joseph Smith and Satan Went Head to Head" . Third Hour . Archived from the original on 6 October 2019 . Retrieved 6 October 2019 . ^ "The Knight Family: Ever Faithful to the Prophet" . www.churchofjesuschrist.org . Archived from the original on 5 August 2020 . Retrieved 6 October 2019 . ^ C.A.F. Rhys Davids , Dialogues of the Buddha , part 3, p. 186. ^ Aggacitta, Āyasmā (2003). Discourse on Atanatiya Protection . Sasanarakkha Buddhist Sanctuary. pp. 3– 9. Archived from the original on 3 July 2021 . Retrieved 16 June 2021 . ^ "Supernatural Traditional Days Around The World" . Straight Forward Guidance . Retrieved 10 May 2022 . ^ Rajaram Narayan Saletore (1981). Indian witchcraft . Abhinav Publications. p. 40. ISBN 9780391024809 . Archived from the original on 28 June 2021 . Retrieved 14 May 2009 . ^ "bhut | Hinduism | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . Retrieved 12 December 2021 . ^ a b Iwanek, Krzysztof. "Gods Against Ghosts: The Exorcisms of India's Mehandipur Balaji" . thediplomat.com . Retrieved 12 December 2021 . ^ Usha Srivastava (2011). Encyclopaedia of Indian Medicines (3 Volume Set) . Pinnacle Technology. pp. 5– 6. ISBN 9781618202772 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ Monier-Williams, Monier (1974). Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus . Elibron Classics. Adamant Media Corporation. pp. 25– 41. ISBN 978-1-4212-6531-5 . ^ Holly A. Hunt. Emotional Exorcism: Expelling the Four Psychological Demons That Make Us Backslide . ABC-CLIO. p. 6. ^ RUKYA . 24 April 2012. doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6333 . ISBN 9789004161214 . Archived from the original on 4 July 2021. ^ a b "Exorcism" . Encyclopaedia of Islam . Brill Publishers . October 2014. doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26268 . Archived from the original on 4 July 2021. ^ a b "Belgium court charges six people in deadly exorcism of Muslim woman" . Al Arabiya . 14 May 2012. Archived from the original on 24 December 2018 . Retrieved 7 September 2012 . ^ MacDonald, D. B.; Massé, H.; Boratav, P. N.; Nizami, K. A.; Voorhoeve, P., "Ḏj̲inn" , Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English) , Brill, doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_com_0191 , retrieved 5 April 2025 , All their (jinn) activities take place at night and come to an end with the first cock-crow or the first call to morning prayer. ^ Alean Al-Krenawi; John Graham (1999). "Social work and Koranic mental health healers" . International Social Work . 42 (1): 53– 65. doi : 10.1177/002087289904200106 . S2CID 71504194 . ^ Josephus, "B. J." vii. 6, § 3 Archived 2019-10-23 at the Wayback Machine ; Sanh. 65b. ^ a b Belanger, Jeff (29 November 2003). "Dybbuk – Spiritual Possession and Jewish Folklore" . Ghostvillage.com . Archived from the original on 9 September 2019 . Retrieved 12 December 2014 . ^ Maberry, Jonathan (2010). Wanted Undead Or Alive . Citadel Press. pp. 187– 190. ISBN 9780806534336 . ^ Furness, Sheila (2009). Religion, Belief and Social Work . Policy Press. p. 72. ISBN 9781447324331 . ^ "Taoist Exorcism by Taoist Master" . TAOIST SORCERY . Archived from the original on 9 September 2019 . Retrieved 23 September 2020 . ^ "Taoism Ritual, Worship, Devotion, Symbolism, Taoism Rites and Ceremonies" . www.patheos.com . Archived from the original on 1 October 2020 . Retrieved 23 September 2020 . ^ Jumreornvong, Natty (16 July 2015). "Exorcism and Mental Illness Across Different Cultures" . Stanford University . Huntington's Disease Outreach Project for Education at Stanford . Archived from the original on 14 March 2017 . Retrieved 23 March 2017 . ^ Henderson, J. (1981). Exorcism and Possession in Psychotherapy Practice . Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 27: 129–34. ^ Maniam, T. (1987). Exorcism and Psychiatric Illness: Two Case Reports . Medical Journal of Malaysia. 42: 317–19. ^ Pfeifer, S. (1994). Belief in demons and exorcism in psychiatric patients in Switzerland . British Journal of Medical Psychology 4 247–58. ^ Beyerstein, Barry L . (1995). Dissociative States: Possession and Exorcism . In Gordon Stein (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal . Prometheus Books. pp. 544–52. ISBN 1-57392-021-5 ^ Ross, C. A., Schroeder, B. A. & Ness, L. (2013). Dissociation and symptoms of culture-bound syndromes in North America: A preliminary study . Journal of Trauma & Dissociation 14: 224–35. ^ Noll, Richard . (2006). The Encyclopedia of Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders . Facts On File Inc. p. 129. ISBN 0-8160-6405-9 ^ Levack, Brian P . (1992). Possession and Exorcism . Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 0-8153-1031-5 ^ Radford, Benjamin . (2005). "Voice of Reason: Exorcisms, Fictional and Fatal" Archived 2014-12-18 at the Wayback Machine . LiveScience . "To the extent that exorcisms "work," it is primarily due to the power of suggestion and the placebo effect." ^ Levack, Brian P . (1992). Possession and Exorcism . Routledge. p. 277. ISBN 0-8153-1031-5 ^ a b The devil you know Archived 2016-12-27 at the Wayback Machine , National Catholic Reporter , 29 April 2005, a commentary on Glimpses of the Devil by Richard Woods ^ The Patient Is the Exorcist Archived 2008-10-05 at the Wayback Machine , an interview with M. Scott Peck by Laura Sheahen ^ Silverman, W A. "Neurosurgical Exorcism." Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 15.2 (2001): 98–99. ^ Gettis, Alan. "Psychotherapy as exorcism." Journal of Religion and Health 15.3 (1976): 188–90. ^ 'Spiritual abuse': Christian thinktank warns of sharp rise in UK exorcisms Archived 2019-07-11 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian ^ a b Exline, Julie J.; Pargament, Kenneth I.; Wilt, Joshua A.; Harriott, Valencia A. (2021). "Mental illness, normal psychological processes, or attacks by the devil? Three lenses to frame demonic struggles in therapy" . Spirituality in Clinical Practice . 8 (3): 215– 228. doi : 10.1037/scp0000268 . ISSN 2326-4519 . S2CID 237853652 – via APA. ^ a b Sharabi, Asaf (17 February 2021). "The Politics of Madness and Spirit Possession in Northern India" . Medical Anthropology . 40 (2): 182– 195. doi : 10.1080/01459740.2020.1807540 . ISSN 0145-9740 . PMID 32866040 . S2CID 221404656 . ^ Halliburton, Murphy (2005). " "Just Some Spirits": The Erosion of Spirit Possession and the Rise of "Tension" in South India" . Medical Anthropology . 24 (2): 111– 144. doi : 10.1080/01459740590933849 . ISSN 0145-9740 . PMID 16019568 . S2CID 40861711 – via Taylor & Francis. ^ Levi-Strauss, Claude (1963). Structural Anthropology . New York: Basic Books. pp. 193– 211. ISBN 0786724439 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) ^ Joralemon, Donald (2017). Exploring Medical Anthropology (4th ed.). London: Routledge. doi : 10.4324/9781315470610 . ISBN 978-1-315-47061-0 . ^ a b Calmet, Augustin (2021). Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants: of Hungary, Moravia, et al . Esoterica Press. ISBN 978-1-952658-03-7 . ^ Harris, Tessa (24 December 2013). The Devil's Breath . Kensington Books . p. 349. ISBN 9780758267009 . Archived from the original on 3 July 2021 . Retrieved 17 October 2020 . ^ "Blumhardt's Battle: A Conflict With Satan" . Thomas E. Lowe, LTD. Archived from the original on 26 August 2009 . Retrieved 23 September 2009 . ^ Zuendel, Friedrich. The Awakening: One Man's Battle With Darkness (PDF) . The Plough. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2010 . Retrieved 23 September 2009 . ^ Rosemary Guiley (2009). The Encyclopedia of Demons and Demonology . Infobase Publishing. p. 12. ISBN 9781438131917 . Archived from the original on 2 July 2021 . Retrieved 17 October 2020 . ^ Dali's gift to exorcist uncovered Archived 11 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine Catholic News 14 October 2005. ^ Powers of the mind . TV Books. May 1999. ISBN 978-1-57500-028-2 . Archived from the original on 4 July 2021 . Retrieved 31 December 2007 . The Reverend Luther Miles Schulze, was called in to help and took Mannheim to his home where he could study the phenomenon at close range; ^ Paranormal Experiences . Unicorn Books. 8 June 2009. ISBN 978-81-7806-166-5 . Archived from the original on 4 July 2021 . Retrieved 31 December 2007 . A thirteen-year-old American boy named, Robert Mannheim, started using an...The Reverend Luther Miles Schulze, who was called to look into the matter,... ^ A Faraway Ancient Country . Lulu . 2007. ISBN 978-0-615-15801-3 . Archived from the original on 4 July 2021 . Retrieved 27 March 2010 . ^ Garrison, Chad. "Hell of a House" . Archived from the original on 4 July 2021 . Retrieved 18 July 2016 . ^ "Part I – The Haunted Boy: the Inspiration for the Exorcist" . Archived from the original on 3 October 2018 . Retrieved 10 January 2008 . ^ Bill Ellis. Raising the Devil: Satanism, New Religions, and the Media . University Press of Kentucky. p. 97. ISBN 978-0813126821 . Archived from the original on 4 July 2021 . Retrieved 17 October 2020 . ^ their (jinn) activities take place at night and come to an end with the first cock-crow or the first call to morning prayer.k-3wS7cQ Video on YouTube ^ "Bizarre exorcism draws suspended prison terms" . The Press-Courier. 22 April 1978. Archived from the original on 4 July 2021 . Retrieved 26 June 2013 . ^ Duffey, John M. (2011). Lessons Learned: The Anneliese Michel Exorcism . ISBN 978-1-60899-664-3 ^ Murphy, Tim (17 May 2012). "FLASHBACK: Bobby Jindal's Exorcism Problem" . Mother Jones . Archived from the original on 4 July 2021 . Retrieved 9 July 2018 . ^ "Bobby Jindal's Story about Demons and Spiritual Warfare" . CBN News . 24 February 2009. Archived from the original on 1 October 2020 . Retrieved 23 September 2020 . ^ Bindra, Satinder (7 September 2001). "Archbishop: Mother Teresa underwent exorcism" . CNN . Archived from the original on 17 September 2005 . Retrieved 12 December 2014 . ^ "Deadly curse verdict: five found guilty" . The Dominion Post . 13 June 2009. Archived from the original on 4 December 2010 . Retrieved 30 September 2011 . Further reading Cuneo, Michael W. (2001). American Exorcism: Expelling Demons in the Land of Plenty . Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-50176-5 . Jindal, Bobby (December 1994). "Physical Dimensions of Spiritual Warfare" (PDF) . New Oxford Review . Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 December 2006. Kiely, David M. ; McKenna, Christina (2007). The Dark Sacrament: True Stories of Modern-Day Demon Possession and Exorcism . HarperOne. ISBN 978-0-06-123816-1 . McCarthy, Josephine (2010). The Exorcists Handbook . Golem Media Publishers. ISBN 978-1-933993-91-1 . Menghi, Girolamo; Paxia, Gaetano (2002). The Devil's Scourge: Exorcism during the Italian Renaissance . Weiser Books. [ 1 ] Papademetriou, George C. (3 September 1990). "Exorcism in the Orthodox Church" . Greek Orthodox Diocese in America . Retrieved 5 March 2024 . Peck, M. Scott (2005). Glimpses of the Devil: A Psychiatrist's Personal Accounts of Possession, Exorcism, and Redemption . Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-5467-0 . Radford, Benjamin (7 March 2013). "Exorcism: Facts and Fiction About Demonic Possession" . Livescience . Retrieved 5 March 2024 . Smith, Frederick M. (2006). The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in South Asian Literature and Civilization . New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-13748-6 . Tajima-Pozo, Kazuhiro; et al. (2011). "Practicing exorcism in schizophrenia" . BMJ Case Reports . 2011 : bcr1020092350. doi : 10.1136/bcr.10.2009.2350 . PMC 3062860 . PMID 22707465 . Trethowan, William (1976). "Exorcism: A Psychiatric Viewpoint" . Journal of Medical Ethics . 2 (3): 127– 37. PMC 2495148 . PMID 966260 . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Plot 2 Cast and characters Toggle Cast and characters subsection 2.1 Main 2.2 Recurring characters 2.1 Main 2.2 Recurring characters 3 Production Toggle Production subsection 3.1 Theme song 3.2 Pilot 3.3 Season 1 3.4 Season 2 3.5 Season 3 3.1 Theme song 3.2 Pilot 3.3 Season 1 3.4 Season 2 3.5 Season 3 4 Release Toggle Release subsection 4.1 Reruns 4.2 Nielsen ratings 4.3 Home media 4.1 Reruns 4.2 Nielsen ratings 4.3 Home media 5 Legacy 6 Episodes 7 In other media Toggle In other media subsection 7.1 Merchandising 7.2 Wonder Woman '77 comic 7.1 Merchandising 7.2 Wonder Woman '77 comic 8 References 9 External links Wonder Woman (TV series) Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Français 한국어 हिन्दी Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Wonder Woman First season title card Genre Superhero Based on Wonder Woman by .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} William Moulton Marston and H. G. Peter William Moulton Marston and H. G. Peter Developed by Stanley Ralph Ross Stanley Ralph Ross Starring Lynda Carter Lyle Waggoner Beatrice Colen Richard Eastham Debra Winger Norman Burton Saundra Sharp Lynda Carter Lyle Waggoner Beatrice Colen Richard Eastham Debra Winger Norman Burton Saundra Sharp Theme music composer Charles Fox (music) Norman Gimbel (lyrics) Charles Fox (music) Norman Gimbel (lyrics) Country of origin United States Original language English No. of seasons 3 No. of episodes 59 + movie pilot ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producers Douglas S. Cramer Wilford Lloyd Baumes Douglas S. Cramer Wilford Lloyd Baumes Producers Charles B. Fitzsimons Mark Rodgers Charles B. Fitzsimons Mark Rodgers Running time 42–51 minutes Production companies The Douglas S. Cramer Co. Bruce Lansbury Productions, Ltd. Warner Bros. Television DC Comics The Douglas S. Cramer Co. Bruce Lansbury Productions, Ltd. Warner Bros. Television DC Comics Original release Network ABC Release November 7, 1975 ( 1975-11-07 ) – February 16, 1977 ( 1977-02-16 ) Network CBS Release September 22, 1977 ( 1977-09-22 ) – September 11, 1979 ( 1979-09-11 ) Wonder Woman , known for seasons 2 and 3 as The New Adventures of Wonder Woman , is an American superhero television series based on the DC Comics comic book superhero of the same name. It stars Lynda Carter as Wonder Woman / Diana Prince and Lyle Waggoner as Steve Trevor Sr. and Jr., and aired for three seasons, from 1975 to 1979. [ 1 ] The show's first season aired on ABC and is set in the 1940s, during World War II . The second and third seasons aired on CBS and are set in the then-current day late 1970s, with the title changed to The New Adventures of Wonder Woman . [ 2 ] Plot In 1942, during World War II , American pilot Major Steve Trevor (Waggoner) bails out during an air battle over the Bermuda Triangle , location of Paradise Island . [ 3 ] The island is home to the Amazons: beautiful, ageless women with great strength, agility, and intelligence. Amazon princess Diana (Carter) rescues the handsome unconscious Trevor and helps nurse him back to health. Diana's mother, the Amazon queen ( Cloris Leachman ; succeeded by Carolyn Jones and Beatrice Straight in later episodes), decrees that Olympic -style games shall be held to select one Amazon to return Trevor back to America. But she forbids her own daughter Diana, the princess, to participate. Diana states that since she is not allowed to participate, she does not want to be present for the games and will take a retreat to the other side of the island. The games are held with participants wearing masks and numbers, shown as Roman numerals in triangles on white sleeveless short tunic -dresses. Among the contestants is a masked blonde Amazon. During the events, the blonde Amazon shows exceptional skills and she ties for first with another Amazon. To break the deadlock, the "bullets and bracelets" event is decided as the tiebreaker, wherein each of the women takes turns shooting at the other; the one being shot at must deflect the bullets with her bulletproof bracelets. The blonde woman wins the event, superficially injuring her opponent's arm. When she is pronounced the winner, she removes her mask and wig and reveals that she is Diana. Her mother, though initially shocked, relents and allows her to go to America. Diana's uniform as Wonder Woman, designed by Queen Hippolyta, features emblems of America, the land to which she will be returning Steve Trevor. A golden belt will be the source of her strength and power while away from Paradise Island. She has her bullet-deflecting bracelets and also receives a golden lasso which is unbreakable and forces people to obey and tell the truth when bound with it. As shown later in flashback, Hippolyta also teaches Diana how to magically transform her clothes into the uniform. Diana, as Wonder Woman, flies to Washington, D.C. in an invisible plane . After dropping Trevor off at a hospital, the heroine stumbles upon a bank robbery, which she stops. A theatrical agent who sees her in action offers to help make her bullets and bracelets act a stage attraction. Diana is hesitant, but needing money in this new society, she agrees. Meanwhile, Trevor's civilian secretary Marcia ( Stella Stevens ) is a double agent for the Nazi Fifth Columnists . She seeks to aid top spies in killing Trevor and opposing this new threat, Wonder Woman. Her first attempt is arranging for an accomplice to fire a machine gun at Wonder Woman during her stage act. Later, as spy activities increase, Trevor leaves the hospital but gets in a fight and is captured, prompting his "nurse" Diana to come to his rescue. Wonder Woman defeats Marcia in an extended fight sequence in the War Department . Having defeated Marcia, Wonder Woman thwarts a Nazi pilot who had plans to bomb the Brooklyn Navy Yard by using her invisible plane, and she rescues Trevor. With Marcia and the spy ring defeated, the film closes as Trevor and Brigadier General Blankenship talk about Trevor's new secretary whom Blankenship selected not only for her outstanding clerical test scores, but her decidedly plain appearance in contrast to Marcia: the bespectacled Yeoman First Class Diana Prince USNR(WR) , Wonder Woman in disguise. Cast and characters Main Lynda Carter as Diana Prince / Wonder Woman : This version of the character is exclusive to the continuity of the TV series Wonder Woman and is an adaptation of Diana Prince/Wonder Woman. The original character was created by William Moulton Marston and Harry G. Peter and first appeared in All-Star Comics #8. Lyle Waggoner as Steve Trevor and Steve Trevor Jr.: The original character was created by William Moulton Marston and Harry G. Peter and first appeared in All-Star Comics #8. The details surrounding the death of Steve Trevor Sr. remain largely unknown, but is known that Steve died some time prior to 1977. His son Steve Trevor Jr. would also work with Diana at the Inter-Agency Defense Command (IADC) center. Beatrice Colen as Etta Candy (season 1): General Phil Blankenship's secretary. She is there to provide comic relief. The original character was created by William Moulton Marston and Harry G. Peter and first appeared in Sensation Comics #2. Richard Eastham as General Philip Blankenship (season 1): He works for the War Department during the early years of World War II. In 1942, he worked with his subordinate Colonel Steve Trevor in an ongoing effort to prevent Nazi cells from infiltrating the United States and threatening the nation's security. Blankenship also kept in close contact with Steve's colleagues Diana Prince and Etta Candy. Blankenship never knew that Yeoman Prince was also Wonder Woman. John Randolph portrayed General Phil Blankenship in "The New Original Wonder Woman". Norman Burton as Joe Atkinson (season 2): Inter-Agency Defense Command's supervisor. Saundra Sharp as Eve Welch (season 2): An agent for the Inter-Agency Defense Command. Recurring characters Debra Winger as Drusilla / Wonder Girl : Born as the second daughter of Hippolyta, Queen of the Amazons, Drusilla grew up on Paradise Island along with her older sister, Princess Diana. After her sister left the island, she quickly became the finest archer and rider of the Amazons. When Hippolyta felt it was time for her elder daughter to return to the island, Drusilla was sent to America to urge her return. Reluctant to leave, Diana decided to show her younger sister of the need for Wonder Woman in the outside world. As part of this she convinced Drusilla to pose as Diana Prince's teenage sister for a few days. During this time she accompanied General Blankenship on a car trip. They were attacked by Nazi spies who abducted the general and left her behind. Unable to contact her sister, she decided to go after the spies herself and transformed into Wonder Girl. Drusilla was actually based on a one-time character from the comics of the same name back in 1969. Cloris Leachman , Carolyn Jones and Beatrice Straight as Hippolyta , Queen of the Amazons and Diana and Drusilla's mother. Production In March 1974, ABC aired the TV film Wonder Woman , produced by Warner Bros. It was directed by Vincent McEveety and starred Cathy Lee Crosby and was intended as a pilot for a potential series. The Wonder Woman of the film had little resemblance to the traditional character in either costume or abilities, although she did resemble the comic book character's 1968–73 " I Ching " period. The film's ratings were described as "respectable but not exactly wondrous" and ABC did not pick up the pilot. [ 4 ] Warner Bros. and ABC did not give up on the idea, and instead developed another TV pilot , The New Original Wonder Woman , which aired in November 1975. This film was directed by Leonard Horn and starred Lynda Carter, and its Wonder Woman more closely matched the original character created by William Moulton Marston , down to the World War II setting (Crosby would later claim that she was offered the chance to reprise the role in that film). [ 5 ] This second film was more successful and immediately led to production of the series Wonder Woman . The first two regular episodes of the new series aired in April 1976; both were directed by Barry Crane . After that, the series took a hiatus, and returned in October, with another 11 episodes that were aired on a more-or-less weekly basis. Theme song The theme song, written by composer Charles Fox and lyricist Norman Gimbel, was performed by John Bahler of The Ron Hicklin Singers . Marti McCall, Carolyn Willis of the R&B group Honey Cone , and Julia Waters of the R&B group The Waters, recorded background vocals. Pilot Despite the muted ratings of the earlier Cathy Lee Crosby television pilot , ABC still felt a Wonder Woman series had potential, and within a year another pilot was in production. Keen to make a distinction from the last pilot, producers gave the pilot the rather paradoxical title The New Original Wonder Woman . Scripting duties were given to Stanley Ralph Ross , who was instructed to be more faithful to the comic book and to create a subtle " high comedy ". Ross set the pilot in World War II, the era in which the original comic book began. After an intense talent search that included Joanna Cassidy and future Charlie's Angels star Jaclyn Smith , twenty-three-year-old Lynda Carter was chosen for the lead role. She had had a handful of minor acting roles and had been the 1972 Miss World USA and a Bob Hope USO cast member. For the role of Steve Trevor, the producers chose Lyle Waggoner, despite his dark brown, almost-black, hair not matching the comic's blond Trevor. Waggoner at the time was better known as a comedic actor after several years co-starring in The Carol Burnett Show . He was also known to Ross as having been one of the leading candidates to play Batman a decade earlier, eventually losing to Adam West . Waggoner was also considered a sex symbol, having done a semi-nude pictorial in the first issue of Playgirl . [ 6 ] Although the pilot followed the original comic book closely, in particular the aspect of Wonder Woman joining the military under the name Diana Prince, a number of elements were dropped. The comic book Diana obtains the credentials of a look-alike nurse. Although the pilot shows Diana briefly as a nurse at one point, Diana instead takes on the identity of a Navy Yeoman Petty Officer First Class (abbreviated YN1 [ 7 ] in this article). One change, which was later to become synonymous with the show, was the transformation of Diana Prince into Wonder Woman by spinning. During the filming of the pilot, producers were trying to figure out a way to show how Diana Prince became Wonder Woman, when Carter suggested that she do a spin. [ 8 ] Unlike the earlier pilot, the comic-book origins of the character were emphasized by the retention of the character's traditional uniform (the design of which was interpreted and executed by Donald Lee Feld , credited as "Donfeld") with the original setting and through the use of comic book elements. The series' title sequence was animated in the form of a series of comic book panels featuring Wonder Woman performing a variety of heroic feats. Within the show, location and exposition were handled through comic book-style text panels. Transitions between scenes and commercial breaks were marked by animated starburst sequences. Season 1 The pilot film aired on November 7, 1975, was a ratings success, and ABC quickly authorized the production of two one-hour specials which aired in April 1976. These three productions would later be considered part of the show's first season. The episodes scored strong ratings, and ABC ordered an additional 11 episodes for the new 1976–77 TV season. The network began airing the episodes every few weeks apart at the beginning of the TV season in September. After mid-December, episodes aired on a weekly basis until mid-February 1977. This season was a ratings success it ranked at number 45 in the ratings and received positive reviews. A few cast changes were made between the specials and the series. Former Happy Days recurring actress Beatrice Colen joined the cast as Corporal Etta Candy WAAC , General Blankenship's secretary, thereby providing YN1 Prince with a subordinate. Three episodes featured Debra Winger as Diana's younger sister, Drusilla, a.k.a. Wonder Girl , in one of her earliest acting roles. One of the most memorable aspects of the show that was developed during the first season was the transformation sequence that changed Diana Prince into her superheroine alter ego. The sequence in the original specials employed a slow fade between two synchronized shots, both filmed with an overcranked camera to create a slow motion effect. A twirling Diana Prince's hair would fall loose as the shot transitioned to a twirling Wonder Woman holding her Diana clothes, which she would stow nearby in a closet or locker. How she changes back to Diana is never shown, although presumably she must return to the location to retrieve her clothes. To ensure both segments transitioned smoothly the camera was locked off (secured in place) while Carter's clothing, make-up, and hair was altered between identities, a process Carter said on a DVD commentary typically took about 45 minutes. The spinning transformation was later incorporated into the comics and into animated appearances such as Justice League Unlimited . At the time of the series in which Carter starred, the transformation was depicted in the comics by way of Diana spinning her magic lasso around her body, with the lasso changing her clothes, a move that was incorporated in 1973. The original character changed much the same as Superman, by simply changing at super-human speed, her costume under her clothing, and her boots and tiara in her handbag or desk drawer. The iconic explosion overlay most associated with the TV show was introduced after the third episode to mask the cut point between the Diana and Wonder Woman clips, meaning they no longer needed to be perfectly aligned. This allowed them to be shot without a locked off camera at more convenient points in the production schedule, when Carter was already in the appropriate costume. The slow motion aspect of the sequence was dropped, and Wonder Woman was no longer left holding her Diana Prince clothes. A thunderclap sound effect accompanied the explosion effect; both the explosion flash and its sound are apparently non- diegetic (only heard by the audience, not within the narrative world), as demonstrated by Diana changing unnoticed in a dormitory of sleeping women, in adjoining office spaces, etc. Generally, the audience never sees Wonder Woman change back to Diana Prince, although there is one occasion when it is almost shown: Wonder Woman reveals her secret identity to her little sister Drusilla by slowly turning on the spot, but the actual moment of transformation is masked by a cut-away reaction shot of Drusilla (no thunderclap was heard). During season one, Wonder Woman has the ability to impersonate anyone's voice, which came in handy over the telephone. She did not use this ability during seasons two and three. The series began at a time when violence on television was under intense scrutiny. As a result, Wonder Woman was less frequently seen punching or kicking people the way she did in the early episodes. She would usually be shown pushing and throwing enemies or using creativity to get them to somehow knock themselves out (such as jumping high into the air to cause pursuers to collide). Despite the wartime setting, she almost never resorted to deadly force. The only exception occurs in the pilot episode when she sinks a German U-boat by crashing an airplane into it, presumably killing everyone aboard. Wonder Woman herself was occasionally overpowered by chloroform and poison gas, but she always came back in the second half of the show to save the day. In some episodes, her enemies learn the secret of her superhuman strength – her magic belt which gave her strength while she was away from Paradise Island – and temporarily steal it, leaving her with average human strength. Her indestructible lasso and bracelets were stolen or taken away in one episode (leaving her defenseless against gunfire), but Wonder Woman recovered them by the end of the episode. In the comics, Wonder Woman has her super strength even when away from Paradise Island and does not need a magic belt – she would lose her super strength only if her bracelets were fused or chained together by a man. Season 2 establishes that Wonder Woman remained active from 1942 to 1945 and was honored by Franklin D. Roosevelt for her work against Axis attacks. [ 9 ] Season 2 Despite good ratings for the series, ABC stalled on picking up the show for a second season. This was because Wonder Woman was a period piece, being set in the 1940s, which made the set, clothing, automobiles, etc. more expensive to produce. While ABC had not yet committed, the show's production company Warner Bros. listened to an offer from rival network CBS . While ABC continued to make up its mind, CBS agreed to pick up the series on condition that the setting be changed from World War II (the 1940s) to the modern day (the 1970s). Changing the title to The New Adventures of Wonder Woman , the series was moved away from international intrigue to a more conventional police/detective action-type show that was more common in the 1970s. Princess Diana, aging slowly because of her Amazon nature, returns from Paradise Island after a 35-year absence (looking virtually the same) to become an agent with the Inter-Agency Defense Command (IADC), a CIA / FBI -type organization fighting crime, espionage, and the occasional alien invasion. Lynda Carter was the only cast member whose character continued into the second and third seasons (aside from a brief cameo appearance of Major Trevor (Lyle Waggoner) in Diana's flashback when she first encountered his son and a framed photograph of him seen on the younger Trevor's office credenza in season 3). The original Steve Trevor was revealed to have risen to the rank of major general and died in the 35-year interim between the first and second seasons, although Lyle Waggoner remained with the series, portraying Trevor's son, Steve Jr. As a child, Steve Jr. had heard his late father's stories of adventures with Wonder Woman during World War II. [ 9 ] It is essentially confirmed in the second season première that his father never introduced him to Wonder Woman and that he had never even seen her photographed. It is similarly implied that he and YN1 Diana Prince were unaware of each other. Diana is taken aback by the younger Steve's existence, implying that his father had never spoken of the boy to either Wonder Woman or YN1 Prince. This was particularly striking when she spoke to Steve Jr. about knowing his father well, from the j-shaped burn scar on his right shoulder, to the 20mm shell casing that he used as a paperweight. Despite (or perhaps because) Wonder Woman had fallen in love with the first Steve Trevor, the producers chose to drop any suggestion that Steve Jr. and Wonder Woman were anything more than good friends. Indeed, when an impostor posing as Steve Jr. attempted to seduce Diana, she made it quite clear that she had no sexual interest in him. Executive producer Douglas S. Cramer noted the difficulties in maintaining long-term romantic tension between leads, because the resolution of that romantic tension often results in the cancellation of the series. [ 10 ] Since Waggoner returned in a technically new role, Diana's mother Hippolyta was the only other first season character to be seen or mentioned, though she was played by a new actress, Beatrice Straight , succeeding Carolyn Jones and Cloris Leachman in the role. The post-war fates of General Phil Blankenship, Etta Candy, and Drusilla / Wonder Girl were never revealed. Diana, Steve and Joe Atkinson ( Norman Burton ), a weathered IADC agent, received their orders from a " Charlie's Angels -like" character who is heard but never seen. Diana and Steve would go out and work the field while Joe assisted from the office. The Atkinson character was dropped after the ninth episode of this season, and Steve was given a promotion, becoming IADC Director, and Diana's boss, in the process. This promotion for Steve Trevor meant that Lyle Waggoner was seen less in subsequent episodes for the remainder of the series' run. In this season, the computer IRAC (Information Retrieval Associative Computer), more informally known as "Ira", was introduced: its first appearance is in season 2, episode 1, where Diana introduces her Diana Prince identity into its records, over IRAC's protests. Ira was the IADC's super-intelligent computer, who deduces that Diana Prince is really Wonder Woman, although he never shares this information with anyone, except Diana herself. Saundra Sharp joined the cast as Eve, Steve's assistant (the job held by Diana at the start of the season). Towards the end of the season, in the episode "IRAC is Missing", a small mobile robot called Rover was added for comic relief. An offshoot of IRAC who performs duties such as delivering coffee and sorting mail, Rover speaks with a high-pitched voice, occasionally makes "Beep Beep" sounds and, like IRAC, is aware that Wonder Woman's secret identity is Diana Prince. A more subtle change concerned Wonder Woman's intonation. In the first season, a mild version of the Mid-Atlantic accent , synonymous with the Golden Age of Hollywood , was used. For the second (and third) season, Wonder Woman's intonation sounded Southwest American, reflecting the region where Lynda Carter herself was born and raised (Phoenix, Arizona). Whether this change was done for the purpose of modernizing the series is unknown. The theme song was re-written to remove references to the Axis , reflecting the series' new present-day setting, and the action depicted in the opening's animated comic book panels was similarly updated. Beginning with the episode "The Man Who Made Volcanoes", the opening title sequence was changed again to an instrumental and more traditional "action scenes" opening. The animated stars used before and after commercial breaks were dropped. The producers of Wonder Woman generally maintained her no-kill policy, although there were exceptions: in the episode "Anschluss '77", she is forced to reverse the cloning procedure of a clone of Adolf Hitler ( Barry Dennen ) that was created by Nazi war criminals led by Fritz Gerlich ( Mel Ferrer ) in South America. Another episode made reference to a villain who was believed drowned following a previous unseen encounter with Diana/Wonder Woman. Unlike in the first season, Wonder Woman's sources of power (magic belt, bracelets, golden lasso) were never removed from her and stolen by villains during the two years the series was set in the 1970s. Other changes in season two included a slight redesign (again by Donald Lee Feld, still credited as "Donfeld") of Wonder Woman's uniform. The bustier was more flexible, featured less gold metal in the eagle wings in favor of red cloth background, and was cut lower to highlight Carter's décolletage and cleavage. The star-spangled bottoms were cut higher in the thighs, with the number of stars reduced, stopping below her hips, and rearranged in a more symmetrical starburst pattern. The bracelets changed from dull silver-grey to bright gold and were noticeably smaller and thinner. Her tiara, appearing unchanged when on Wonder Woman's head, would flatten to become a boomerang, and its ruby star functioned as a communications link to Paradise Island and her mother the queen. Feld also introduced new variants on Wonder Woman's uniform beginning in season two. She still wore the red-white-and-blue cape for special events or appearances from the first season, but without the skirt (this variant could be described as Wonder Woman's "full-dress uniform"). A diving uniform was introduced—this consisted of a navy-blue Lycra body suit with matching gloves, gold bracelets, flat boots, and a flexible tiara; this was featured whenever aquatic activity was required. The same uniform, with low-heeled boots and a gold helmet, was used to ride motorcycles. At first, Wonder Woman would switch to these newer uniforms by performing an extended spin in which she first changed from her Diana Prince clothes to Wonder Woman's standard uniform, then continued to spin until a second light explosion occurred and she would appear in one of the newer variants. This extended spin device was later dropped for expediency and Diana was then able to change into any of Wonder Woman's uniforms in a single change. Wonder Woman's invisible plane appeared a couple of times in season two, and not at all in season three. The plane's shape was updated with the change in temporal setting, losing the rounded fuselage and modestly curved wings evocative of a World War II-era pursuit-fighter, in favor of a dart-like, delta winged jet. The show ranked 71 in the ratings, and received positive reviews. [ citation needed ] Season 3 With the beginning of the third season, further changes were made to target the show at a teenage audience. The title theme was re-recorded again to give it a disco beat, the use of the robot 'Rover' was increased for comic effect, and episodes began to revolve around topical subjects like skateboarding , roller coasters and the environment (Feld also gave Wonder Woman a "skate-boarder's" uniform, which was also capable of use for training in any " extreme sport " in which she participated). Teenagers or young adults were commonly used as main characters in the plot lines. Eve disappeared from the cast although she is mentioned once or twice. Episodes during this season showed Diana on assignments by herself far more often (particularly outside of Washington DC), and Steve Trevor had become Diana's boss and was seen less. Wonder Woman was also allowed to become a bit more physical in the third season and could now be seen throwing the occasional punch or kick. The writers also came up with several unusual ways for Diana to execute her spinning transformation, the most notable instances occurring in the episode "Stolen Faces" in which Diana makes the change while falling off a tall building, and the season two episode "The Pied Piper" in which she changes while strapped into a spinning chair. Diana also exhibited other powers, particularly in the episode "The Deadly Dolphin", in which she is shown communicating telepathically with animals (reminiscent of the "mental radio" from the comics, which was never shown on the series) and generating bursts of an unknown form of energy to scare away a killer shark. In the final episode produced, the writers attempted a soft reboot by having Diana reassigned to the Los Angeles bureau of IADC with a new supporting cast. Though done in anticipation of a fourth season, the revamp was seen only in one episode ("The Man Who Could Not Die"), which set up an assortment of new supporting characters. These included Dale Hawthorn, Diana's new IADC boss, Bret Cassiday ( Bob Seagren ), a genetically enhanced man who was indestructible (the titular character of the episode), as well as a streetwise youngster named T. Burton Phipps III who inexplicably is allowed to hang out at the IADC. Also added to the cast was a chimpanzee who, like Bret, is also indestructible. This episode was actually the last to be produced and would have ended the third season, but was shown out of sequence with the two-part episode "The Phantom of the Roller Coaster". These three episodes aired by themselves in August–September 1979, months after the broadcast of the rest of season three, creating a mini-season, though they remain grouped as part of season three. CBS ultimately decided to move The Incredible Hulk up to the Friday 8:00-hour from 9:00 to introduce the new series The Dukes of Hazzard , but no further episodes of Wonder Woman were produced due to the lack of new cast members for a fourth season and low ratings. The show ranked at number 59 in the ratings this season, After her first musical television special, Carter gave up the role to focus more on her musical career. [ citation needed ] Release Reruns This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Wonder Woman" TV series – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ( July 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Reruns of Wonder Woman aired in syndication during the 1980s. It also aired on FX and Sci-Fi Channel in the 1990s and early 2000s. The show aired Saturday evenings on the "classic TV" network MeTV from December 28, 2013 to February 1, 2020 as part of its "Super Sci-Fi" Saturday Night science fiction block. It ran as part of Heroes & Icons ' "Action Sunday!" block from February 9 to June 28, 2020. Reruns of this series returned to H&I's weekend schedule on January 2, 2021. [ 11 ] WarnerMedia launched all 60 episodes on their HBO Max streaming platform on December 23, 2020, close to Carter's cameo appearance in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU) film Wonder Woman 1984 , which was set for release two days later. [ 12 ] It was removed on December 2024. In the United Kingdom, the series has been syndicated on several channels. In 2006, Living broadcast the show every weekend as part of "Hangover TV". As of 2015, the series is shown on The Horror Channel . Nielsen ratings Season TV season Rank Rating Households (in millions) (in millions) 1 1976–77 45 18.0 12.8 2 1977–78 71 16.4 11.9 3 1978–79 59 16.5 12.3 Home media Columbia House with Warner Home Video released the series on VHS videotapes through their Wonder Woman: The Collector's Edition series from the late 1990s to the early 2000s, which was only available through mail order subscriptions. Each volume contained two episodes. The Season Two episodes "The Pied Piper" and "Flight to Oblivion", however, were not included on the VHS releases. [ 13 ] Warner Home Video has released all three seasons of Wonder Woman on DVD in various regions, both separately and in a collected edition. DVD name Eps. Release date Details The Complete 1st Season 13 June 29, 2004 All 13 episodes (including the pilot) with commentary by Lynda Carter and executive producer Douglas S. Cramer ; new documentary retrospective The Complete 2nd Season 22 March 1, 2005 22 episodes plus a feature-length season premiere; Bonus documentary: "Revolutionizing a Classic: From Comic Book to Television" The Complete 3rd Season 24 June 7, 2005 Audio commentary by Carter on "My Teenage Idol is Missing"; featurette: "Wonder Woman: The Ultimate Feminist Icon"; The initial Region 1 release included a bonus DVD containing the first episode of the Captain Marvel television series Shazam! , "The Joy Riders" The Complete Collection 60 November 6, 2007 Pilot with commentary by Lynda Carter and executive producer Douglas S. Cramer ; new documentary retrospective; Bonus documentary: "Revolutionizing a Classic: From Comic Book to Television"; Audio commentary by Carter on "My Teenage Idol is Missing"; featurette: "Wonder Woman: The Ultimate Feminist Icon" The pilot episode is included as a bonus feature on the Blu-ray release of Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths . [ 14 ] The complete series has been remastered in high definition and reframed for a 16:9 widescreen format. This version is available for purchase on iTunes and airs on Heroes & Icons . Warner Bros. released the complete series on Blu-ray on July 28, 2020. Legacy This portrayal of the character strongly influenced the Wonder Woman comics. Most notably, the ballerina-style spinning transformation, which was Carter's idea, was incorporated into the comics. The spin has also been used in the animated television programs Super Friends and Justice League Unlimited , etc. [ 13 ] The 2018 journal article "Casting a Wider Lasso: An Analysis of the Cultural Dismissal of Wonder Woman Through Her 1975–1979 Television Series" argued that the show strongly adapted Wonder Woman's ideals but "was suppressed, undone, and discredited" by American culture as part of a larger legacy suppressing the character. [ 15 ] Visiting the Wonder Woman universe and having Lynda Carter reprising her role again was discussed by showrunner Marc Guggenheim with Warner Bros. and DC Studios during development of the Arrowverse crossover event " Crisis on Infinite Earths " (2019–2020), but concluded that it wouldn't happen. [ 16 ] After the first screening of the DC Extended Universe (DCEU) film The Flash (2023) to the attendees of the Cinemacon 2023, director Andy Muschietti and producer Barbara Muschietti revealed that a cameo appearance of Carter's Wonder Woman was considered for the film, but was left in the "cutting floor room" due to not fitting in the story. [ 17 ] Episodes Season Episodes Originally released First released Last released Network Television film pilot November 7, 1975 ABC 1 13 April 21, 1976 February 16, 1977 2 22 September 16, 1977 April 21, 1978 CBS 3 24 September 22, 1978 September 11, 1979 In other media Merchandising Mego Corporation released a line of dolls in 1977 to correspond with the TV series in the fall. The boxes originally featured Lynda Carter as Wonder Woman on the front flap, but in 1978, her image on the box was dropped and the line was revamped with only the Wonder Woman doll being featured and revised. The Mego dolls included Wonder Woman, Diana Prince , Queen Hippolyta , Nubia , and Steve Trevor . [ 18 ] The line also included separate fashion outfits for Diana Prince that were released in Canada. [ 19 ] Various playsets were also created but were not released for sale. [ 20 ] DC Direct (which creates merchandise for DC Comics) released a Wonder Woman statue in 2007 which is based upon the image created by Lynda Carter. In 2015, Hallmark released a Wonder Woman Christmas ornament bearing the likeness of Lynda Carter that also plays the intro to the television theme song. Mattel produced a 6-inch action figure of Carter's Wonder Woman as part of their DC Multiverse Signature Collection. Wonder Woman '77 comic DC published ongoing comic book series set in the Lynda Carter TV series continuity. The comic was written by Marc Andreyko . [ 21 ] It was first published as digital chapters on DC Comics' website. Wonder Woman '77 Special #1 was published in May 2015. A second Wonder Woman '77 Special collecting further digital first chapters was published in September. [ needs update ] A third special was published in April 2016. Wonder Woman teams up with Jaime Sommers in the crossover title Wonder Woman ’77 Meets the Bionic Woman . [ 22 ] [ 23 ] Wonder Woman teams up with Batman in the crossover team up Batman '66 Meets Wonder Woman '77 writing by both Andreyko and Jeff Parker. [ 24 ] References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Wonder Woman S03 DVD Extras The Ultimate Feminist Icon" . April 16, 2014. Archived from the original on November 10, 2021 – via YouTube. ^ Gary Westfahl, ed. (2005). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy, vol. 3: Themes, Works, and Wonders . Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313329531 . ^ "The Arboretum of Los Angeles County, 301 N. Baldwin Ave, in Arcadia, CA" . TVLocations . Seeing Stars. ^ Shales, Tom (November 7, 1975). "Wonder Woman Tries Comeback". The Washington Post . ^ Joby, Tom (May 12, 1980). "Cathy Crosby turns down 'Wonder Woman' offer". Associated Press. ^ Pendergast, Tom and Sara (2002). St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture, vol. 4 . St. James Press. p. 72. ISBN 1-55862-404-X . ^ "YN Career Path" (PDF) . US Navy . US. December 2019. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 17, 2012 . Retrieved September 6, 2020 . ^ Carter, Lynda. The New Original Wonder Woman commentary (DVD). ^ a b "The Return of Wonder Woman". Wonder Woman . Season 2. September 16, 1977. CBS. ^ Cramer, Douglas S. The New Original Wonder Woman commentary (DVD). ^ "Wonder Woman" . ^ "HBO Max now streaming '70s Wonder Woman TV series starring Lynda Carter" . ^ a b Patterson, Stephen (January 19, 2016). "Why Lynda Carter's Wonder Woman Will Never Be Beaten" . Moviepilot . Retrieved January 25, 2016 . ^ Lambert, David (November 24, 2009). "Justice League - Crisis on Two Earths Announced for DVD and Blu-ray: Details, Extras, Box Art" . TVShowsOnDVD.com . Archived from the original on November 27, 2009 . Retrieved November 24, 2009 . ^ Boucher, Ian (2018). "Casting a Wider Lasso: An Analysis of the Cultural Dismissal of Wonder Woman Through Her 1975-1979 Television Series" . Popular Culture Review . 29 (2): 151– 191. doi : 10.1002/j.2831-865X.2018.tb00237.x . ^ Haithman, Diane (August 4, 2019). " "Arrow" Final Season: Episode 8 Crosses Over, 9 and 10 Provide "Proper Finale", Producers Say – TCA" . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on August 5, 2019 . Retrieved April 28, 2019 . ^ Casey, Dan (April 25, 2023). "The Flash Almost Included Lynda Carter, Grant Gustin, and Other Cameos" . Nerdist . Archived from the original on April 26, 2023 . Retrieved April 28, 2023 . ^ "Wonder Woman 12" Gallery" . Mego Museum . Retrieved December 26, 2011 . ^ "Wonder Woman - Wonder Wardrobe" . Mego Museum . Retrieved December 26, 2011 . ^ "Wonder Woman Playsets" . Mego Museum . Retrieved December 26, 2011 . ^ "NYCC: DC Digital Adds "Wonder Woman '77", "Mortal Kombat X" & "Fables: Wolf Among Us" " . Comic Book Resources . October 12, 2014 . Retrieved December 5, 2014 . ^ Gustines, George Gene (July 17, 2016). "Dynamite Entertainment Taps '70s TV to Expand Lineup of Comics" . The New York Times . Retrieved July 17, 2016 . ^ Johnston, Rich (September 1, 2016). "Alex Ross And Cat Staggs' Covers For Wonder Woman '77/Bionic Woman #1, Out in December" . Bleeding Cool . Avatar Press . ^ Steinberg, Brian (October 7, 2016). "Wonder Woman From 1970s to Meet 1960s Batman in DC Cross-Over Project" . Variety . External links Television portal United States portal Speculative fiction portal @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Wonder Woman (TV series) at Wikimedia Commons Wonder Woman at IMDb New Original Wonder Woman at IMDb (1975 pilot) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wonder Woman v t e William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors Characters Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Locations Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Publications Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Storylines " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) Technology Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets In other media Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Wonder Woman episodes episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Miscellaneous Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Category v t e Live-action TV series based on DC Comics publications v t e TV series Former Adventures of Superman (1952–1958) Batman (1966–1968) Shazam! (1974–1977) The Secrets of Isis (1975–1977) Wonder Woman (1975–1979) Superboy (1988–1992) Swamp Thing (1990–1993) The Flash (1990–1991) Human Target (1992) Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman (1993–1997) Smallville (2001–2011) Birds of Prey (2002–2003) Human Target (2010–2011) Arrow (2012–2020) Gotham (2014–2019) The Flash (2014–2023) Constantine (2014–2015) iZombie (2015–2019) Supergirl (2015–2021) Legends of Tomorrow (2016–2022) Lucifer (2016–2021) Powerless (2017) Black Lightning (2018–2021) Krypton (2018–2019) DC Daily (2018–2020) Titans (2018–2023) Doom Patrol (2019–2023) Swamp Thing (2019) Pennyworth (2019–2022) Batwoman (2019–2022) Watchmen (2019) Stargirl (2020–2022) Superman & Lois (2021–2024) Sweet Tooth (2021–2024) Naomi (2022) Peacemaker (2022–2025) DMZ (2022) The Sandman (2022–2025) Gotham Knights (2023) Bodies (2023) Dead Boy Detectives (2024) The Penguin (2024) Upcoming Lanterns (2026) Unsold pilots The Adventures of Superpup The Adventures of Superboy Aquaman Wonder Woman Scalped Former Adventures of Superman (1952–1958) Batman (1966–1968) Shazam! (1974–1977) The Secrets of Isis (1975–1977) Wonder Woman (1975–1979) Superboy (1988–1992) Swamp Thing (1990–1993) The Flash (1990–1991) Human Target (1992) Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman (1993–1997) Smallville (2001–2011) Birds of Prey (2002–2003) Human Target (2010–2011) Arrow (2012–2020) Gotham (2014–2019) The Flash (2014–2023) Constantine (2014–2015) iZombie (2015–2019) Supergirl (2015–2021) Legends of Tomorrow (2016–2022) Lucifer (2016–2021) Powerless (2017) Black Lightning (2018–2021) Krypton (2018–2019) DC Daily (2018–2020) Titans (2018–2023) Doom Patrol (2019–2023) Swamp Thing (2019) Pennyworth (2019–2022) Batwoman (2019–2022) Watchmen (2019) Stargirl (2020–2022) Superman & Lois (2021–2024) Sweet Tooth (2021–2024) Naomi (2022) Peacemaker (2022–2025) DMZ (2022) The Sandman (2022–2025) Gotham Knights (2023) Bodies (2023) Dead Boy Detectives (2024) The Penguin (2024) Adventures of Superman (1952–1958) Batman (1966–1968) Shazam! (1974–1977) The Secrets of Isis (1975–1977) Wonder Woman (1975–1979) Superboy (1988–1992) Swamp Thing (1990–1993) The Flash (1990–1991) Human Target (1992) Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman (1993–1997) Smallville (2001–2011) Birds of Prey (2002–2003) Human Target (2010–2011) Arrow (2012–2020) Gotham (2014–2019) The Flash (2014–2023) Constantine (2014–2015) iZombie (2015–2019) Supergirl (2015–2021) Legends of Tomorrow (2016–2022) Lucifer (2016–2021) Powerless (2017) Black Lightning (2018–2021) Krypton (2018–2019) DC Daily (2018–2020) Titans (2018–2023) Doom Patrol (2019–2023) Swamp Thing (2019) Pennyworth (2019–2022) Batwoman (2019–2022) Watchmen (2019) Stargirl (2020–2022) Superman & Lois (2021–2024) Sweet Tooth (2021–2024) Naomi (2022) Peacemaker (2022–2025) DMZ (2022) The Sandman (2022–2025) Gotham Knights (2023) Bodies (2023) Dead Boy Detectives (2024) The Penguin (2024) Upcoming Lanterns (2026) Lanterns (2026) Unsold pilots The Adventures of Superpup The Adventures of Superboy Aquaman Wonder Woman Scalped The Adventures of Superpup The Adventures of Superboy Aquaman Wonder Woman Scalped TV films and specials Wonder Woman Legends of the Superheroes Justice League of America Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Wonder Woman Legends of the Superheroes Justice League of America Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt See also DC Extended Universe DC Studios Warner Bros. Television Arrowverse List of unproduced projects films DC Extended Universe DC Studios Warner Bros. Television Arrowverse List of unproduced projects films films Authority control databases : National United States United States 1975 American television series debuts 1979 American television series endings 1970s American superhero television series Television series set in 1942 American Broadcasting Company fantasy dramas American action adventure television series American fantasy drama television series American adventure drama television series Fantasy adventure television series CBS fantasy dramas American English-language television shows Nazis in fiction Superheroine television shows Television series about princesses Television shows based on DC Comics Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios American television series revived after cancellation Religion in fantasy fiction Television series based on classical mythology Television shows set in Washington, D.C. Drama television series about World War II Wonder Woman in other media Television shows set in the Bermuda Triangle Television shows filmed in California Use American English from March 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use mdy dates from March 2019 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2016 Articles needing additional references from July 2017 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles in need of updating from February 2016 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Commons category link is on Wikidata IMDb title ID different from Wikidata This page was last edited on 13 January 2026, at 15:49 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 4 Nobel Prizes 5 References 6 Further reading 1945 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century 20th century 21st century 19th century 20th century 21st century Decades 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s Years 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1945 by topic Subject Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American British Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American American British British By country Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Lists of leaders Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Birth and death categories Births Deaths Births Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments Disestablishments Establishments Disestablishments Works category Works Introductions Works Introductions v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1945 MCMXLV Ab urbe condita 2698 Armenian calendar 1394 ԹՎ ՌՅՂԴ Assyrian calendar 6695 Baháʼí calendar 101–102 Balinese saka calendar 1866–1867 Bengali calendar 1351–1352 Berber calendar 2895 British Regnal year 9 Geo. 6 – 10 Geo. 6 Buddhist calendar 2489 Burmese calendar 1307 Byzantine calendar 7453–7454 Chinese calendar 甲申 年 (Wood Monkey ) 4642 or 4435 — to — 乙酉年 (Wood Rooster ) 4643 or 4436 Coptic calendar 1661–1662 Discordian calendar 3111 Ethiopian calendar 1937–1938 Hebrew calendar 5705–5706 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 2001–2002 - Shaka Samvat 1866–1867 - Kali Yuga 5045–5046 Holocene calendar 11945 Igbo calendar 945–946 Iranian calendar 1323–1324 Islamic calendar 1364–1365 Japanese calendar Shōwa 20 (昭和２０年) Javanese calendar 1875–1876 Juche calendar 34 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days Korean calendar 4278 Minguo calendar ROC 34 民國34年 Nanakshahi calendar 477 Thai solar calendar 2488 Tibetan calendar ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood- Monkey ) 2071 or 1690 or 918 — to — ཤིང་མོ་བྱ་ལོ་ (female Wood- Bird ) 2072 or 1691 or 919 1945 ( MCMXLV ) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar , the 1945th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 945th year of the 2nd millennium , the 45th year of the 20th century , and the 6th year of the 1940s decade. A turning point [ 1 ] in human history , 1945 marked the end of World War II , ending with the defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan by the United States and the Soviet Union in the world of two superpowers which has led the beginning of the Cold War (1945–1991). It is also the year the Nazi concentration camps were liberated and the only year in which atomic weapons have been used in warfare . Events World War II will be abbreviated as "WWII" January January 1 – WWII: Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. January 6 – WWII: A German offensive recaptures Esztergom , Hungary from the Soviets. January 9 – WWII: American and Australian troops land at Lingayen Gulf on western coast of the largest Philippine island of Luzon , occupied by Japan since 1942. January 12 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German Army . [ 3 ] January 13 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive , to eliminate German forces in East Prussia . January 16 – WWII: Adolf Hitler takes residence in the Führerbunker in Berlin. [ 4 ] January 17 WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] January 18 – The Holocaust : The SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp . Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributed. January 19 – The Holocaust : Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto ; only 877 Jews of the initial population of 164,000 remain at this time. [ 6 ] January 20 – Germany begins the Evacuation of East Prussia . January 21 – 22 (night) – At the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing , collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing between 140 and 150 people. January 23 – WWII: Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . January 24 – WWII: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton , nine OSS men, and four SOE agents are executed by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp under Hitler's Commando Order of 1942, which stipulates the immediate execution of all captured Allied commandos or saboteurs without trial, even those in proper uniforms. Morton is the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during the war. January 25 – WWII: Hitler appoints Heinrich Himmler as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania , despite Himmler's lack of military experience. [ 7 ] January 26 – WWII: 19-year-old U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Audie Murphy sees action at Holtzwihr , France, for which is awarded the Medal of Honor . January 27 The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] January 30 – WWII: MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. January 31 – WWII: The Battle of Hill 170 in the Burma Campaign ends with the British 3rd Commando Brigade defeating the Imperial Japanese Army 54th Division , causing the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army to withdraw from the Arakan Peninsula. February February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid 's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut , announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin . [ 9 ] February 3 – WWII: Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. February 4 – 11 – WWII: President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta Conference . February 7 – WWII: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila . February 8 – The Alaska Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945, championed by charismatic native leader Elizabeth Peratrovich , is passed by the territorial Senate, after the legislature defeated a previous bill in 1943. February 9 Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. February 10 – WWII: German troopship SS General von Steuben is sunk by the Soviet submarine S-13 ; 3,608 drown. [ 10 ] February 10 – 20 – WWII: Operation Kita : The Imperial Japanese Navy returns "Completion Force", containing both its Ise -class battleships , safely from Singapore to Kure in Japan despite Allied attacks. February 12 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others. [ 11 ] February 13 – WWII: The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. February 16 – WWII: The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. February 18 – March 5 – WWII: American and Brazilian troops kick off Operation Encore in Northern Italy, a successful limited action in the Northern Apennines that prepares for the western portion of the Allied Spring offensive . [ 12 ] February 19 – 20 – 980 (actual figure is disputed) [ 13 ] Japanese soldiers die as a result of being attacked by long saltwater crocodiles in Ramree, Burma . [ 14 ] February 19 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima – About 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo Jima . February 21 – The last V-2 rocket is launched from Peenemünde . February 22 – WWII: Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. February 23 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . February 24 – Egyptian premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is assassinated in Parliament after declaring war on Germany and Japan. February 27 – The Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyed. February 28 – In Bucharest , a violent demonstration takes place, during which the Bolşevic group opens fire on the army and protesters. In response, Andrei Y. Vishinsky , USSR vice commissioner of foreign affairs and president of the Allied Control Commission for Romania , travels to Bucharest to compel Nicolae Rădescu to resign as premier. March March 1 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives what will be his last address to a joint session of the United States Congress , reporting on the Yalta Conference . March 2 Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] March 3 – WWII: Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. March 4 In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] March 5 – WWII: Brazilian troops take Castelnuovo ( Vergato ), in the last operations of the Allied Operation Encore . March 6 A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. March 7 WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] March 8 Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . March 9 – 10 – WWII: Bombing of Tokyo : USAAF B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan, with incendiary bombs , killing 100,000 citizens in the firebombing. It is the single most destructive conventional air attack of the war. March 11 The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] March 12 – WWII: Swinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation Hannibal . March 15 – 31 – WWII: The Soviet Red Army carries out the Upper Silesian Offensive . March 15 – The 17th Academy Awards ceremony is held, broadcast via radio in the United States for the first time. Best Picture goes to Going My Way . March 16 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. March 17 – WWII: Kobe , Japan is fire-bombed by 331 B-29 bombers, killing over 8,000 people. March 18 – WWII: The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] March 19 – WWII: Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. March 20 – WWII: Hitler dismisses Heinrich Himmler from his military command. [ 3 ] March 21 – WWII: British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. March 22 The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . March 24 WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . March 26 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistance, although there are Japanese holdouts here until 1949. March 27 – WWII: The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . March 29 WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . March 30 – WWII: The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . April April 1 – WWII: Battle of Okinawa : The Tenth United States Army lands on Okinawa . April 4 – WWII: American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. April 6 – WWII: Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. April 7 – WWII: The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . April 8 – The SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp ; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guards. April 9 WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . April 10 – WWII: Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] April 11 – Buchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army . April 12 Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . April 14 – WWII: The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam April 15 – WWII: The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . April 16 – WWII: The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. April 17 – WWII: Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. April 18 – American war correspondent Ernie Pyle is killed by Japanese machine gun fire on the island of Ie Shima off Okinawa . April 19 – Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Carousel , a musical play based on Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom , opens on Broadway , and becomes their second long-running stage classic. It includes the standard " You'll Never Walk Alone ". April 20 – WWII: On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] April 22 – WWII: Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. April 23 – WWII: Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. April 24 – WWII: Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . April 25 Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. April 25 – 26 – WWII: The last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command , the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro Lancasters . April 26 – WWII: Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . April 27 The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] April 28 The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . April 29 At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . April 30 – WWII: Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . May May – Interpol (being headquartered in Berlin) effectively ceases to exist (it is recreated on June 3 , 1946 ). May 1 – WWII: Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. May 2 – WWII: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. May 3 – WWII: The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] May 4 – WWII: German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] May 5 – WWII: Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. May 6 WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] May 6 – 7 – The government of the Independent State of Croatia , the Nazi-affiliated fascist puppet state established in occupied Yugoslavia , flees Zagreb for a location near Klagenfurt in Austria, but is captured in the Bleiburg repatriations that then leads to mass executions. [ 45 ] May 7 – WWII: At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. May 8 – WWII: Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] May 8 – 29 – Sétif and Guelma massacre : in Algeria , thousands die as French troops and released Italian POWs kill an estimated 6,000 to 40,000 Algerian citizens. May 9 – WWII: The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . May 10 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Sark ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops and leaving them under the orders of Dame Sibyl Hathaway . May 12 Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. May 14 – 15 – WWII: Battle of Poljana : The last battle of the War in Europe is fought at Poljana near Slovenj Gradec , Slovenia . May 15 – WWII: Surrender at Bleiburg – Retreating troops of the Croatian Armed Forces of the former puppet Independent State of Croatia (intermingled with fleeing civilians) attempt to surrender to the British Army at Bleiburg , but are directed to surrender to Yugoslav Partisans , who open fire on them. The remainder, after orders are given by Tito , are force-marched through Croatia and Serbia , interned or massacred, with thousands dying. [ 49 ] May 16 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Alderney ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops, the civilian population having been evacuated. May 18 – WWII: Operation Unthinkable – British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly requests his military chiefs of staff to consider a plan for British, American and reactivated German forces to attack the Soviet Red Army on July 1 to preserve the independence of Poland. The operation is ruled militarily unfeasible. [ 50 ] May 23 The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. May 28 – U.S.-born Irish-raised William Joyce (" Lord Haw-Haw ") is captured on the German border. He is later charged in London with high treason for his earlier English-language wartime broadcasts from German radio, convicted, and then hanged in January 1946. May 29 German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. May 30 – The Iranian government demands that all Soviet and British troops leave the country. June June 1 – The British take over Lebanon and Syria . June 5 – The Allied Control Council , the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes power. June 7 – King Haakon VII of Norway returns to Norway five years to the day after leaving for exile in Britain. June 11 William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] June 12 – The Yugoslav Army leaves Trieste , leaving the New Zealand Army in control. June 21 – WWII: The Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972 . June 24 – WWII: A victory parade is held in Red Square in Moscow. June 25 – Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second president of Ireland . June 26 – The United Nations Charter is signed in San Francisco. June 29 – Czechoslovakia cedes Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union . June 30 – John von Neumann 's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC is distributed, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer, with stored-program and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory ( von Neumann architecture ). July July 1 WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . July 2 – The 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion breaks out in Burao and Erigavo in British Somaliland , led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader. [ 52 ] July 4 – Brazilian cruiser Bahia is sunk by an accidentally induced explosion, killing more than 300 and stranding the survivors in shark-infested waters. July 5 The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. July 6 – 7 – Schio massacre : 54 prisoners, mostly fascist sympathisers, are killed by members of the Italian resistance movement in Schio . July 8 – WWII: Harry S. Truman is informed that Japan will talk peace if it can retain the reign of the Emperor. [ 51 ] July 12 – Ben Chifley is elected leader of the Labor Party , and consequently becomes the 16th Prime Minister of Australia , defeating Frank Forde as well as Norman Makin and H.V. Evatt . As a result, Forde becomes the shortest-serving prime minister in Australian history; nevertheless, he retains his post as deputy leader. July 14 – WWII: Italy declares war on Japan. July 16 The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. July 17 – August 2 – WWII: Potsdam Conference – At Potsdam , the three main Allied leaders hold their final summit of the war. President Truman officially informs Stalin that the U.S. has a powerful new weapon. July 21 – WWII: President Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against Japan. [ 51 ] July 23 – WWII: French marshal Philippe Pétain , who headed the Vichy government during WWII, goes on trial for treason. July 26 Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] July 27 – WWII: Bombing of Aomori – Two USAAF B-29s drop a total of 60,000 leaflets on the city of Aomori , Japan, warning civilians of an air raid and urging them to leave immediately. The city was firebombed the next day, killing more than 1,700 people. July 28 WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] July 29 The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. July 30 – WWII: Heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis is hit and sunk by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-58 in the Philippine Sea . Some 900 survivors jump into the sea and are adrift for up to four days. Nearly 600 die before help arrives. Captain Charles B. McVay III of the cruiser is later court-martialed and convicted; in 2000, he is posthumously exonerated. [ 55 ] August August 6 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Hiroshima : United States Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay drops a uranium-235 atomic bomb , codenamed " Little Boy ", on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. local time, resulting in between 90,000 and 146,000 deaths. August 7 – U.S. President Harry Truman announces the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, while he is returning from the Potsdam Conference aboard the U.S. Navy heavy cruiser USS Augusta (CA-31) , in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. August 8 The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. August 9 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] August 10 – WWII: Japan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the Emperor". August 11 WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. August 11 – 25 – Soviet troops complete the occupation of Sakhalin . August 13 – The Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to discuss the founding of the country of Israel . August 14 – WWII: Emperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace . At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT ), U.S. president Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrender. August 15 WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . August 17 Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . August 18 – WWII: Death of Subhas Chandra Bose : Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose is killed as a result of his overloaded Japanese plane crashing in Japanese Taiwan . August 19 – Chinese Civil War : Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the Nationalists . August 22 – Kim Il Sung as the guerilla fighter returned to the Soviet-occupied capital Pyongyang after the Red Army entered the northern peninsula of Korea . August 23 – Soviet–Japanese War : Joseph Stalin orders the detention of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union . August 25 – Bảo Đại abdicates as Emperor of Vietnam , ending 2,000 years of dynastic and monarchic rule in the country and 143 years of the Nguyễn dynasty , Paris marked the first anniversary of liberation from Nazi rule by the French Resistance as a momentous event at the Battle of Normandy against Dietrich von Choltitz . August 30 – WWII: Vietnam 's capital Hanoi is taken by the Viet Minh , which ends the French occupation in what becomes North Vietnam , and thus the southern provinces become South Vietnam . This ends the August Revolution . August 31 WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] September September 2 – World War II ends: Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] September 4 – WWII: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island , after hearing word of their country's surrender. September 5 Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. September 8 U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] September 9 Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] September 10 – Vidkun Quisling is sentenced to death for being a Nazi collaborator in Norway. [ 59 ] September 11 Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. September 12 Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. September 18 Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . September 20 – Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru demand that all British troops depart India. September 24 – Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia : The Topoľčany pogrom is carried out in Czechoslovakia. October October – Arthur C. Clarke puts forward the idea of a geosynchronous communications satellite , in a Wireless World magazine article. October 1 – 15 – Operation Backfire : Three A4 rockets are launched near Cuxhaven , in a demonstration to Allied forces. October 2 – George Albert Smith becomes president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . October 4 – The Partizan Belgrade sports club is founded in Belgrade , Serbia . October 5 – Hollywood Black Friday : A strike by the Set Decorator's Union in Hollywood results in a riot. October 8 – 15 – Hadamar Trial: Personnel of the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre , now in the American zone of Allied-occupied Germany , are the first to be tried for systematic extermination in Nazi Germany . October 9 – Former prime minister Pierre Laval is sentenced to death, for collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France . [ 59 ] October 10 – The Nazi Party is dissolved by the Allied Powers. October 14 – Czechoslovakia : A new provisional national assembly is elected, Kim Il Sung made his first major public appearance in Pyongyang as the celebration of liberation where he was officially introduced to the public by the Soviet authorities as a national hero, a legendary guerrilla fighter and leader. [ 59 ] October 15 – 21 – The Fifth Pan-African Congress is held in Manchester . October 16 – The Food and Agriculture Organization is established at a meeting in Quebec City , as a specialized agency of the United Nations , Syngman Rhee returned to the southern peninsula of Korea as he arrived in Seoul by becoming a prominent figure under the U.S. occupation. October 17 – A massive number of people, headed for the General Confederation of Labour (Argentina) , gather in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires to demand Juan Perón 's release. This is known to the Peronists as the Día de la lealtad ( Loyalty Day ) and considered the founding day of Peronism . October 18 – Isaías Medina Angarita , president of Venezuela , is overthrown by a military coup . [ 59 ] October 19 – Members of the Indonesian People's Army attack Anglo-Dutch forces in Indonesia . [ 59 ] October 20 – Mongolians vote for independence from China. [ 59 ] October 21 – Women's suffrage : Women are allowed to vote in the French Legislative Election for the first time. October 22 – Rómulo Betancourt is named provisional president of Venezuela . [ 59 ] October 24 The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] October 25 WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. October 27 – November 20 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia fight British and British Indian troops in Surabaya . October 29 Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. October 30 – The undivided country of India joins the United Nations . November November 1 International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . November 5 – Colombia joins the United Nations . November 6 – Indonesians reject an offer of autonomy from the Dutch . [ 59 ] November 7 – South Africa and Mexico both joined the United Nations . November 9 – Soo Bahk Do and Moo Duk Kwan martial arts are founded in Korea . November 10 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Following the killing of British officer Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby on October 30, the British Indian Army (in support of its allied Dutch colonial administration) begins an advance on Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies against Indonesian nationalists; although most of the city is retaken in 3 days of heavy fighting, the strength of the resistance leads to today being celebrated as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) in Indonesia. November 11 – 1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election : Marshal Josip Broz Tito and the People's Front win a decisive majority (90%) in the Yugoslavian Assembly. [ 59 ] November 15 Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] November 16 Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. November 18 – The Tudeh party starts a bloodless coup, and will form Azerbaijan within days. Soviet troops prevent Iranian troops from getting involved. November 20 – The Nuremberg trials begin: Trials against 22 Nazis for war crimes of World War II start at the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg . [ 59 ] November 26 – U.S. ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigns after he is unable to broker a deal between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Tse-tung . [ 59 ] November 28 The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] November 29 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. December December 1 – German general Anton Dostler is executed by firing squad in Italy for the war crime of ordering the summary execution of captured U.S. commandos. The U.S. military tribunal which has tried him has not accepted his plea of " superior orders ", setting a precedent for future Allied war crimes trials . [ 63 ] December 2 General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. December 3 – Communist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil War . December 4 – The United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7. December 5 – Flight 19 of United States Navy Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers disappears on a training exercise from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale . December 9 – American General George S. Patton is involved in a car accident in Germany, resulting in his death on December 21. December 21 – Iraq joins the United Nations . December 27 – Twenty-one nations ratify the articles creating the World Bank . [ 64 ] Date unknown A team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (led by Charles D. Coryell ) discovers chemical element 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the periodic table , which they will name promethium . [ 65 ] Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947. The Australian government introduces an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to encourage the immigration of British subjects, at a fare of £ 10, hence they become known as " Ten Pound Poms ". [ 66 ] The first geothermal milk pasteurization is done in Klamath Falls, Oregon , United States. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January January 1 Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver January 3 – Stephen Stills , American rock singer-songwriter ( Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young ) January 4 Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate January 5 Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist January 7 Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) January 10 – Sir Rod Stewart , British rock singer January 12 – André Bicaba , Burkinabé sprinter January 14 – Einar Hákonarson , Icelandic painter January 15 Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family January 17 – Javed Akhtar , Indian political activist, poet, lyricist and screenwriter January 20 – Robert Olen Butler , American writer January 21 Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor January 24 – Subhash Ghai , Indian film director, producer and screenwriter January 25 – Leigh Taylor-Young , American actress January 26 Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) January 27 – Harold Cardinal , Cree political leader, writer and lawyer (d. 2005 ) January 28 Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) January 29 Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) January 31 – Joseph Kosuth , American artist February February 1 – Yasuhiro Takai , Japanese professional baseball player (d. 2019 ) February 3 Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer February 4 – John P. Jumper , United States Air Force general February 5 – Sarah Weddington , American attorney (d. 2021 ) February 6 – Bob Marley , Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981 ) February 7 – Gerald Davies , Welsh rugby player February 9 Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] February 10 – Koo Bon-moo , South Korean business executive (d. 2018 ) February 12 Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist February 13 – Simon Schama , English historian [ 68 ] February 14 Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein February 15 – Douglas Hofstadter , American cognitive scientist February 17 – Brenda Fricker , Irish actress [ 69 ] February 18 – Hashem Mahameed , Israeli politician (d. 2018 ) February 22 – Oliver , American singer ( Good Morning Starshine ) (d. 2000 ) February 24 – Barry Bostwick , American actor February 25 – Roy Saari , American swimmer (d. 2008 ) February 26 – Marta Kristen , Norwegian actress ( Lost In Space ) February 27 – Carl Anderson , American singer, actor ( Jesus Christ Superstar ) (d. 2004 ) February 28 Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) March March 1 – Dirk Benedict , American actor March 3 – George Miller , Australian film director March 4 Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player March 7 – Arthur Lee , American musician (d. 2006 ) March 8 Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter March 9 Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer March 10 – Nobuhiko Higashikuni , Japanese Imperial prince (d. 2019 ) March 13 Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician March 14 – Michael Martin Murphey , American country singer-songwriter March 16 – Douglas Ahlstedt , American tenor March 17 Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) March 18 Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist March 20 Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach March 21 – Charles Greene , American Olympic athlete (d. 2022 ) March 26 – Mikhail Voronin , Russian gymnast (d. 2004 ) March 27 – Władysław Stachurski , Polish football player, manager (d. 2013 ) March 28 Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress March 29 Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) March 30 – Eric Clapton , English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter [ 71 ] March 31 Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] April April 2 – Linda Hunt , American actress [ 74 ] April 4 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit , French political activist [ 75 ] April 5 Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) April 12 – Lee Jong-wook , South Korean Director-General of the World Health Organization (d. 2006 ) April 13 Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) April 14 Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa April 20 – Naftali Temu , Kenyan Olympic long-distance runner (d. 2003 ) April 21 – Ana Lúcia Torre , Brazilian actress April 24 – Larry Tesler , American computer scientist (cut, copy, paste) (d. 2020 ) April 25 – Björn Ulvaeus , Swedish rock songwriter ( ABBA ) April 29 – Tammi Terrell , African-American soul singer (d. 1970 ) April 30 – Lara Saint Paul , Eritrean-born Italian singer (d. 2018 ) May May 1 – Rita Coolidge , American pop singer May 2 – Bianca Jagger , Nicaraguan social activist [ 76 ] May 3 – Jeffrey C. Hall , American geneticist and chronobiologist, Nobel Prize laureate May 4 David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist May 6 – Bob Seger , American rock singer May 7 – Robin Strasser , American actress May 8 – Keith Jarrett , American musician [ 77 ] May 9 – Jupp Heynckes , German footballer and manager May 11 Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist May 13 – Tammam Salam , 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon May 14 – Yochanan Vollach , Israeli footballer and president of Maccabi Haifa, CEO May 15 – Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza , heir to the Portuguese crown May 17 – Tony Roche , Australian tennis player May 19 – Pete Townshend , English rock guitarist, lyricist ( The Who ) May 20 – Anton Zeilinger , Austrian quantum physicist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 78 ] May 21 Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut May 22 – Victoria Wyndham , American actress ( Another World ) May 23 Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer May 24 – Priscilla Presley , American actress, businesswoman May 28 Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) May 29 Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) May 30 Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) May 31 Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire June June 1 – Frederica von Stade , American mezzo-soprano June 2 – Jon Peters , American film producer June 3 – Hale Irwin , American professional golfer June 4 – Anthony Braxton , American composer and musical instrumentalist June 5 John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) June 6 – David Dukes , American actor (d. 2000 ) June 7 – Wolfgang Schüssel , Chancellor of Austria June 9 – Nike Wagner , German woman of the theater June 10 – Benny Gallagher , Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist, half of duo Gallagher and Lyle June 11 – Adrienne Barbeau , American actress, television personality and author ( Maude ) June 12 – Pat Jennings , Northern Irish footballer June 14 – Jörg Immendorff , German painter June 15 Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) June 16 Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician June 17 P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist June 19 Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient June 20 – Anne Murray , Canadian singer June 21 Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter June 22 Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) June 23 Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer June 24 George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician June 25 Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army June 26 – Paul Chun , Hong Kong actor June 27 Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School June 28 Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) June 29 – Chandrika Kumaratunga , 5th President of Sri Lanka June 30 Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician July July 1 Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) July 2 – Linda Warren , American author July 3 – Thomas Mapfumo , Zimbabwean musician July 4 Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist July 5 Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor July 6 – Burt Ward , American actor ( Batman ) July 7 Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer July 8 – Micheline Calmy-Rey , Swiss Federal Councilor July 9 Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer July 10 Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) July 11 – Richard Wesley , American playwright, screenwriter July 12 Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player July 14 – Antun Vujić , Croatian politician, philosopher, political analyst, lexicographer and author July 15 Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) July 16 Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter July 17 Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia July 19 Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician July 20 Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat July 21 John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman July 23 – Edie McClurg , American actress July 24 – Azim Premji , Indian businessman July 26 Helen Mirren , British actress Helen Mirren , British actress July 28 – Jim Davis , American cartoonist ( Garfield ) July 30 Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) August August 1 – Douglas Osheroff , American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate August 4 – Alan Mulally , American businessman, CEO of the Ford Motor Company August 5 – Loni Anderson , American actress ( WKRP in Cincinnati ) (d. 2025 ) August 8 – Julie Anne Robinson , British theatre, television, film director and producer August 9 – Posy Simmonds , English cartoonist August 12 Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) August 14 Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer August 15 Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] August 17 – Katri Helena , Finnish singer August 19 – Ian Gillan , English rock singer ( Deep Purple ) August 22 David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) August 24 – Vincent K. "Vince" McMahon , American professional wrestling promoter, chairman and CEO of WWE August 25 – Daniel Hulet , Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011 ) August 26 – Tom Ridge , American politician August 27 – Marianne Sägebrecht , German film actress August 29 Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete August 31 Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor September September 1 – Mustafa Balel , Turkish writer September 5 K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) September 6 – Victor Ramahatra , 5th Prime Minister of Madagascar September 7 – Jacques Lemaire , Canadian ice hockey coach September 8 Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player September 10 – José Feliciano , Puerto Rican-American singer (" Feliz Navidad ") September 11 – Franz Beckenbauer , German footballer and manager (d. 2024 ) September 12 – Richard Thaler , American economist September 14 – Benjamin Harjo Jr. , Native American artist September 15 – Jessye Norman , American soprano (d. 2019 ) September 16 – Pat Stevens , American voice actress (d. 2010 ) September 17 Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor September 18 John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) September 19 - Randolph Mantooth , American actor September 21 Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet September 22 – Gonzaguinha , Brazilian singer, composer (d. 1991 ) September 24 – John Rutter , English choral composer, conductor September 26 – Bryan Ferry , English singer-songwriter and musician ( Roxy Music ) September 27 – Jack Goldstein , Canadian artist (d. 2003 ) September 29 – Nadezhda Chizhova , Russian athlete September 30 Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter October October 1 Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India October 2 Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") October 3 – Viktor Saneyev , Soviet athlete and Olympic champion (d. 2022 ) October 6 – Ivan Graziani , Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1997 ) October 9 Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) October 12 Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) October 18 Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer October 19 Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) October 22 – Yvan Ponton , Canadian actor, sportscaster October 23 – Kim Larsen , Danish rock musician (d. 2018 ) October 24 Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science October 25 Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor October 26 Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) October 27 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) October 29 Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress October 30 – Henry Winkler , American actor, producer and director ( Happy Days ) November November 3 – Gerd Müller , German footballer (d. 2021 ) November 5 – Jacques Lanctôt , Canadian terrorist November 7 Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer November 8 – Joseph James DeAngelo , American serial killer and serial rapist November 9 – Charlie Robinson , African-American actor (d. 2021 ) November 10 – Madeleine Juneau , Canadian museologist November 11 – Daniel Ortega , 58th and 62nd President of Nicaragua November 12 – Neil Young , Canadian singer-songwriter, musician November 15 – Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Norwegian-born rock singer ( ABBA ) November 17 Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria November 18 Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka November 21 – Goldie Hawn , American actress Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician November 22 – Kari Tapio , Finnish singer (d. 2010 ) November 23 – Dennis Nilsen , Scottish serial killer (d. 2018 ) [ 87 ] November 24 – Nuruddin Farah , Somali novelist November 25 – Mary Jo Deschanel , American actress November 26 – John McVie , English rock musician ( Fleetwood Mac ) November 27 Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) November 30 Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) December December 1 Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer December 2 – Tex Watson , American multiple murderer, 'Manson Family' member December 3 – Bozhidar Dimitrov , Bulgarian historian, politician and polemicist (d. 2018 ) December 4 – Geoff Emerick , English recording engineer (d. 2018 ) December 7 – Clive Russell , English actor December 8 – Julie Heldman , American tennis player [ 89 ] December 10 – John Ankerberg , American Christian television host, author and speaker December 11 – Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor December 12 René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) December 15 Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor December 16 – Patti Deutsch , American voice actress (d. 2017 ) December 17 – Ernie Hudson , African-American actor December 18 – Carolyn Wood , American professional swimmer December 19 – Elaine Joyce , American actress, game show panelist December 20 Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) December 21 – Mari Lill , Estonian actress December 22 – Diane Sawyer , American news journalist December 23 – Donald A. Ritchie , American historian December 24 Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer December 25 – Noel Redding , English musician (d. 2003 ) [ 91 ] December 29 – Birendra of Nepal , King of Nepal (d. 2001 ) December 30 – Davy Jones , English-born pop singer, actor ( The Monkees ) (d. 2012 ) December 31 Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Deaths January January 2 – Sir Bertram Ramsay , British admiral (b. 1883 ) January 3 – Edgar Cayce , American mystic (b. 1877 ) January 4 – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno , 3-time President of Costa Rica (b. 1859 ) January 6 Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) January 7 Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) January 9 – Jüri Uluots , 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1890 ) January 10 – Pēteris Juraševskis , 8th Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1872 ) January 12 – Teresio Olivelli , Italian Roman Catholic soldier and venerable (b. 1916 ) January 15 – Pedro Abad Santos , Filipino politician, brother of José Abad Santos (b. 1876 ) January 16 – José Fabella , Filipino physician (b. 1888 ) January 19 Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) January 20 – Federico Pedrocchi , Italian artist, writer (killed on active service) (b. 1907 ) January 21 Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) January 22 – Else Lasker-Schüler , German poet, author (b. 1869 ) January 23 Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) January 29 – Hans Conrad Leipelt , Austrian member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany (executed) (b. 1921 ) January 30 Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) January 31 – Eddie Slovik , American soldier (executed for desertion) (b. 1920 ) [ 96 ] February February (or March) – Anne Frank , German-born Jewish diarist, writer (typhus in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp ) (b. 1929 ) [ 97 ] February 1 Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) February 2 Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) February 3 – Roland Freisler , Nazi German judge (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 5 Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) February 6 – Robert Brasillach , French writer (executed) (b. 1909 ) [ 98 ] February 8 – Robert Mallet-Stevens , French architect, designer (b. 1886 ) February 11 – Al Dubin , Swiss-born American songwriter (b. 1891 ) February 13 – Maria Orosa , Filipino technologist, chemist, humanitarian and WWII heroine (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 16 – Otto Kittel , German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1917 ) [ 99 ] February 18 – Ivan Chernyakhovsky , Soviet general (died of wounds) (b. 1906 ) February 19 – John Basilone , American war hero (killed in action) (b. 1916 ) February 21 – Eric Liddell , British Olympic athlete (in internment camp) (b. 1902 ) February 22 – Sara Josephine Baker , American physician (b. 1873 ) February 23 José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] February 24 – Josef Mayr-Nusser , Italian Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1910 ) February 25 – Mário de Andrade , Brazilian writer, photographer (b. 1893 ) February 26 – Millard Harmon , American general (b. 1888 ) [ 101 ] March March 2 – Emily Carr , Canadian painter (b. 1871 ) March 3 Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) March 4 Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) March 5 – George Alan Vasey , Australian general (killed in military aircraft accident) (b. 1895 ) March 12 – Friedrich Fromm , German Nazi official (executed) (b. 1888 ) March 14 – Francisco Braga , Brazilian composer (b. 1868 ) March 15 – Sava Caracaș , Romanian general (b. 1890 ) March 18 – William Grover-Williams , British/French racing driver, war hero (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 104 ] March 19 – Marcel Callo , French Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (in concentration camp) (b. 1921 ) March 20 – Lord Alfred Douglas , English poet (b. 1870 ) March 22 Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) March 23 – Élisabeth de Rothschild , French WWII heroine (b. 1902 ) March 26 David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) March 27 – Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil , Turkish author (b. 1867 ) March 29 – Ferenc Csik , Hungarian swimmer (air raid victim) (b. 1913 ) March 30 – Maurice Rose , American general (killed in action) (b. 1899 ) [ 105 ] March 31 Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) April April 7 Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) April 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] April 10 Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] April 11 – Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard , British colonial administrator (b. 1858 ) April 12 – Franklin D. Roosevelt , American political leader and statesman, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882 ) April 13 – Ernst Cassirer , German philosopher (b. 1874 ) April 15 – Joachim Albrecht Eggeling , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1884 ) April 18 Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) April 21 Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) April 22 – Käthe Kollwitz , German artist (b. 1867 ) April 23 – Klaus Bonhoeffer , German resistance fighter, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1901 ) April 24 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz , German SS Reichsphysician (suicide) (b. 1899 ) April 28 Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) April 29 – Achille Starace , Italian Fascist politician (executed) (b. 1889 ) April 30 Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) May May 1 Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) May 2 Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) May 3 – Mario Blasich , Italian physician, politician (b. 1878 ) May 4 – Fedor von Bock , German field marshal (killed in action) (b. 1880 ) [ 108 ] May 6 – Xhem Hasa , Albanian nationalist (assassinated) (b. 1908 ) May 7 – Vladimir Boyarsky , Soviet army officer (executed) (b. 1901 ) May 8 Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 9 – Gustav Becking , German musicologist (b. 1894 ) May 10 – Konrad Henlein , Sudeten German Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 11 Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] May 14 Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) May 15 Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) May 16 – Kaju Sugiura , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1896 ) May 18 – William Joseph Simmons , American founder of the second Ku Klux Klan (b. 1880 ) May 19 – Philipp Bouhler , German Nazi leader and general (suicide) (b. 1899 ) May 21 – Prince Kan'in Kotohito , Japanese prince, member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (b. 1865 ) May 23 – Heinrich Himmler , German politician, Reichsführer-SS (suicide) (b. 1900 ) May 24 – Robert Ritter von Greim , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1892 ) May 25 Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] May 31 Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) June June 4 – Georg Kaiser , German dramatist (b. 1878 ) June 7 – Kitaro Nishida , Japanese philosopher (b. 1870 ) June 8 Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) June 11 – Lurana W. Sheldon , American author and editor (b. 1862 ) June 13 – Minoru Ōta , Japanese admiral (suicide) (b. 1891 ) June 15 Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) June 16 Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) June 18 Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) June 20 Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) June 22 Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) June 24 – José Gutiérrez Solana , Spanish painter (b. 1886 ) June 27 – Emil Hácha , 3rd President of Czechoslovakia , State President of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1872 ) June 30 Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) July July 1 – Félix Evaristo Mejía , Dominican diplomat, educator and writer (b. 1866 ) July 2 – Óscar R. Benavides , Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, politician and President of Peru (b. 1876 ) July 5 – John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885 ) July 7 – Peter To Rot , Papuan Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1912 ) July 9 – Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti , Italian politician, diplomat (b. 1876 ) July 12 Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) July 13 – Alla Nazimova , Russian-born American actress (b. 1879 ) July 17 – Ernst Busch , German field marshal, as prisoner of war (b. 1885 ) July 20 – Paul Valéry , French poet (b. 1871 ) July 24 – Arnold von Winckler , German general (b. 1856 ) July 25 – Malin Craig , United States Army general (b. 1875 ) July 28 – Margot Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith (b. 1864 ) July 29 – Maria Pierina De Micheli , Italian Roman Catholic religious sister, mystic and blessed (b. 1890 ) July 31 – Artemio Ricarte , Filipino general (b. 1866 ) August August 1 – Blas Cabrera Felipe , Spanish physicist (b. 1878 ) August 2 – Pietro Mascagni , Italian composer (b. 1863 ) August 3 – Roman Kochanowski , Polish painter, illustrator (b. 1857 ) August 4 – Gerhard Gentzen , German mathematician and logician (starvation in prison camp) (b. 1909 ) August 5 – Nat Jaffe , American swing jazz pianist (b. 1918 ) August 7 – Jacques Vaillant de Guélis , British/French WWII hero (injuries received in automobile accident) (b. 1907 ) August 8 – Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane , French flatulist (b. 1857 ) August 9 Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) August 10 – Robert H. Goddard , American rocket scientist (b. 1882 ) August 12 – Karl Leisner , German Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1915 ) August 15 Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) August 16 – Takijirō Ōnishi , Japanese admiral (ritual suicide) (b. 1891 ) August 18 Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) August 24 – Shizuichi Tanaka , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1887 ) August 25 – Willis Augustus Lee , American admiral, Olympic shooter (b. 1888 ) August 26 Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) August 27 – Blessed María Pilar Izquierdo Albero , Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed (b. 1906 ) August 29 – Fritz Pfleumer , German engineer, inventor (b. 1881 ) August 30 – Florencio Harmodio Arosemena , 6th President of Panama (b. 1872 ) August 31 Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) September September 6 Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) September 9 – Aage Bertelsen , Danish painter (b. 1873 ) September 12 – Hajime Sugiyama , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1880 ) September 15 Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) September 16 – John McCormack , Irish tenor (b. 1884 ) September 18 José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) September 20 Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) September 24 – Hans Geiger , German physicist, inventor (b. 1882 ) September 26 Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) October October 1 – Walter Bradford Cannon , American physiologist (b. 1871 ) [ 119 ] October 6 – Leonardo Conti , German physician, Nazi officer (suicide) (b. 1900 ) October 8 – Felix Salten , Austrian author (b. 1869 ) [ 120 ] October 10 – Joseph Darnand , Vichy French politician (executed) (b. 1897 ) October 12 – Dmytro Antonovych , Soviet politician (b. 1877 ) October 13 – Milton S. Hershey , American chocolate tycoon (b. 1857 ) October 15 – Pierre Laval , French politician, 2-time Prime Minister of France (executed) (b. 1883 ) [ 59 ] October 18 – Frederick Hovey , American tennis player (b. 1868 ) October 19 Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) October 21 Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] October 24 Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) October 25 – Robert Ley , German Nazi politician (suicide) (b. 1890 ) October 26 Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) October 30 – Xian Xinghai , Chinese composer (b. 1905 ) October 31 Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) November November 8 – August von Mackensen , German field marshal (b. 1849 ) November 11 – Jerome Kern , American composer (b. 1885 ) [ 123 ] November 13 – Sir Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair , British admiral (b. 1865 ) [ 124 ] November 16 – Sigurður Eggerz , Minister for Iceland during World War I and 2nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1875 ) November 17 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1882 ) November 20 – Francis William Aston , British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877 ) November 21 Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] November 23 – Charles Coborn , British singer (b. 1852 ) November 27 – Josep Maria Sert , Spanish Catalan muralist (b. 1874 ) November 28 – Dwight F. Davis , American tennis player (b. 1879 ) November 30 – Shigeru Honjō , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1876 ) December December 1 – Anton Dostler , German general (executed) (b. 1891 ) December 4 Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] December 5 – Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1864 ) December 8 – Gabriellino D'Annunzio , Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1886 ) December 12 – Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1868 ) December 13 Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) December 14 – Forrester Harvey , Irish actor (b. 1884 ) December 16 Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) December 19 – Leonard F. Wing , American general and politician (b. 1893 ) [ 129 ] December 21 – George S. Patton , American general (injuries from automobile accident) (b. 1885 ) [ 130 ] December 22 – Otto Neurath , Austrian philosopher, political economist (b. 1892 ) December 26 Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) December 28 – Theodore Dreiser , American novelist (b. 1871 ) [ 131 ] Nobel Prizes Physics – Wolfgang Pauli Chemistry – Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Physiology or Medicine – Sir Alexander Fleming , Ernst Chain , Howard Florey Literature – Gabriela Mistral Peace – Cordell Hull References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What Was 1945 a Turning Point - 1377 Words | Bartleby" . ^ Girbig, Werner (1975). 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Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. ^ Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (November 3, 2009). Danger's Hour: The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot Who Crippled Her . Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-6081-7 . ^ "AAFA Bio - Kenneth J. Alford" . ^ "Ishii Kikujiro | Biography & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . March 15, 2024. ^ "Boris Galerkin" . TheFreeDictionary.com . ^ Harry Hillman Taken by Death, Cumberland News , August 10, 1945 ^ Firoz Alam (October 1, 2009). Subhas Chandra Bose . Sahni Publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-7564-242-3 . ^ Fildes, P. (February 13, 1956). "Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer, 1858-1945" . Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 2 (2): 237– 247. doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1956.0016 . S2CID 73380545 . ^ .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} Stevens, Halsey. 2018. " Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer ". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018). ^ "Kaupisch, Leonhard" (in German). lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ "Dr. W.B. Cannon, 73, Neurologist, Dead. Harvard Psychology Professor for 36 Years Noted for His Work on Traumatic Shock Became Professor in 1906" . New York Times . October 2, 1945 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 . ^ "Felix Salten | Austrian novelist | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . September 2, 2023. ^ "Felicija Bortkevičienė" . www.vle.lt . ^ Franklin Carmichael ^ Hugh Fordin, Stephen Sondheim (1995). Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II . Da Capo Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-306-80668-1 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ [Sinclair, Sir Edwyn Sinclair Alexander-, of Freswick (1865–1945)] ^ Billy Altman, Laughter's Gentle Soul: The Life of Robert Benchley . (New York City: W. W. Norton , 1997. ISBN 0-393-03833-5 ) Pages 352–362 ^ Inge, Tonette Bond. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture , ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William R. Ferris. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 884. ^ FC, Celtic. "Jimmy Quinn" . Celtic FC . ^ Siegman, Joseph (2020). Jewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496222121 . ^ Wing, Leonard Fish ^ Axelrod, Alan (2006), Patton: A Biography , London : Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 168– 9, ISBN 978-1-4039-7139-5 ^ Theodore Dreiser Recalled . Clemson University Press. 2017. p. 311. ISBN 9781942954446 . Further reading Ian Buruma . Year Zero: A History of 1945 (Penguin Press; 2013) 368 pages; covers liberation, revenge, decolonization, and the rise of the United Nations. excerpt International News Service, It Happened In 1945 The Essential Year Book (1946) Keith Lowe. Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (2012) excerpt and text search McDannald, A. H. ed. The Americana Annual 1946 (1946) events of 1945 online ; encyclopedia yearbook global coverage in 950pp Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, 4 vol., encyclopedia yearbook online v t e Events by month v t e 1949 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1948 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1947 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1946 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1945 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1944 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1943 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1942 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1941 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1940 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1945 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2022 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with dead external links from February 2023 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with dead external links from March 2025 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from August 2019 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 01:14 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Announcement 2 Crackdown 3 See also 4 References Honduran gang crackdown Español Français Português Русский Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article needs to be updated . The reason given is: Updates needed past June 2023. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( November 2023 ) Honduran gang crackdown (2022–present) Régimen de Excepción Xiomara Castro declaring the state of emergency Date .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} 6 December 2022 – present (3 years, 1 month and 1 week) 6 December 2022 – present (3 years, 1 month and 1 week) Location Honduras Status Ongoing Parties Criminal gangs Mara Salvatrucha 18th Street gang Honduran government Honduran Army National Police Criminal gangs Mara Salvatrucha 18th Street gang Criminal gangs Mara Salvatrucha 18th Street gang Honduran government Honduran Army National Police Honduran government Honduran Army National Police Lead figures .mw-parser-output .infobox-columns{display:flex}.mw-parser-output .infobox .infobox-columns-text-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns>div{box-sizing:border-box;width:50%;padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns-3>div{width:33.33%}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns-4>div{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns>div:not(:first-child){border-left:1px dotted #aaa;padding-left:5px} Uncentralized leadership Xiomara Castro Gustavo Sánchez Uncentralized leadership Xiomara Castro Gustavo Sánchez Casualties Death 100+ [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Arrested 652 (as of 3 February 2023) [ 4 ] The Honduran gang crackdown , referred to in Honduras as the Régimen de Excepción ( Spanish for State of Exception ), began in December 2022 after parts of the constitution were suspended to fight criminal gangs in the country. Initially instituted for forty-five days in two municipalities, Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula , the state of exception has been renewed and extended to more than half of the country's cities. The government strengthened police resources, built several high-security prisons, authorized the deployment of security forces in the streets, and authorized the deployment of military forces in the streets to support the police. The homicide rate has fallen from 38 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2022 to 31 in 2023, a drop of 17%. However, according to some specialists, the reduction in crime is not directly linked to the state of emergency. [ 5 ] Announcement On 24 November 2022, the government of Honduras declared a state of emergency regarding gang violence in the country. [ 6 ] On 3 December 2022, the government announced that some constitutional rights would be suspended in the cities of Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula to crack down on criminal gangs in those two cities, particularly Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and 18th Street Gang . In those cities, the gangs are accused of extorting residents in exchange for protection from violence, and of killing people who refuse to pay. According to Association for a More Just Society, the gangs earn an estimated US$737 million per year through extortion. [ 7 ] Gustavo Sánchez , the commissioner of the National Police , stated the state of exception would persist for 30 days. [ 8 ] Xiomara Castro , the president of Honduras , condemned the gangs' use of extortion, stating, "[Extortion] is one of the main causes of insecurity, migration, displacement, loss of freedom, violent deaths and the closure of small and medium-sized businesses. With the comprehensive strategy against extortion and related crimes announced today by the national police, this government of democratic socialism declares war on extortion." [ 9 ] According to Leandro Osorio, the former commissioner of the National Police, the crackdown would "carry repressive actions" and would "penetrate" the gangs to capture their leaders. Raúl Pineda Alvarado, a Honduran security analyst, stated that the crackdown would be an "imitation" of a similar gang crackdown in El Salvador which began in March 2022. [ 10 ] In more than half of the country's cities the government strengthened police resources, built several high-security prisons, authorized the deployment of security forces in the streets, and carried out arrests and searches without warrants. [ citation needed ] Crackdown The crackdown began on 6 December 2022 at 6:00 p.m. when 2,000 police officers entered areas controlled by the gangs in Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula. [ 8 ] On 8 January 2023, Castro extended the state of exception by 45 days. [ 11 ] [ needs update ] The state of Emergency was extended in 21 February 2023 [ 12 ] and later in 8 April 2023. [ 13 ] On 20 June, at least 46 women were killed in a riot at a women's prison in the town of Támara. [ 2 ] From June 24 to 25, thirteen people, 12 men, and 1 woman, were shot dead at a birthday party in the northern manufacturing city of Choloma . At least 11 others were killed in separate incidents across the northern de Sula region in what are assumed to be drug-related killings. Following the incident, the government imposed an immediate 15-day curfew in Choloma between 9 pm and 4 am and another in San Pedro Sula , effective 4 July. [ 3 ] On 15 June 2024, Honduran President Xiomara Castro announced new measures to reduce gang activity in Honduras, including the construction of a 20,000-capacity "megaprison" and plans to designate gang members as terrorists. [ 14 ] On 19 September, two inmates are killed while three others are injured in an attempted jailbreak at a men's prison in Támara . [ 15 ] See also Crime portal Honduras portal Salvadoran gang crackdown References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Honduras expands and extends its state of emergency" . NBC News . Retrieved 29 April 2023 . ^ a b "More than 40 women killed in Honduran prison riot" . AL JAZEERA . ^ a b "Honduras brings in curfews after night of violence" . BBC . ^ Bernal, David (3 February 2023). "Honduras con 652 Capturas en su Régimen de Excepción" [Honduras with 652 Captured in Its State of Exception]. La Prensa Gráfica (in Spanish) . Retrieved 3 February 2023 . ^ cronologia/-/meta/redaccion-web (3 January 2024). "Honduras registró 3,030 homicidios en 2023: Seguridad" . www.laprensa.hn (in Spanish). ^ González, Marlon (25 November 2022). "Honduras Declares State of Emergency Against Gang Crime" . ABC News . Tegucigalpa , Honduras . Retrieved 7 December 2022 . ^ Palencia, Gustavo (3 December 2022). Torres, Noé; Maler, Sandra (eds.). "Honduras to Suspend Some Constitutional Rights to Fight Gang Violence" . Reuters . Tegucigalpa , Honduras . Retrieved 6 December 2022 . ^ a b Hilaire, Valentine; Madry, Kylie (6 December 2022). Feast, Lincoln (ed.). "Honduras Enters Partial State of Emergency Amid Gang Crackdown" . Associated Press . Tegucigalpa , Honduras . Retrieved 6 December 2022 . ^ Ernst, Jeff (6 December 2022). "Honduras Partially Suspends Constitutional Rights to Tackle Gangs" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 December 2022 . ^ "Honduras Suspends Rights in 2 Big Cities Amid Gang Crackdown" . Associated Press . 5 December 2022 . Retrieved 6 December 2022 . ^ "Honduras Extiende por 45 Días el Estado de Excepción" [Honduras Extends the State of Exception for 45 Days]. Diario la Huella (in Spanish). 8 January 2023 . Retrieved 8 January 2023 . ^ "Honduras extends, expands state of emergency for second time" . Reuters . 21 February 2023 . Retrieved 17 June 2023 . ^ "Honduras extends emergency powers to fight violent gangs" . NBC News . 8 April 2023 . Retrieved 17 June 2023 . ^ "Honduras to build 20,000-inmate 'megaprison' as part of gang crackdown" . Al Jazeera . 15 June 2024 . Retrieved 16 June 2024 . ^ "Attempted prison escape in Honduras leaves 2 inmates dead and 3 injured" . Associated Press . 20 September 2024 . Retrieved 20 September 2024 . Conflicts in 2022 Conflicts in 2023 December 2022 in Honduras Human rights in Honduras Law enforcement operations against organized crime Military operations against organized crime Organized crime conflicts 2022 in Honduras 2023 in Honduras MS-13 Gangs in Honduras Law enforcement operations against organized crime in Honduras CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles in need of updating from November 2023 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Use dmy dates from December 2022 Use American English from December 2022 All Wikipedia articles written in American English All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2024 Wikipedia articles in need of updating from June 2023 This page was last edited on 26 October 2025, at 23:27 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. 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Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 4 Nobel Prizes 5 References 6 Further reading 1945 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century 20th century 21st century 19th century 20th century 21st century Decades 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s Years 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1945 by topic Subject Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American British Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American American British British By country Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Lists of leaders Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Birth and death categories Births Deaths Births Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments Disestablishments Establishments Disestablishments Works category Works Introductions Works Introductions v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1945 MCMXLV Ab urbe condita 2698 Armenian calendar 1394 ԹՎ ՌՅՂԴ Assyrian calendar 6695 Baháʼí calendar 101–102 Balinese saka calendar 1866–1867 Bengali calendar 1351–1352 Berber calendar 2895 British Regnal year 9 Geo. 6 – 10 Geo. 6 Buddhist calendar 2489 Burmese calendar 1307 Byzantine calendar 7453–7454 Chinese calendar 甲申 年 (Wood Monkey ) 4642 or 4435 — to — 乙酉年 (Wood Rooster ) 4643 or 4436 Coptic calendar 1661–1662 Discordian calendar 3111 Ethiopian calendar 1937–1938 Hebrew calendar 5705–5706 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 2001–2002 - Shaka Samvat 1866–1867 - Kali Yuga 5045–5046 Holocene calendar 11945 Igbo calendar 945–946 Iranian calendar 1323–1324 Islamic calendar 1364–1365 Japanese calendar Shōwa 20 (昭和２０年) Javanese calendar 1875–1876 Juche calendar 34 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days Korean calendar 4278 Minguo calendar ROC 34 民國34年 Nanakshahi calendar 477 Thai solar calendar 2488 Tibetan calendar ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood- Monkey ) 2071 or 1690 or 918 — to — ཤིང་མོ་བྱ་ལོ་ (female Wood- Bird ) 2072 or 1691 or 919 1945 ( MCMXLV ) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar , the 1945th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 945th year of the 2nd millennium , the 45th year of the 20th century , and the 6th year of the 1940s decade. A turning point [ 1 ] in human history , 1945 marked the end of World War II , ending with the defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan by the United States and the Soviet Union in the world of two superpowers which has led the beginning of the Cold War (1945–1991). It is also the year the Nazi concentration camps were liberated and the only year in which atomic weapons have been used in warfare . Events World War II will be abbreviated as "WWII" January January 1 – WWII: Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. January 6 – WWII: A German offensive recaptures Esztergom , Hungary from the Soviets. January 9 – WWII: American and Australian troops land at Lingayen Gulf on western coast of the largest Philippine island of Luzon , occupied by Japan since 1942. January 12 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German Army . [ 3 ] January 13 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive , to eliminate German forces in East Prussia . January 16 – WWII: Adolf Hitler takes residence in the Führerbunker in Berlin. [ 4 ] January 17 WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] January 18 – The Holocaust : The SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp . Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributed. January 19 – The Holocaust : Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto ; only 877 Jews of the initial population of 164,000 remain at this time. [ 6 ] January 20 – Germany begins the Evacuation of East Prussia . January 21 – 22 (night) – At the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing , collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing between 140 and 150 people. January 23 – WWII: Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . January 24 – WWII: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton , nine OSS men, and four SOE agents are executed by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp under Hitler's Commando Order of 1942, which stipulates the immediate execution of all captured Allied commandos or saboteurs without trial, even those in proper uniforms. Morton is the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during the war. January 25 – WWII: Hitler appoints Heinrich Himmler as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania , despite Himmler's lack of military experience. [ 7 ] January 26 – WWII: 19-year-old U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Audie Murphy sees action at Holtzwihr , France, for which is awarded the Medal of Honor . January 27 The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] January 30 – WWII: MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. January 31 – WWII: The Battle of Hill 170 in the Burma Campaign ends with the British 3rd Commando Brigade defeating the Imperial Japanese Army 54th Division , causing the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army to withdraw from the Arakan Peninsula. February February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid 's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut , announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin . [ 9 ] February 3 – WWII: Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. February 4 – 11 – WWII: President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta Conference . February 7 – WWII: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila . February 8 – The Alaska Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945, championed by charismatic native leader Elizabeth Peratrovich , is passed by the territorial Senate, after the legislature defeated a previous bill in 1943. February 9 Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. February 10 – WWII: German troopship SS General von Steuben is sunk by the Soviet submarine S-13 ; 3,608 drown. [ 10 ] February 10 – 20 – WWII: Operation Kita : The Imperial Japanese Navy returns "Completion Force", containing both its Ise -class battleships , safely from Singapore to Kure in Japan despite Allied attacks. February 12 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others. [ 11 ] February 13 – WWII: The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. February 16 – WWII: The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. February 18 – March 5 – WWII: American and Brazilian troops kick off Operation Encore in Northern Italy, a successful limited action in the Northern Apennines that prepares for the western portion of the Allied Spring offensive . [ 12 ] February 19 – 20 – 980 (actual figure is disputed) [ 13 ] Japanese soldiers die as a result of being attacked by long saltwater crocodiles in Ramree, Burma . [ 14 ] February 19 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima – About 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo Jima . February 21 – The last V-2 rocket is launched from Peenemünde . February 22 – WWII: Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. February 23 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . February 24 – Egyptian premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is assassinated in Parliament after declaring war on Germany and Japan. February 27 – The Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyed. February 28 – In Bucharest , a violent demonstration takes place, during which the Bolşevic group opens fire on the army and protesters. In response, Andrei Y. Vishinsky , USSR vice commissioner of foreign affairs and president of the Allied Control Commission for Romania , travels to Bucharest to compel Nicolae Rădescu to resign as premier. March March 1 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives what will be his last address to a joint session of the United States Congress , reporting on the Yalta Conference . March 2 Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] March 3 – WWII: Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. March 4 In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] March 5 – WWII: Brazilian troops take Castelnuovo ( Vergato ), in the last operations of the Allied Operation Encore . March 6 A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. March 7 WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] March 8 Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . March 9 – 10 – WWII: Bombing of Tokyo : USAAF B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan, with incendiary bombs , killing 100,000 citizens in the firebombing. It is the single most destructive conventional air attack of the war. March 11 The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] March 12 – WWII: Swinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation Hannibal . March 15 – 31 – WWII: The Soviet Red Army carries out the Upper Silesian Offensive . March 15 – The 17th Academy Awards ceremony is held, broadcast via radio in the United States for the first time. Best Picture goes to Going My Way . March 16 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. March 17 – WWII: Kobe , Japan is fire-bombed by 331 B-29 bombers, killing over 8,000 people. March 18 – WWII: The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] March 19 – WWII: Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. March 20 – WWII: Hitler dismisses Heinrich Himmler from his military command. [ 3 ] March 21 – WWII: British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. March 22 The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . March 24 WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . March 26 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistance, although there are Japanese holdouts here until 1949. March 27 – WWII: The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . March 29 WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . March 30 – WWII: The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . April April 1 – WWII: Battle of Okinawa : The Tenth United States Army lands on Okinawa . April 4 – WWII: American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. April 6 – WWII: Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. April 7 – WWII: The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . April 8 – The SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp ; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guards. April 9 WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . April 10 – WWII: Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] April 11 – Buchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army . April 12 Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . April 14 – WWII: The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam April 15 – WWII: The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . April 16 – WWII: The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. April 17 – WWII: Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. April 18 – American war correspondent Ernie Pyle is killed by Japanese machine gun fire on the island of Ie Shima off Okinawa . April 19 – Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Carousel , a musical play based on Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom , opens on Broadway , and becomes their second long-running stage classic. It includes the standard " You'll Never Walk Alone ". April 20 – WWII: On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] April 22 – WWII: Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. April 23 – WWII: Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. April 24 – WWII: Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . April 25 Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. April 25 – 26 – WWII: The last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command , the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro Lancasters . April 26 – WWII: Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . April 27 The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] April 28 The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . April 29 At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . April 30 – WWII: Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . May May – Interpol (being headquartered in Berlin) effectively ceases to exist (it is recreated on June 3 , 1946 ). May 1 – WWII: Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. May 2 – WWII: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. May 3 – WWII: The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] May 4 – WWII: German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] May 5 – WWII: Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. May 6 WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] May 6 – 7 – The government of the Independent State of Croatia , the Nazi-affiliated fascist puppet state established in occupied Yugoslavia , flees Zagreb for a location near Klagenfurt in Austria, but is captured in the Bleiburg repatriations that then leads to mass executions. [ 45 ] May 7 – WWII: At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. May 8 – WWII: Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] May 8 – 29 – Sétif and Guelma massacre : in Algeria , thousands die as French troops and released Italian POWs kill an estimated 6,000 to 40,000 Algerian citizens. May 9 – WWII: The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . May 10 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Sark ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops and leaving them under the orders of Dame Sibyl Hathaway . May 12 Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. May 14 – 15 – WWII: Battle of Poljana : The last battle of the War in Europe is fought at Poljana near Slovenj Gradec , Slovenia . May 15 – WWII: Surrender at Bleiburg – Retreating troops of the Croatian Armed Forces of the former puppet Independent State of Croatia (intermingled with fleeing civilians) attempt to surrender to the British Army at Bleiburg , but are directed to surrender to Yugoslav Partisans , who open fire on them. The remainder, after orders are given by Tito , are force-marched through Croatia and Serbia , interned or massacred, with thousands dying. [ 49 ] May 16 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Alderney ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops, the civilian population having been evacuated. May 18 – WWII: Operation Unthinkable – British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly requests his military chiefs of staff to consider a plan for British, American and reactivated German forces to attack the Soviet Red Army on July 1 to preserve the independence of Poland. The operation is ruled militarily unfeasible. [ 50 ] May 23 The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. May 28 – U.S.-born Irish-raised William Joyce (" Lord Haw-Haw ") is captured on the German border. He is later charged in London with high treason for his earlier English-language wartime broadcasts from German radio, convicted, and then hanged in January 1946. May 29 German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. May 30 – The Iranian government demands that all Soviet and British troops leave the country. June June 1 – The British take over Lebanon and Syria . June 5 – The Allied Control Council , the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes power. June 7 – King Haakon VII of Norway returns to Norway five years to the day after leaving for exile in Britain. June 11 William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] June 12 – The Yugoslav Army leaves Trieste , leaving the New Zealand Army in control. June 21 – WWII: The Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972 . June 24 – WWII: A victory parade is held in Red Square in Moscow. June 25 – Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second president of Ireland . June 26 – The United Nations Charter is signed in San Francisco. June 29 – Czechoslovakia cedes Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union . June 30 – John von Neumann 's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC is distributed, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer, with stored-program and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory ( von Neumann architecture ). July July 1 WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . July 2 – The 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion breaks out in Burao and Erigavo in British Somaliland , led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader. [ 52 ] July 4 – Brazilian cruiser Bahia is sunk by an accidentally induced explosion, killing more than 300 and stranding the survivors in shark-infested waters. July 5 The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. July 6 – 7 – Schio massacre : 54 prisoners, mostly fascist sympathisers, are killed by members of the Italian resistance movement in Schio . July 8 – WWII: Harry S. Truman is informed that Japan will talk peace if it can retain the reign of the Emperor. [ 51 ] July 12 – Ben Chifley is elected leader of the Labor Party , and consequently becomes the 16th Prime Minister of Australia , defeating Frank Forde as well as Norman Makin and H.V. Evatt . As a result, Forde becomes the shortest-serving prime minister in Australian history; nevertheless, he retains his post as deputy leader. July 14 – WWII: Italy declares war on Japan. July 16 The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. July 17 – August 2 – WWII: Potsdam Conference – At Potsdam , the three main Allied leaders hold their final summit of the war. President Truman officially informs Stalin that the U.S. has a powerful new weapon. July 21 – WWII: President Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against Japan. [ 51 ] July 23 – WWII: French marshal Philippe Pétain , who headed the Vichy government during WWII, goes on trial for treason. July 26 Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] July 27 – WWII: Bombing of Aomori – Two USAAF B-29s drop a total of 60,000 leaflets on the city of Aomori , Japan, warning civilians of an air raid and urging them to leave immediately. The city was firebombed the next day, killing more than 1,700 people. July 28 WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] July 29 The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. July 30 – WWII: Heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis is hit and sunk by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-58 in the Philippine Sea . Some 900 survivors jump into the sea and are adrift for up to four days. Nearly 600 die before help arrives. Captain Charles B. McVay III of the cruiser is later court-martialed and convicted; in 2000, he is posthumously exonerated. [ 55 ] August August 6 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Hiroshima : United States Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay drops a uranium-235 atomic bomb , codenamed " Little Boy ", on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. local time, resulting in between 90,000 and 146,000 deaths. August 7 – U.S. President Harry Truman announces the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, while he is returning from the Potsdam Conference aboard the U.S. Navy heavy cruiser USS Augusta (CA-31) , in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. August 8 The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. August 9 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] August 10 – WWII: Japan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the Emperor". August 11 WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. August 11 – 25 – Soviet troops complete the occupation of Sakhalin . August 13 – The Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to discuss the founding of the country of Israel . August 14 – WWII: Emperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace . At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT ), U.S. president Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrender. August 15 WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . August 17 Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . August 18 – WWII: Death of Subhas Chandra Bose : Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose is killed as a result of his overloaded Japanese plane crashing in Japanese Taiwan . August 19 – Chinese Civil War : Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the Nationalists . August 22 – Kim Il Sung as the guerilla fighter returned to the Soviet-occupied capital Pyongyang after the Red Army entered the northern peninsula of Korea . August 23 – Soviet–Japanese War : Joseph Stalin orders the detention of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union . August 25 – Bảo Đại abdicates as Emperor of Vietnam , ending 2,000 years of dynastic and monarchic rule in the country and 143 years of the Nguyễn dynasty , Paris marked the first anniversary of liberation from Nazi rule by the French Resistance as a momentous event at the Battle of Normandy against Dietrich von Choltitz . August 30 – WWII: Vietnam 's capital Hanoi is taken by the Viet Minh , which ends the French occupation in what becomes North Vietnam , and thus the southern provinces become South Vietnam . This ends the August Revolution . August 31 WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] September September 2 – World War II ends: Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] September 4 – WWII: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island , after hearing word of their country's surrender. September 5 Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. September 8 U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] September 9 Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] September 10 – Vidkun Quisling is sentenced to death for being a Nazi collaborator in Norway. [ 59 ] September 11 Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. September 12 Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. September 18 Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . September 20 – Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru demand that all British troops depart India. September 24 – Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia : The Topoľčany pogrom is carried out in Czechoslovakia. October October – Arthur C. Clarke puts forward the idea of a geosynchronous communications satellite , in a Wireless World magazine article. October 1 – 15 – Operation Backfire : Three A4 rockets are launched near Cuxhaven , in a demonstration to Allied forces. October 2 – George Albert Smith becomes president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . October 4 – The Partizan Belgrade sports club is founded in Belgrade , Serbia . October 5 – Hollywood Black Friday : A strike by the Set Decorator's Union in Hollywood results in a riot. October 8 – 15 – Hadamar Trial: Personnel of the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre , now in the American zone of Allied-occupied Germany , are the first to be tried for systematic extermination in Nazi Germany . October 9 – Former prime minister Pierre Laval is sentenced to death, for collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France . [ 59 ] October 10 – The Nazi Party is dissolved by the Allied Powers. October 14 – Czechoslovakia : A new provisional national assembly is elected, Kim Il Sung made his first major public appearance in Pyongyang as the celebration of liberation where he was officially introduced to the public by the Soviet authorities as a national hero, a legendary guerrilla fighter and leader. [ 59 ] October 15 – 21 – The Fifth Pan-African Congress is held in Manchester . October 16 – The Food and Agriculture Organization is established at a meeting in Quebec City , as a specialized agency of the United Nations , Syngman Rhee returned to the southern peninsula of Korea as he arrived in Seoul by becoming a prominent figure under the U.S. occupation. October 17 – A massive number of people, headed for the General Confederation of Labour (Argentina) , gather in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires to demand Juan Perón 's release. This is known to the Peronists as the Día de la lealtad ( Loyalty Day ) and considered the founding day of Peronism . October 18 – Isaías Medina Angarita , president of Venezuela , is overthrown by a military coup . [ 59 ] October 19 – Members of the Indonesian People's Army attack Anglo-Dutch forces in Indonesia . [ 59 ] October 20 – Mongolians vote for independence from China. [ 59 ] October 21 – Women's suffrage : Women are allowed to vote in the French Legislative Election for the first time. October 22 – Rómulo Betancourt is named provisional president of Venezuela . [ 59 ] October 24 The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] October 25 WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. October 27 – November 20 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia fight British and British Indian troops in Surabaya . October 29 Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. October 30 – The undivided country of India joins the United Nations . November November 1 International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . November 5 – Colombia joins the United Nations . November 6 – Indonesians reject an offer of autonomy from the Dutch . [ 59 ] November 7 – South Africa and Mexico both joined the United Nations . November 9 – Soo Bahk Do and Moo Duk Kwan martial arts are founded in Korea . November 10 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Following the killing of British officer Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby on October 30, the British Indian Army (in support of its allied Dutch colonial administration) begins an advance on Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies against Indonesian nationalists; although most of the city is retaken in 3 days of heavy fighting, the strength of the resistance leads to today being celebrated as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) in Indonesia. November 11 – 1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election : Marshal Josip Broz Tito and the People's Front win a decisive majority (90%) in the Yugoslavian Assembly. [ 59 ] November 15 Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] November 16 Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. November 18 – The Tudeh party starts a bloodless coup, and will form Azerbaijan within days. Soviet troops prevent Iranian troops from getting involved. November 20 – The Nuremberg trials begin: Trials against 22 Nazis for war crimes of World War II start at the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg . [ 59 ] November 26 – U.S. ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigns after he is unable to broker a deal between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Tse-tung . [ 59 ] November 28 The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] November 29 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. December December 1 – German general Anton Dostler is executed by firing squad in Italy for the war crime of ordering the summary execution of captured U.S. commandos. The U.S. military tribunal which has tried him has not accepted his plea of " superior orders ", setting a precedent for future Allied war crimes trials . [ 63 ] December 2 General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. December 3 – Communist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil War . December 4 – The United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7. December 5 – Flight 19 of United States Navy Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers disappears on a training exercise from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale . December 9 – American General George S. Patton is involved in a car accident in Germany, resulting in his death on December 21. December 21 – Iraq joins the United Nations . December 27 – Twenty-one nations ratify the articles creating the World Bank . [ 64 ] Date unknown A team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (led by Charles D. Coryell ) discovers chemical element 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the periodic table , which they will name promethium . [ 65 ] Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947. The Australian government introduces an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to encourage the immigration of British subjects, at a fare of £ 10, hence they become known as " Ten Pound Poms ". [ 66 ] The first geothermal milk pasteurization is done in Klamath Falls, Oregon , United States. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January January 1 Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver January 3 – Stephen Stills , American rock singer-songwriter ( Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young ) January 4 Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate January 5 Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist January 7 Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) January 10 – Sir Rod Stewart , British rock singer January 12 – André Bicaba , Burkinabé sprinter January 14 – Einar Hákonarson , Icelandic painter January 15 Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family January 17 – Javed Akhtar , Indian political activist, poet, lyricist and screenwriter January 20 – Robert Olen Butler , American writer January 21 Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor January 24 – Subhash Ghai , Indian film director, producer and screenwriter January 25 – Leigh Taylor-Young , American actress January 26 Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) January 27 – Harold Cardinal , Cree political leader, writer and lawyer (d. 2005 ) January 28 Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) January 29 Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) January 31 – Joseph Kosuth , American artist February February 1 – Yasuhiro Takai , Japanese professional baseball player (d. 2019 ) February 3 Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer February 4 – John P. Jumper , United States Air Force general February 5 – Sarah Weddington , American attorney (d. 2021 ) February 6 – Bob Marley , Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981 ) February 7 – Gerald Davies , Welsh rugby player February 9 Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] February 10 – Koo Bon-moo , South Korean business executive (d. 2018 ) February 12 Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist February 13 – Simon Schama , English historian [ 68 ] February 14 Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein February 15 – Douglas Hofstadter , American cognitive scientist February 17 – Brenda Fricker , Irish actress [ 69 ] February 18 – Hashem Mahameed , Israeli politician (d. 2018 ) February 22 – Oliver , American singer ( Good Morning Starshine ) (d. 2000 ) February 24 – Barry Bostwick , American actor February 25 – Roy Saari , American swimmer (d. 2008 ) February 26 – Marta Kristen , Norwegian actress ( Lost In Space ) February 27 – Carl Anderson , American singer, actor ( Jesus Christ Superstar ) (d. 2004 ) February 28 Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) March March 1 – Dirk Benedict , American actor March 3 – George Miller , Australian film director March 4 Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player March 7 – Arthur Lee , American musician (d. 2006 ) March 8 Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter March 9 Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer March 10 – Nobuhiko Higashikuni , Japanese Imperial prince (d. 2019 ) March 13 Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician March 14 – Michael Martin Murphey , American country singer-songwriter March 16 – Douglas Ahlstedt , American tenor March 17 Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) March 18 Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist March 20 Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach March 21 – Charles Greene , American Olympic athlete (d. 2022 ) March 26 – Mikhail Voronin , Russian gymnast (d. 2004 ) March 27 – Władysław Stachurski , Polish football player, manager (d. 2013 ) March 28 Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress March 29 Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) March 30 – Eric Clapton , English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter [ 71 ] March 31 Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] April April 2 – Linda Hunt , American actress [ 74 ] April 4 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit , French political activist [ 75 ] April 5 Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) April 12 – Lee Jong-wook , South Korean Director-General of the World Health Organization (d. 2006 ) April 13 Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) April 14 Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa April 20 – Naftali Temu , Kenyan Olympic long-distance runner (d. 2003 ) April 21 – Ana Lúcia Torre , Brazilian actress April 24 – Larry Tesler , American computer scientist (cut, copy, paste) (d. 2020 ) April 25 – Björn Ulvaeus , Swedish rock songwriter ( ABBA ) April 29 – Tammi Terrell , African-American soul singer (d. 1970 ) April 30 – Lara Saint Paul , Eritrean-born Italian singer (d. 2018 ) May May 1 – Rita Coolidge , American pop singer May 2 – Bianca Jagger , Nicaraguan social activist [ 76 ] May 3 – Jeffrey C. Hall , American geneticist and chronobiologist, Nobel Prize laureate May 4 David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist May 6 – Bob Seger , American rock singer May 7 – Robin Strasser , American actress May 8 – Keith Jarrett , American musician [ 77 ] May 9 – Jupp Heynckes , German footballer and manager May 11 Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist May 13 – Tammam Salam , 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon May 14 – Yochanan Vollach , Israeli footballer and president of Maccabi Haifa, CEO May 15 – Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza , heir to the Portuguese crown May 17 – Tony Roche , Australian tennis player May 19 – Pete Townshend , English rock guitarist, lyricist ( The Who ) May 20 – Anton Zeilinger , Austrian quantum physicist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 78 ] May 21 Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut May 22 – Victoria Wyndham , American actress ( Another World ) May 23 Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer May 24 – Priscilla Presley , American actress, businesswoman May 28 Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) May 29 Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) May 30 Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) May 31 Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire June June 1 – Frederica von Stade , American mezzo-soprano June 2 – Jon Peters , American film producer June 3 – Hale Irwin , American professional golfer June 4 – Anthony Braxton , American composer and musical instrumentalist June 5 John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) June 6 – David Dukes , American actor (d. 2000 ) June 7 – Wolfgang Schüssel , Chancellor of Austria June 9 – Nike Wagner , German woman of the theater June 10 – Benny Gallagher , Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist, half of duo Gallagher and Lyle June 11 – Adrienne Barbeau , American actress, television personality and author ( Maude ) June 12 – Pat Jennings , Northern Irish footballer June 14 – Jörg Immendorff , German painter June 15 Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) June 16 Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician June 17 P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist June 19 Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient June 20 – Anne Murray , Canadian singer June 21 Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter June 22 Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) June 23 Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer June 24 George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician June 25 Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army June 26 – Paul Chun , Hong Kong actor June 27 Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School June 28 Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) June 29 – Chandrika Kumaratunga , 5th President of Sri Lanka June 30 Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician July July 1 Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) July 2 – Linda Warren , American author July 3 – Thomas Mapfumo , Zimbabwean musician July 4 Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist July 5 Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor July 6 – Burt Ward , American actor ( Batman ) July 7 Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer July 8 – Micheline Calmy-Rey , Swiss Federal Councilor July 9 Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer July 10 Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) July 11 – Richard Wesley , American playwright, screenwriter July 12 Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player July 14 – Antun Vujić , Croatian politician, philosopher, political analyst, lexicographer and author July 15 Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) July 16 Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter July 17 Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia July 19 Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician July 20 Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat July 21 John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman July 23 – Edie McClurg , American actress July 24 – Azim Premji , Indian businessman July 26 Helen Mirren , British actress Helen Mirren , British actress July 28 – Jim Davis , American cartoonist ( Garfield ) July 30 Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) August August 1 – Douglas Osheroff , American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate August 4 – Alan Mulally , American businessman, CEO of the Ford Motor Company August 5 – Loni Anderson , American actress ( WKRP in Cincinnati ) (d. 2025 ) August 8 – Julie Anne Robinson , British theatre, television, film director and producer August 9 – Posy Simmonds , English cartoonist August 12 Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) August 14 Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer August 15 Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] August 17 – Katri Helena , Finnish singer August 19 – Ian Gillan , English rock singer ( Deep Purple ) August 22 David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) August 24 – Vincent K. "Vince" McMahon , American professional wrestling promoter, chairman and CEO of WWE August 25 – Daniel Hulet , Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011 ) August 26 – Tom Ridge , American politician August 27 – Marianne Sägebrecht , German film actress August 29 Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete August 31 Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor September September 1 – Mustafa Balel , Turkish writer September 5 K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) September 6 – Victor Ramahatra , 5th Prime Minister of Madagascar September 7 – Jacques Lemaire , Canadian ice hockey coach September 8 Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player September 10 – José Feliciano , Puerto Rican-American singer (" Feliz Navidad ") September 11 – Franz Beckenbauer , German footballer and manager (d. 2024 ) September 12 – Richard Thaler , American economist September 14 – Benjamin Harjo Jr. , Native American artist September 15 – Jessye Norman , American soprano (d. 2019 ) September 16 – Pat Stevens , American voice actress (d. 2010 ) September 17 Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor September 18 John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) September 19 - Randolph Mantooth , American actor September 21 Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet September 22 – Gonzaguinha , Brazilian singer, composer (d. 1991 ) September 24 – John Rutter , English choral composer, conductor September 26 – Bryan Ferry , English singer-songwriter and musician ( Roxy Music ) September 27 – Jack Goldstein , Canadian artist (d. 2003 ) September 29 – Nadezhda Chizhova , Russian athlete September 30 Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter October October 1 Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India October 2 Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") October 3 – Viktor Saneyev , Soviet athlete and Olympic champion (d. 2022 ) October 6 – Ivan Graziani , Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1997 ) October 9 Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) October 12 Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) October 18 Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer October 19 Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) October 22 – Yvan Ponton , Canadian actor, sportscaster October 23 – Kim Larsen , Danish rock musician (d. 2018 ) October 24 Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science October 25 Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor October 26 Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) October 27 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) October 29 Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress October 30 – Henry Winkler , American actor, producer and director ( Happy Days ) November November 3 – Gerd Müller , German footballer (d. 2021 ) November 5 – Jacques Lanctôt , Canadian terrorist November 7 Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer November 8 – Joseph James DeAngelo , American serial killer and serial rapist November 9 – Charlie Robinson , African-American actor (d. 2021 ) November 10 – Madeleine Juneau , Canadian museologist November 11 – Daniel Ortega , 58th and 62nd President of Nicaragua November 12 – Neil Young , Canadian singer-songwriter, musician November 15 – Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Norwegian-born rock singer ( ABBA ) November 17 Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria November 18 Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka November 21 – Goldie Hawn , American actress Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician November 22 – Kari Tapio , Finnish singer (d. 2010 ) November 23 – Dennis Nilsen , Scottish serial killer (d. 2018 ) [ 87 ] November 24 – Nuruddin Farah , Somali novelist November 25 – Mary Jo Deschanel , American actress November 26 – John McVie , English rock musician ( Fleetwood Mac ) November 27 Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) November 30 Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) December December 1 Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer December 2 – Tex Watson , American multiple murderer, 'Manson Family' member December 3 – Bozhidar Dimitrov , Bulgarian historian, politician and polemicist (d. 2018 ) December 4 – Geoff Emerick , English recording engineer (d. 2018 ) December 7 – Clive Russell , English actor December 8 – Julie Heldman , American tennis player [ 89 ] December 10 – John Ankerberg , American Christian television host, author and speaker December 11 – Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor December 12 René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) December 15 Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor December 16 – Patti Deutsch , American voice actress (d. 2017 ) December 17 – Ernie Hudson , African-American actor December 18 – Carolyn Wood , American professional swimmer December 19 – Elaine Joyce , American actress, game show panelist December 20 Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) December 21 – Mari Lill , Estonian actress December 22 – Diane Sawyer , American news journalist December 23 – Donald A. Ritchie , American historian December 24 Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer December 25 – Noel Redding , English musician (d. 2003 ) [ 91 ] December 29 – Birendra of Nepal , King of Nepal (d. 2001 ) December 30 – Davy Jones , English-born pop singer, actor ( The Monkees ) (d. 2012 ) December 31 Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Deaths January January 2 – Sir Bertram Ramsay , British admiral (b. 1883 ) January 3 – Edgar Cayce , American mystic (b. 1877 ) January 4 – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno , 3-time President of Costa Rica (b. 1859 ) January 6 Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) January 7 Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) January 9 – Jüri Uluots , 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1890 ) January 10 – Pēteris Juraševskis , 8th Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1872 ) January 12 – Teresio Olivelli , Italian Roman Catholic soldier and venerable (b. 1916 ) January 15 – Pedro Abad Santos , Filipino politician, brother of José Abad Santos (b. 1876 ) January 16 – José Fabella , Filipino physician (b. 1888 ) January 19 Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) January 20 – Federico Pedrocchi , Italian artist, writer (killed on active service) (b. 1907 ) January 21 Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) January 22 – Else Lasker-Schüler , German poet, author (b. 1869 ) January 23 Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) January 29 – Hans Conrad Leipelt , Austrian member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany (executed) (b. 1921 ) January 30 Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) January 31 – Eddie Slovik , American soldier (executed for desertion) (b. 1920 ) [ 96 ] February February (or March) – Anne Frank , German-born Jewish diarist, writer (typhus in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp ) (b. 1929 ) [ 97 ] February 1 Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) February 2 Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) February 3 – Roland Freisler , Nazi German judge (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 5 Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) February 6 – Robert Brasillach , French writer (executed) (b. 1909 ) [ 98 ] February 8 – Robert Mallet-Stevens , French architect, designer (b. 1886 ) February 11 – Al Dubin , Swiss-born American songwriter (b. 1891 ) February 13 – Maria Orosa , Filipino technologist, chemist, humanitarian and WWII heroine (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 16 – Otto Kittel , German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1917 ) [ 99 ] February 18 – Ivan Chernyakhovsky , Soviet general (died of wounds) (b. 1906 ) February 19 – John Basilone , American war hero (killed in action) (b. 1916 ) February 21 – Eric Liddell , British Olympic athlete (in internment camp) (b. 1902 ) February 22 – Sara Josephine Baker , American physician (b. 1873 ) February 23 José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] February 24 – Josef Mayr-Nusser , Italian Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1910 ) February 25 – Mário de Andrade , Brazilian writer, photographer (b. 1893 ) February 26 – Millard Harmon , American general (b. 1888 ) [ 101 ] March March 2 – Emily Carr , Canadian painter (b. 1871 ) March 3 Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) March 4 Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) March 5 – George Alan Vasey , Australian general (killed in military aircraft accident) (b. 1895 ) March 12 – Friedrich Fromm , German Nazi official (executed) (b. 1888 ) March 14 – Francisco Braga , Brazilian composer (b. 1868 ) March 15 – Sava Caracaș , Romanian general (b. 1890 ) March 18 – William Grover-Williams , British/French racing driver, war hero (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 104 ] March 19 – Marcel Callo , French Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (in concentration camp) (b. 1921 ) March 20 – Lord Alfred Douglas , English poet (b. 1870 ) March 22 Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) March 23 – Élisabeth de Rothschild , French WWII heroine (b. 1902 ) March 26 David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) March 27 – Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil , Turkish author (b. 1867 ) March 29 – Ferenc Csik , Hungarian swimmer (air raid victim) (b. 1913 ) March 30 – Maurice Rose , American general (killed in action) (b. 1899 ) [ 105 ] March 31 Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) April April 7 Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) April 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] April 10 Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] April 11 – Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard , British colonial administrator (b. 1858 ) April 12 – Franklin D. Roosevelt , American political leader and statesman, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882 ) April 13 – Ernst Cassirer , German philosopher (b. 1874 ) April 15 – Joachim Albrecht Eggeling , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1884 ) April 18 Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) April 21 Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) April 22 – Käthe Kollwitz , German artist (b. 1867 ) April 23 – Klaus Bonhoeffer , German resistance fighter, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1901 ) April 24 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz , German SS Reichsphysician (suicide) (b. 1899 ) April 28 Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) April 29 – Achille Starace , Italian Fascist politician (executed) (b. 1889 ) April 30 Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) May May 1 Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) May 2 Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) May 3 – Mario Blasich , Italian physician, politician (b. 1878 ) May 4 – Fedor von Bock , German field marshal (killed in action) (b. 1880 ) [ 108 ] May 6 – Xhem Hasa , Albanian nationalist (assassinated) (b. 1908 ) May 7 – Vladimir Boyarsky , Soviet army officer (executed) (b. 1901 ) May 8 Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 9 – Gustav Becking , German musicologist (b. 1894 ) May 10 – Konrad Henlein , Sudeten German Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 11 Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] May 14 Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) May 15 Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) May 16 – Kaju Sugiura , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1896 ) May 18 – William Joseph Simmons , American founder of the second Ku Klux Klan (b. 1880 ) May 19 – Philipp Bouhler , German Nazi leader and general (suicide) (b. 1899 ) May 21 – Prince Kan'in Kotohito , Japanese prince, member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (b. 1865 ) May 23 – Heinrich Himmler , German politician, Reichsführer-SS (suicide) (b. 1900 ) May 24 – Robert Ritter von Greim , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1892 ) May 25 Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] May 31 Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) June June 4 – Georg Kaiser , German dramatist (b. 1878 ) June 7 – Kitaro Nishida , Japanese philosopher (b. 1870 ) June 8 Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) June 11 – Lurana W. Sheldon , American author and editor (b. 1862 ) June 13 – Minoru Ōta , Japanese admiral (suicide) (b. 1891 ) June 15 Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) June 16 Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) June 18 Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) June 20 Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) June 22 Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) June 24 – José Gutiérrez Solana , Spanish painter (b. 1886 ) June 27 – Emil Hácha , 3rd President of Czechoslovakia , State President of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1872 ) June 30 Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) July July 1 – Félix Evaristo Mejía , Dominican diplomat, educator and writer (b. 1866 ) July 2 – Óscar R. Benavides , Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, politician and President of Peru (b. 1876 ) July 5 – John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885 ) July 7 – Peter To Rot , Papuan Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1912 ) July 9 – Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti , Italian politician, diplomat (b. 1876 ) July 12 Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) July 13 – Alla Nazimova , Russian-born American actress (b. 1879 ) July 17 – Ernst Busch , German field marshal, as prisoner of war (b. 1885 ) July 20 – Paul Valéry , French poet (b. 1871 ) July 24 – Arnold von Winckler , German general (b. 1856 ) July 25 – Malin Craig , United States Army general (b. 1875 ) July 28 – Margot Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith (b. 1864 ) July 29 – Maria Pierina De Micheli , Italian Roman Catholic religious sister, mystic and blessed (b. 1890 ) July 31 – Artemio Ricarte , Filipino general (b. 1866 ) August August 1 – Blas Cabrera Felipe , Spanish physicist (b. 1878 ) August 2 – Pietro Mascagni , Italian composer (b. 1863 ) August 3 – Roman Kochanowski , Polish painter, illustrator (b. 1857 ) August 4 – Gerhard Gentzen , German mathematician and logician (starvation in prison camp) (b. 1909 ) August 5 – Nat Jaffe , American swing jazz pianist (b. 1918 ) August 7 – Jacques Vaillant de Guélis , British/French WWII hero (injuries received in automobile accident) (b. 1907 ) August 8 – Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane , French flatulist (b. 1857 ) August 9 Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) August 10 – Robert H. Goddard , American rocket scientist (b. 1882 ) August 12 – Karl Leisner , German Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1915 ) August 15 Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) August 16 – Takijirō Ōnishi , Japanese admiral (ritual suicide) (b. 1891 ) August 18 Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) August 24 – Shizuichi Tanaka , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1887 ) August 25 – Willis Augustus Lee , American admiral, Olympic shooter (b. 1888 ) August 26 Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) August 27 – Blessed María Pilar Izquierdo Albero , Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed (b. 1906 ) August 29 – Fritz Pfleumer , German engineer, inventor (b. 1881 ) August 30 – Florencio Harmodio Arosemena , 6th President of Panama (b. 1872 ) August 31 Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) September September 6 Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) September 9 – Aage Bertelsen , Danish painter (b. 1873 ) September 12 – Hajime Sugiyama , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1880 ) September 15 Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) September 16 – John McCormack , Irish tenor (b. 1884 ) September 18 José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) September 20 Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) September 24 – Hans Geiger , German physicist, inventor (b. 1882 ) September 26 Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) October October 1 – Walter Bradford Cannon , American physiologist (b. 1871 ) [ 119 ] October 6 – Leonardo Conti , German physician, Nazi officer (suicide) (b. 1900 ) October 8 – Felix Salten , Austrian author (b. 1869 ) [ 120 ] October 10 – Joseph Darnand , Vichy French politician (executed) (b. 1897 ) October 12 – Dmytro Antonovych , Soviet politician (b. 1877 ) October 13 – Milton S. Hershey , American chocolate tycoon (b. 1857 ) October 15 – Pierre Laval , French politician, 2-time Prime Minister of France (executed) (b. 1883 ) [ 59 ] October 18 – Frederick Hovey , American tennis player (b. 1868 ) October 19 Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) October 21 Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] October 24 Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) October 25 – Robert Ley , German Nazi politician (suicide) (b. 1890 ) October 26 Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) October 30 – Xian Xinghai , Chinese composer (b. 1905 ) October 31 Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) November November 8 – August von Mackensen , German field marshal (b. 1849 ) November 11 – Jerome Kern , American composer (b. 1885 ) [ 123 ] November 13 – Sir Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair , British admiral (b. 1865 ) [ 124 ] November 16 – Sigurður Eggerz , Minister for Iceland during World War I and 2nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1875 ) November 17 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1882 ) November 20 – Francis William Aston , British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877 ) November 21 Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] November 23 – Charles Coborn , British singer (b. 1852 ) November 27 – Josep Maria Sert , Spanish Catalan muralist (b. 1874 ) November 28 – Dwight F. Davis , American tennis player (b. 1879 ) November 30 – Shigeru Honjō , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1876 ) December December 1 – Anton Dostler , German general (executed) (b. 1891 ) December 4 Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] December 5 – Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1864 ) December 8 – Gabriellino D'Annunzio , Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1886 ) December 12 – Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1868 ) December 13 Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) December 14 – Forrester Harvey , Irish actor (b. 1884 ) December 16 Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) December 19 – Leonard F. Wing , American general and politician (b. 1893 ) [ 129 ] December 21 – George S. Patton , American general (injuries from automobile accident) (b. 1885 ) [ 130 ] December 22 – Otto Neurath , Austrian philosopher, political economist (b. 1892 ) December 26 Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) December 28 – Theodore Dreiser , American novelist (b. 1871 ) [ 131 ] Nobel Prizes Physics – Wolfgang Pauli Chemistry – Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Physiology or Medicine – Sir Alexander Fleming , Ernst Chain , Howard Florey Literature – Gabriela Mistral Peace – Cordell Hull References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What Was 1945 a Turning Point - 1377 Words | Bartleby" . ^ Girbig, Werner (1975). Six Months to Oblivion: The Eclipse of the Luftwaffe Fighter Force Over the Western Front, 1944/45 . Schiffer Publishing . p. 74. ISBN 978-0-88740-348-4 . ^ a b Duffy, Christopher (1991). Red Storm on the Reich: The Soviet March on Germany, 1945 . Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22829-8 . ^ "Life in the Führerbunker: Hitler's final days" . Sky HISTORY TV channel . Retrieved September 2, 2025 . ^ Si (July 22, 2025). "Raoul Wallenberg – World War II hero" . sweden.se . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Abraham J. Peck (1997). "The Agony of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944" . The Chronicle of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944 by Lucjan Dobroszycki , and The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum , Washington D.C . The Simon Wiesenthal Center . Retrieved March 25, 2015 . ^ Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography . New York: Norton. p. 891. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6 . ^ Wolf's Lair from Battlefields WW2 ^ "Penicillin Pills May Replace Injection" . The Milwaukee Sentinel . February 16, 1945 . 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March 1945 - The U.S. Army occupies Cologne ^ Nohlen, Dieter ; Stöver, Philip, eds. (2010). Elections in Europe: A data handbook . Baden-Baden: Nomos. p. 1678. ISBN 978-3-8329-5609-7 . ^ "Proclamation No. 430, s. 1989 - DECLARING THE EIGHTEENTH DAY OF MARCH OF EVERY YEAR AS VICTORY DAY IN THE ISLANDS OF PANAY AND ROMBLON, INCLUDING THE CITIES OF ILOILO AND ROXAS" . Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines . Retrieved March 18, 2024 . ^ "Bombing Berlin: The Biggest Wartime Raid on Hitler's Capital" . The National WWII Museum - New Orleans . March 14, 2020 . Retrieved March 18, 2024 . ^ "Festung Kolberg 1945" (in Polish). Archived from the original on August 11, 2007 . Retrieved March 21, 2024 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link ) ^ Stanton, Shelby (2006). World War II Order of Battle: An Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from Battalion through Division, 1939-1946 (2nd ed.). 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If they stopped or fell behind, the SS guards shot them and left their corpses along the road. ^ Final Push To Hamburg ^ "Liberatione" . Lib.usc.edu. May 4, 1945. Archived from the original on April 14, 2016 . Retrieved January 16, 2012 . ^ "Befrielsen 1945 – Tidslinje" . Befrielsen1945.dk. January 2, 2012. Archived from the original on January 22, 2011 . Retrieved January 16, 2012 . ^ Waller, Derek (September 25, 2010). "U-Boats that Surrendered" . u-boat.net . Retrieved November 14, 2014 . ^ "Hungary: Recovery of Crown Jewels 1945" . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . ^ THE CITY OF SALZBURG IN 1945 ^ Liberation of Pilsen ^ Milcic, Allen. "Croatian Axis Forces in WWII" . Retrieved June 28, 2012 . ^ "Edward Kennedy, 58, Reporter Who Flashed '45 Surrender, Dies" . The New York Times . Associated Press. November 30, 1963 . Retrieved December 21, 2007 . ^ Killen, John (2003). The Luftwaffe: A History . Barnsley: Pen & Sword. pp. 299– 300. ISBN 978-1-78159-110-9 . ^ Colin F. Baxter; John Martin Carroll, eds. (2007). The American Military Tradition: From Colonial Times to the Present . Rowman & Littlefield. p. 181. ISBN 9780742544284 . ^ Bethell, Nicholas (1974). The Last Secret . London. ISBN 9780465038138 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Norton-Taylor, Richard (October 2, 1998). "Churchill plotted invasion of Russia". The Guardian . London. ^ a b c d e f "1945 – The Decision to Drop the Bomb" . NuclearFiles . Archived from the original on April 6, 2010. ^ Mohamed, Jama (2002). " 'The Evils of Locust Bait': Popular Nationalism during the 1945 Anti-Locust Control Rebellion in Colonial Somaliland" . Past & Present (174): 184– 216. doi : 10.1093/past/174.1.184 . ISSN 0031-2746 . JSTOR 3600720 . ^ "1945: Labour landslide buries Churchill" . BBC News . April 5, 2005. ^ "Accident North American B-25D-20 Mitchell 41-30577, 28 Jul 1945" . aviation-safety.net . Retrieved May 10, 2023 . ^ "USS Indianapolis sinking: 'You could see sharks circling' " . BBC News . Archived from the original on April 18, 2018 . Retrieved June 20, 2018 . ^ Glantz, LTC David M. (June 1983). Leavenworth Papers No. 8 - August Storm: Soviet Tactical and Operational Combat in Manchuria, 1945 (PDF) . Fort Leavenworth , KS: Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. p. 1. ISSN 0195-3451 . Retrieved September 26, 2023 . ^ Angier, R. B.; Boothe, J. H.; Hutchings, B. L.; Mowat, J. H.; Semb, J.; Stokstad, E. L. R.; Subbarow, Y.; Waller, C. W.; Cosulich, D. B.; Fahrenbach, M. J.; Hultquist, M. E.; Kuh, E.; Northey, E. H.; Seeger, D. R.; Sickels, J. P.; Smith Jr, J. M. (1945). "Synthesis of a Compound Identical with the L. Casei Factor Isolated from Liver". Science . 102 (2644): 227– 28. Bibcode : 1945Sci...102..227A . doi : 10.1126/science.102.2644.227 . PMID 17778509 . ^ Hoffbrand, A. V.; Weir, D. G. (2001). "The history of folic acid". British Journal of Haematology . 113 (3): 579– 589. doi : 10.1046/j.1365-2141.2001.02822.x . PMID 11380441 . S2CID 22925228 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Jessup, John E. (1989). A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945-1985 . New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-24308-5 . ^ Crichton, Gerald (February 1, 1946). "Review of events in Afghanistan, July-December 1945" . Foreign Office . ^ Myers, Brian Reynolds (December 16, 2023). "The Power to Mystify" . Sthele Press . Archived from the original on January 14, 2024 . Retrieved January 14, 2024 . Assertion that the emperor's surrender 'abruptly' ended Japan's occupation of the peninsula, which in fact continued in the southern part for more than three weeks? ^ "Amery sentenced to death: "A self-confessed traitor." ". The Times . No. 50312. November 29, 1945. p. 2. ^ Brennan, J. G.; Green, L. C. (1997). "The Case of General Dostler" . Naval War College Review . 50 (4): 115– 117. ISSN 0028-1484 . JSTOR 44638781 . ^ "75th Anniversary of World Bank Articles of Agreement Ratification" . World Bank . Retrieved May 5, 2022 . ^ "Discovery of Promethium" . Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review . 36 (1). 2003. Archived from the original on June 22, 2011 . Retrieved June 16, 2011 . ^ Hammerton, A. James; Thomson, Alistair (2005). 'Ten Pound Poms': Australia's Invisible Migrants . Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-719071321 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2016" . ^ William D. Rubinstein; Michael Jolles; Hilary L. Rubinstein (February 22, 2011). The Palgrave Dictionary of Anglo-Jewish History . Palgrave Macmillan. p. 868. ISBN 978-1-4039-3910-4 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ Chase's ... Calendar of Events . Contemporary Books. 2003. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-07-139098-9 . ^ "They planted an important seed for nanotechnology" (Press release). The Nobel Prize. October 4, 2023 . Retrieved October 7, 2023 . ^ Geoff Nicholson (1991). Big Noises: Rock Guitar in the 1990s . Quartet. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-7043-0145-0 . ^ "Profile of highlife legend Nana Ampadu" . GhanaWeb . September 30, 2021. Archived from the original on October 19, 2022 . Retrieved October 5, 2021 . ^ Avery, Laura (2004). Newsmakers . Gale Research. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7876-6806-8 . ISSN 0899-0417 . OCLC 17977680 . ^ Bauer, Pat (March 29, 2022). "Linda Hunt" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 21, 2023 . ^ Encyclopedia of Contemporary German Culture . Taylor & Francis. 2013. ISBN 9781136816109 . ^ Events, Chase's Calendar of; McGraw-Hill (2007). "Birthday: Bianca Jagger" . Chase's Calendar of Events . McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 9780071468183 . Retrieved August 5, 2025 . At the time of her marriage to Mick Jagger in 1971 it was reported that she was born in 1945, which is cited as her birth year by most published sources. The charitable organisations with which she has been associated have used 1950. ^ Colin Larkin , ed. (1997). The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music (Concise ed.). Virgin Books . p. 666/7. ISBN 1-85227-745-9 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2022" . Nobel Prize (Press release). The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . October 4, 2022 . Retrieved October 6, 2022 . ^ Ruggieri, Melissa. "Procol Harum singer Gary Brooker, the voice of 'A Whiter Shade of Pale,' dies at 76" . USA Today . Retrieved February 23, 2022 . ^ "Betty Stöve" . Women's Tennis Association. ^ Dagnino, Maruja. "Lali Armengol Argemi". In Transparencia Venezuela (ed.). 20 mujeres venezolanas del siglo XX (PDF) . pp. 68– 71. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 6, 2021 . Retrieved June 12, 2022 . ^ Anon (2017). "Henderson, Dr Richard" . Who's Who (online Oxford University Press ed.). Oxford: A & C Black. doi : 10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.19818 . (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ "Patrick Modiano" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 4, 2022 . ^ Easlea, Daryl (April 7, 2010). Talent Is An Asset: The Story Of Sparks . Omnibus Press. ISBN 9780857122377 – via Google Books. ^ "Khaleda Zia" . Britannica Presents 100 Women Trailblazers . February 25, 2020 . Retrieved July 27, 2021 . ^ "Obituary: John McAfee, antivirus software designer, dies aged 75" . The Times . June 24, 2021. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021 . Retrieved June 24, 2021 . ^ "Serial killer Dennis Nilsen dies in prison aged 72" . The Guardian . May 12, 2018 . Retrieved January 3, 2022 . ^ "Legacy Lyle Bien" . South Dakota Hall of Fame . Retrieved June 17, 2024 . ^ David J. Goldman (2014). Jewish Sports Stars; Athletic Heroes Past and Present ^ "Lemmy, Motörhead frontman – obituary" . The Daily Telegraph . December 29, 2015. Archived from the original on January 11, 2022 . Retrieved December 29, 2015 . ^ "Noel Redding" . The Guardian . May 15, 2003 . Retrieved May 4, 2022 . ^ "Vernon Wells" . Movies & TV Dept. The New York Times . 2014. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. ^ "Edith Frank" . July 6, 2010. Archived from the original on July 6, 2010 . Retrieved October 18, 2017 . ^ Lumsden, Herbert ^ "Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biografía" [Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biography] (in Spanish). Madrid : Real Academia de la Historia. 2022 . Retrieved January 4, 2026 . ^ Kimmelman, Benedict B. (September–October 1987). "The Example Of Private Slovik" . American Heritage Magazine . 38 (6) . Retrieved October 5, 2012 . ^ "One day they simply weren't there any more..." (PDF) . anne frank house . March 2015 . Retrieved April 11, 2015 . ^ Kaplan, Alice (2000). The Collaborator: The Trial and Execution of Robert Brasillach . University of Chicago Press. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-226-42414-9 . ^ Zabecki, David T. , ed. (2019). The German War Machine in World War II . Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio . ISBN 978-1-44-086918-1 . ^ "Aleksey Nikolayevich, Count Tolstoy | Soviet writer | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . January 6, 2024. ^ "LIEUTENANT GENERAL MILLARD F. HARMON" . Air Force . [ dead link ] ^ Hill, Alec (1979). " 'Chauvel, Sir Henry George (Harry) (1865–1945)' " . Australian Dictionary of Biography . National Centre of Biography, Australian National University . ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7 . ISSN 1833-7538 . OCLC 70677943 . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . ^ "Preview unavailable" . ProQuest . ProQuest 107039613 . ^ "Casualty Details | CWGC" . www.cwgc.org . Retrieved March 8, 2021 . ^ MG Maurice Rose ^ "Georg Elser" . www.gdw-berlin.de . Retrieved January 4, 2025 . ^ "Ontdek amateurschilder, drukker, fotograaf Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman" . rkd.nl . ^ Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945 . London: Allen Lane. p. 750. ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . ^ Wallace, Sam (January 25, 2020). "The imperishable story of Julius Hirsch: the great goalscorer murdered at Auschwitz who adorns Stamford Bridge mural" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. ^ Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (November 3, 2009). Danger's Hour: The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot Who Crippled Her . Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-6081-7 . ^ "AAFA Bio - Kenneth J. Alford" . ^ "Ishii Kikujiro | Biography & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . March 15, 2024. ^ "Boris Galerkin" . TheFreeDictionary.com . ^ Harry Hillman Taken by Death, Cumberland News , August 10, 1945 ^ Firoz Alam (October 1, 2009). Subhas Chandra Bose . Sahni Publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-7564-242-3 . ^ Fildes, P. (February 13, 1956). "Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer, 1858-1945" . Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 2 (2): 237– 247. doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1956.0016 . S2CID 73380545 . ^ .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} Stevens, Halsey. 2018. " Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer ". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018). ^ "Kaupisch, Leonhard" (in German). lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ "Dr. W.B. Cannon, 73, Neurologist, Dead. Harvard Psychology Professor for 36 Years Noted for His Work on Traumatic Shock Became Professor in 1906" . New York Times . October 2, 1945 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 . ^ "Felix Salten | Austrian novelist | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . September 2, 2023. ^ "Felicija Bortkevičienė" . www.vle.lt . ^ Franklin Carmichael ^ Hugh Fordin, Stephen Sondheim (1995). Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II . Da Capo Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-306-80668-1 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ [Sinclair, Sir Edwyn Sinclair Alexander-, of Freswick (1865–1945)] ^ Billy Altman, Laughter's Gentle Soul: The Life of Robert Benchley . (New York City: W. W. Norton , 1997. ISBN 0-393-03833-5 ) Pages 352–362 ^ Inge, Tonette Bond. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture , ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William R. Ferris. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 884. ^ FC, Celtic. "Jimmy Quinn" . Celtic FC . ^ Siegman, Joseph (2020). Jewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496222121 . ^ Wing, Leonard Fish ^ Axelrod, Alan (2006), Patton: A Biography , London : Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 168– 9, ISBN 978-1-4039-7139-5 ^ Theodore Dreiser Recalled . Clemson University Press. 2017. p. 311. ISBN 9781942954446 . Further reading Ian Buruma . Year Zero: A History of 1945 (Penguin Press; 2013) 368 pages; covers liberation, revenge, decolonization, and the rise of the United Nations. excerpt International News Service, It Happened In 1945 The Essential Year Book (1946) Keith Lowe. Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (2012) excerpt and text search McDannald, A. H. ed. The Americana Annual 1946 (1946) events of 1945 online ; encyclopedia yearbook global coverage in 950pp Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, 4 vol., encyclopedia yearbook online v t e Events by month v t e 1949 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1948 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1947 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1946 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1945 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1944 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1943 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1942 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1941 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1940 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1945 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2022 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with dead external links from February 2023 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with dead external links from March 2025 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from August 2019 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 01:14 (UTC) . 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–8 of 8 results for author: Murugesan, G Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10154 [ pdf ] cs.AI cs.CV cs.ET cs.LG cs.SE MHub.ai: A Simple, Standardized, and Reproducible Platform for AI Models in Medical Imaging Authors: Leonard Nürnberg , Dennis Bontempi , Suraj Pai , Curtis Lisle , Steve Pieper , Ron Kikinis , Sil van de Leemput , Rahul Soni , Gowtham Murugesan , Cosmin Ciausu , Miriam Groeneveld , Felix J. Dorfner , Jue Jiang , Aneesh Rangnekar , Harini Veeraraghavan , Joeran S. Bosma , Keno Bressem , Raymond Mak , Andrey Fedorov , Hugo JWL Aerts Abstract : Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to transform medical imaging by automating image analysis and accelerating clinical research. However, research and clinical use are limited by the wide variety of AI implementations and architectures, inconsistent documentation, and reproducibility issues. Here, we introduce MHub.ai, an open-source, container-based platform that standardizes access t… ▽ More Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to transform medical imaging by automating image analysis and accelerating clinical research. However, research and clinical use are limited by the wide variety of AI implementations and architectures, inconsistent documentation, and reproducibility issues. Here, we introduce MHub.ai, an open-source, container-based platform that standardizes access to AI models with minimal configuration, promoting accessibility and reproducibility in medical imaging. MHub.ai packages models from peer-reviewed publications into standardized containers that support direct processing of DICOM and other formats, provide a unified application interface, and embed structured metadata. Each model is accompanied by publicly available reference data that can be used to confirm model operation. MHub.ai includes an initial set of state-of-the-art segmentation, prediction, and feature extraction models for different modalities. The modular framework enables adaptation of any model and supports community contributions. We demonstrate the utility of the platform in a clinical use case through comparative evaluation of lung segmentation models. To further strengthen transparency and reproducibility, we publicly release the generated segmentations and evaluation metrics and provide interactive dashboards that allow readers to inspect individual cases and reproduce or extend our analysis. By simplifying model use, MHub.ai enables side-by-side benchmarking with identical execution commands and standardized outputs, and lowers the barrier to clinical translation. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 41 pages, 15 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2601.10154 [ pdf ] MHub.ai: A Simple, Standardized, and Reproducible Platform for AI Models in Medical Imaging Authors: Leonard Nürnberg , Dennis Bontempi , Suraj Pai , Curtis Lisle , Steve Pieper , Ron Kikinis , Sil van de Leemput , Rahul Soni , Gowtham Murugesan , Cosmin Ciausu , Miriam Groeneveld , Felix J. Dorfner , Jue Jiang , Aneesh Rangnekar , Harini Veeraraghavan , Joeran S. Bosma , Keno Bressem , Raymond Mak , Andrey Fedorov , Hugo JWL Aerts Abstract : Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to transform medical imaging by automating image analysis and accelerating clinical research. However, research and clinical use are limited by the wide variety of AI implementations and architectures, inconsistent documentation, and reproducibility issues. Here, we introduce MHub.ai, an open-source, container-based platform that standardizes access t… ▽ More Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to transform medical imaging by automating image analysis and accelerating clinical research. However, research and clinical use are limited by the wide variety of AI implementations and architectures, inconsistent documentation, and reproducibility issues. Here, we introduce MHub.ai, an open-source, container-based platform that standardizes access to AI models with minimal configuration, promoting accessibility and reproducibility in medical imaging. MHub.ai packages models from peer-reviewed publications into standardized containers that support direct processing of DICOM and other formats, provide a unified application interface, and embed structured metadata. Each model is accompanied by publicly available reference data that can be used to confirm model operation. MHub.ai includes an initial set of state-of-the-art segmentation, prediction, and feature extraction models for different modalities. The modular framework enables adaptation of any model and supports community contributions. We demonstrate the utility of the platform in a clinical use case through comparative evaluation of lung segmentation models. To further strengthen transparency and reproducibility, we publicly release the generated segmentations and evaluation metrics and provide interactive dashboards that allow readers to inspect individual cases and reproduce or extend our analysis. By simplifying model use, MHub.ai enables side-by-side benchmarking with identical execution commands and standardized outputs, and lowers the barrier to clinical translation. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 41 pages, 15 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2508.21005 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DM cs.CR math.CO Measuring Ransomware Lateral Movement Susceptibility via Privilege-Weighted Adjacency Matrix Exponentiation Authors: Satyam Tyagi , Ganesh Murugesan Abstract : Ransomware impact hinges on how easily an intruder can move laterally and spread to the maximum number of assets. We present a graph-theoretic formulation that casts lateral movement as a path-closure problem over a probability semiring to measure lateral-movement susceptibility and estimate blast radius. We build a directed multigraph where vertices represent assets and edges represent reachable… ▽ More Ransomware impact hinges on how easily an intruder can move laterally and spread to the maximum number of assets. We present a graph-theoretic formulation that casts lateral movement as a path-closure problem over a probability semiring to measure lateral-movement susceptibility and estimate blast radius. We build a directed multigraph where vertices represent assets and edges represent reachable services (e.g., RDP/SSH) between them. We model lateral movement as a probabilistic process using a pivot potential factor $π(s)$ for each service, with step successes composed via a probabilistic path operator \( \otimes \) and alternative paths aggregated via a probabilistic union \( \oplus \) (noisy-OR). This yields a monotone fixed-point (iterative) computation of a $K$-hop compromise probability matrix that captures how compromise propagates through the network. Metrics derived from this model include: (1) Lateral-Movement Susceptibility (LMS$_K$): the average probability of a successful lateral movement between any two assets (0-1 scale); and (2) Blast-Radius Estimate (BRE$_K$): the expected percentage of assets compromised in an average attack scenario. Interactive services (SSH 22, RDP 3389) receive higher $π(s)$ than app-only ports (MySQL 3306, MSSQL 1433), which seldom enable pivoting without an RCE. Across anonymized enterprise snapshots, pruning high-$π(s)$ edges yields the largest LMS$_K$/BRE$_K$ drop, aligning with CISA guidance, MITRE ATT\&CK (TA0008: Lateral Movement), and NIST SP~800-207. The framework evaluates (micro)segmentation and helps prioritize controls that reduce lateral-movement susceptibility and shrink blast radius. △ Less Submitted 7 November, 2025; v1 submitted 28 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. Comments: 16 pages, 14 figures MSC Class: 05C50; 05C90; 94C15 ACM Class: G.2.2 arXiv:2508.21005 [ pdf , ps , other ] Measuring Ransomware Lateral Movement Susceptibility via Privilege-Weighted Adjacency Matrix Exponentiation Authors: Satyam Tyagi , Ganesh Murugesan Abstract : Ransomware impact hinges on how easily an intruder can move laterally and spread to the maximum number of assets. We present a graph-theoretic formulation that casts lateral movement as a path-closure problem over a probability semiring to measure lateral-movement susceptibility and estimate blast radius. We build a directed multigraph where vertices represent assets and edges represent reachable… ▽ More Ransomware impact hinges on how easily an intruder can move laterally and spread to the maximum number of assets. We present a graph-theoretic formulation that casts lateral movement as a path-closure problem over a probability semiring to measure lateral-movement susceptibility and estimate blast radius. We build a directed multigraph where vertices represent assets and edges represent reachable services (e.g., RDP/SSH) between them. We model lateral movement as a probabilistic process using a pivot potential factor $π(s)$ for each service, with step successes composed via a probabilistic path operator \( \otimes \) and alternative paths aggregated via a probabilistic union \( \oplus \) (noisy-OR). This yields a monotone fixed-point (iterative) computation of a $K$-hop compromise probability matrix that captures how compromise propagates through the network. Metrics derived from this model include: (1) Lateral-Movement Susceptibility (LMS$_K$): the average probability of a successful lateral movement between any two assets (0-1 scale); and (2) Blast-Radius Estimate (BRE$_K$): the expected percentage of assets compromised in an average attack scenario. Interactive services (SSH 22, RDP 3389) receive higher $π(s)$ than app-only ports (MySQL 3306, MSSQL 1433), which seldom enable pivoting without an RCE. Across anonymized enterprise snapshots, pruning high-$π(s)$ edges yields the largest LMS$_K$/BRE$_K$ drop, aligning with CISA guidance, MITRE ATT\&CK (TA0008: Lateral Movement), and NIST SP~800-207. The framework evaluates (micro)segmentation and helps prioritize controls that reduce lateral-movement susceptibility and shrink blast radius. △ Less Submitted 7 November, 2025; v1 submitted 28 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. Comments: 16 pages, 14 figures MSC Class: 05C50; 05C90; 94C15 ACM Class: G.2.2 arXiv:2409.20342 [ pdf ] eess.IV cs.CV AI generated annotations for Breast, Brain, Liver, Lungs and Prostate cancer collections in National Cancer Institute Imaging Data Commons Authors: Gowtham Krishnan Murugesan , Diana McCrumb , Rahul Soni , Jithendra Kumar , Leonard Nuernberg , Linmin Pei , Ulrike Wagner , Sutton Granger , Andrey Y. Fedorov , Stephen Moore , Jeff Van Oss Abstract : AI in Medical Imaging project aims to enhance the National Cancer Institute's (NCI) Image Data Commons (IDC) by developing nnU-Net models and providing AI-assisted segmentations for cancer radiology images. We created high-quality, AI-annotated imaging datasets for 11 IDC collections. These datasets include images from various modalities, such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance ima… ▽ More AI in Medical Imaging project aims to enhance the National Cancer Institute's (NCI) Image Data Commons (IDC) by developing nnU-Net models and providing AI-assisted segmentations for cancer radiology images. We created high-quality, AI-annotated imaging datasets for 11 IDC collections. These datasets include images from various modalities, such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), covering the lungs, breast, brain, kidneys, prostate, and liver. The nnU-Net models were trained using open-source datasets. A portion of the AI-generated annotations was reviewed and corrected by radiologists. Both the AI and radiologist annotations were encoded in compliance with the the Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) standard, ensuring seamless integration into the IDC collections. All models, images, and annotations are publicly accessible, facilitating further research and development in cancer imaging. This work supports the advancement of imaging tools and algorithms by providing comprehensive and accurate annotated datasets. △ Less Submitted 30 September, 2024; originally announced September 2024. arXiv:2409.20342 [ pdf ] AI generated annotations for Breast, Brain, Liver, Lungs and Prostate cancer collections in National Cancer Institute Imaging Data Commons Authors: Gowtham Krishnan Murugesan , Diana McCrumb , Rahul Soni , Jithendra Kumar , Leonard Nuernberg , Linmin Pei , Ulrike Wagner , Sutton Granger , Andrey Y. Fedorov , Stephen Moore , Jeff Van Oss Abstract : AI in Medical Imaging project aims to enhance the National Cancer Institute's (NCI) Image Data Commons (IDC) by developing nnU-Net models and providing AI-assisted segmentations for cancer radiology images. We created high-quality, AI-annotated imaging datasets for 11 IDC collections. These datasets include images from various modalities, such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance ima… ▽ More AI in Medical Imaging project aims to enhance the National Cancer Institute's (NCI) Image Data Commons (IDC) by developing nnU-Net models and providing AI-assisted segmentations for cancer radiology images. We created high-quality, AI-annotated imaging datasets for 11 IDC collections. These datasets include images from various modalities, such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), covering the lungs, breast, brain, kidneys, prostate, and liver. The nnU-Net models were trained using open-source datasets. A portion of the AI-generated annotations was reviewed and corrected by radiologists. Both the AI and radiologist annotations were encoded in compliance with the the Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) standard, ensuring seamless integration into the IDC collections. All models, images, and annotations are publicly accessible, facilitating further research and development in cancer imaging. This work supports the advancement of imaging tools and algorithms by providing comprehensive and accurate annotated datasets. △ Less Submitted 30 September, 2024; originally announced September 2024. arXiv:2311.01574 [ pdf ] eess.IV cs.CV cs.LG Improving Lesion Segmentation in FDG-18 Whole-Body PET/CT scans using Multilabel approach: AutoPET II challenge Authors: Gowtham Krishnan Murugesan , Diana McCrumb , Eric Brunner , Jithendra Kumar , Rahul Soni , Vasily Grigorash , Stephen Moore , Jeff Van Oss Abstract : Automatic segmentation of lesions in FDG-18 Whole Body (WB) PET/CT scans using deep learning models is instrumental for determining treatment response, optimizing dosimetry, and advancing theranostic applications in oncology. However, the presence of organs with elevated radiotracer uptake, such as the liver, spleen, brain, and bladder, often leads to challenges, as these regions are often misiden… ▽ More Automatic segmentation of lesions in FDG-18 Whole Body (WB) PET/CT scans using deep learning models is instrumental for determining treatment response, optimizing dosimetry, and advancing theranostic applications in oncology. However, the presence of organs with elevated radiotracer uptake, such as the liver, spleen, brain, and bladder, often leads to challenges, as these regions are often misidentified as lesions by deep learning models. To address this issue, we propose a novel approach of segmenting both organs and lesions, aiming to enhance the performance of automatic lesion segmentation methods. In this study, we assessed the effectiveness of our proposed method using the AutoPET II challenge dataset, which comprises 1014 subjects. We evaluated the impact of inclusion of additional labels and data in the segmentation performance of the model. In addition to the expert-annotated lesion labels, we introduced eight additional labels for organs, including the liver, kidneys, urinary bladder, spleen, lung, brain, heart, and stomach. These labels were integrated into the dataset, and a 3D UNET model was trained within the nnUNet framework. Our results demonstrate that our method achieved the top ranking in the held-out test dataset, underscoring the potential of this approach to significantly improve lesion segmentation accuracy in FDG-18 Whole-Body PET/CT scans, ultimately benefiting cancer patients and advancing clinical practice. △ Less Submitted 2 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. Comments: AutoPET II challenge paper arXiv:2311.01574 [ pdf ] Improving Lesion Segmentation in FDG-18 Whole-Body PET/CT scans using Multilabel approach: AutoPET II challenge Authors: Gowtham Krishnan Murugesan , Diana McCrumb , Eric Brunner , Jithendra Kumar , Rahul Soni , Vasily Grigorash , Stephen Moore , Jeff Van Oss Abstract : Automatic segmentation of lesions in FDG-18 Whole Body (WB) PET/CT scans using deep learning models is instrumental for determining treatment response, optimizing dosimetry, and advancing theranostic applications in oncology. However, the presence of organs with elevated radiotracer uptake, such as the liver, spleen, brain, and bladder, often leads to challenges, as these regions are often misiden… ▽ More Automatic segmentation of lesions in FDG-18 Whole Body (WB) PET/CT scans using deep learning models is instrumental for determining treatment response, optimizing dosimetry, and advancing theranostic applications in oncology. However, the presence of organs with elevated radiotracer uptake, such as the liver, spleen, brain, and bladder, often leads to challenges, as these regions are often misidentified as lesions by deep learning models. To address this issue, we propose a novel approach of segmenting both organs and lesions, aiming to enhance the performance of automatic lesion segmentation methods. In this study, we assessed the effectiveness of our proposed method using the AutoPET II challenge dataset, which comprises 1014 subjects. We evaluated the impact of inclusion of additional labels and data in the segmentation performance of the model. In addition to the expert-annotated lesion labels, we introduced eight additional labels for organs, including the liver, kidneys, urinary bladder, spleen, lung, brain, heart, and stomach. These labels were integrated into the dataset, and a 3D UNET model was trained within the nnUNet framework. Our results demonstrate that our method achieved the top ranking in the held-out test dataset, underscoring the potential of this approach to significantly improve lesion segmentation accuracy in FDG-18 Whole-Body PET/CT scans, ultimately benefiting cancer patients and advancing clinical practice. △ Less Submitted 2 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. Comments: AutoPET II challenge paper arXiv:2310.03766 [ pdf ] cs.IR cs.AI Literature Based Discovery (LBD): Towards Hypothesis Generation and Knowledge Discovery in Biomedical Text Mining Authors: Balu Bhasuran , Gurusamy Murugesan , Jeyakumar Natarajan Abstract : Biomedical knowledge is growing in an astounding pace with a majority of this knowledge is represented as scientific publications. Text mining tools and methods represents automatic approaches for extracting hidden patterns and trends from this semi structured and unstructured data. In Biomedical Text mining, Literature Based Discovery (LBD) is the process of automatically discovering novel associ… ▽ More Biomedical knowledge is growing in an astounding pace with a majority of this knowledge is represented as scientific publications. Text mining tools and methods represents automatic approaches for extracting hidden patterns and trends from this semi structured and unstructured data. In Biomedical Text mining, Literature Based Discovery (LBD) is the process of automatically discovering novel associations between medical terms otherwise mentioned in disjoint literature sets. LBD approaches proven to be successfully reducing the discovery time of potential associations that are hidden in the vast amount of scientific literature. The process focuses on creating concept profiles for medical terms such as a disease or symptom and connecting it with a drug and treatment based on the statistical significance of the shared profiles. This knowledge discovery approach introduced in 1989 still remains as a core task in text mining. Currently the ABC principle based two approaches namely open discovery and closed discovery are mostly explored in LBD process. This review starts with general introduction about text mining followed by biomedical text mining and introduces various literature resources such as MEDLINE, UMLS, MESH, and SemMedDB. This is followed by brief introduction of the core ABC principle and its associated two approaches open discovery and closed discovery in LBD process. This review also discusses the deep learning applications in LBD by reviewing the role of transformer models and neural networks based LBD models and its future aspects. Finally, reviews the key biomedical discoveries generated through LBD approaches in biomedicine and conclude with the current limitations and future directions of LBD. △ Less Submitted 3 October, 2023; originally announced October 2023. Comments: 43 Pages, 5 Figures, 4 Tables arXiv:2310.03766 [ pdf ] Literature Based Discovery (LBD): Towards Hypothesis Generation and Knowledge Discovery in Biomedical Text Mining Authors: Balu Bhasuran , Gurusamy Murugesan , Jeyakumar Natarajan Abstract : Biomedical knowledge is growing in an astounding pace with a majority of this knowledge is represented as scientific publications. Text mining tools and methods represents automatic approaches for extracting hidden patterns and trends from this semi structured and unstructured data. In Biomedical Text mining, Literature Based Discovery (LBD) is the process of automatically discovering novel associ… ▽ More Biomedical knowledge is growing in an astounding pace with a majority of this knowledge is represented as scientific publications. Text mining tools and methods represents automatic approaches for extracting hidden patterns and trends from this semi structured and unstructured data. In Biomedical Text mining, Literature Based Discovery (LBD) is the process of automatically discovering novel associations between medical terms otherwise mentioned in disjoint literature sets. LBD approaches proven to be successfully reducing the discovery time of potential associations that are hidden in the vast amount of scientific literature. The process focuses on creating concept profiles for medical terms such as a disease or symptom and connecting it with a drug and treatment based on the statistical significance of the shared profiles. This knowledge discovery approach introduced in 1989 still remains as a core task in text mining. Currently the ABC principle based two approaches namely open discovery and closed discovery are mostly explored in LBD process. This review starts with general introduction about text mining followed by biomedical text mining and introduces various literature resources such as MEDLINE, UMLS, MESH, and SemMedDB. This is followed by brief introduction of the core ABC principle and its associated two approaches open discovery and closed discovery in LBD process. This review also discusses the deep learning applications in LBD by reviewing the role of transformer models and neural networks based LBD models and its future aspects. Finally, reviews the key biomedical discoveries generated through LBD approaches in biomedicine and conclude with the current limitations and future directions of LBD. △ Less Submitted 3 October, 2023; originally announced October 2023. Comments: 43 Pages, 5 Figures, 4 Tables arXiv:2212.08568 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV cs.LG Biomedical image analysis competitions: The state of current participation practice Authors: Matthias Eisenmann , Annika Reinke , Vivienn Weru , Minu Dietlinde Tizabi , Fabian Isensee , Tim J. Adler , Patrick Godau , Veronika Cheplygina , Michal Kozubek , Sharib Ali , Anubha Gupta , Jan Kybic , Alison Noble , Carlos Ortiz de Solórzano , Samiksha Pachade , Caroline Petitjean , Daniel Sage , Donglai Wei , Elizabeth Wilden , Deepak Alapatt , Vincent Andrearczyk , Ujjwal Baid , Spyridon Bakas , Niranjan Balu , Sophia Bano , et al. (331 additional authors not shown) Abstract : The number of international benchmarking competitions is steadily increasing in various fields of machine learning (ML) research and practice. So far, however, little is known about the common practice as well as bottlenecks faced by the community in tackling the research questions posed. To shed light on the status quo of algorithm development in the specific field of biomedical imaging analysis,… ▽ More The number of international benchmarking competitions is steadily increasing in various fields of machine learning (ML) research and practice. So far, however, little is known about the common practice as well as bottlenecks faced by the community in tackling the research questions posed. To shed light on the status quo of algorithm development in the specific field of biomedical imaging analysis, we designed an international survey that was issued to all participants of challenges conducted in conjunction with the IEEE ISBI 2021 and MICCAI 2021 conferences (80 competitions in total). The survey covered participants' expertise and working environments, their chosen strategies, as well as algorithm characteristics. A median of 72% challenge participants took part in the survey. According to our results, knowledge exchange was the primary incentive (70%) for participation, while the reception of prize money played only a minor role (16%). While a median of 80 working hours was spent on method development, a large portion of participants stated that they did not have enough time for method development (32%). 25% perceived the infrastructure to be a bottleneck. Overall, 94% of all solutions were deep learning-based. Of these, 84% were based on standard architectures. 43% of the respondents reported that the data samples (e.g., images) were too large to be processed at once. This was most commonly addressed by patch-based training (69%), downsampling (37%), and solving 3D analysis tasks as a series of 2D tasks. K-fold cross-validation on the training set was performed by only 37% of the participants and only 50% of the participants performed ensembling based on multiple identical models (61%) or heterogeneous models (39%). 48% of the respondents applied postprocessing steps. △ Less Submitted 12 September, 2023; v1 submitted 16 December, 2022; originally announced December 2022. arXiv:2212.08568 [ pdf , other ] Biomedical image analysis competitions: The state of current participation practice Authors: Matthias Eisenmann , Annika Reinke , Vivienn Weru , Minu Dietlinde Tizabi , Fabian Isensee , Tim J. Adler , Patrick Godau , Veronika Cheplygina , Michal Kozubek , Sharib Ali , Anubha Gupta , Jan Kybic , Alison Noble , Carlos Ortiz de Solórzano , Samiksha Pachade , Caroline Petitjean , Daniel Sage , Donglai Wei , Elizabeth Wilden , Deepak Alapatt , Vincent Andrearczyk , Ujjwal Baid , Spyridon Bakas , Niranjan Balu , Sophia Bano , et al. (331 additional authors not shown) Abstract : The number of international benchmarking competitions is steadily increasing in various fields of machine learning (ML) research and practice. So far, however, little is known about the common practice as well as bottlenecks faced by the community in tackling the research questions posed. To shed light on the status quo of algorithm development in the specific field of biomedical imaging analysis,… ▽ More The number of international benchmarking competitions is steadily increasing in various fields of machine learning (ML) research and practice. So far, however, little is known about the common practice as well as bottlenecks faced by the community in tackling the research questions posed. To shed light on the status quo of algorithm development in the specific field of biomedical imaging analysis, we designed an international survey that was issued to all participants of challenges conducted in conjunction with the IEEE ISBI 2021 and MICCAI 2021 conferences (80 competitions in total). The survey covered participants' expertise and working environments, their chosen strategies, as well as algorithm characteristics. A median of 72% challenge participants took part in the survey. According to our results, knowledge exchange was the primary incentive (70%) for participation, while the reception of prize money played only a minor role (16%). While a median of 80 working hours was spent on method development, a large portion of participants stated that they did not have enough time for method development (32%). 25% perceived the infrastructure to be a bottleneck. Overall, 94% of all solutions were deep learning-based. Of these, 84% were based on standard architectures. 43% of the respondents reported that the data samples (e.g., images) were too large to be processed at once. This was most commonly addressed by patch-based training (69%), downsampling (37%), and solving 3D analysis tasks as a series of 2D tasks. K-fold cross-validation on the training set was performed by only 37% of the participants and only 50% of the participants performed ensembling based on multiple identical models (61%) or heterogeneous models (39%). 48% of the respondents applied postprocessing steps. △ Less Submitted 12 September, 2023; v1 submitted 16 December, 2022; originally announced December 2022. arXiv:2112.10074 [ pdf , other ] eess.IV cs.CV cs.LG doi 10.59275/j.melba.2022-354b QU-BraTS: MICCAI BraTS 2020 Challenge on Quantifying Uncertainty in Brain Tumor Segmentation - Analysis of Ranking Scores and Benchmarking Results Authors: Raghav Mehta , Angelos Filos , Ujjwal Baid , Chiharu Sako , Richard McKinley , Michael Rebsamen , Katrin Datwyler , Raphael Meier , Piotr Radojewski , Gowtham Krishnan Murugesan , Sahil Nalawade , Chandan Ganesh , Ben Wagner , Fang F. Yu , Baowei Fei , Ananth J. Madhuranthakam , Joseph A. Maldjian , Laura Daza , Catalina Gomez , Pablo Arbelaez , Chengliang Dai , Shuo Wang , Hadrien Reynaud , Yuan-han Mo , Elsa Angelini , et al. (67 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Deep learning (DL) models have provided state-of-the-art performance in various medical imaging benchmarking challenges, including the Brain Tumor Segmentation (BraTS) challenges. However, the task of focal pathology multi-compartment segmentation (e.g., tumor and lesion sub-regions) is particularly challenging, and potential errors hinder translating DL models into clinical workflows. Quantifying… ▽ More Deep learning (DL) models have provided state-of-the-art performance in various medical imaging benchmarking challenges, including the Brain Tumor Segmentation (BraTS) challenges. However, the task of focal pathology multi-compartment segmentation (e.g., tumor and lesion sub-regions) is particularly challenging, and potential errors hinder translating DL models into clinical workflows. Quantifying the reliability of DL model predictions in the form of uncertainties could enable clinical review of the most uncertain regions, thereby building trust and paving the way toward clinical translation. Several uncertainty estimation methods have recently been introduced for DL medical image segmentation tasks. Developing scores to evaluate and compare the performance of uncertainty measures will assist the end-user in making more informed decisions. In this study, we explore and evaluate a score developed during the BraTS 2019 and BraTS 2020 task on uncertainty quantification (QU-BraTS) and designed to assess and rank uncertainty estimates for brain tumor multi-compartment segmentation. This score (1) rewards uncertainty estimates that produce high confidence in correct assertions and those that assign low confidence levels at incorrect assertions, and (2) penalizes uncertainty measures that lead to a higher percentage of under-confident correct assertions. We further benchmark the segmentation uncertainties generated by 14 independent participating teams of QU-BraTS 2020, all of which also participated in the main BraTS segmentation task. Overall, our findings confirm the importance and complementary value that uncertainty estimates provide to segmentation algorithms, highlighting the need for uncertainty quantification in medical image analyses. Finally, in favor of transparency and reproducibility, our evaluation code is made publicly available at: △ Less Submitted 23 August, 2022; v1 submitted 19 December, 2021; originally announced December 2021. Comments: Accepted for publication at the Journal of Machine Learning for Biomedical Imaging (MELBA): Journal ref: Machine.Learning.for.Biomedical.Imaging. 1 (2022) arXiv:2112.10074 [ pdf , other ] QU-BraTS: MICCAI BraTS 2020 Challenge on Quantifying Uncertainty in Brain Tumor Segmentation - Analysis of Ranking Scores and Benchmarking Results Authors: Raghav Mehta , Angelos Filos , Ujjwal Baid , Chiharu Sako , Richard McKinley , Michael Rebsamen , Katrin Datwyler , Raphael Meier , Piotr Radojewski , Gowtham Krishnan Murugesan , Sahil Nalawade , Chandan Ganesh , Ben Wagner , Fang F. Yu , Baowei Fei , Ananth J. Madhuranthakam , Joseph A. Maldjian , Laura Daza , Catalina Gomez , Pablo Arbelaez , Chengliang Dai , Shuo Wang , Hadrien Reynaud , Yuan-han Mo , Elsa Angelini , et al. (67 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Deep learning (DL) models have provided state-of-the-art performance in various medical imaging benchmarking challenges, including the Brain Tumor Segmentation (BraTS) challenges. However, the task of focal pathology multi-compartment segmentation (e.g., tumor and lesion sub-regions) is particularly challenging, and potential errors hinder translating DL models into clinical workflows. Quantifying… ▽ More Deep learning (DL) models have provided state-of-the-art performance in various medical imaging benchmarking challenges, including the Brain Tumor Segmentation (BraTS) challenges. However, the task of focal pathology multi-compartment segmentation (e.g., tumor and lesion sub-regions) is particularly challenging, and potential errors hinder translating DL models into clinical workflows. Quantifying the reliability of DL model predictions in the form of uncertainties could enable clinical review of the most uncertain regions, thereby building trust and paving the way toward clinical translation. Several uncertainty estimation methods have recently been introduced for DL medical image segmentation tasks. Developing scores to evaluate and compare the performance of uncertainty measures will assist the end-user in making more informed decisions. In this study, we explore and evaluate a score developed during the BraTS 2019 and BraTS 2020 task on uncertainty quantification (QU-BraTS) and designed to assess and rank uncertainty estimates for brain tumor multi-compartment segmentation. This score (1) rewards uncertainty estimates that produce high confidence in correct assertions and those that assign low confidence levels at incorrect assertions, and (2) penalizes uncertainty measures that lead to a higher percentage of under-confident correct assertions. We further benchmark the segmentation uncertainties generated by 14 independent participating teams of QU-BraTS 2020, all of which also participated in the main BraTS segmentation task. Overall, our findings confirm the importance and complementary value that uncertainty estimates provide to segmentation algorithms, highlighting the need for uncertainty quantification in medical image analyses. Finally, in favor of transparency and reproducibility, our evaluation code is made publicly available at: △ Less Submitted 23 August, 2022; v1 submitted 19 December, 2021; originally announced December 2021. Comments: Accepted for publication at the Journal of Machine Learning for Biomedical Imaging (MELBA): Journal ref: Machine.Learning.for.Biomedical.Imaging. 1 (2022) arXiv:1004.3566 [ pdf ] cs.DC An Economic-based Resource Management and Scheduling for Grid Computing Applications Authors: G. Murugesan , C. Chellappan Abstract : Resource management and scheduling plays a crucial role in achieving high utilization of resources in grid computing environments. Due to heterogeneity of resources, scheduling an application is significantly complicated and challenging task in grid system. Most of the researches in this area are mainly focused on to improve the performance of the grid system. There were some allocation model has… ▽ More Resource management and scheduling plays a crucial role in achieving high utilization of resources in grid computing environments. Due to heterogeneity of resources, scheduling an application is significantly complicated and challenging task in grid system. Most of the researches in this area are mainly focused on to improve the performance of the grid system. There were some allocation model has been proposed based on divisible load theory with different type of workloads and a single originating processor. In this paper we introduce a new resource allocation model with multiple load originating processors as an economic model. Solutions for an optimal allocation of fraction of loads to nodes obtained to minimize the cost of the grid users via linear programming approach. It is found that the resource allocation model can efficiently and effectively allocate workloads to proper resources. Experimental results showed that the proposed model obtained the better solution in terms of cost and time. △ Less Submitted 20 April, 2010; originally announced April 2010. Comments: International Journal of Computer Science Issues online at Journal ref: IJCSI, Volume 7, Issue 2, March 2010 arXiv:1004.3566 [ pdf ] An Economic-based Resource Management and Scheduling for Grid Computing Applications Authors: G. Murugesan , C. Chellappan Abstract : Resource management and scheduling plays a crucial role in achieving high utilization of resources in grid computing environments. Due to heterogeneity of resources, scheduling an application is significantly complicated and challenging task in grid system. Most of the researches in this area are mainly focused on to improve the performance of the grid system. There were some allocation model has… ▽ More Resource management and scheduling plays a crucial role in achieving high utilization of resources in grid computing environments. Due to heterogeneity of resources, scheduling an application is significantly complicated and challenging task in grid system. Most of the researches in this area are mainly focused on to improve the performance of the grid system. There were some allocation model has been proposed based on divisible load theory with different type of workloads and a single originating processor. In this paper we introduce a new resource allocation model with multiple load originating processors as an economic model. Solutions for an optimal allocation of fraction of loads to nodes obtained to minimize the cost of the grid users via linear programming approach. It is found that the resource allocation model can efficiently and effectively allocate workloads to proper resources. Experimental results showed that the proposed model obtained the better solution in terms of cost and time. △ Less Submitted 20 April, 2010; originally announced April 2010. Comments: International Journal of Computer Science Issues online at Journal ref: IJCSI, Volume 7, Issue 2, March 2010 About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Murugesan,+G
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Terminology 2 Formation and state 3 Environment 4 Human access Toggle Human access subsection 4.1 Effect on biology and human bodies 4.1.1 Vacuum 4.1.2 Weightlessness and radiation 4.2 Boundary 4.3 Legal status 4.4 Earth orbit 4.1 Effect on biology and human bodies 4.1.1 Vacuum 4.1.2 Weightlessness and radiation 4.1.1 Vacuum 4.1.2 Weightlessness and radiation 4.2 Boundary 4.3 Legal status 4.4 Earth orbit 5 Regions Toggle Regions subsection 5.1 Regions near the Earth 5.2 Interplanetary space 5.3 Interstellar space 5.4 Intergalactic space 5.1 Regions near the Earth 5.2 Interplanetary space 5.3 Interstellar space 5.4 Intergalactic space 6 History of discovery 7 Exploration 8 Application 9 See also 10 References Toggle References subsection 10.1 Citations 10.2 Sources 10.1 Citations 10.2 Sources 11 External links Outer space Afrikaans Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Čeština ChiShona Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Эрзянь Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 贛語 ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар کٲشُر Қазақша Kiswahili Kriyòl gwiyannen Кыргызча ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Patois Polski Português Qırımtatarca Română Runa Simi Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taqbaylit Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Jaku Iban Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikivoyage Wikidata item Outer space , or simply space , is the expanse that exists beyond Earth's atmosphere and between celestial bodies . [ 1 ] It contains ultra-low levels of particle densities , constituting a near-perfect vacuum [ 2 ] of predominantly hydrogen and helium plasma , permeated by electromagnetic radiation , cosmic rays , neutrinos , magnetic fields and dust . The baseline temperature of outer space, as set by the background radiation from the Big Bang , is 2.7 kelvins (−270 °C; −455 °F). [ 3 ] The plasma between galaxies is thought to account for about half of the baryonic (ordinary) matter in the universe, having a number density of less than one hydrogen atom per cubic metre and a kinetic temperature of millions of kelvins . [ 4 ] Local concentrations of matter have condensed into stars and galaxies . Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the universe , but even galaxies and star systems consist almost entirely of empty space. Most of the remaining mass-energy in the observable universe is made up of an unknown form, dubbed dark matter and dark energy . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Outer space does not begin at a definite altitude above Earth's surface. The Kármán line , an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) above sea level , [ 8 ] [ 9 ] is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping. Certain portions of the upper stratosphere and the mesosphere are sometimes referred to as " near space ". The framework for international space law was established by the Outer Space Treaty , which entered into force on 10 October 1967. This treaty precludes any claims of national sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space . Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the peaceful uses of outer space, anti-satellite weapons have been tested in Earth orbit . The concept that the space between the Earth and the Moon must be a vacuum was first proposed in the 17th century after scientists discovered that air pressure decreased with altitude. The immense scale of outer space was grasped in the 20th century when the distance to the Andromeda Galaxy was first measured. Humans began the physical exploration of space later in the same century with the advent of high-altitude balloon flights . This was followed by crewed rocket flights and, then, crewed Earth orbit, first achieved by Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union in 1961. The economic cost of putting objects, including humans, into space is very high, limiting human spaceflight to low Earth orbit and the Moon . On the other hand, uncrewed spacecraft have reached all of the known planets in the Solar System . Outer space represents a challenging environment for human exploration because of the hazards of vacuum and radiation . Microgravity has a negative effect on human physiology that causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss . Terminology The use of the short version space , as meaning "the region beyond Earth's sky", predates the use of full term "outer space", with the earliest recorded use of this meaning in an epic poem by John Milton called Paradise Lost , published in 1667. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] The term outward space existed in a poem from 1842 by the English poet Lady Emmeline Stuart-Wortley called "The Maiden of Moscow", [ 12 ] but in astronomy the term outer space found its application for the first time in 1845 by Alexander von Humboldt . [ 13 ] The term was eventually popularized through the writings of H. G. Wells after 1901. [ 14 ] Theodore von Kármán used the term of free space to name the space of altitudes above Earth where spacecrafts reach conditions sufficiently free from atmospheric drag, differentiating it from airspace , identifying a legal space above territories free from the sovereign jurisdiction of countries. This definition of the boundary to outer space became known as the Kármán line . [ 15 ] " Spaceborne " denotes existing in outer space, especially if carried by a spacecraft ; [ 16 ] [ 17 ] similarly, " space-based " means based in outer space or on a planet or moon. [ 18 ] Formation and state The size of the whole universe is unknown, and it might be infinite in extent. [ 19 ] According to the Big Bang theory, the very early universe was an extremely hot and dense state about 13.8 billion years ago [ 20 ] which rapidly expanded . About 380,000 years later the universe had cooled sufficiently to allow protons and electrons to combine and form hydrogen—the so-called recombination epoch . When this happened, matter and energy became decoupled, allowing photons to travel freely through the continually expanding space. [ 21 ] Matter that remained following the initial expansion has since undergone gravitational collapse to create stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects, leaving behind a deep vacuum that forms what is now called outer space. [ 22 ] As light has a finite velocity, this theory constrains the size of the directly observable universe. [ 21 ] The present day shape of the universe has been determined from measurements of the cosmic microwave background using satellites like the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe . These observations indicate that the spatial geometry of the observable universe is " flat ", meaning that photons on parallel paths at one point remain parallel as they travel through space to the limit of the observable universe, except for local gravity. [ 23 ] The flat universe, combined with the measured mass density of the universe and the accelerating expansion of the universe , indicates that space has a non-zero vacuum energy , which is called dark energy . [ 24 ] Estimates put the average energy density of the present day universe at the equivalent of 5.9 protons per cubic meter, including dark energy, dark matter, and baryonic matter (ordinary matter composed of atoms). The atoms account for only 4.6% of the total energy density, or a density of one proton per four cubic meters. [ 25 ] The density of the universe is clearly not uniform; it ranges from relatively high density in galaxies—including very high density in structures within galaxies, such as planets, stars, and black holes —to conditions in vast voids that have much lower density, at least in terms of visible matter. [ 26 ] Unlike matter and dark matter, dark energy seems not to be concentrated in galaxies: although dark energy may account for a majority of the mass-energy in the universe, dark energy's influence is 5 orders of magnitude smaller than the influence of gravity from matter and dark matter within the Milky Way. [ 27 ] Environment Outer space is the closest known approximation to a perfect vacuum . It has effectively no friction , allowing stars, planets , and moons to move freely along their orbits . The deep vacuum of intergalactic space is not devoid of matter , as it contains a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter. [ 29 ] By comparison, the air humans breathe contains about 10 25 molecules per cubic meter. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] The low density of matter in outer space means that electromagnetic radiation can travel great distances without being scattered: the mean free path of a photon in intergalactic space is about 10 23 km, or 10 billion light years. [ 32 ] In spite of this, extinction , which is the absorption and scattering of photons by dust and gas, is an important factor in galactic and intergalactic astronomy . [ 33 ] Stars, planets, and moons retain their atmospheres by gravitational attraction. Atmospheres have no clearly delineated upper boundary: the density of atmospheric gas gradually decreases with distance from the object until it becomes indistinguishable from outer space. [ 34 ] The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about 0.032 Pa at 100 kilometres (62 miles) of altitude, [ 35 ] compared to 100,000 Pa for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) definition of standard pressure . Above this altitude, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar wind . The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather . [ 36 ] The temperature of outer space is measured in terms of the kinetic activity of the gas, [ 37 ] as it is on Earth. The radiation of outer space has a different temperature than the kinetic temperature of the gas, meaning that the gas and radiation are not in thermodynamic equilibrium . [ 38 ] [ 39 ] All of the observable universe is filled with photons that were created during the Big Bang, which is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB). (There is quite likely a correspondingly large number of neutrinos called the cosmic neutrino background . [ 40 ] ) The current black body temperature of the background radiation is about 2.7 K (−270 °C; −455 °F). [ 41 ] The gas temperatures in outer space can vary widely. For example, the temperature in the Boomerang Nebula is 1 K (−272 °C; −458 °F), [ 42 ] while the solar corona reaches temperatures over 1,200,000–2,600,000 K (2,200,000–4,700,000 °F). [ 43 ] Magnetic fields have been detected in the space around many classes of celestial objects. Star formation in spiral galaxies can generate small-scale dynamos , creating turbulent magnetic field strengths of around 5–10 μ G . The Davis–Greenstein effect causes elongated dust grains to align themselves with a galaxy's magnetic field, resulting in weak optical polarization . This has been used to show ordered magnetic fields that exist in several nearby galaxies. Magneto-hydrodynamic processes in active elliptical galaxies produce their characteristic jets and radio lobes . Non-thermal radio sources have been detected even among the most distant high-z sources, indicating the presence of magnetic fields. [ 44 ] Outside a protective atmosphere and magnetic field, there are few obstacles to the passage through space of energetic subatomic particles known as cosmic rays . These particles have energies ranging from about 10 6 eV up to an extreme 10 20 eV of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays . [ 45 ] The peak flux of cosmic rays occurs at energies of about 10 9 eV, with approximately 87% protons, 12% helium nuclei and 1% heavier nuclei. In the high energy range, the flux of electrons is only about 1% of that of protons. [ 46 ] Cosmic rays can damage electronic components and pose a health threat to space travelers. [ 47 ] Scents retained from low Earth orbit, when returning from extravehicular activity , have a burned, metallic odor, similar to the scent of arc welding fumes. This results from oxygen in low Earth orbit, which clings to suits and equipment. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Other regions of space could have very different odors, like that of different alcohols in molecular clouds . [ 51 ] Human access Effect on biology and human bodies Despite the harsh environment, several life forms have been found that can withstand extreme space conditions for extended periods. Species of lichen carried on the ESA BIOPAN facility survived exposure for ten days in 2007. [ 52 ] Seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicotiana tabacum germinated after being exposed to space for 1.5 years. [ 53 ] A strain of Bacillus subtilis has survived 559 days when exposed to low Earth orbit or a simulated Martian environment. [ 54 ] The lithopanspermia hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from life-harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another habitable world. A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred early in the history of the Solar System, with potentially microorganism -bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus, Earth, and Mars. [ 55 ] Because bacteria can survive for millions of years, it is at least theoretically possible for Galactic-scale panspermia to occur. [ 56 ] Vacuum The lack of pressure in space is the most immediate dangerous characteristic of space to humans. Pressure decreases above Earth, reaching a level at an altitude of around 19.14 km (11.89 mi) that matches the vapor pressure of water at the temperature of the human body . This pressure level is called the Armstrong line , named after American physician Harry G. Armstrong . [ 57 ] At or above the Armstrong line, fluids in the throat and lungs boil away. More specifically, exposed bodily liquids such as saliva, tears, and liquids in the lungs boil away. Hence, at this altitude, human survival requires a pressure suit, or a pressurized capsule. [ 58 ] Out in space, sudden exposure of an unprotected human to very low pressure , such as during a rapid decompression, can cause pulmonary barotrauma —a rupture of the lungs, due to the large pressure differential between inside and outside the chest. [ 59 ] Even if the subject's airway is fully open, the flow of air through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the rupture. [ 60 ] Rapid decompression can rupture eardrums and sinuses, bruising and blood seep can occur in soft tissues, and shock can cause an increase in oxygen consumption that leads to hypoxia . [ 61 ] As a consequence of rapid decompression, oxygen dissolved in the blood empties into the lungs to try to equalize the partial pressure gradient. Once the deoxygenated blood arrives at the brain, humans lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes. [ 62 ] Blood and other body fluids boil when the pressure drops below 6.3 kilopascals (1 psi), and this condition is called ebullism . [ 63 ] The steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a pressure suit . The Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS), a fitted elastic garment designed in the 1960s for astronauts, prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kilopascals (0.3 psi). [ 66 ] Supplemental oxygen is needed at 8 km (5 mi) to provide enough oxygen for breathing and to prevent water loss, while above 20 km (12 mi) pressure suits are essential to prevent ebullism. [ 67 ] Most space suits use around 30–39 kilopascals (4–6 psi) of pure oxygen, about the same as the partial pressure of oxygen at the Earth's surface. This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism, but evaporation of nitrogen dissolved in the blood could still cause decompression sickness and gas embolisms if not managed. [ 68 ] Weightlessness and radiation Humans evolved for life in Earth gravity , and exposure to weightlessness has been shown to have deleterious effects on human health. Initially, more than 50% of astronauts experience space motion sickness . This can cause nausea and vomiting, vertigo , headaches, lethargy , and overall malaise. The duration of space sickness varies, but it typically lasts for 1–3 days, after which the body adjusts to the new environment. Longer-term exposure to weightlessness results in muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton, or spaceflight osteopenia . These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise. [ 69 ] Other effects include fluid redistribution, slowing of the cardiovascular system , decreased production of red blood cells , balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system . Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, and puffiness of the face. [ 70 ] During long-duration space travel, radiation can pose an acute health hazard . Exposure to high-energy, ionizing cosmic rays can result in fatigue, nausea, vomiting, as well as damage to the immune system and changes to the white blood cell count. Over longer durations, symptoms include an increased risk of cancer, plus damage to the eyes, nervous system , lungs and the gastrointestinal tract . [ 71 ] On a round-trip Mars mission lasting three years, a large fraction of the cells in an astronaut's body would be traversed and potentially damaged by high energy nuclei. [ 72 ] The energy of such particles is significantly diminished by the shielding provided by the walls of a spacecraft and can be further diminished by water containers and other barriers. The impact of the cosmic rays upon the shielding produces additional radiation that can affect the crew. Further research is needed to assess the radiation hazards and determine suitable countermeasures. [ 73 ] Boundary The transition between Earth's atmosphere and outer space lacks a well-defined physical boundary, with the air pressure steadily decreasing with altitude until it mixes with the solar wind . Various definitions for a practical boundary have been proposed, ranging from 30 km (19 mi) out to 1,600,000 km (990,000 mi). [ 15 ] In 2009, measurements of the direction and speed of ions in the atmosphere were made from a sounding rocket . The altitude of 118 km (73.3 mi) above Earth was the midpoint for charged particles transitioning from the gentle winds of the Earth's atmosphere to the more extreme flows of outer space. The latter can reach velocities well over 268 m/s (880 ft/s). [ 74 ] [ 75 ] High-altitude aircraft , such as high-altitude balloons have reached altitudes above Earth of up to 50 km. [ 76 ] Up until 2021, the United States designated people who travel above an altitude of 50 mi (80 km) as astronauts. [ 77 ] Astronaut wings are now only awarded to spacecraft crew members that "demonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public safety, or contributed to human space flight safety". [ 78 ] The region between airspace and outer space is termed "near space". There is no legal definition for this extent, but typically this is the altitude range from 20 to 100 km (12 to 62 mi). [ 79 ] For safety reasons, commercial aircraft are typically limited to altitudes of 12 km (7.5 mi), and air navigation services only extend to 18 to 20 km (11 to 12 mi). [ 79 ] The upper limit of the range is the Kármán line , where astrodynamics must take over from aerodynamics in order to achieve flight. [ 80 ] This range includes the stratosphere , mesosphere and lower thermosphere layers of the Earth's atmosphere. [ 81 ] Larger ranges for near space are used by some authors, such as 18 to 160 km (11 to 99 mi). [ 82 ] These extend to the altitudes where orbital flight in very low Earth orbits becomes practical. [ 82 ] Spacecraft have entered into a highly elliptical orbit with a perigee as low as 80 to 90 km (50 to 56 mi), surviving for multiple orbits. [ 83 ] At an altitude of 120 km (75 mi), [ 83 ] descending spacecraft begin atmospheric entry as atmospheric drag becomes noticeable. For spaceplanes such as NASA 's Space Shuttle , this begins the process of switching from steering with thrusters to maneuvering with aerodynamic control surfaces . [ 84 ] The Kármán line, established by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale , and used internationally by the United Nations , [ 15 ] is set at an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) as a working definition for the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. This line is named after Theodore von Kármán , who argued for an altitude where a vehicle would have to travel faster than orbital velocity to derive sufficient aerodynamic lift from the atmosphere to support itself, [ 8 ] [ 9 ] which he calculated to be at an altitude of about 83.8 km (52.1 mi). [ 76 ] This distinguishes altitudes below as the region of aerodynamics and airspace , and above as the space of astronautics and free space . [ 15 ] There is no internationally recognized legal altitude limit on national airspace, although the Kármán line is the most frequently used for this purpose. Objections have been made to setting this limit too high, as it could inhibit space activities due to concerns about airspace violations. [ 83 ] It has been argued for setting no specified singular altitude in international law, instead applying different limits depending on the case, in particular based on the craft and its purpose. Increased commercial and military sub-orbital spaceflight has raised the issue of where to apply laws of airspace and outer space. [ 82 ] [ 80 ] Spacecraft have flown over foreign countries as low as 30 km (19 mi), as in the example of the Space Shuttle. [ 76 ] Legal status The Outer Space Treaty provides the basic framework for international space law. It covers the legal use of outer space by nation states, and includes in its definition of outer space , the Moon, and other celestial bodies. The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to explore and is not subject to claims of national sovereignty, calling outer space the "province of all mankind". This status as a common heritage of mankind has been used, though not without opposition, to enforce the right to access and shared use of outer space for all nations equally, particularly non-spacefaring nations. [ 85 ] It prohibits the deployment of nuclear weapons in outer space. The treaty was passed by the United Nations General Assembly in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the United States of America (USA), and the United Kingdom (UK). As of 2017, 105 state parties have either ratified or acceded to the treaty. An additional 25 states signed the treaty, without ratifying it. [ 86 ] [ 87 ] Since 1958, outer space has been the subject of multiple United Nations resolutions. Of these, more than 50 have been concerning the international co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and preventing an arms race in space. [ 88 ] Four additional space law treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN's Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space . Still, there remains no legal prohibition against deploying conventional weapons in space, and anti-satellite weapons have been successfully tested by the USA, USSR, China, [ 89 ] and in 2019, India. [ 90 ] The 1979 Moon Treaty turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the international community. The treaty has not been ratified by any nation that currently practices human spaceflight. [ 91 ] In 1976, eight equatorial states (Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, The Republic of the Congo, Zaire, Uganda, Kenya, and Indonesia) met in Bogotá, Colombia: with their "Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries", or the Bogotá Declaration , they claimed control of the segment of the geosynchronous orbital path corresponding to each country. [ 92 ] These claims are not internationally accepted. [ 93 ] An increasing issue of international space law and regulation has been the dangers of the growing number of space debris . [ 94 ] Earth orbit When a rocket is launched to achieve orbit, its thrust must both counter gravity and accelerate it to orbital speed . After the rocket terminates its thrust, it follows an arc-like trajectory back toward the ground under the influence of the Earth's gravitational force . In a closed orbit , this arc will turn into an elliptical loop around the planet. That is, a spacecraft successfully enters Earth orbit when its acceleration due to gravity pulls the craft down just enough to prevent its momentum from carrying it off into outer space. [ 95 ] For a low Earth orbit , orbital speed is about 7.8 km/s (17,400 mph); [ 96 ] by contrast, the fastest piloted airplane speed ever achieved (excluding speeds achieved by deorbiting spacecraft) was 2.2 km/s (4,900 mph) in 1967 by the North American X-15 . [ 97 ] The upper limit of orbital speed at 11.2 km/s (25,100 mph) is the velocity required to pull free from Earth altogether and enter into a heliocentric orbit . [ 98 ] The energy required to reach Earth orbital speed at an altitude of 600 km (370 mi) is about 36 MJ /kg, which is six times the energy needed merely to climb to the corresponding altitude. [ 99 ] Very low Earth orbit (VLEO) has been defined as orbits that have a mean altitude below 450 km (280 mi), which can be better suited for Earth observation with small satellites. [ 100 ] Low Earth orbits in general range in altitude from 180 to 2,000 km (110 to 1,240 mi) and are used for scientific satellites. Medium Earth orbits extends from 2,000 to 35,780 km (1,240 to 22,230 mi), which are favorable orbits for navigation and specialized satellites. Above 35,780 km (22,230 mi) are the high Earth orbits used for weather and some communication satellites. [ 101 ] Spacecraft in orbit with a perigee below about 2,000 km (1,200 mi) (low Earth orbit) are subject to drag from the Earth's atmosphere, [ 102 ] which decreases the orbital altitude. The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere, which is significantly effected by space weather . [ 103 ] At altitudes above 800 km (500 mi), orbital lifetime is measured in centuries. [ 104 ] Below about 300 km (190 mi), decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once a satellite descends to 180 km (110 mi), it has only hours before it vaporizes in the atmosphere. [ 105 ] Radiation in orbit around Earth is concentrated in Van Allen radiation belts , which trap solar and galactic radiation . Radiation is a threat to astronauts and space systems. It is difficult to shield against and space weather makes the radiation environment variable. The radiation belts are equatorial toroidal regions, which are bent towards Earth's poles, with the South Atlantic Anomaly being the region where charged particles approach Earth closest. [ 106 ] [ 107 ] The innermost radiation belt, the inner Van Allen belt, has its intensity peak at altitudes above the equator of half an Earth radius, [ 108 ] centered at about 3000 km, [ 109 ] increasing from the upper edge of low Earth orbit which it overlaps. [ 110 ] [ 111 ] [ 112 ] Regions Regions near the Earth The outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere is termed the exosphere . It extends outward from the thermopause , which lies at an altitude that varies from 250 to 500 kilometres (160 to 310 mi), depending on the incidence of solar radiation. Beyond this altitude, collisions between molecules are negligible and the atmosphere joins with interplanetary space. [ 113 ] The region in proximity to the Earth is home to a multitude of Earth–orbiting satellites and has been subject to extensive studies. For identification purposes, this volume is divided into overlapping regions of space. [ 114 ] [ 115 ] [ 116 ] [ 117 ] .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Near-Earth space is the region of space extending from low Earth orbits out to geostationary orbits . [ 114 ] This region includes the major orbits for artificial satellites and is the site of most of humanity's space activity. The region has seen high levels of space debris, sometimes dubbed space pollution , threatening nearby space activity. [ 114 ] Some of this debris re-enters Earth's atmosphere periodically. [ 118 ] Although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric density inside low-Earth orbital space, the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line, is still sufficient to produce significant drag on satellites. [ 105 ] Geospace is a region of space that includes Earth's upper atmosphere and magnetosphere . [ 115 ] The Van Allen radiation belts lie within the geospace. The outer boundary of geospace is the magnetopause , which forms an interface between the Earth's magnetosphere and the solar wind. The inner boundary is the ionosphere . [ 120 ] [ 121 ] The variable space-weather conditions of geospace are affected by the behavior of the Sun and the solar wind; the subject of geospace is interlinked with heliophysics —the study of the Sun and its impact on the planets of the Solar System. [ 122 ] The day-side magnetopause is compressed by solar-wind pressure—the subsolar distance from the center of the Earth is typically 10 Earth radii. On the night side, the solar wind stretches the magnetosphere to form a magnetotail that sometimes extends out to more than 100–200 Earth radii. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] For roughly four days of each month, the lunar surface is shielded from the solar wind as the Moon passes through the magnetotail. [ 125 ] Geospace is populated by electrically charged particles at very low densities, the motions of which are controlled by the Earth's magnetic field . These plasmas form a medium from which storm-like disturbances powered by the solar wind can drive electrical currents into the Earth's upper atmosphere. Geomagnetic storms can disturb two regions of geospace, the radiation belts and the ionosphere. These storms increase fluxes of energetic electrons that can permanently damage satellite electronics, interfering with shortwave radio communication and GPS location and timing. [ 126 ] Magnetic storms can be a hazard to astronauts, even in low Earth orbit. They create aurorae seen at high latitudes in an oval surrounding the geomagnetic poles . [ 127 ] XGEO space is a concept used by the USA to refer to the space of high Earth orbits, with the 'X' being some multiple of geosynchronous orbit (GEO) at approximately 35,786 km (22,236 mi). [ 116 ] Hence, the L2 Earth-Moon Lagrange point at 448,900 km (278,934 mi) is approximately 10.67 XGEO. [ 128 ] Translunar space is the region of lunar transfer orbits , between the Moon and Earth. [ 129 ] Cislunar space is a region outside of Earth that includes lunar orbits , the Moon's orbital space around Earth and the Earth-Moon Lagrange points . [ 117 ] The region where a body's gravitational potential remains dominant against gravitational potentials from other bodies, is the body's sphere of influence or gravity well, mostly described with the Hill sphere model. [ 130 ] In the case of Earth this includes all space from the Earth to a distance of roughly 1% of the mean distance from Earth to the Sun, [ 131 ] or 1.5 million km (0.93 million mi). Beyond Earth's Hill sphere extends along Earth's orbital path its orbital and co-orbital space. This space is co-populated by groups of co-orbital Near-Earth Objects (NEOs), such as horseshoe librators and Earth trojans , with some NEOs at times becoming temporary satellites and quasi-moons to Earth. [ 132 ] Deep space is defined by the United States government as all of outer space which lies further from Earth than a typical low-Earth-orbit, thus assigning the Moon to deep-space. [ 133 ] Other definitions vary the starting point of deep-space from, "That which lies beyond the orbit of the moon," to "That which lies beyond the farthest reaches of the Solar System itself." [ 134 ] [ 135 ] [ 136 ] The International Telecommunication Union responsible for radio communication , including with satellites, defines deep-space as, "distances from the Earth equal to, or greater than, 2 million km (1.2 million mi)," [ 137 ] which is about five times the Moon's orbital distance , but which distance is also far less than the distance between Earth and any adjacent planet. [ 138 ] Interplanetary space Interplanetary space within the Solar System is dominated by the gravitation of the Sun, outside the gravitational spheres of influence of the planets. [ 139 ] Interplanetary space extends well beyond the orbit of the outermost planet Neptune , all the way out to where the influence of the galactic environment starts to dominate over the Sun and its solar wind producing the heliopause at 110 to 160 AU. [ 140 ] The heliopause deflects away low-energy galactic cosmic rays, and its distance and strength varies depending on the activity level of the solar wind. [ 141 ] [ 142 ] The solar wind is a continuous stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun which creates a very tenuous atmosphere (the heliosphere ) for billions of kilometers into space. This wind has a particle density of 5–10 protons /cm 3 and is moving at a velocity of 350–400 km/s (780,000–890,000 mph). [ 143 ] The region of interplanetary space is a nearly total vacuum, with a mean free path of about one astronomical unit at the orbital distance of the Earth. This space is not completely empty, but is sparsely filled with cosmic rays, which include ionized atomic nuclei and various subatomic particles. There is gas, plasma and dust, [ 144 ] small meteors , and several dozen types of organic molecules discovered to date by microwave spectroscopy . [ 145 ] Collectively, this matter is termed the interplanetary medium . [ 140 ] A cloud of interplanetary dust is visible at night as a faint band called the zodiacal light . [ 146 ] Interplanetary space contains the magnetic field generated by the Sun. [ 143 ] There are magnetospheres generated by planets such as Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury and the Earth that have their own magnetic fields. These are shaped by the influence of the solar wind into the approximation of a teardrop shape, with the long tail extending outward behind the planet. These magnetic fields can trap particles from the solar wind and other sources, creating belts of charged particles such as the Van Allen radiation belts. Planets without magnetic fields, such as Mars, have their atmospheres gradually eroded by the solar wind. [ 147 ] Interstellar space Interstellar space is the physical space outside of the bubbles of plasma known as astrospheres , formed by stellar winds originating from individual stars. [ 148 ] It is the space between the stars or stellar systems within a nebula or galaxy. [ 149 ] Interstellar space contains an interstellar medium of sparse matter and radiation. The boundary between an astrosphere and interstellar space is known as an astropause . For the Sun, the astrosphere and astropause are called the heliosphere and heliopause, respectively. [ 150 ] Approximately 70% of the mass of the interstellar medium consists of lone hydrogen atoms; most of the remainder consists of helium atoms. This is enriched with trace amounts of heavier atoms formed through stellar nucleosynthesis . These atoms are ejected into the interstellar medium by stellar winds or when evolved stars begin to shed their outer envelopes such as during the formation of a planetary nebula . [ 151 ] The cataclysmic explosion of a supernova propagates shock waves of stellar ejecta outward, distributing it throughout the interstellar medium, including the heavy elements previously formed within the star's core. [ 152 ] The density of matter in the interstellar medium can vary considerably: the average is around 10 6 particles per m 3 , [ 153 ] but cold molecular clouds can hold 10 8 –10 12 per m 3 . [ 38 ] [ 151 ] A number of molecules exist in interstellar space, which can form dust particles as tiny as 0.1 μm . [ 154 ] The tally of molecules discovered through radio astronomy is steadily increasing at the rate of about four new species per year. Large regions of higher density matter known as molecular clouds allow chemical reactions to occur, including the formation of organic polyatomic species. Much of this chemistry is driven by collisions. Energetic cosmic rays penetrate the cold, dense clouds and ionize hydrogen and helium, resulting, for example, in the trihydrogen cation . An ionized helium atom can then split relatively abundant carbon monoxide to produce ionized carbon, which in turn can lead to organic chemical reactions. [ 155 ] The local interstellar medium is a region of space within 100 pc of the Sun, which is of interest both for its proximity and for its interaction with the Solar System. This volume nearly coincides with a region of space known as the Local Bubble , which is characterized by a lack of dense, cold clouds. It forms a cavity in the Orion Arm of the Milky Way Galaxy, with dense molecular clouds lying along the borders, such as those in the constellations of Ophiuchus and Taurus . The actual distance to the border of this cavity varies from 60 to 250 pc or more. This volume contains about 10 4 –10 5 stars and the local interstellar gas counterbalances the astrospheres that surround these stars, with the volume of each sphere varying depending on the local density of the interstellar medium. The Local Bubble contains dozens of warm interstellar clouds with temperatures of up to 7,000 K and radii of 0.5–5 pc. [ 156 ] When stars are moving at sufficiently high peculiar velocities , their astrospheres can generate bow shocks as they collide with the interstellar medium. For decades it was assumed that the Sun had a bow shock. In 2012, data from Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) and NASA's Voyager probes showed that the Sun's bow shock does not exist. Instead, these authors argue that a subsonic bow wave defines the transition from the solar wind flow to the interstellar medium. [ 157 ] [ 158 ] A bow shock is a third boundary characteristic of an astrosphere, lying outside the termination shock and the astropause. [ 158 ] Intergalactic space Intergalactic space is the physical space between galaxies. Studies of the large-scale distribution of galaxies show that the universe has a foam-like structure, with groups and clusters of galaxies lying along filaments that occupy about a tenth of the total space. The remainder forms cosmic voids that are mostly empty of galaxies. Typically, a void spans a distance of 7–30 megaparsecs. [ 159 ] Surrounding and stretching between galaxies is the intergalactic medium (IGM). This rarefied plasma [ 160 ] is organized in a galactic filamentary structure. [ 161 ] The diffuse photoionized gas contains filaments of higher density, about one atom per cubic meter, [ 162 ] which is 5–200 times the average density of the universe. [ 163 ] The IGM is inferred to be mostly primordial in composition, with 76% hydrogen by mass, and enriched with higher mass elements from high-velocity galactic outflows. [ 164 ] As gas falls into the intergalactic medium from the voids, it heats up to temperatures of 10 5 K to 10 7 K. [ 4 ] At these temperatures, it is called the warm–hot intergalactic medium (WHIM). Although the plasma is very hot by terrestrial standards, 10 5 K is often called "warm" in astrophysics. Computer simulations and observations indicate that up to half of the atomic matter in the universe might exist in this warm–hot, rarefied state. [ 163 ] [ 165 ] [ 166 ] When gas falls from the filamentary structures of the WHIM into the galaxy clusters at the intersections of the cosmic filaments, it can heat up even more, reaching temperatures of 10 8 K and above in the so-called intracluster medium (ICM). [ 167 ] History of discovery In 350 BCE, Greek philosopher Aristotle suggested that nature abhors a vacuum , a principle that became known as the horror vacui . This concept built upon a 5th-century BCE ontological argument by the Greek philosopher Parmenides , who denied the possible existence of a void in space. [ 168 ] Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was widely held for many centuries that space could not be empty. [ 169 ] As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher René Descartes argued that the entirety of space must be filled. [ 170 ] In ancient China , the 2nd-century astronomer Zhang Heng became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun and the stars. The surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, "empty and void of substance". Likewise, the "sun, moon, and the company of stars float in the empty space, moving or standing still". [ 171 ] The Italian scientist Galileo Galilei knew that air has mass and so was subject to gravity. In 1640, he demonstrated that an established force resisted the formation of a vacuum. It would remain for his pupil Evangelista Torricelli to create an apparatus that would produce a partial vacuum in 1643. This experiment resulted in the first mercury barometer and created a scientific sensation in Europe. Torricelli suggested that since air has weight, then air pressure should decrease with altitude. [ 172 ] The French mathematician Blaise Pascal proposed an experiment to test this hypothesis. [ 173 ] In 1648, his brother-in-law, Florin Périer, repeated the experiment on the Puy de Dôme mountain in central France and found that the column was shorter by three inches. This decrease in pressure was further demonstrated by carrying a half-full balloon up a mountain and watching it gradually expand, then contract upon descent. [ 174 ] In 1650, German scientist Otto von Guericke constructed the first vacuum pump : a device that would further refute the principle of horror vacui . He correctly noted that the atmosphere of the Earth surrounds the planet like a shell, with the density gradually declining with altitude. He concluded that there must be a vacuum between the Earth and the Moon. [ 175 ] In the 15th century, German theologian Nicolaus Cusanus speculated that the universe lacked a center and a circumference. He believed that the universe, while not infinite, could not be held as finite as it lacked any bounds within which it could be contained. [ 176 ] These ideas led to speculations as to the infinite dimension of space by the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno in the 16th century. He extended the Copernican heliocentric cosmology to the concept of an infinite universe filled with a substance he called aether , which did not resist the motion of heavenly bodies. [ 177 ] English philosopher William Gilbert arrived at a similar conclusion, arguing that the stars are visible to us only because they are surrounded by a thin aether or a void. [ 178 ] This concept of an aether originated with ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle, who conceived of it as the medium through which the heavenly bodies move. [ 179 ] The concept of a universe filled with a luminiferous aether retained support among some scientists until the early 20th century. This form of aether was viewed as the medium through which light could propagate. [ 180 ] In 1887, the Michelson–Morley experiment tried to detect the Earth's motion through this medium by looking for changes in the speed of light depending on the direction of the planet's motion. The null result indicated something was wrong with the concept. The idea of the luminiferous aether was then abandoned. It was replaced by Albert Einstein 's theory of special relativity , which holds that the speed of light in a vacuum is a fixed constant, independent of the observer's motion or frame of reference . [ 181 ] [ 182 ] The first professional astronomer to support the concept of an infinite universe was the Englishman Thomas Digges in 1576. [ 183 ] But the scale of the universe remained unknown until the first successful measurement of the distance to a nearby star in 1838 by the German astronomer Friedrich Bessel . He showed that the star system 61 Cygni had a parallax of just 0.31 arcseconds (compared to the modern value of 0.287″). This corresponds to a distance of over 10 light years . [ 184 ] In 1917, Heber Curtis noted that novae in spiral nebulae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than galactic novae, suggesting that the former are 100 times further away. [ 185 ] The distance to the Andromeda Galaxy was determined in 1923 by American astronomer Edwin Hubble by measuring the brightness of cepheid variables in that galaxy, a new technique discovered by Henrietta Leavitt . [ 186 ] This established that the Andromeda Galaxy, and by extension all galaxies, lay well outside the Milky Way. [ 187 ] With this Hubble formulated the Hubble constant , which allowed for the first time a calculation of the age of the Universe and size of the Observable Universe, starting at 2 billion years and 280 million light-years. This became increasingly precise with better measurements, until 2006 when data of the Hubble Space Telescope allowed a very accurate calculation of the age of the Universe and size of the Observable Universe. [ 188 ] The modern concept of outer space is based on the "Big Bang" cosmology , first proposed in 1931 by the Belgian physicist Georges Lemaître . [ 189 ] This theory holds that the universe originated from a state of extreme energy density that has since undergone continuous expansion . [ 190 ] The earliest known estimate of the temperature of outer space was by the Swiss physicist Charles É. Guillaume in 1896. Using the estimated radiation of the background stars, he concluded that space must be heated to a temperature of 5–6 K. British physicist Arthur Eddington made a similar calculation to derive a temperature of 3.18 K in 1926. German physicist Erich Regener used the total measured energy of cosmic rays to estimate an intergalactic temperature of 2.8 K in 1933. [ 191 ] American physicists Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman predicted 5 K for the temperature of space in 1948, based on the gradual decrease in background energy following the then-new Big Bang theory. [ 191 ] Exploration For most of human history, space was explored by observations made from the Earth's surface—initially with the unaided eye and then with the telescope. Before reliable rocket technology, the closest that humans had come to reaching outer space was through balloon flights. In 1935, the American Explorer II crewed balloon flight reached an altitude of 22 km (14 mi). [ 193 ] This was greatly exceeded in 1942 when the third launch of the German A-4 rocket climbed to an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi). In 1957, the uncrewed satellite Sputnik 1 was launched by a Russian R-7 rocket , achieving Earth orbit at an altitude of 215–939 kilometres (134–583 mi). [ 194 ] This was followed by the first human spaceflight in 1961, when Yuri Gagarin was sent into orbit on Vostok 1 . The first humans to escape low Earth orbit were Frank Borman , Jim Lovell and William Anders in 1968 on board the American Apollo 8 , which achieved lunar orbit [ 195 ] and reached a maximum distance of 377,349 km (234,474 mi) from the Earth. [ 196 ] The first spacecraft to reach escape velocity was the Soviet Luna 1 , which performed a fly-by of the Moon in 1959. [ 197 ] In 1961, Venera 1 became the first planetary probe. It revealed the presence of the solar wind and performed the first fly-by of Venus , although contact was lost before reaching Venus. The first successful planetary mission was the 1962 fly-by of Venus by Mariner 2 . [ 198 ] The first fly-by of Mars was by Mariner 4 in 1964. Since that time, uncrewed spacecraft have successfully examined each of the Solar System's planets, as well their moons and many minor planets and comets. They remain a fundamental tool for the exploration of outer space, as well as for observation of the Earth. [ 199 ] In August 2012, Voyager 1 became the first man-made object to leave the Solar System and enter interstellar space . [ 200 ] Application Outer space has become an important element of global society. It provides multiple applications that are beneficial to the economy and scientific research. The placing of artificial satellites in Earth orbit has produced numerous benefits and has become the dominating sector of the space economy . They allow relay of long-range communications like television, provide a means of precise navigation , and permit direct monitoring of weather conditions and remote sensing of the Earth. The latter role serves a variety of purposes, including tracking soil moisture for agriculture, prediction of water outflow from seasonal snow packs, detection of diseases in plants and trees, and surveillance of military activities. [ 201 ] They facilitate the discovery and monitoring of climate change influences. [ 202 ] Satellites make use of the significantly reduced drag in space to stay in stable orbits, allowing them to efficiently span the whole globe, compared to for example stratospheric balloons or high-altitude platform stations , which have other benefits. [ 203 ] The absence of air makes outer space an ideal location for astronomy at all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum . This is evidenced by the pictures sent back by the Hubble Space Telescope, allowing light from more than 13 billion years ago—almost to the time of the Big Bang—to be observed. [ 204 ] Not every location in space is ideal for a telescope. The interplanetary zodiacal dust emits a diffuse near-infrared radiation that can mask the emission of faint sources such as extrasolar planets. Moving an infrared telescope out past the dust increases its effectiveness. [ 205 ] Likewise, a site like the Daedalus crater on the far side of the Moon could shield a radio telescope from the radio frequency interference that hampers Earth-based observations. [ 206 ] The deep vacuum of space could make it an attractive environment for certain industrial processes, such as those requiring ultraclean surfaces. [ 208 ] Like asteroid mining , space manufacturing would require a large financial investment with little prospect of immediate return. [ 209 ] An important factor in the total expense is the high cost of placing mass into Earth orbit: $9,000–$31,000 per kg, according to a 2006 estimate (allowing for inflation since then). [ 210 ] The cost of access to space has declined since 2013. Partially reusable rockets such as the Falcon 9 have lowered access to space below $3,500 per kg. With these new rockets the cost to send materials into space remains prohibitively high for many industries. Proposed concepts for addressing this issue include, fully reusable launch systems , non-rocket spacelaunch , momentum exchange tethers , and space elevators . [ 211 ] Interstellar travel for a human crew remains at present only a theoretical possibility. The distances to the nearest stars mean it would require new technological developments and the ability to safely sustain crews for journeys lasting several decades. For example, the Daedalus Project study, which proposed a spacecraft powered by the fusion of deuterium and helium-3 , would require 36 years to reach the "nearby" Alpha Centauri system. Other proposed interstellar propulsion systems include light sails , ramjets , and beam-powered propulsion . More advanced propulsion systems could use antimatter as a fuel, potentially reaching relativistic velocities . [ 212 ] From the Earth's surface, the ultracold temperature of outer space can be used as a renewable cooling technology for various applications on Earth through passive daytime radiative cooling . [ 213 ] [ 214 ] This enhances longwave infrared (LWIR) thermal radiation heat transfer through the atmosphere's infrared window into outer space, lowering ambient temperatures. [ 215 ] [ 216 ] Photonic metamaterials can be used to suppress solar heating. [ 217 ] See also Absolute space and time Artemis Accords List of government space agencies List of topics in space Olbers' paradox Outline of space science Panspermia Space art Space and survival Space race Space station Space technology Timeline of knowledge about the interstellar and intergalactic medium Timeline of Solar System exploration Timeline of spaceflight References Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Applicable definitions of outer space, space, and expanse" , Merriam-Webster dictionary , retrieved 2024-06-17 , Outer space (n.) space immediately outside the earth's atmosphere. 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(2021), "A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling", Nature Communications , 12 (365): 365, Bibcode : 2021NatCo..12..365W , doi : 10.1038/s41467-020-20646-7 , PMC 7809060 , PMID 33446648 , One possibly alternative approach is passive radiative cooling—a sky-facing surface on the Earth spontaneously cools by radiating heat to the ultracold outer space through the atmosphere's longwave infrared (LWIR) transparency window (λ ~ 8–13 μm). ^ Heo, Se-Yeon; et al. (June 2022), "Heat-shedding with photonic structures: radiative cooling and its potential" , Journal of Materials Chemistry C , 10 (27): 9915– 9937, doi : 10.1039/D2TC00318J , S2CID 249695930 – via Royal Society of Chemistry. Sources Barbieri, C. (2006), Fundamentals of Astronomy , CRC Press, p. 253, ISBN 978-0-7503-0886-1 Billings, Charles E. (1973), "Barometric Pressure", in Parker, James F.; West, Vita R. 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(2001), "Physics, the human adventure: from Copernicus to Einstein and beyond" , Physics Today , 54 (10) (3rd ed.), Rutgers University Press: 69, Bibcode : 2001PhT....54j..69H , doi : 10.1063/1.1420555 , ISBN 978-0-8135-2908-0 Kanas, Nick; Manzey, Dietrich (2008), "Basic Issues of Human Adaptation to Space Flight", Space Psychology and Psychiatry , Space Technology Library, vol. 22, pp. 15– 48, Bibcode : 2008spp..book.....K , doi : 10.1007/978-1-4020-6770-9_2 , ISBN 978-1-4020-6769-3 . Kelly, Suzanne (1965), The de muno of William Gilbert , Amsterdam: Menno Hertzberger & Co. Koskinen, Hannu (2010), Physics of Space Storms: From the Surface of the Sun to the Earth , Environmental Sciences Series, Springer, ISBN 978-3-642-00310-3 Lang, Kenneth R. 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(1993), CRC handbook of chemistry and physics (74th ed.), CRC Press, ISBN 978-0-8493-0595-5 Maor, Eli (1991), To infinity and beyond: a cultural history of the infinite , Princeton paperbacks, ISBN 978-0-691-02511-7 Mendillo, Michael (November 8–10, 2000), "The atmosphere of the moon", in Barbieri, Cesare; Rampazzi, Francesca (eds.), Earth-Moon Relationships , Padova, Italy at the Accademia Galileiana Di Scienze Lettere Ed Arti: Springer, p. 275, ISBN 978-0-7923-7089-5 Needham, Joseph; Ronan, Colin (1985), The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China , vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-31536-4 O'Leary, Beth Laura (2009), Darrin, Ann Garrison (ed.), Handbook of space engineering, archaeology, and heritage , Advances in engineering, CRC Press, ISBN 978-1-4200-8431-3 Olenick, Richard P.; Apostol, Tom M.; Goodstein, David L. (1986), Beyond the mechanical universe: from electricity to modern physics , Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-30430-6 Orloff, Richard W. 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Psychology Psychological and sociological effects Psychological and sociological effects Sex Sleep Non-human Animals Cats Cockroaches Dogs Frogs Fruit flies Mice Primates Tardigrades Tortoises Extraterrestrial life Microorganisms Plants Astrobotany Animals Cats Cockroaches Dogs Frogs Fruit flies Mice Primates Tardigrades Tortoises Cats Cockroaches Dogs Frogs Fruit flies Mice Primates Tardigrades Tortoises Extraterrestrial life Microorganisms Plants Astrobotany Astrobotany Environment Climate Corrosion Debris Dust Magnetosphere Weather Weathering Climate Corrosion Debris Dust Magnetosphere Weather Weathering Weathering Society Advertising Alcohol Archaeology of Earth of items in space Art Burial Colonization Economy Mining Trade Ethics Exploration Food Law Military Music Religion Christmas Selfies Tourism Voting War Women Advertising Alcohol Archaeology of Earth of items in space of Earth of items in space Art Burial Colonization Economy Mining Trade Mining Trade Ethics Exploration Food Law Military Music Religion Christmas Christmas Selfies Tourism Voting War Women Technology Human spaceflight Accidents Architecture Farming Food Carbonated drinks Toilets Writing Other technologies Logistics Manufacturing Mining Power Batteries Nuclear Solar for Earth for spacecraft Radar Telescopes Weapons Human spaceflight Accidents Architecture Farming Food Carbonated drinks Toilets Writing Accidents Architecture Farming Food Carbonated drinks Carbonated drinks Toilets Writing Other technologies Logistics Manufacturing Mining Power Batteries Nuclear Solar for Earth for spacecraft Radar Telescopes Weapons Logistics Manufacturing Mining Power Batteries Nuclear Solar for Earth for spacecraft Batteries Nuclear Solar for Earth for spacecraft for Earth for spacecraft Radar Telescopes Weapons Outer space portal v t e Molecules detected in outer space v t e Molecules Diatomic Aluminium monochloride Aluminium monofluoride Aluminium(II) oxide Argonium Carbon cation Carbon monophosphide Carbon monosulfide Carbon monoxide Cyano radical Diatomic carbon Fluoromethylidynium Helium hydride ion Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen fluoride Hydrogen (molecular) Hydroxyl radical Imidogen Iron(II) oxide Magnesium monohydride Methylidyne radical Nitric oxide Nitrogen (molecular) Oxygen (molecular) Phosphorus monoxide Phosphorus mononitride Potassium chloride Silicon carbide Silicon monoxide Silicon monosulfide Sodium chloride Sodium iodide Sulfanyl Sulfur mononitride Sulfur monoxide Titanium(II) oxide Triatomic Aluminium(I) hydroxide Aluminium isocyanide Amino radical Carbon dioxide Carbonyl sulfide CCP radical Chloronium Diazenylium Dicarbon monoxide Disilicon carbide Ethynyl radical Formyl radical Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) Hydrogen isocyanide (HNC) Hydrogen sulfide Hydroperoxyl Iron cyanide Isoformyl Magnesium cyanide Magnesium isocyanide Methylene Methylidynephosphane N 2 H + Nitrous oxide Nitroxyl Ozone Potassium cyanide Sodium cyanide Sodium hydroxide Silicon carbonitride c-Silicon dicarbide SiNC Sulfur dioxide Thioformyl Thioxoethenylidene Titanium dioxide Tricarbon Trihydrogen cation Water Four atoms Acetylene Ammonia Cyanoethynyl Formaldehyde Fulminic acid HCCN Hydrogen peroxide Hydromagnesium isocyanide Isocyanic acid Isothiocyanic acid Ketenyl Methyl cation Methyl radical Methylene amidogen Propynylidyne Protonated carbon dioxide Protonated hydrogen cyanide Silicon tricarbide Thiocyanic acid Thioformaldehyde Tricarbon monosulfide Tricarbon monoxide Five atoms Ammonium ion Butadiynyl Carbodiimide Cyanamide Cyanoacetylene Cyanoformaldehyde Cyanomethyl Cyclopropenylidene Formic acid Isocyanoacetylene Ketene Methane Methoxy radical Methylenimine Propadienylidene Protonated formaldehyde Silane Silicon-carbide cluster Six atoms Acetonitrile Cyanobutadiynyl radical Cyclopropenone Diacetylene E-Cyanomethanimine Ethylene Formamide HC 4 N Ketenimine Methanethiol Methanol Methyl isocyanide Pentynylidyne Propynal Protonated cyanoacetylene Seven atoms Acetaldehyde Acrylonitrile Vinyl cyanide Cyanodiacetylene Ethylene oxide Glycolonitrile Hexatriynyl radical Methyl isocyanate Methylamine Propyne Vinyl alcohol Eight atoms Acetic acid Acrolein Aminoacetonitrile Cyanoallene Ethanimine Glycolaldehyde Hexapentaenylidene Methyl formate Methylcyanoacetylene Nine atoms Acetamide Cyanohexatriyne Dimethyl ether Ethanethiol Ethanol Methyldiacetylene N-Methylformamide Octatetraynyl radical Propene Propionitrile Ten atoms or more Acetone Benzene Benzonitrile Buckminsterfullerene (C 60 , C 60 + , fullerene, buckyball) Butyronitrile C 70 fullerene Cyanodecapentayne Ethyl formate Ethylene glycol Heptatrienyl radical Methyl acetate Methyl-cyano-diacetylene Methyltriacetylene Propionaldehyde Pyrimidine Diatomic Aluminium monochloride Aluminium monofluoride Aluminium(II) oxide Argonium Carbon cation Carbon monophosphide Carbon monosulfide Carbon monoxide Cyano radical Diatomic carbon Fluoromethylidynium Helium hydride ion Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen fluoride Hydrogen (molecular) Hydroxyl radical Imidogen Iron(II) oxide Magnesium monohydride Methylidyne radical Nitric oxide Nitrogen (molecular) Oxygen (molecular) Phosphorus monoxide Phosphorus mononitride Potassium chloride Silicon carbide Silicon monoxide Silicon monosulfide Sodium chloride Sodium iodide Sulfanyl Sulfur mononitride Sulfur monoxide Titanium(II) oxide Aluminium monochloride Aluminium monofluoride Aluminium(II) oxide Argonium Carbon cation Carbon monophosphide Carbon monosulfide Carbon monoxide Cyano radical Diatomic carbon Fluoromethylidynium Helium hydride ion Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen fluoride Hydrogen (molecular) Hydroxyl radical Imidogen Iron(II) oxide Magnesium monohydride Methylidyne radical Nitric oxide Nitrogen (molecular) Oxygen (molecular) Phosphorus monoxide Phosphorus mononitride Potassium chloride Silicon carbide Silicon monoxide Silicon monosulfide Sodium chloride Sodium iodide Sulfanyl Sulfur mononitride Sulfur monoxide Titanium(II) oxide Triatomic Aluminium(I) hydroxide Aluminium isocyanide Amino radical Carbon dioxide Carbonyl sulfide CCP radical Chloronium Diazenylium Dicarbon monoxide Disilicon carbide Ethynyl radical Formyl radical Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) Hydrogen isocyanide (HNC) Hydrogen sulfide Hydroperoxyl Iron cyanide Isoformyl Magnesium cyanide Magnesium isocyanide Methylene Methylidynephosphane N 2 H + Nitrous oxide Nitroxyl Ozone Potassium cyanide Sodium cyanide Sodium hydroxide Silicon carbonitride c-Silicon dicarbide SiNC Sulfur dioxide Thioformyl Thioxoethenylidene Titanium dioxide Tricarbon Trihydrogen cation Water Aluminium(I) hydroxide Aluminium isocyanide Amino radical Carbon dioxide Carbonyl sulfide CCP radical Chloronium Diazenylium Dicarbon monoxide Disilicon carbide Ethynyl radical Formyl radical Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) Hydrogen isocyanide (HNC) Hydrogen sulfide Hydroperoxyl Iron cyanide Isoformyl Magnesium cyanide Magnesium isocyanide Methylene Methylidynephosphane N 2 H + Nitrous oxide Nitroxyl Ozone Potassium cyanide Sodium cyanide Sodium hydroxide Silicon carbonitride c-Silicon dicarbide SiNC Sulfur dioxide Thioformyl Thioxoethenylidene Titanium dioxide Tricarbon Trihydrogen cation Water Four atoms Acetylene Ammonia Cyanoethynyl Formaldehyde Fulminic acid HCCN Hydrogen peroxide Hydromagnesium isocyanide Isocyanic acid Isothiocyanic acid Ketenyl Methyl cation Methyl radical Methylene amidogen Propynylidyne Protonated carbon dioxide Protonated hydrogen cyanide Silicon tricarbide Thiocyanic acid Thioformaldehyde Tricarbon monosulfide Tricarbon monoxide Acetylene Ammonia Cyanoethynyl Formaldehyde Fulminic acid HCCN Hydrogen peroxide Hydromagnesium isocyanide Isocyanic acid Isothiocyanic acid Ketenyl Methyl cation Methyl radical Methylene amidogen Propynylidyne Protonated carbon dioxide Protonated hydrogen cyanide Silicon tricarbide Thiocyanic acid Thioformaldehyde Tricarbon monosulfide Tricarbon monoxide Five atoms Ammonium ion Butadiynyl Carbodiimide Cyanamide Cyanoacetylene Cyanoformaldehyde Cyanomethyl Cyclopropenylidene Formic acid Isocyanoacetylene Ketene Methane Methoxy radical Methylenimine Propadienylidene Protonated formaldehyde Silane Silicon-carbide cluster Ammonium ion Butadiynyl Carbodiimide Cyanamide Cyanoacetylene Cyanoformaldehyde Cyanomethyl Cyclopropenylidene Formic acid Isocyanoacetylene Ketene Methane Methoxy radical Methylenimine Propadienylidene Protonated formaldehyde Silane Silicon-carbide cluster Six atoms Acetonitrile Cyanobutadiynyl radical Cyclopropenone Diacetylene E-Cyanomethanimine Ethylene Formamide HC 4 N Ketenimine Methanethiol Methanol Methyl isocyanide Pentynylidyne Propynal Protonated cyanoacetylene Acetonitrile Cyanobutadiynyl radical Cyclopropenone Diacetylene E-Cyanomethanimine Ethylene Formamide HC 4 N Ketenimine Methanethiol Methanol Methyl isocyanide Pentynylidyne Propynal Protonated cyanoacetylene Seven atoms Acetaldehyde Acrylonitrile Vinyl cyanide Cyanodiacetylene Ethylene oxide Glycolonitrile Hexatriynyl radical Methyl isocyanate Methylamine Propyne Vinyl alcohol Acetaldehyde Acrylonitrile Vinyl cyanide Vinyl cyanide Cyanodiacetylene Ethylene oxide Glycolonitrile Hexatriynyl radical Methyl isocyanate Methylamine Propyne Vinyl alcohol Eight atoms Acetic acid Acrolein Aminoacetonitrile Cyanoallene Ethanimine Glycolaldehyde Hexapentaenylidene Methyl formate Methylcyanoacetylene Acetic acid Acrolein Aminoacetonitrile Cyanoallene Ethanimine Glycolaldehyde Hexapentaenylidene Methyl formate Methylcyanoacetylene Nine atoms Acetamide Cyanohexatriyne Dimethyl ether Ethanethiol Ethanol Methyldiacetylene N-Methylformamide Octatetraynyl radical Propene Propionitrile Acetamide Cyanohexatriyne Dimethyl ether Ethanethiol Ethanol Methyldiacetylene N-Methylformamide Octatetraynyl radical Propene Propionitrile Ten atoms or more Acetone Benzene Benzonitrile Buckminsterfullerene (C 60 , C 60 + , fullerene, buckyball) Butyronitrile C 70 fullerene Cyanodecapentayne Ethyl formate Ethylene glycol Heptatrienyl radical Methyl acetate Methyl-cyano-diacetylene Methyltriacetylene Propionaldehyde Pyrimidine Acetone Benzene Benzonitrile Buckminsterfullerene (C 60 , C 60 + , fullerene, buckyball) Butyronitrile C 70 fullerene Cyanodecapentayne Ethyl formate Ethylene glycol Heptatrienyl radical Methyl acetate Methyl-cyano-diacetylene Methyltriacetylene Propionaldehyde Pyrimidine Deuterated molecules Ammonia Ammonium ion Formaldehyde Formyl radical Heavy water Hydrogen cyanide Hydrogen deuteride Hydrogen isocyanide N 2 D + Propyne Trihydrogen cation Ammonia Ammonium ion Formaldehyde Formyl radical Heavy water Hydrogen cyanide Hydrogen deuteride Hydrogen isocyanide N 2 D + Propyne Trihydrogen cation Unconfirmed Anthracene Dihydroxyacetone Glycine Graphene H 2 NCO + Hemolithin Linear C 5 Methoxyethane Naphthalene cation Phosphine Pyrene Silylidyne Anthracene Dihydroxyacetone Glycine Graphene H 2 NCO + Hemolithin Linear C 5 Methoxyethane Naphthalene cation Phosphine Pyrene Silylidyne Related Abiogenesis 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world theory Kerogen Molecules in stars Nexus for Exoplanet System Science Organic compound Outer space PAH world hypothesis Photodissociation region Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) Pseudo-panspermia RNA world hypothesis Spectroscopy Tholin Category:Astrochemistry Outer space portal Astronomy portal Chemistry portal Category:Astrochemistry Outer space portal Astronomy portal Chemistry portal Authority control databases International GND FAST GND FAST National United States France BnF data United States France BnF data Geographic MusicBrainz area MusicBrainz area Other NARA Yale LUX NARA Yale LUX Astronomy Stars Spaceflight Solar System Outer space Space plasmas Environments Vacuum CS1 Kinyarwanda-language sources (rw) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Good articles CS1 location test Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Pages using Sister 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Background Toggle Background subsection 1.1 Economic crisis in Iran 1.2 Comparison to previous protests 1.1 Economic crisis in Iran 1.2 Comparison to previous protests 2 Protests Toggle Protests subsection 2.1 Initial bazaar 2.1.1 28 December 2025 2.1.2 29 December 2.2 Spread across Iran 2.2.1 30 December 2.2.2 31 December 2.3 2026 2.3.1 1 January 2.3.2 2 January 2.3.3 3 January 2.3.4 4 January 2.3.5 5 January 2.3.6 6 January 2.3.7 7 January 2.3.8 8 January 2.3.9 9 January 2.3.10 10 January 2.3.11 11 January 2.3.12 12 January 2.3.13 13 January 2.3.14 14 January 2.3.15 15 January 2.1 Initial bazaar 2.1.1 28 December 2025 2.1.2 29 December 2.1.1 28 December 2025 2.1.2 29 December 2.2 Spread across Iran 2.2.1 30 December 2.2.2 31 December 2.2.1 30 December 2.2.2 31 December 2.3 2026 2.3.1 1 January 2.3.2 2 January 2.3.3 3 January 2.3.4 4 January 2.3.5 5 January 2.3.6 6 January 2.3.7 7 January 2.3.8 8 January 2.3.9 9 January 2.3.10 10 January 2.3.11 11 January 2.3.12 12 January 2.3.13 13 January 2.3.14 14 January 2.3.15 15 January 2.3.1 1 January 2.3.2 2 January 2.3.3 3 January 2.3.4 4 January 2.3.5 5 January 2.3.6 6 January 2.3.7 7 January 2.3.8 8 January 2.3.9 9 January 2.3.10 10 January 2.3.11 11 January 2.3.12 12 January 2.3.13 13 January 2.3.14 14 January 2.3.15 15 January 3 Methods Toggle Methods subsection 3.1 Protesters 3.1.1 National strikes 3.1.2 Demonstrations 3.1.3 Slogans and symbols 3.1.4 Organisation 3.1.5 Territorial control 3.1 Protesters 3.1.1 National strikes 3.1.2 Demonstrations 3.1.3 Slogans and symbols 3.1.4 Organisation 3.1.5 Territorial control 3.1.1 National strikes 3.1.2 Demonstrations 3.1.3 Slogans and symbols 3.1.4 Organisation 3.1.5 Territorial control 4 Suppression, persecution and executions Toggle Suppression, persecution and executions subsection 4.1 Internet blackouts 4.2 Recruitment of foreign militias 4.3 Internal propaganda and coercion 4.4 Direct order for live fire on protesters 4.5 Persecution 4.5.1 Erfan Soltani 4.1 Internet blackouts 4.2 Recruitment of foreign militias 4.3 Internal propaganda and coercion 4.4 Direct order for live fire on protesters 4.5 Persecution 4.5.1 Erfan Soltani 4.5.1 Erfan Soltani 5 Casualties Toggle Casualties subsection 5.1 Casualties, arrests, executions, and injured protesters 5.1.1 31 December 5.1.2 1 January 5.1.3 2 January 5.1.4 3 January 5.1.5 4 January 5.1.6 5 January 5.1.7 6 January 5.1.8 7 January 5.1.9 8 January 5.1.10 9 January 5.1.11 10 January 5.1.12 11 January 5.1.13 12 January 5.1.14 13 January 5.1.15 15 January 5.1.16 Executions 5.2 Government forces 5.3 Notable victims 5.4 Foreign victims 5.1 Casualties, arrests, executions, and injured protesters 5.1.1 31 December 5.1.2 1 January 5.1.3 2 January 5.1.4 3 January 5.1.5 4 January 5.1.6 5 January 5.1.7 6 January 5.1.8 7 January 5.1.9 8 January 5.1.10 9 January 5.1.11 10 January 5.1.12 11 January 5.1.13 12 January 5.1.14 13 January 5.1.15 15 January 5.1.16 Executions 5.1.1 31 December 5.1.2 1 January 5.1.3 2 January 5.1.4 3 January 5.1.5 4 January 5.1.6 5 January 5.1.7 6 January 5.1.8 7 January 5.1.9 8 January 5.1.10 9 January 5.1.11 10 January 5.1.12 11 January 5.1.13 12 January 5.1.14 13 January 5.1.15 15 January 5.1.16 Executions 5.2 Government forces 5.3 Notable victims 5.4 Foreign victims 6 Reactions Toggle Reactions subsection 6.1 Domestic 6.2 International 6.2.1 Sovereign states 6.2.2 Intergovernmental and international organisations 6.2.3 Political parties and organisations 6.2.4 Corporate organisations 6.2.5 International travel advisories 6.2.6 Polling 6.1 Domestic 6.2 International 6.2.1 Sovereign states 6.2.2 Intergovernmental and international organisations 6.2.3 Political parties and organisations 6.2.4 Corporate organisations 6.2.5 International travel advisories 6.2.6 Polling 6.2.1 Sovereign states 6.2.2 Intergovernmental and international organisations 6.2.3 Political parties and organisations 6.2.4 Corporate organisations 6.2.5 International travel advisories 6.2.6 Polling 7 Analysis Toggle Analysis subsection 7.1 View of the protests as an uprising 7.1 View of the protests as an uprising 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 2025–2026 Iranian protests العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia עברית ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kurdî Bahasa Melayu Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Português Română Русский Саха тыла Simple English کوردی Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF 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Please update outdated or incomplete information with citations to reliable sources . ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) 2025–2026 Iranian protests Part of the protests against the government of Iran and the Iranian economic crisis and Gen Z protests Cities in Iran where protests have been reported as of 8 January 2026. (Click to zoom in.) Date 28 December 2025 – present (19 days) Location 512 locations across 180 cities in all 31 provinces of Iran . [ 1 ] The protests are recorded in multiple cities across Iran , primarily Tehran ( Grand Bazaar and commercial districts), Ahvaz , Arak , Dargahan , Farsan , Fasa , Fuladshahr , Hamadan , Isfahan , Izeh , Kermanshah , Mashhad , Marlik , Najafabad , Nurabad , Qeshm , Qom , Shiraz , Sari and others. [ a ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Caused by Political issues Authoritarianism Human rights abuses Political corruption Internet censorship and blackouts Systemic/ideological issues Foreign proxy involvement Mandatory hijab enforcement Ethnic-based discrimination Religious persecution Economic issues Economic mismanagement International sanctions Rising price of food and essential goods Currency crisis – Severe depreciation of the Iranian rial Water and energy shortages Authoritarianism Human rights abuses Political corruption Internet censorship and blackouts Systemic/ideological issues Foreign proxy involvement Mandatory hijab enforcement Ethnic-based discrimination Religious persecution Economic issues Economic mismanagement International sanctions Rising price of food and essential goods Currency crisis – Severe depreciation of the Iranian rial Water and energy shortages Goals Overthrow of the Islamic Republic government [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Return of Reza Pahlavi to lead a transitional government (some factions) [ 6 ] End of economic mismanagement Stabilisation of exchange rates Addressing of civilians' and merchants' hardships Overthrow of the Islamic Republic government [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Return of Reza Pahlavi to lead a transitional government (some factions) [ 6 ] End of economic mismanagement Stabilisation of exchange rates Addressing of civilians' and merchants' hardships Stabilisation of exchange rates Addressing of civilians' and merchants' hardships Methods Street protests, marches, arsons , and rooftop demonstrations Chants and slogans Strikes and shop closures (led by bazaar merchants and shopkeepers) Online activism Student activism Riots Rebellion Insurgency Street protests, marches, arsons , and rooftop demonstrations Chants and slogans Strikes and shop closures (led by bazaar merchants and shopkeepers) Online activism Student activism Riots Rebellion Insurgency Status Ongoing Protests suppressed by force Nationwide internet and mobile networks shut down Protests suppressed by force Nationwide internet and mobile networks shut down Parties Iranian opposition Anti-government demonstrators Student demonstrators [ 7 ] Police and military defectors Supported by: Political groups: Iran National Council for Free Elections (INC) [ 6 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran (MEK) [ 10 ] .mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url(" 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px} National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Solidarity for a Secular Democratic Republic in Iran [ 10 ] Separatist groups: Kurdish separatists Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Freedom Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Free Life Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Organisation of Iranian Kurdistan Struggle [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Revolutionary Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan National Guard Zagros Tornado units [ 16 ] Baloch separatists People's Fighters Front [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Balochistan People's Party [ 20 ] [ 21 ] South Azerbaijani separatists South Azerbaijan Organizations Cooperation Council [ 22 ] [ bare URL ] Coordination Council of Azerbaijani Parties in Iran [ 23 ] Labour, civil, and retiree groups: Free Workers Union of Iran [ 24 ] Iranian Writers Association [ 24 ] Coordination Council of Iranian Teachers Trade Associations [ 24 ] Haft Tappeh Sugarcane Workers Syndicate [ 24 ] Coordination Committee to Help Form Independent Labour Organisations [ 24 ] Khuzestan Retired Workers [ 24 ] Union of Retirees Group [ 24 ] Kurdish Women's Organisations [ 24 ] Retirees Union [ 25 ] Kermanshah Electricity and Metal Association [ 25 ] "Stop Executions" [ 25 ] "Justice Seekers" [ 25 ] Coordination Council for Protests of Contract Oil Workers [ 25 ] Coordination Council for Protests of Non-Formal Oil Workers [ 25 ] Coordination Council of Nurses Protests [ 25 ] "Neday-e Zanan-e Iran" [ 25 ] World Iranian Christian Alliance [ 26 ] Government of Iran Armed Forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army [ 16 ] Police Command Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Basij Nabi Akram Corps [ 27 ] Ground Forces [ 28 ] Pro-government counterprotesters [ 29 ] and plainclothesmen Pro-Government foreign Shia militias [ 21 ] Popular Mobilisation Forces Kata'ib Hezbollah Harakat al-Nujaba Kata'ib Sayyid ul-Shuhada Badr Organisation Hezbollah Liwa Fatemiyoun Liwa Zainebiyoun Iranian opposition Anti-government demonstrators Student demonstrators [ 7 ] Police and military defectors Supported by: Political groups: Iran National Council for Free Elections (INC) [ 6 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran (MEK) [ 10 ] .mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url(" 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px} National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Solidarity for a Secular Democratic Republic in Iran [ 10 ] Separatist groups: Kurdish separatists Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Freedom Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Free Life Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Organisation of Iranian Kurdistan Struggle [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Revolutionary Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan National Guard Zagros Tornado units [ 16 ] Baloch separatists People's Fighters Front [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Balochistan People's Party [ 20 ] [ 21 ] South Azerbaijani separatists South Azerbaijan Organizations Cooperation Council [ 22 ] [ bare URL ] Coordination Council of Azerbaijani Parties in Iran [ 23 ] Labour, civil, and retiree groups: Free Workers Union of Iran [ 24 ] Iranian Writers Association [ 24 ] Coordination Council of Iranian Teachers Trade Associations [ 24 ] Haft Tappeh Sugarcane Workers Syndicate [ 24 ] Coordination Committee to Help Form Independent Labour Organisations [ 24 ] Khuzestan Retired Workers [ 24 ] Union of Retirees Group [ 24 ] Kurdish Women's Organisations [ 24 ] Retirees Union [ 25 ] Kermanshah Electricity and Metal Association [ 25 ] "Stop Executions" [ 25 ] "Justice Seekers" [ 25 ] Coordination Council for Protests of Contract Oil Workers [ 25 ] Coordination Council for Protests of Non-Formal Oil Workers [ 25 ] Coordination Council of Nurses Protests [ 25 ] "Neday-e Zanan-e Iran" [ 25 ] World Iranian Christian Alliance [ 26 ] Iranian opposition Anti-government demonstrators Student demonstrators [ 7 ] Police and military defectors Iran National Council for Free Elections (INC) [ 6 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran (MEK) [ 10 ] .mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url(" 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px} National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Solidarity for a Secular Democratic Republic in Iran [ 10 ] Kurdish separatists Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Freedom Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Free Life Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Organisation of Iranian Kurdistan Struggle [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Revolutionary Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan National Guard Zagros Tornado units [ 16 ] Kurdish separatists Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Freedom Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Free Life Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Organisation of Iranian Kurdistan Struggle [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Revolutionary Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan National Guard Zagros Tornado units [ 16 ] Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Freedom Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Free Life Party [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Organisation of Iranian Kurdistan Struggle [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Revolutionary Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan Toilers Association [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Kurdistan National Guard Zagros Tornado units [ 16 ] Zagros Tornado units [ 16 ] Baloch separatists People's Fighters Front [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Balochistan People's Party [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Baloch separatists People's Fighters Front [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Balochistan People's Party [ 20 ] [ 21 ] People's Fighters Front [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Balochistan People's Party [ 20 ] [ 21 ] South Azerbaijani separatists South Azerbaijan Organizations Cooperation Council [ 22 ] [ bare URL ] Coordination Council of Azerbaijani Parties in Iran [ 23 ] South Azerbaijani separatists South Azerbaijan Organizations Cooperation Council [ 22 ] [ bare URL ] Coordination Council of Azerbaijani Parties in Iran [ 23 ] South Azerbaijan Organizations Cooperation Council [ 22 ] [ bare URL ] Coordination Council of Azerbaijani Parties in Iran [ 23 ] Free Workers Union of Iran [ 24 ] Iranian Writers Association [ 24 ] Coordination Council of Iranian Teachers Trade Associations [ 24 ] Haft Tappeh Sugarcane Workers Syndicate [ 24 ] Coordination Committee to Help Form Independent Labour Organisations [ 24 ] Khuzestan Retired Workers [ 24 ] Union of Retirees Group [ 24 ] Kurdish Women's Organisations [ 24 ] Retirees Union [ 25 ] Kermanshah Electricity and Metal Association [ 25 ] "Stop Executions" [ 25 ] "Justice Seekers" [ 25 ] Coordination Council for Protests of Contract Oil Workers [ 25 ] Coordination Council for Protests of Non-Formal Oil Workers [ 25 ] Coordination Council of Nurses Protests [ 25 ] "Neday-e Zanan-e Iran" [ 25 ] World Iranian Christian Alliance [ 26 ] Government of Iran Armed Forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army [ 16 ] Police Command Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Basij Nabi Akram Corps [ 27 ] Ground Forces [ 28 ] Pro-government counterprotesters [ 29 ] and plainclothesmen Pro-Government foreign Shia militias [ 21 ] Popular Mobilisation Forces Kata'ib Hezbollah Harakat al-Nujaba Kata'ib Sayyid ul-Shuhada Badr Organisation Hezbollah Liwa Fatemiyoun Liwa Zainebiyoun Government of Iran Armed Forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army [ 16 ] Police Command Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Basij Nabi Akram Corps [ 27 ] Ground Forces [ 28 ] Pro-government counterprotesters [ 29 ] and plainclothesmen Pro-Government foreign Shia militias [ 21 ] Popular Mobilisation Forces Kata'ib Hezbollah Harakat al-Nujaba Kata'ib Sayyid ul-Shuhada Badr Organisation Hezbollah Liwa Fatemiyoun Liwa Zainebiyoun Armed Forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army [ 16 ] Police Command Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Basij Nabi Akram Corps [ 27 ] Ground Forces [ 28 ] Islamic Republic of Iran Army [ 16 ] Police Command Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Basij Nabi Akram Corps [ 27 ] Ground Forces [ 28 ] Basij Nabi Akram Corps [ 27 ] Nabi Akram Corps [ 27 ] Ground Forces [ 28 ] Pro-government counterprotesters [ 29 ] and plainclothesmen Pro-Government foreign Shia militias [ 21 ] Popular Mobilisation Forces Kata'ib Hezbollah Harakat al-Nujaba Kata'ib Sayyid ul-Shuhada Badr Organisation Hezbollah Liwa Fatemiyoun Liwa Zainebiyoun Popular Mobilisation Forces Kata'ib Hezbollah Harakat al-Nujaba Kata'ib Sayyid ul-Shuhada Badr Organisation Kata'ib Hezbollah Harakat al-Nujaba Kata'ib Sayyid ul-Shuhada Badr Organisation Hezbollah Liwa Fatemiyoun Liwa Zainebiyoun Lead figures .mw-parser-output .infobox-columns{display:flex}.mw-parser-output .infobox .infobox-columns-text-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns>div{box-sizing:border-box;width:50%;padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns-3>div{width:33.33%}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns-4>div{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns>div:not(:first-child){border-left:1px dotted #aaa;padding-left:5px} .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} "Broadly leaderless" [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Reza Pahlavi [ 34 ] [ 35 ] Ali Khamenei ( Supreme Leader of Iran ) Masoud Pezeshkian ( President of Iran ) Others: Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i ( Chief Justice of Iran ) Mohammad Bagher Qalibaf ( Speaker of the Parliament of the Islamic Republic Iran ) Ali Larijani ( Supreme National Security Council ) Abbas Araghchi ( Minister of Foreign Affairs ) Abdolrahim Mousavi ( General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran ) Amir Hatami ( Commander-in-Chief of the Iranian Army ) Ahmad-Reza Radan (Chief Commander of the Police Command of the Islamic Republic of Iran Mohammad Pakpour (Commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Ground Forces Gholamreza Soleimani (Commander of the Basij ) "Broadly leaderless" [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Reza Pahlavi [ 34 ] [ 35 ] Ali Khamenei ( Supreme Leader of Iran ) Masoud Pezeshkian ( President of Iran ) Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i ( Chief Justice of Iran ) Mohammad Bagher Qalibaf ( Speaker of the Parliament of the Islamic Republic Iran ) Ali Larijani ( Supreme National Security Council ) Abbas Araghchi ( Minister of Foreign Affairs ) Abdolrahim Mousavi ( General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran ) Amir Hatami ( Commander-in-Chief of the Iranian Army ) Ahmad-Reza Radan (Chief Commander of the Police Command of the Islamic Republic of Iran Mohammad Pakpour (Commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Ground Forces Gholamreza Soleimani (Commander of the Basij ) Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i ( Chief Justice of Iran ) Mohammad Bagher Qalibaf ( Speaker of the Parliament of the Islamic Republic Iran ) Ali Larijani ( Supreme National Security Council ) Abbas Araghchi ( Minister of Foreign Affairs ) Abdolrahim Mousavi ( General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran ) Amir Hatami ( Commander-in-Chief of the Iranian Army ) Ahmad-Reza Radan (Chief Commander of the Police Command of the Islamic Republic of Iran Mohammad Pakpour (Commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Ground Forces Gholamreza Soleimani (Commander of the Basij ) Number Millions (per Iran International) [ 36 ] Widespread deployment 800 Iranian-backed Iraqi militiamen (per Iranian opposition) [ 21 ] Tens of thousands of counter-protesters in Tehran [ 37 ] Millions (per Iran International) [ 36 ] Widespread deployment 800 Iranian-backed Iraqi militiamen (per Iranian opposition) [ 21 ] Tens of thousands of counter-protesters in Tehran [ 37 ] Casualties Deaths ~2,000–3,000 overall (per Iranian government officials) [ b ] >4,370 overall (per HRANA ) [ c ] 12,000 protesters (per Iran International ) [ 42 ] 12,000–20,000 protesters (per activist groups) [ 43 ] Arrested 19,097 [ d ] Precise casualties uncertain due to Internet and telephone blackout imposed by the government since 8 January 2026 Beginning on 28 December 2025, demonstrations erupted across multiple cities in Iran amid nationwide unrest against the Islamic Republic government and a deepening economic crisis . The events have been described as the largest uprising since the 1979 Islamic Revolution . [ e ] The ensuing crackdown, carried out under Ali Khamenei's direct order for live fire on protesters, resulted in massacres that left tens of thousands of protesters dead , making them some of the largest massacres in modern Iranian history . [ 42 ] [ 43 ] [ 49 ] Initially sparked by frustration over record-high inflation , food prices, and currency depreciation, the protests quickly evolved into a broader movement demanding an end to the current regime. [ 50 ] Beginning with the bazaari (shopkeepers and merchants) in Tehran's Grand Bazaar and later university students, the demonstrations soon spread not only to major cities but also small settlements chanting anti-government slogans [ 51 ] [ 52 ] [ 53 ] and destroying symbols of the government and the IRGC . [ 54 ] [ 55 ] Although largely leaderless, the protests escalated on 8 January following the call for unified protests by Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran and the subsequent call for a general strike by the Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan . [ 56 ] [ 57 ] Many demonstrators have been calling for Pahlavi's return to Iran; [ 58 ] he has called for a peaceful transition and a referendum to decide Iran's future political system. [ 6 ] The Iranian government has cut off Internet access and telephone services in an attempt to prevent protesters from organising. [ 58 ] It has accused the United States and Israel of fuelling the protests, [ 54 ] which analysts suggest may be a tactic to increase security forces' willingness to kill protesters. [ 21 ] As of 9 January, millions took to the streets in protests across all 31 provinces. By 10 January 2026, Iran International reported that at least 2,000 protesters had been killed nationwide over the previous 48 hours amid the internet blackout, as Iranian security forces escalated their use of live ammunition against demonstrators. [ 59 ] Hospitals in Tehran and Shiraz were reported to be overwhelmed by injured protesters, many suffering gunshot wounds. [ 60 ] Iran's foreign ministry spokesperson confirmed security forces fired on protesters, raising international concern over human rights. [ 61 ] In addition, thousands were arrested during the violent crackdown. [ 62 ] Despite the blackout, on 10 January 2026, The Guardian documented multiple reports of security forces opening fire on demonstrations, with one eyewitness stating they saw " hundreds of bodies " across Tehran. [ 63 ] On 11 January, Time reported that an expatriate group of academics and professionals estimated the death toll at 6,000, based on reports from hospitals, without including bodies taken directly to morgues rather than hospitals. [ 64 ] On 13 January, Iran International reported that at least 12,000 had been killed; CBS News reported on the same day that activist groups in Iran estimated at least 12,000 deaths and possibly as many as 20,000. [ 42 ] [ 43 ] Background Economic crisis in Iran Beginning in 2024, Iran's economy experienced sharp inflation, a devalued currency, and an energy deficit, culminating in repeated electricity and gas disruptions and apologies from Iranian president Masoud Pezeshkian . Iran had also suffered from major declines in global influence such as with the fall of the Assad regime in Syria, a major ally. [ 65 ] In the final months of 2025, Iran's economy experienced an unprecedented surge in exchange rates , a sharp depreciation of the Iranian rial with the US dollar reaching approximately 145,000 Iranian tomans . [ 66 ] [ 67 ] Additionally, the country's state statistics centre reported an inflation rate of 42.2% in December 2025, an increase of 1.8% compared to November. [ 44 ] Food prices rose by 72%, while health and medical goods increased by 50% year-on-year. [ 44 ] Iran is experiencing a mismanaged water crisis . [ 45 ] Reports in Iranian media also indicated that the government planned to raise taxes with the start of the Iranian new year on 21 March, fuelling further concern among citizens. [ 44 ] Some protest messaging linked economic hardship to criticism of the government's foreign policy priorities; during the December 2025 demonstrations, some participants chanted " Neither Gaza nor Lebanon, My Life for Iran ". [ 68 ] Discontent in Iran has also been alleged to have been due to political corruption, with protesters accusing the Iranian government of authoritarianism and prioritising proxies such as Hezbollah and Hamas over domestic needs. [ 46 ] Additionally, Iran faces challenges from ethnic secessionist movements from the Kurds , Azerbaijanis , Khuzestani Arabs , and Balochs and from major powers like the United States and Israel. [ 69 ] Inflation had surged to 48.6% in October 2025 and 42.2% in December, straining household budgets. [ 44 ] On 29 December, the Iranian rial reached its lowest value (1.45 million to the US dollar), then by 3 January, the government increased the value of the rial to 1.38 million in an attempt to control the people. This had no effect, and on 6 January, the rial broke its record low again (reaching 1.5 million to the US dollar), causing a sharp increase in prices, including food and other essential goods. [ 70 ] [ 44 ] The economic crisis, which had been developing over several years, is accompanied by fears of renewed conflict following the 2025 Twelve-Day War with Israel and renewed UN nuclear -related sanctions imposed through the "snapback" mechanism . [ 71 ] [ 44 ] Economic analysts cited government monetary and fiscal policies, economic mismanagement, chronic budget deficits, and the continuation of international sanctions as key contributing factors. These conditions directly affected trade guilds, particularly businesses dependent on imports. Severe exchange-rate volatility left many merchants unable to price goods, secure supplies, or continue economic activity. [ 72 ] [ 73 ] [ 74 ] [ 70 ] Economic uncertainty grew in Iran throughout 2025. In June 2025, Iran was involved in an armed conflict with Israel , during which Iran's nuclear programme was targeted, and its nuclear facilities were also struck by the United States . [ 75 ] [ 44 ] In September 2025, the United Nations reimposed sanctions on Iran through the snapback mechanism, freezing Iranian assets abroad, halting arms transactions, and imposing penalties related to the country's ballistic missile programme . [ 71 ] [ 44 ] Many Iranians fear a broader confrontation involving the United States , which contributed to market instability. [ 44 ] According to The Guardian , the economic crisis was the catalyst for the protests; however, they had expanded into an expression of grievances against government corruption. [ 50 ] It further reported of voices calling for the overthrow of the government, and distrust in the government's calls for dialogue, seeing them as self-serving and deceptive. [ 50 ] NPR reported that months before the protests, public anger and frustration had been mounting due to severe energy shortages, civil rights abuses and widespread corruption, and that the protests sparked concerns that they could deteriorate into something much more serious. [ 76 ] According to The Atlantic , the political character of the protests was manifested by protesters chanting " Death to the Dictator " in reference to Supreme leader of Iran Ali Khamenei , [ 77 ] and their loss of faith in Pezeshkian, who was elected in 2024 on the platform and promises of good governance, but had overseen water and electricity cuts, while failing to deliver on the promise of lifting internet censorship . [ 77 ] Pezeshkian also promised to meet with protest representatives, and recognised "the constitutional right of peaceful protest", [ 77 ] although he lacks control over Iranian security forces. By 1 January 2026, dozens of protesters had been arrested and there were several documented cases of security forces firing live ammunition at protesters, including students, pensioners, and members of Gen Z . [ 77 ] Students at Shahid Beheshti University released a statement declaring that "This criminal system has taken our future hostage for 47 years. It won't be changed with reform or with false promises". [ 77 ] Comparison to previous protests Part of a series on Liberalism in Iran Ideologies Conservative Monarchism Islamic Reformist National Religious Progressivism Radical Mosaddeghism Secular Social Conservative Monarchism Monarchism Islamic Reformist Reformist National Religious Religious Progressivism Radical Mosaddeghism Mosaddeghism Secular Social Principles Civil and political rights Equality Free trade Human rights Liberal democracy Social justice Reformist groups Anti-imperialism Zionist Islamic democracy Islamic modernism Moderate conservatism Realpolitik Republicanism Sovereigntism Mosaddeghist groups Anti-clericalism Anti-communism Anti-imperialism Freedom of the press Iranian nationalism Popular sovereignty Secular state Social democracy Sovereigntism Monarchist groups (post-1979) Anti-clericalism Anti-communism Economic freedom Iranian nationalism Persian Royalism Qajar dynasty Pahlavi dynasty Secular state Westernisation Civil and political rights Equality Free trade Human rights Liberal democracy Social justice Anti-imperialism Zionist Zionist Islamic democracy Islamic modernism Moderate conservatism Realpolitik Republicanism Sovereigntism Anti-clericalism Anti-communism Anti-imperialism Freedom of the press Iranian nationalism Popular sovereignty Secular state Social democracy Sovereigntism Anti-clericalism Anti-communism Economic freedom Iranian nationalism Persian Persian Royalism Qajar dynasty Pahlavi dynasty Qajar dynasty Pahlavi dynasty Secular state Westernisation History Persian Constitutional Revolution Governments of Mohammad Mosaddegh Chain murders of Iran Mohammad Khatami's reforms Woman, Life, Freedom movement Protests 1979 (International Women's Day) 1999 2003 2009 2011–2012 2016 2017–2018 2018–2019 2019–2020 2021–2022 2022–2023 2025–2026 Persian Constitutional Revolution Governments of Mohammad Mosaddegh Chain murders of Iran Mohammad Khatami's reforms Woman, Life, Freedom movement Protests 1979 (International Women's Day) 1999 2003 2009 2011–2012 2016 2017–2018 2018–2019 2019–2020 2021–2022 2022–2023 2025–2026 1979 (International Women's Day) 1999 2003 2009 2011–2012 2016 2017–2018 2018–2019 2019–2020 2021–2022 2022–2023 2025–2026 Intellectuals Jahanbegloo Shariati Shayegan Soroush Reformists Aghajari Malekian Shabestari Tajzadeh Jahanbegloo Shariati Shayegan Soroush Aghajari Malekian Shabestari Tajzadeh Politicians Alam Alijani Bakhtiar Bazargan Ebadi Fatemi Mosaddegh Pahlavi I (early) Sadighi Sanjabi Shariatmadari Yazdi Zaim Reformists Damad Ebtekar Khomeini (Hassan) Khomeini (Hussein) Karroubi Khatami Mohtashami Montazeri Mousavi Nouri Pezeshkian Rafsanjani Rouhani Saanei Shahindokht Zanjani Zarif Exile opposition Bashirtash Boniadi Pahlavi (Reza) Rajavi Alam Alijani Bakhtiar Bazargan Ebadi Fatemi Mosaddegh Pahlavi I (early) Sadighi Sanjabi Shariatmadari Yazdi Zaim Damad Ebtekar Khomeini (Hassan) Khomeini (Hussein) Karroubi Khatami Mohtashami Montazeri Mousavi Nouri Pezeshkian Rafsanjani Rouhani Saanei Shahindokht Zanjani Zarif Bashirtash Boniadi Pahlavi (Reza) Rajavi Commentators Alinejad Baghi Ganji Kar Nafisi Reformists Abdi Hajjarian Zeidabadi Alinejad Baghi Ganji Kar Nafisi Abdi Hajjarian Zeidabadi Parties Active Association of Combatant Clerics Freedom Movement National Front Iran Party Iran National Council Constitutionalist Party Iran-Novin Party National Democratic Front United Republicans Voice of the Nation Defunct Democrat Party Muslim People's Republic Party National Council of Resistance of Iran National Resistance Movement of Iran People's Party People's Mojahedin Organisation of Iran Radical Movement of Iran Revival Party Revolutionary Republican Party of Iran Progressives Social Democratic Party Association of Combatant Clerics Freedom Movement National Front Iran Party Iran National Council Constitutionalist Party Constitutionalist Party Iran-Novin Party National Democratic Front United Republicans Voice of the Nation Democrat Party Muslim People's Republic Party National Council of Resistance of Iran National Resistance Movement of Iran People's Party People's Mojahedin Organisation of Iran Radical Movement of Iran Revival Party Revolutionary Republican Party of Iran Progressives Social Democratic Party Alliances Council for Coordinating the Reforms Front Reformists Front Council for Coordinating the Reforms Front Reformists Front Media Ayandegan Iran International (overseas) Reformists Aftab Yazd Etemaad Shargh Asr-e Maa Asrar Ayande-ye No Bahar Ebtekar Ham-Mihan Hayat-e-No Hambastegi Khordad Salam Yas-e No Zan Ayandegan Iran International (overseas) Aftab Yazd Etemaad Shargh Asr-e Maa Asrar Ayande-ye No Bahar Ebtekar Ham-Mihan Hayat-e-No Hambastegi Khordad Salam Yas-e No Zan Related topics Dialogue Among Civilisations Iranian opposition Islamic feminism Islamo-leftism LGBTQ rights in Iran Transgender rights Secularism in Iran Politics of Iran Anarchism Conservatism Socialism Women's rights in Iran Feminism " Woman, Life, Freedom " Dialogue Among Civilisations Iranian opposition Islamic feminism Islamo-leftism LGBTQ rights in Iran Transgender rights Transgender rights Secularism in Iran Politics of Iran Anarchism Conservatism Socialism Anarchism Conservatism Socialism Women's rights in Iran Feminism Feminism " Woman, Life, Freedom " Liberalism portal Iran portal Liberalism portal Iran portal .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The protests were described as Iran's largest since 2022, when nationwide demonstrations erupted following the death of 22-year-old Mahsa Amini while in police custody for allegedly wearing her hijab improperly. [ 44 ] On 30 December, Ellie Borhan, a British-Iranian activist, viewed this wave of protests as stronger than previous ones. [ 78 ] Iranian public faith in their government faded since the 2022 crackdown on the Woman, Life, Freedom movement during the Mahsa Amini protests . [ 65 ] Protests were previously held in May 2025 by truck drivers beginning in Bandar Abbas , who blocked roads and ports in Iran due to discontent over low salaries, high insurance rates, and possible hikes in fuel prices in the future. [ 79 ] Protest slogans have shifted ideologically compared to the 2022 protests. Some new chants increasingly reflect monarchist sentiments. [ 80 ] Already in June 2025, during the Iran–Israel war , the exiled crown prince Reza Pahlavi had intensified his political efforts and appealed to the international community to help the Iranian people force out Ali Khamenei 's religious dictatorship offering himself up as interim leader to take over running the country. [ 81 ] In comparison to the Amini protests which were mainly fuelled by girls and women, young men played larger roles in later rounds of the 2025–2026 protests. [ 82 ] Market traders were influential during the 1979 Islamic Revolution , helping to mobilise public support that ultimately led to the overthrow of the monarchy. [ 44 ] The demonstrations were notable in the context of a large-scale government crackdown on dissidents, including arrests of prominent opponents and the highest number of executions in nearly 40 years. [ 75 ] Executions in Iran have reportedly doubled in 2025 compared to 2024; the execution trends were on the rise since 2022, with activists alleging that the Islamic Republic aims to use executions to instil fear in their population and therefore suppress internal opposition. [ 83 ] Kurdish-majority regions in Iran have previously undergone severe repression stemming from the Amini protests in 2022, leading to fears of ethnic crackdowns from the government. This was in part due to Iran's accusing Kurdish opposition groups of having incited the 2022 protests. Despite this, Kurdish opposition groups have continued to call for solidarity in the nationwide protests and strikes. Iran has also repeatedly accused Kurdish militias from Iraq of attempting to incite unrest, including in the protests in 2026. [ 84 ] [ 58 ] [ 28 ] [ 85 ] Likewise, Baloch regions in Iran, long suffering from underdevelopment and political exclusion, have also previously been subject to violent crackdowns in the Amini protests. [ 86 ] On 10 December 2025, Iranian Baloch- Sunni militant groups like the Jaysh al-Adl announced a merge into a united organisation called the Jebhe-ye Mobaarezin-e Mardomi ( People's Fighters Front ). In its coalition video, the union rejected Shia Islam -led clerical rule in the Islamic Republic. The same day, the group carried out an attack on an Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps regional command, killing four of its soldiers and wounding three others; it announced responsibility for the attack the next day. [ 87 ] Protests Initial bazaar 28 December 2025 On 28 December, groups of shopkeepers and merchants at Alaeddin Shopping Centre in Tehran and other commercial centres, including Charsou Mall, went on strike by closing their shops. Simultaneously, protest gatherings formed around these locations, and images and videos of widespread shop closures circulated on social media. [ 73 ] According to reports, protesters cited the rising dollar exchange rate and market instability, warning that continued conditions would lead to the bankruptcy of many small and medium-sized businesses. Some gatherings extended into surrounding streets, including Jomhuri Street . [ 72 ] [ 88 ] [ 89 ] Other people had joined in with the shopkeepers to protest against economic conditions at Jomhuri Street. Elsewhere, iron traders at Iran closed their shops in similar protests of the devalued currency. [ 90 ] Around the time that the protests began, the value of the Iranian rial sunk to a record low of 1.45 million per US dollar before slightly recovering to 1.38 million. [ 91 ] The rial had lost approximately 40 percent of its value since the Iran–Israel war, in part due to the sinking of oil revenue from US sanctions. The year on year inflation rate was up at 42.2 percent. The protests were first started by shopkeepers who sold electronic goods in central Tehran who shut down their stores. [ 70 ] State media revealed blurred footage of initially smaller-scale protests from merchants. [ 91 ] Videos and eyewitness accounts showed groups of merchants chanting slogans against economic mismanagement and in some cases expressing anti-government sentiments. [ 88 ] Protesters also chanted " Law Enforcement , support, support", calling on security forces to back the protests. [ 92 ] The protesters' main demands included stabilising exchange rates, addressing merchants' economic hardships, creating a predictable business environment, and preventing losses caused by market volatility. [ 72 ] [ 88 ] There were no reported clashes with security forces on this day and it remained peaceful. [ 93 ] 29 December The protests continued into their second day on 29 December and expanded across various parts of Tehran, including the Grand Bazaar . Merchants and shopkeepers closed their businesses and gathered in the streets to protest the unprecedented collapse of the rial and sharp increases in currency and gold prices. Protesters voiced opposition to economic conditions and government management, citing declining purchasing power and rising living costs. Videos shared online showed continued gatherings around Lalehzar, Chaharsouq, and Jomhuri Street, with participants largely non-violent while conveying critical messages toward government economic policies. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] [ 96 ] The merchants at the Grand Bazaar in Tehran joined the electronic goods shopkeepers who had started the protests the previous day. [ 70 ] Footage verified by independent sources showed crowds at malls near Tehran's Grand Bazaar chanting "freedom" ( Persian : آزادی , romanised : Âzâdi ). [ 75 ] Law enforcement forces used tear gas to disperse demonstrators outside the Alaeddin Shopping Centre. [ 96 ] Protests also spread to other cities in Iran. [ 97 ] On the night of 29 December 2025, protests were reported in several regions across Iran, including Qeshm in the south, and Zanjan and Hamadan in the north. Demonstrators chanted slogans critical of the supreme leader, including " Death to the Dictator " on Qeshm Island and "Seyyed Ali [Khamenei] will be toppled this year" in Zanjan . [ 98 ] [ 75 ] A video and photo of an unidentified protester went viral, who defiantly sat in the middle of the Jomhuri Eslami Street at Tehran and refused to move for motorbike security forces, but later was beaten and forced to leave. The protester became known as Tehran's Tank Man , a reference to the Tank Man during the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre . [ 99 ] [ 100 ] [ 78 ] [ 101 ] Spread across Iran 30 December By the third day of protests, strikes and security measures had expanded, with shops closing in parts of Tehran such as Shoush and Molavi, as well as in Isfahan's Naqsh-e Jahan Square . Heavy security deployments were reported in Tehran, Mashhad, and at Khajeh Nasir University . Government responses included ordering temporary closures in 11 provinces, including Tehran province, due to cold weather and energy constraints. Security forces fired on protesters in Hamadan and deployed tear gas in Tehran and Malard. [ 97 ] [ 102 ] Demonstrations spread to additional cities, including Kermanshah , Shiraz, Yazd , and parts of Tehran such as Shadabad and Shush. Students from universities including Amirkabir , Beheshti , Khajeh Nasir, Sharif , Science and Culture and Tehran Science and Technology as well as Isfahan University of Technology and Yazd University joined rallies, chanting slogans such as "Death to the Dictator", " Death to Khamenei ", " Neither Gaza nor Lebanon, My Life for Iran ", "We are all together", and "Seyyed Ali (Khamenei) will be toppled this year". [ 102 ] [ 103 ] [ 104 ] [ 105 ] [ 106 ] President Masoud Pezeshkian , called on the government to listen to citizens' demands. In response, a government spokesman said a Communication Group would be implemented. [ 107 ] [ 108 ] Pezeshkian's comments do not appear to have appeased the protesters, whose demands go beyond just economic stability. [ 105 ] Furthermore, some Iranians have expressed scepticism in the government's ability to solve the economic problems, citing previous government statements that they are unable to do much about solving the economic problems. [ 109 ] Human rights organisations and Gen Z student groups reported that 11 protesters were arrested in the Shoush Square area in Tehran and that five students were detained and four were later released. [ 110 ] [ 111 ] [ 112 ] Another news report published that one student was severely injured at Tehran's Amirkabir University during a crackdown on a campus gathering by members of the Basij militia of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps . [ 110 ] Videos on social media appeared to show students chanting slogans critical of the government, removing signs associated with the office of the Supreme Leader's representatives, and confronting security forces at university entrances. [ 110 ] 31 December The people of Isfahan, Kermanshah, and Fasa gathered on the fourth day of protests. In Fasa, people held a large rally in front of the governor's office, and in Kermanshah, the markets went on a complete strike. According to reports, police fired live ammunition and tear gas, at the protesters. [ 113 ] [ 114 ] At the same time, in Shirvan , working and retired teachers gathered in front of the Education Department. In Kermanshah, repressive forces have been deployed from Ferdowsi Square to the garage (about 8 kilometres), and the heavy presence of security forces is noticeable. [ 115 ] One person named Mahdi Samavati was reported to have been killed outside the governor's office protest in Fasa. The semi-official Mehr News Agency quoted the governor of Fasa as denying this report. [ 116 ] Video recordings disseminated online and distributed by the People's Mojahedin Organisation of Iran depict severe confrontations between demonstrators and security forces in several cities, including Tehran , Isfahan , Shiraz , and Kermanshah . [ citation needed ] Protester Amirhesam Khodayarifard was killed by a handgun shot to the head by an Iranian security force member in a protest in Kuhdasht , Lorestan province on 31 December. [ 117 ] The state-run IRNA news agency and Mehr confirmed the death and stated that Khodayarifard was a member of the Basij . [ 118 ] Government authorities pressured Khodayarifard's family to state that he had been a Basij member and called for online social media silence on the topic. [ 117 ] The shooting occurred during clashes with protesters. According to Mehr , 13 police officers and Basij members were injured. [ 118 ] [ 119 ] The government ordered nationwide total business shutdown in most of the country due to "cold weather", [ 120 ] although some analysts say that the real intention is to stifle protests. [ 121 ] The shutdown was applied to 21 out of Iran's 31 provinces. [ 122 ] The government began threatening to crack down on protesters, [ 109 ] and the US State Deparment stated that they were concerned about protesters "facing intimidation, violence, and arrests". [ 123 ] Video footage records protesters like merchants, women's rights activists, and students commonly shouting the slogans "Death to the dictator" and "Neither Gaza nor Lebanon, my life for Iran". [ 46 ] [ 50 ] In response to the ongoing protests, the Iranian government appointed Abdolnasser Hemmati, a former economics minister, as the new governor of the Central Bank of Iran , following Mohammad Reza Farzin's resignation. [ 124 ] 2026 1 January On the fifth day of protests, workers and employees of the central fruit and vegetable market in Tehran stopped working and joined the nationwide uprising by stopping the distribution cycle. Chanting the slogan, "You know with zeal, support support", the protesters called on marketers and the general public to strengthen the national will for change by expanding the strikes. Police officers used tear gas to disperse the demonstrators. [ 125 ] According to reports, Sarira Karimi, secretary of the faculty council of the Faculty of Law and Political Science and a member of the faculty council of the University of Tehran, who had been arrested on 31 December 2025, was released on 1 January 2026. [ 126 ] Protesters were reported to have gathered in Marvdasht and chanted slogans against the Islamic Republic government, such as "This is the year of blood, Seyyed Ali is overthrown". [ 127 ] In Mashhad, protesters gathered at Saadi Metro Station , where riot police attempted to disperse the crowd with force. [ 127 ] In the Sistan and Baluchestan province , a group of Baluch prisoners released a statement calling on locals to join the wider protests and urged for slogans like "Death to the dictator" and "Baluchestan is awake and despises dictatorship". [ 128 ] In Lorestan , home to the Lur minority , protesters were reported lighting fires in the streets while also chanting, "This is the year of blood, Seyyed Ali is overthrown". Additional reports claim officers used live ammunition against protesters. [ 129 ] In Lordegan County , gatherings took place in several parts of Lordegan City , including around the governor's office and the municipality square. According to these reports, as tensions escalated, some individuals attempted to damage government and bank buildings. Police used tear gas to disperse the crowds, and clashes were reported between the two sides. Several people were injured during the unrest, and unconfirmed reports suggested that multiple deaths had occurred. [ 130 ] At least three people, including a boy, were killed in Lordegan. [ 131 ] [ 132 ] There was a heavy presence of government forces in Qom . 2 January On 2 January, according to credible media reports, protests continued in large numbers in Tehran, Qom, Isfahan, Shiraz, Ilam , Mashhad, Karaj, Zanjan, Hamadan , and Qeshm. [ 133 ] In Zahedan and Tehran, protests became active again. Funerals for protesters killed by the security forces were held in Fuladshahr , Kuhdasht , and Marvdasht , during which participants expressed opposition to the government, including chants of "Death to Khamenei". At the Kuhdasht funeral for Khodayarifard, Basij and IRGC forces were chased away from the funeral with stones and chants. Khodayarifard's father confirmed that his son was not a Basij member. [ 134 ] In the Sadaf district of Hamadan province , protesters were seen setting fire to a Quran and attempted to attack a mosque before being stopped by authorities. [ 135 ] 3 January Protests on 3 January were greater in geographic spread and numbers of protesters than on previous days, and the security presence was also greater. [ 136 ] The National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) and Human Rights Activists News Agency (HRANA) named some of the locations of demonstrations, including Kazerun, Malekshahi, Kermanshah, Shiraz, Mashhad, Arkavaz, Isfahan, Tehran, Hafshejan, Karaj, Shahrekord, and Fardis. HRANA reported a cumulative count of 16 fatalities since the beginning of the protests, including one member of government security forces. [ 137 ] [ 136 ] The themes of the protests, as represented by slogans chanted on 3 January, ranged from economic injustice and governance problems to calls for freedom and justice. HRANA viewed the protest aims as having evolved, with "the boundary between trade-related and everyday demands and political demands ha[ving] become blurred, and [the] ongoing protests hav[ing] taken shape on the basis of accumulated, multilayered grievances." [ 136 ] Following statements by US president Donald Trump , where he warns Iran that if they shoot protesters, the United States will come to their rescue, [ 138 ] Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei responded on 3 January by saying "We will not yield to the enemy ", and stating that the "rioters must be put in their place." [ 139 ] [ 140 ] On the same day, the US State Department made a statement condemning suppression on protesters' funerals. [ 141 ] Cloudflare reported a 35% decrease in internet traffic in Iran, with Iranian internet users reporting frequent outages and slow connections . [ 142 ] 4 January There was a heavy presence of security forces in the Grand Bazaar of Tehran. [ 97 ] Protests and strikes took place in at least 20 major cities and small towns throughout Iran. [ 143 ] Donald Trump said that Iranian authorities would be "hit very hard" should additional protesters be killed. [ 144 ] In Shiraz, videos showed the police assaulting and beating a man on the ground. When protesters threw projectiles at the police, officers moved toward them on motorcycles. Moments later, a protester poured gasoline on one officer setting him alight. [ 145 ] 5 January On the ninth day, the protests continued throughout Iran. In Tehran's Bagh-e Sepahsalar neighbourhood, voices echoed chants of "Death to Khamenei". Near Tehran University, special forces stood on high alert, while reports of widespread strikes emerged from cities such as Marvdasht, where resistance pulsed through daily life. [ 146 ] In Yasuj, security forces confronted the families of detainees gathered outside the governor's office. Reports say that the protests have reached the smaller towns of Saman, Sangsar, and Kushk, as part of dissatisfaction of the Iranian people. [ 147 ] In addition to the cities previously mentioned, protests were reported in several other locations across the country, including Saman in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province, Sangsar in Semnan Province, Zahedan, Fardis in Karaj, Meshkan in Fars Province, and Noorabad in Mamasani. Demonstrations were further documented in Qazvin, Hamedan, Ilam, Mashhad, Neyshabur, Abadeh, Bushehr, Babol, Bojnourd, Kushk in Isfahan Province, Shazand in Markazi Province, as well as the northern cities of Rasht and Sari. According to reports, protesters in these areas gathered in public spaces, chanting slogans and expressing dissatisfaction with the Khamenei government, reflecting the continued spread of nationwide unrest. [ 148 ] [ 149 ] [ 146 ] 6 January In a joint statement, several major Kurdish political groups, including the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran (KDPI), Komala , the Revolutionary Toilers Association, the Kurdistan Toilers Association, the Khabat Organisation , the Kurdistan Freedom Party (PAK), and the Kurdistan Free Life Party (PJAK), expressed support for the protests and called on Kurds in Iran to carry out strikes and demonstrations. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 150 ] The cities of Abdanan and Malekshahi , both in the Kurdish region of Iran, were abandoned by the country's security forces, leaving control of the cities to the protesters. [ 151 ] A sit-in was conducted by protesters at the Grand Bazaar in Tehran. [ 152 ] Merchants at the market held strikes, in particular with many shops in the corridors of the gold and currency, fabric, and footwear and home appliances markets partially or fully closed. The strikes appeared to be spontaneous, and according to some reports the Bazaar became a "war zone". [ 153 ] [ 154 ] The sit-in was dispersed by security forces using tear gas. [ 152 ] The total number of protest locations over the ten days was estimate by HRANA to be 285 locations in 88 cities [ 155 ] across 27 provinces, with protests having taken place in 22 universities. The slogans of the protests continued to cover a wide range of economic, social and political grievances. [ 153 ] In Yazdan Shahr , locals reported that police used excessive force against protesters, initially deploying tear gas and later firing live ammunition at civilians. [ 154 ] The security forces' raids on the Sina Hospital in Tehran and on the Imam Khomeini Hospital in Ilam , aiming to arrest injured protesters, gained national attention. In Ilam, families and medical staff resisted the security forces. Security forces' methods of attack at the Ilam hospital included firing tear gas inside the buildings and hospital grounds. The Minister of Interior was ordered to investigate the Ilam raid and provide a report. [ 153 ] On 6 January, a total of 15 forced video confessions by arrested protesters had been broadcast on official media. [ 153 ] On online social media , Reza Pahlavi called for chants to take place from homes and in streets at 20:00 (8 pm) IRST on the evenings of 8 and 9 January. He explained the aim as being to "keep [the] demonstrations disciplined, and as large as possible". He promised to "announce the next calls to action" depending on the response to his call. [ 156 ] 7 January According to HRANA , street gatherings, protests and strikes took place in 37 cities in 24 provinces, bring the total since the beginning of the protests to 348 sites across 111 cities in 31 provinces. Ten universities joined the protest on 7 January, making a total of 45. The total number of televised forced confessions by arrestees rose to 40. Artists and teachers published statements supporting the protests and criticising the security forces' repression against protest participants. [ 157 ] HRANA interpreted the continuation of the protests despite arrests and violence by the security forces as showing that "a significant portion of [Iranian] society [had come to view] the cost of protest as lower than the cost of silence and inaction". Key themes continued to be economic and governance grievances, seen as "two facets of a single issue". HRANA interpreted the artists' and teachers' statements as showing that "professional and cultural sectors [we]re increasingly aligning themselves with the protest narrative". [ 157 ] Militants of the Baloch nationalist militant organisation People's Fighters Front (PFF) assassinated Mahmoud Haqiqat, the police chief of Iranshahr . [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 150 ] IRGC-affiliated media reported that protesters killed two Law Enforcement Command officers during protests in Lordegan as well as an unspecified security force member in Malekshahi. [ 150 ] In Mashhad , protesters were seen lowering a massive flag of the Islamic Republic and later ripping it in half. [ 158 ] The Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan called for a general strike in Iran, receiving support from six other Iranian Kurdish opposition parties. The authorities attempted to forcibly disperse the existing protests over economic conditions in the cities of western Iran ( Iranian Kurdistan ) ahead of the announced date, reportedly with the use of live ammunition. [ 56 ] [ 57 ] 8 January Protests escalated after 20:00, the time specified in Reza Pahlavi's calls for demonstrations. Immediate telephone line and internet cuts occurred in several cities, following a common government practice before it commits intense crackdowns. [ 30 ] Starlink satellite internet service was unaffected, allowing some users to bypass government-controlled internet blackouts. [ 159 ] Crowds chanting in Tehran appeared to be mainly pro-Pahlavi. CBS News described the protests as reaching "a possible tipping point ", [ 160 ] [ 161 ] [ 162 ] and according to Euronews it represented "a new escalation in the protest movement". [ 30 ] In Qaemiyeh , protesters pulled down a statue of Qasem Soleimani , an IRGC commander who was assassinated by the United States in 2020 and declared a martyr by the Islamic Republic shortly thereafter. [ 163 ] In Mashhad, a group of protesters had taken down and torn up a large flag of the Islamic Republic. [ 164 ] Norway-based human rights organisation Hengaw claimed that two IRGC Ground Forces members were killed during the protests in Kermanshah . [ 28 ] A police officer in Malard County at the Tehran province was killed from a stabbing after attempts to control local unrest. [ 165 ] Human rights groups have also verified a video showing "distressed family members" in Ghadir hospital in Tehran, looking through a body-pile of protesters killed by Islamic Republic security forces. [ 63 ] 9 January Protesters took to the streets of Iran on Friday night, videos and eyewitness reports show. [ 166 ] Pahlavi asked US president Donald Trump to support the Iranian protesters. [ 167 ] The Economist reported that the protests had grown to be the biggest since 2009 , while "some veteran Iran-watchers thought the protests were the biggest since the overthrow of the shah in 1979." [ 168 ] NDTV 24x7 reported a viral protest trend of Iranian women lighting cigarettes to burn pictures of Khamenei in videos, gaining popularity on social media platforms like X , Reddit , Instagram , and Telegram . Because burning Khamenei's image is illegal in Iran, observers have interpreted the videos as deliberate acts of defiance, with the women rejecting state authority over their personal freedoms. [ 169 ] The trend has been recorded by multiple other news outlets, which similarly note rejection of strict religious and governmental standards over women. [ 170 ] [ 171 ] [ 172 ] Khamenei addressed the protests in a brief televised appearance. [ 173 ] [ 174 ] In his address, Khamenei called President Trump "arrogant", saying that his hands were stained with the blood of Iranians, and further stating that Trump would be overthrown like other arrogant leaders. [ 173 ] [ 174 ] He described the protesters as harmful individuals and rioters. [ 175 ] A fire broke out at an Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting office in Isfahan . [ 176 ] Protesters also set fire to buildings in Tehran, including mosques in the Gholhak and Sa'adat Abad neighbourhoods. [ 177 ] Opposition media reported that clashes between protesters and security forces in Kermanshah Province had killed at least 10 IRGC Kermanshah Nabi Akram Corps members. [ 27 ] Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i , Iran's judiciary chief, stated that protesters would face decisive and severe punishment, applied to the fullest extent of the law. [ 178 ] Senior officers of American intelligence told Axios that their evaluation that these protests were not capable of destabilising the regime was "being reassessed". [ 179 ] US president Donald Trump warned Iran's authorities against killing demonstrators while praising Iranians as "brave people" amid nationwide protests on Thursday. [ 166 ] The Twemoji emoji library changed the Iran flag emoji from the flag of the Islamic Republic to the modern design of the Lion and Sun flag . [ 180 ] Airline flights from the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, and Turkey to Iranian cities were cancelled amid the mass protests. [ 181 ] As of 9 January, protests across all 31 provinces left millions in the streets, with at least 217 killed in Tehran alone, while hospitals in Tehran and Shiraz were overwhelmed by injured protesters, many with gunshot wounds. [ 182 ] [ 60 ] In addition, thousands were arrested by the violent crackdown. [ 62 ] Nobel laureate Shirin Ebadi warned that, under the Internet blackout , the Islamic Republic may massacre the protesters. [ 183 ] Despite the internet outage, on 10 January 2026, The Guardian documented multiple reports of Islamic Republic security forces opening fire on demonstrations, causing many casualties among the protesters, with one eyewitness stating they saw "hundreds of bodies" throughout Tehran. [ 63 ] Doctors at hospitals in Tehran and Shiraz reported being overwhelmed by large numbers of injured protesters, with some facilities suspending non-urgent admissions and surgeries due to the influx of patients, many of whom suffered gunshot wounds to the head and eyes. [ 60 ] In an audio message sent to CNN, an Iranian doctor in the city of Nishapur stated that Iranian security forces killed "at least 30 people" and "among them were children", they further stated that "a 5-year-old child was shot while in their mother's arms." [ 184 ] According to the doctor's description, security forces had shot pedestrians and bystanders as well. [ 184 ] They added that "Hospitals are extremely chaotic and patients terrified to admit and be identified, for this reason, we are trying to inform people and treat them privately in clinics." [ 184 ] The Kurdistan National Guard announced that its Zagros Tornado units attacked an IRGC base in Nourabad , Lorestan Province, and injured three IRGC members. [ 16 ] 10 January During the midnight until dawn, Tehran municipality workers were reportedly tasked to clear and collect the cartridge cases off the streets and to deliver them to security forces. [ 185 ] Despite the continued internet shutdown imposed by Islamic Republic authorities, thousands of protesters gathered in Tehran and throughout Iran overnight on 9–10 January, chanting "Death to Khamenei", and "Long live the shah". [ 63 ] This followed a call by Reza Pahlavi for protesters to seize control over the city centres and hoist the pre-regime Lion and Sun flag , with a promise he would return to Iran soon. [ 63 ] The Internet blockade disrupted everyday life, including digital transactions, as well as the functioning of hospitals, pharmacies, banks, and bureaus. Many businesses did not open. [ 185 ] The Internet outage has also prevented proper documentation of the size of the demonstrations, as well as the extent of police brutality against the protesters; [ 63 ] Iranian Nobel peace prize winner Shirin Ebadi had issued a warning on 9 January 2026, about the possibility of a planned "massacre under the cover of a sweeping communications blackout", stating that she had already heard testimonies reporting hundreds of wounded protesters at a single Tehran hospital. [ 63 ] On 10 January 2026, The Guardian received additional reports via Starlink, stating: "We're standing up for a revolution, but we need help. Snipers have been stationed behind the Tajrish Arg area [one of the affluent areas of Tehran]." [ 63 ] Another protester testified that throughout the city, many protesters had been shot, stating, "We saw hundreds of bodies", while a third testimony from a protester confirmed this by saying that they had witnessed a "very high" number of protesters being killed as security forces opened fire on them. [ 63 ] Human Rights activists stated that the testimonies were consistent with the reports they had received. [ 63 ] The Guardian stated that despite the Internet blackout, protesters had requested that international media cover the reports of increasing police brutality, with one activist saying "please make sure to state clearly that they are killing people with live ammunition." [ 63 ] According to The Guardian , much of the international community, including the EU and the US, showed clear support for the protesters. [ 63 ] US Secretary of State Marco Rubio posted on X (formerly Twitter) , "The United States supports the brave people of Iran", [ 63 ] and US president Donald Trump "Iran is looking at FREEDOM, perhaps like never before. The USA stands ready to help!!!" [ 186 ] Mohammad Movahedi-Azad , attorney general of Iran , stated that protesters may be charged as the "enemy of god", or moharebeh , a crime prosecutable by death, according to CBS News , which also reported that state media's reports of order and "no news of any gathering or chaos in Tehran and most provinces" were contradicted by a photo of ongoing demonstrations in Sa'adat Abad , Tehran, obtained by the Associated Press , and a surveillance video from Fars News Agency in which protesters in Isfahan threw petrol bombs and at least one appeared to be firing a long gun . The Young Journalists' Club , associated with state media, reported that protesters killed three members of the volunteer Basij militia of the IRGC in Gachsaran . Reza Pahlavi called for protests to continue through Sunday, while also stating in a social media post that he was "preparing to return to my homeland" and that the goal of the protests should be to seize city centres. [ 187 ] According to an analysis of photos by BBC Persian, the protesters in different cities were engaged in violent conflict with government forces until dawn. [ 188 ] A video from Punak neighbourhood of Tehran shows that as the government turned off the street lights, the protesters set off fireworks and created a sea of light using their smartphones in defiance. [ 188 ] [ 189 ] Deutsche Welle later fact checked and confirmed that the video was fabricated using artificial intelligence technology and old footage, with the aim of misleading people's understanding of the protests in Iran. [ 190 ] Videos published by BBC Persian shows explosions amid protests in Kerman and gunshots in Mashhad . [ 188 ] Unlike previous days, on Saturday mostly IRGC and Basij were mobilised, who use live ammunition, according to witnesses in Tehran and Karaj. [ 191 ] On 10 January, Iran International reported that at least 2,000 protesters had been killed over the previous 48 hours alone amidst the internet blackout , as Iranian security forces escalated their use of lethal force against demonstrators nationwide. [ 59 ] As a result all online service have been shut down too, including ATM machines, international phone calls, credit card transactions and business networks, as well as most news sources and social media. [ 192 ] 11 January Khamenei and senior Iranian officials said they were willing to talk to the protesters about economic issues, but also characterised the unrest as incitement by "rioters" and said the protests were funded by foreign powers (the United States and Israel). Iranian state media reported that President Masoud Pezeshkian gave a speech accusing foreign "terrorists" of inciting the protests; Pezeshkian also mentioned: "We are determined, and have decided, to resolve economic problems by any means possible" [ 193 ] [ 194 ] Parliament speaker Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf gave a speech during a parliament session in which he warned of United States military bases and regional ships and Israel would both be subject to retaliation if Iran is attacked by the United States in reference to Trump's prior threats. In the session, hardliner politicians went at the dais and shouted " Death to America ". Demonstrators rallied in Paris, Vilnius, and London in solidarity with the ongoing protests in Iran and urged Western governments to support the Iranian people seeking freedom. [ 195 ] The New York Times reported that Trump was briefed on military options on Iran but did not yet make a final decision. [ 196 ] Forbes reported that the Iranian government successfully shut down the Starlink internet amidst the internet blackout . [ 197 ] Other sources say Iran has successfully disrupted Starlink network connectivity nationwide, reporting that up to 80% of Starlink traffic was interrupted due to coordinated jamming operations. [ 198 ] [ 199 ] [ 200 ] During a solidarity rally in Los Angeles on 11 January, a U-Haul truck was used to ram into protesters at Westwood . [ 201 ] [ 202 ] In Iran, fighters from the Balochi People's Fighters Front killed one Law Enforcement Command officer and injured another in an attack on an LEC patrol vehicle in Dashtiari County , Sistan and Baluchistan Province. [ 21 ] 12 January In Tehran, tens of thousands of people participated in a pro-government rally after being called by leaders to counter the protests. People are seen flying the Iranian flag and chanting Islamic slogans and figures like Haydar, referring to Ali . [ 29 ] [ 37 ] However, reports from Iran International stated the images and videos were altered . [ 203 ] [ 204 ] President Masoud Pezeshkian was seen taking part in the rally. [ 205 ] US president Donald Trump stated that Iran has reached out to the United States to negotiate its nuclear programme, following his threat to strike the Islamic Republic over its violent crackdown on protesters. [ 206 ] Also Esmail Baghaei , spokesperson for the Iranian Ministry of Foreign Affairs , publicly confirmed that security forces had directly fired on protesting citizens, statements that drew widespread attention and concern both domestically and internationally, highlighting criticism of the Iranian government's handling of the demonstrations, raising questions about the proportionality of its response, and drawing scrutiny from human rights organisations regarding the broader state of civil liberties and fundamental rights in the country. [ 61 ] 13 January On 13 January, Iran International reported that at least 12,000 people had been killed, describing the massacre as the "largest killing in Iranian contemporary history ". [ 42 ] CBS News reported that 12,000 people have been killed, and possibly 20,000, as Iran's phone services were being restored, and new information was being released. [ 43 ] President Trump urged Iranians to keep protesting and stated that help was on the way, with no details. Trump said in a post on Truth Social : [ 207 ] [ 208 ] "Iranian Patriots, KEEP PROTESTING – TAKE OVER YOUR INSTITUTIONS!!! Save the names of the killers and abusers. They will pay a big price. I have cancelled all meetings with Iranian Officials until the senseless killing of protesters STOPS. HELP IS ON ITS WAY. MIGA [ Make Iran Great Again ]!!! PRESIDENT DONALD J. TRUMP" "Iranian Patriots, KEEP PROTESTING – TAKE OVER YOUR INSTITUTIONS!!! Save the names of the killers and abusers. They will pay a big price. I have cancelled all meetings with Iranian Officials until the senseless killing of protesters STOPS. HELP IS ON ITS WAY. MIGA [ Make Iran Great Again ]!!! PRESIDENT DONALD J. TRUMP" When a reporter asked Trump what he meant by "help is on its way", he simply replied, "You're going to have to figure that one out. I'm sorry." [ 209 ] 14 January The Kurdistan Freedom Party assaulted the IRGC's headquarters in Kermanshah and, allegedly, according to the KFP's own claims, succesfully infiltrated the headquarters and caused severe IRGC casualties. [ 210 ] Armed Kurdish groups designated as terrorists by Turkey clashed with the IRGC while seeking to cross the border from Iraq and Turkey into Iran; the IRGC had received warning about their movements from Turkey. [ 211 ] A video, analyzed by BBC Verify and BBC Persian, showed, according to forensic examination, nearly 200 bodies were scattered in the morgue, many with obvious wounds, including one victim who was only 16 years old. [ 212 ] The Iranian Human Rights Organisation (IHR), based in Norway, said that at least 3,428 protesters were killed by Iranian security forces and at least 10,000 protesters were arrested during the peak of the unrest in Iran from January 8 to 12. [ 213 ] The head of Iran's judiciary stated that those arrested during the nationwide protests would be swiftly tried and executed. [ 213 ] [ 214 ] [ 215 ] Washington has threatened military action in response to the crackdown. [ 214 ] [ 216 ] British and American troops are withdrawing from Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar. [ 217 ] [ 218 ] The US stated that the withdrawal was a precautionary measure. [ 218 ] "It's a posture change and not an ordered evacuation," a diplomat told Reuters. [ 217 ] Italy and Poland, among other countries, have been urging their citizens to leave Iran "immediately". [ 219 ] [ 220 ] [ 221 ] [ 222 ] Donald Trump said in the Oval Office that he had been informed that killings in Iran's crackdown on the country's protest was ceased, and he believed that "there are no plans for executions," referring to the death sentence of Erfan Soltani . [ 223 ] According to AFP, Iranian state television broadcast footage of Donald Trump's attempted assassination at the 2024 Butler, Pennsylvania rally , accompanied by the Persian message "This time, [the bullet] won't miss," which angered Texas Republican Senator Ted Cruz and other close allies of President Trump. [ 224 ] [ 225 ] [ 226 ] 15 January The Iranian government imposed a nationwide curfew to prevent any protests. ISW recorded zero protests on 15 January. [ 227 ] Methods Protesters National strikes Nationwide strikes were conducted by businesses, stores, cafes, and workers as well as by online shops and social media influencers. [ 231 ] [ 232 ] [ 233 ] [ 234 ] [ 235 ] Demonstrations Protests are in the form of street demonstrations chanting slogans, car honking , [ 236 ] [ 237 ] lighting fires, [ 236 ] and removing surveillance cameras. [ 238 ] [ 239 ] In order not to be identified and later arrested, many protesters wear masks and dark clothes, reminiscent of V for Vendetta . [ 191 ] As the street lights are turned off by the government, the protesters defiantly set off fireworks and create a sea of light using their smartphones in the darkness of the city. [ 236 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] Slogans and symbols During the protests, several notable slogans were chanted by demonstrators, reflecting anti-government sentiments, calls for the restoration of the monarchy, and unity among protesters. These slogans were frequently documented in videos and reports by Persian-language media outlets such as Manoto and Iran International . Many drew on historical references to the Pahlavi dynasty , while others directly targeted Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei or the Islamic Republic's leadership. Symbols associated with the protests included the Lion and Sun flag , which was waved in several demonstrations as a sign of monarchist aspirations and opposition to the government. [ 229 ] [ 53 ] [ 240 ] On 9 January 2026, X changed the Iran flag emoji from the Islamic Republic flag to the modern design of the Lion and Sun flag . [ 180 ] " Death to the Dictator " ( Persian : مرگ بر دیکتاتور , romanised : Marg bar Diktâtor )—a general anti-authoritarian chant targeting the government's leadership, reported in Tehran, Isfahan, Kermanshah, Malard , Nahavand, Noorabad , and Karaj . [ 241 ] [ 242 ] [ 243 ] [ 244 ] [ 245 ] [ 52 ] [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] " Death to Khamenei " ( Persian : مرگ بر خامنهای , romanised : Marg bar Khâmene'i )—direct call against Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, heard in Isfahan, Farsan , Arak, and other protest sites. Previously used during the 2021–2022 and 2022–2023 protests . [ 249 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] [ 252 ] " Reza Shah , may your soul be blessed" ( Persian : رضا شاه، روحت شاد , romanised : Rezâ Shâh, ruhat shâd )—a slogan honouring Reza Shah Pahlavi, founder of the Pahlavi dynasty, chanted in Hamadan , Tehran , Isfahan , Kermanshah , and other locations. [ 253 ] [ 250 ] " Neither Gaza nor Lebanon, My Life for Iran " ( Persian : نه غزه نه لبنان، جانم فدای ایران , romanised : Na Qazze na Lebnan, jânam fadâ-ye Irân )—a chant that expresses the opposition of some Iranians to the Islamic Republic's military, financial, and political support for Palestinian militant groups , neglecting the needs and interests of Iran itself. [ 68 ] [ 254 ] "Don't be afraid, don't be afraid, we are all together" ( Persian : نترسید، نترسید، ما همه با هم هستیم , romanised : Natarsid, natarsid, mâ hame bâ ham hastim )—a chant promoting unity and courage among protesters, chanted during nighttime gatherings in Isfahan. [ 255 ] [ 247 ] "Dishonourable, dishonourable" ( Persian : بیشرف، بیشرف , romanised : Bi-sharaf, bi-sharaf )—directed at security forces or government officials. [ 256 ] "Freedom, freedom, freedom" ( Persian : آزادی، آزادی، آزادی , romanised : Āzādi, āzādi, āzādi ). [ 257 ] [ 252 ] "Long live the Shah " ( Persian : جاوید شاه , romanised : Jâvid Shâh )—repeated chants calling for the return of the monarchy , heard in Hamadan , Arak , Nahavand , Dehloran , and other cities during nighttime protests. [ 53 ] [ 258 ] [ 259 ] [ 260 ] [ 8 ] [ 261 ] [ 262 ] [ 81 ] [ 263 ] "This is the final battle, Pahlavi will return" ( Persian : این آخرین نبرده، پهلوی برمیگرده , romanised : In âkharin nabarde, Pahlavi barmigarde )—a phrase conveying determination for regime change and the return of the Pahlavi family, chanted in Arak, Rasht , Khorramabad , Isfahan, Nahavand, and Dorud . [ 51 ] [ 264 ] [ 265 ] [ 250 ] [ 53 ] [ 247 ] "The Shah is coming home, Zahhak is overthrown" ( Persian : شاه مییاد به خونه، ضحاک سرنگونه , romanised : Shâh mi-yâd be khune, Zahâk sarnegune )—referencing Persian mythology ( Zahhak as a tyrant) to symbolise the overthrow of the current government and return of the Shah. [ 266 ] "Death to the oppressor, whether Shah or Rahbar" ( Persian : مرگ بر ستمگر، چه شاه باشد چه رهبر )—a general anti-Islamic Republic and anti-monarchy chant mainly by expressed by supporters of the National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI). [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ non-primary source needed ] Organisation As of 7 January, HRANA viewed the protests as being networked. [ 157 ] The Associated Press viewed the first steps of protests as "broadly leaderless" before 8 January, and described Reza Pahlavi's influence after the call for demonstration on 8 January as unclear; however, when the time clocked at 8 p.m., chanting broke out across Tehran, with crowds shouting anti-regime slogans and expressing support for the shah's return. [ 267 ] IranWire viewed Generation Z Iranians as "one of the most visible and active groups" in the 2025–2026 protests, whose political views were strongly impacted by the Mahsa Amini protests of 2022–2023. [ 268 ] Territorial control According to human rights activist Hamid Enayat, Malekshahi and Abdanan effectively came under protesters' control on 6 January when security forces fled from the protesters. [ 269 ] Suppression, persecution and executions Internet blackouts On 8 January 2026, the government imposed significant restrictions on telephone and internet access to limit communication and the dissemination of information. Unlike the Twelve-Day War , there has not been an official internet shut down nationwide. However, connectivity was heavily disrupted in cities experiencing active demonstrations, making it difficult for citizens to send messages, share media, or organise further protests. These measures were widely seen as part of the authorities' efforts to suppress dissent and control the narrative around the unrest. [ 270 ] On 9 January it was reported by multiple media outlets that Iran, in a largely unprecedented measure, had activated military-grade jammers to disrupt civilian Starlink signals. [ 197 ] [ 271 ] [ 272 ] Initially only 30 percent of the media traffic was affected but it rose to 80 percent within several hours. [ 197 ] [ 271 ] However, from the morning after the blackout began, Islamic Republic authorities issued a "white list" which allowed government affiliated institutions and accounts limited access to the internet, included were governmet aligned media and Telegram channels, as well as some universities. [ 271 ] Forbes quoted VPN expert Simon Migliano [ 273 ] as saying that "Iran's current nationwide blackout is a blunt instrument intended to crush dissent." [ 197 ] Migliano also addressed the cost of the internet shutdown, saying "this 'kill switch' approach comes at a staggering price, draining $1.56 million from Iran's economy every single hour the internet is down." [ 197 ] By 11 January, Iran shut down the Starlink internet for the first time. [ 197 ] Recruitment of foreign militias The presence of Iraqi Popular Mobilisation Forces , Arabic-speaking mercenaries, Lebanon's Hezbollah , and the Afghan Liwa Fatemiyoun in suppressing protests was reported. [ 274 ] [ 275 ] [ 276 ] [ 277 ] Iran International reported that on 2 January 2026, Iraqi militias affiliated with the Iranian government recruited forces to assist Iranian security forces in suppressing protests in Iran. [ 276 ] On 6 January 2026, it was reported that approximately 800 members of Iraqi Shia militia groups, including Kata'ib Hezbollah , Harakat al-Nujaba , Sayyid al-Shuhada , and the Badr Organisation had been sent to Iran. [ 276 ] The troops were reportedly transported through the border crossings of Shalamcheh , Chazabeh , and Khosravi , officially under the cover of a "pilgrimage to the holy sites of Imam Reza in Mashhad ", while in practice they were gathered at a base in Ahvaz before being dispatched to various regions to assist in suppressing protests. [ 276 ] According to Iran International , "The reason behind this move by the Islamic Republic could be its concern that the Iranian police might not follow orders to attack unarmed, ordinary people, or simply because its forces are insufficient to stop protests in more than 100 cities". [ 278 ] On 9 January 2026 the United States warned Iran against using foreign militias to crush protests. [ 279 ] According to The Media Line , Iraqi Shiite militia members were recruited to help suppress Iranian protesters, receiving $600 each. By 11 January, more than 60 buses, each carrying about 50 people, had crossed the Iraq‑Iran border. [ 280 ] On 15 Jan, an Iraqi source stated to CNN that "nearly 5,000" fighters from Iraqi militias had crossed into Iran over the preceding weeks. [ 281 ] Internal propaganda and coercion The Iranian government has been accused of using footage of protesters' bodies in morgues to demoralise future protests. [ 282 ] Families trying to receive the bodies of their loved ones have often times been forced to pay compensation for the bullets that killed their relatives. [ 282 ] [ 283 ] Reports stated that security forces and Revolutionary Guard members raided and intimidated the families of protesters who were killed, imposed restrictions on the retrieval and burial of bodies, and warned that families would be charged fees. [ 283 ] There have been reports that families were unable to locate the remains of their relatives after authorities buried them in locations far from where the deaths occurred. [ 282 ] Reports have also indicated that the authorities retained the remains until families consented to official accounts describing the deceased as aligned with the government and Basij rather than as protesters. [ 282 ] [ 284 ] Likewise, images and videos from the pro-government rallies were reported to have been altered . [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Direct order for live fire on protesters Sources close to Iran’s Supreme National Security Council and the presidential office report that the killing of protesters was carried out on the direct order of Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, with full approval from senior state officials. The council allegedly authorised live fire, which was executed mainly by the IRGC in what is described as a deliberate, organised operation exceptional in scale and intensity. [ 49 ] On 13 January the Guardian reported that Islamic Republic security forces were documented using shotguns and rifles with live ammunition, [ 285 ] as well as heavy DShK machine guns against protesters, [ 286 ] with a Tehran doctor stating that security forces were "shooting to kill". [ 285 ] A spokesperson from the Abdorrahman Boroumand Center for Human Rights cited evidence that even when using "less lethal" weapons, security forces were deliberately shooting at the heads, eyes, genitals and vital organs of the protesters, so as terrorise protesters by mutilating them and causing them permanent disability, [ 285 ] reusing the tactic employed in the 2022 Mahsa Amini protests. [ 285 ] At least one young girl had been shot in the pelvic area and was in critical condition. [ 285 ] and a medic in Tehran reported that there were "direct shots to the heads of the young people, to their hearts as well." [ 287 ] Additionally, multiple testimonies have revealed Iranian security forces raiding hospitals to arrest, [ 288 ] and in many cases execute, hospitalised protesters. [ 289 ] [ 286 ] On 4 January, according to Namdar Baghaei Yazdi, vice president of the Iranian Medical Society UK, security forces in full riot gear stormed Imam Khomeini Hospital in Ilam, attacked medical personnel with tear gas and shotgun pellets and arrested injured protesters, [ 290 ] with another similar assault being carried out by security forces on 6 January in Sina Hospital in Tehran. [ 290 ] Yazdi was quoted as saying "Hospitals are no longer sacred in Iran, and we are very concerned for our medical colleagues there who are already at risk from the regime." [ 290 ] A doctor from southern Iran reported that security forces had "finished off" protesters who had been hospitalised at the time, [ 286 ] [ 289 ] further stating "they killed many, arrested many, and many are on the run. The situation is very bad." [ 289 ] According to The Times, another doctor from Tehran stated that security forces had "gone into hospitals and forcibly taken the corpses of protesters with them", and some of the wounded protesters treat their injuries at home and avoid being admitted to the hospital out of fear of being arrested. [ 291 ] Persecution On 5 January 2026, Gholamhossein Mohseni Ejei, head of the judiciary in the Islamic Republic, stated that there would be no leniency for "rioters" despite the right to demonstrate, [ 292 ] [ 293 ] and the judiciary's Mizan news agency quoted him saying "I instruct the attorney general and prosecutors across the country to act in accordance with the law and with resolve against the rioters and those who support them (...) and to show no leniency or indulgence," [ 292 ] [ 293 ] and stressing that the penalty would be "decisive" and "maximum". [ 294 ] [ 294 ] Regarding the rapid trials and executions or protesters, Iran state television shared a video in which Mohseni-Ejei said "If we want to do a job, we should do it now. If we want to do something, we have to do it quickly, if it becomes late, two months, three months later, it doesn't have the same effect. If we want to do something, we have to do that fast." [ 295 ] [ 296 ] On 10 January, Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei said that the demands of protesters in the country are "completely fair," but "rioters" should "be put in their place." [ 293 ] On 13 January, in a televised statement from the office of the Tehran prosecutor, the office declared that an undeclared number of protesters would be charged with " moharebeh ", or "waging war against God", an offence punished by death in Iran , and used extensively in the past by the regime's judiciary. [ 297 ] According to the Human Rights Activists News Agency, as of 14 January 2026, over 18,400 people had been arrested. [ 295 ] According to Iran International, on 10 January 2026 the "One Word" lawyers' network, citing the internet shutdown isolating protesters from the outside world, called on the international community and Iranian judges to prevent the show trials and extrajudicial executions of protesters following the orders of Ali Khamenei and senior judicial officials. [ 298 ] In its statement, the network detailed new orders from Khamenei instructing security forces "to deal harshly with protesters in recent gatherings" as well as separate statements from the Head of the Judiciary, the Attorney General of the country, and the Tehran Prosecutor calling for "extraordinary, out-of-order proceedings and the imposition of the most severe punishments in the cases of detained protesters." [ 298 ] Erfan Soltani According to the BBC, on 8 January 2026, clothes shop owner Erfan Soltani was arrested in his home for allegedly being connected with the protests in Fardis, while he was denied a lawyer and his family was not notified of the charges brought against him. [ 299 ] Several days later, Soltani was notified that he was to face execution on 14 January, less that a week after his arrest. [ 299 ] However after US president Donald Trump told reporters that the US would take "very strong action" if the regime were to execute protesters, Iranian Foreign Minister Abbas Araghchi denied any plan to hang people in a televised interview, and Soltani's family was notified that his execution had been postponed, while the judiciary stated that the charges against him only consisted of "colluding against national security" and "propaganda activities against the establishment" which are not punishable by death in Iran. [ 299 ] The state broadcasting company IRIB claimed that reports of Soltani's pending execution were a "blatant act of news fabrication." [ 299 ] Casualties Casualties, arrests, executions, and injured protesters 31 December On 31 December 2025, during a protest in Fuladshahr , Dariush Ansari Bakhtiariwand was shot with a Kalashnikov rifle by security forces. He died before reaching medical care. [ 300 ] While participating in a protest in Kuhdasht on 31 December, Amirhesam Khodayarifard (reported to be 21, [ 118 ] or 22 years old) [ 117 ] was shot dead with a bullet to the head by a plainclothes retired IRGC agent. [ 301 ] Eyewitness testimony and video evidence showed that Khodayarifard was among the protesters. [ 117 ] Government media stated that protesters had been throwing rocks at security forces, and that Khodayarafid was killed after the rocks had been thrown. [ 302 ] Governmental media, including Mehr News Agency , [ 118 ] claimed that Khodayarifard was a member of the Basij . The governor of Kuhdasht, an Imam of Friday Prayer , and Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) members visited Khodayarifard's family. Permission for the family to access Khodayarifard's body and carry out a burial was conditioned on the family making a televised statement stating that Khodayarifard had been a member of the Basij. [ 117 ] Governmental authorities gave warnings on Telegram and Instagram forbidding the publication of information about Khodayarifard's killing. [ 117 ] As of 5 January 2026 [update] , the authorities, who were pressuring Khodayarifard's family to state that he was a Basij member, had not given the body to Khodayarifard's family, according to IranWire . [ 301 ] 1 January Two protesters, Ahmad Jalil, 21, and Sajjad Valamanesh, 28, were killed in Lordegan on 1 January 2026. Both were shot by security forces with live ammunition and died later from their injuries. [ 303 ] [ 304 ] On the evening of 1 January, two men and a teenage boy, Shayan Asadollahi, 30, Vahab Musavi, and Mostafa, 15, residents of Azna (in Lorestan province) were killed by gunfire from security forces. [ 132 ] The IRGC-aligned Fars News Agency stated that the protesters had either tried to attack a police station [ 305 ] or had tried to disarm the security forces. [ 132 ] Ahmadreza Amani, 28, was shot in the chest by security forces at around 18:00 IRST in Azna and died in hospital. [ 306 ] Khodadad Shirvani, 33, a Marvdasht resident, was shot with shotgun pellets by security forces on the same evening in Marvdasht. He died after being transferred to a hospital. [ 307 ] In Nurabad (Lorestan province), Ahad Ebrahimpour Abdoli, 35, was lethally shot the same evening with three bullets (one to his heart) by security forces during a protest in Ba'ath Square in Nurabad. Security forces and the Imam of Friday Prayer pressured Abdoli's family to say that he was a Basij member and that he was shot by "enemy forces". [ 308 ] 2 January On 2 January, a 42-year-old protester, Ali Azizi Jafarabadi, a Kurdish man from Harsin County was shot dead by security forces in Harsin . [ 309 ] 3 January On 3 January, the total number of arrested protesters had increased to 132 according to Hengaw [ 310 ] or 582 according to HRANA . [ 136 ] Iran International estimated the death count of protesters to be at least eight, the number of locations to be 113 locations in 46 cities across 22 provinces, with at least 44 people shot and wounded by live ammunition or pellet guns fired by Iranian security forces. [ 97 ] [ 311 ] Four protesters were shot dead with "military-grade" weapons by IRGC members at protests in Malekshahi County in Ilam province ; forty were injured and many taken to hospital. [ 312 ] 4 January By the early morning of 4 January, Iran International reported the death toll from the protests to have risen to at least 16. [ 313 ] HRANA estimated that since the beginning of the protests there had been 990 arrests and 51 cases of injuries to protesters, mostly from pellet and plastic bullets. [ 143 ] 5 January The total number of arrested protesters rose to 1,200 on 5 January. [ 314 ] Iranian authorities claimed to have arrested a Mossad agent partaking in the protests, with the agent allegedly confessed to being recruited, trained by, and continuing communication with Mossad, and said that Mossad handlers told him to go to people's residences, but was later instructed to move his "operations" to local marketplaces. [ 315 ] 6 January On 6 January, a total of 2,076 protesters had been arrested, and at least 34 protesters and 2 police officers had been killed, according to HRANA . [ 153 ] 7 January HRANA estimated 140 new arrests of protesters or identifications of previously arrested protesters, making a total of 2217, including 165 minors and 46 university students. HRANA counted at total since the beginning of the protests as 38 deaths, including 29 adult protesters, 5 minor protesters, and 4 security officers. [ 157 ] 8 January In response to intensified protests on 8 January 2026, the government initiated a nationwide outage of internet and telephone services, a tactic often used prior to using deadly force against protesters, in order to suppress news and evade scrutiny. According to social media reports, a massacre began in Fardis , where government forces allegedly killed 50 protesters with a machine gun. [ 316 ] 9 January On 9 January, HRANA estimated that a total of 2,311 protesters had been arrested and at least 65 were dead. [ 1 ] Time reported that they were in contact with a Tehran-based doctor who informed them that over 217 protester deaths had been recorded across six hospitals in the city, while Iranian Nobel Peace Prize laureate Shirin Ebadi warned that authorities might carry out a massacre under the cover of the widespread internet blackout . [ 182 ] [ 183 ] Reports from two hospitals in Rasht and Tehran indicate overall 110 dead bodies being transferred to these two hospitals during 8 and 9 January. Some wounded people had military-grade bullets in head and neck, indicating that the shootings were intended to kill. [ 317 ] 10 January Amidst the internet blackout during the protests, Iran International stated their most conservative estimates indicated that at least 2,000 people had been killed by government forces over the past 48 hours alone. [ 59 ] On 10 January, HRANA estimated that 2,638 protesters had been arrested and confirmed that 116 fatalities had occurred. [ 318 ] The Centre for Human Rights in Iran warned that a "massacre is unfolding." It said hundreds of protesters had been killed since the government cut off internet access, and security forces, as in the past, shot people in the eyes with metal pellets and rubber bullets. It reported that hospitals were overwhelmed, and that casualties continue to rise. [ 319 ] 11 January According to a US-based rights group, more than 500 people have been killed in Iran's protests, with 579 additional deaths under investigation (raising the total to 1,123), while over 10,681 people have been arrested. [ 320 ] The People's Mojahedin Organisation of Iran reported that more than 3,000 people had been killed in the protests by 11 January. Their figures, based on local sources, hospitals, and families, show the regime even displayed some bodies on state TV, falsely blaming protesters for their deaths. [ 321 ] [ 322 ] By 11 January, Time reported that, starting with reports from a handful of Tehran hospitals, an informal, expatriate group of academics and professionals calculated that protester deaths could have reached 6,000 through Saturday the 10th. [ 64 ] 12 January On 12 January, CNN reported that given the government's internet shutdown and the slow trickle of information emerging from Iran, the full scale of casualties remains unclear. [ 323 ] 13 January On 13 January, Iran International reported that at least 12,000 people had been killed, describing the massacre as the "largest killing in Iranian contemporary history ". [ 42 ] CBS News reported that activist groups in Iran estimated 12,000 people to have been killed, and possibly 20,000, based on medical reports. [ 43 ] 15 January By 15 January, fatality reports saw a significant increase as internet connectivity was partially restored. [ 324 ] While confirmed figures from the U.S.-based Human Rights Activists News Agency ( HRANA) stood at approximately 2,000-2,500 deaths [ 325 ] [ 324 ] , other rights organisations such as Iran Human Rights (IHR) reported at least 3,428 fatalities. [ 286 ] At the same time, leaked internal documents from the Supreme National Security Council and the presidential office, reported by Iran International , suggested that as many as 12,000 people may have been killed during the peak crackdown between January 8 and 10. [ 326 ] CBS News cited sources within Iran claiming the total death toll could potentially reach 20,000. [ 327 ] [ 328 ] Executions On 12 January 2026, it was reported that 26-year-old protester, Erfan Soltani , was sentenced to be executed on 14 January, making him one of the first of these protesters to be handed an execution sentence . [ 329 ] Soltani was arrested during protests in Fardis on 8 January. [ 329 ] [ 330 ] [ 331 ] Human rights groups and activists report that Soltani was denied access to a lawyer, a fair trial , or any opportunity to appeal. [ 329 ] Government forces Government authorities repeatedly presented fatalities during the protests as members of the security forces killed by protesters, after which evidence from witnesses and family statements showed that the victim had been shot by the security forces. [ 332 ] Government media claimed that Amirhesam Khodayarifard, killed on 31 December, was a member of the Basij . [ 119 ] Eyewitness reports and video evidence, collected by Hengaw , contradicted this claim, in particular showing that he was standing among the protesters and was killed by a shot to the head by a security forces member. [ 117 ] Initially, authorities conditioned family access to Khodayarifard's body on the family making a televised statement that he was a Basij member. [ 117 ] During the funeral, which took place on 2 January, Khodayarifard's father confirmed that his son was not a Basij member. [ 134 ] On 3 January, Agence France-Presse referred to a statement by Mehr that IRGC member Latif Karimi was killed during clashes in Malekshahi County , [ 333 ] during which four protesters were killed by the IRGC. [ 334 ] On 4 January, eyewitnesses and other sources clarified that Karimi was present among the protesters when he was shot by IRGC members, and died in Imam Khomeini Hospital in Ilam . Karimi was a retired brigadier-general by profession. Karimi's son stated on Telegram , "My father's only 'crime' was telling [the government security forces] not to shoot at the people." [ 332 ] On 7 January, militants of the Baloch nationalist militant organisation People's Fighters Front (PFF) assassinated Mahmoud Haqiqat, the police chief of Iranshahr . [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 150 ] IRGC-affiliated media reported that protesters killed two Law Enforcement Command officers during protests in Lordegan as well as an unspecified security force member in Malekshahi. [ 150 ] On 8 January, Norway-based human rights organisation Hengaw claimed that two IRGC Ground Forces members were killed during the protests in Kermanshah . [ 28 ] A police officer in Malard County at the Tehran province was killed from a stabbing after attempts to control local unrest. [ 165 ] On 9 January, Opposition media reported that clashes between protesters and security forces in Kermanshah Province killed at least 10 IRGC Ground Forces Nabi Akram Unit members. [ 27 ] On 11 January, fighters from the PFF killed one Law Enforcement Command officer and injured another in an attack on an LEC patrol vehicle in Dashtiari County , Sistan and Baluchistan Province. [ 21 ] Notable victims Shahram Maghsoudi , powerlifting champion [ 335 ] Foreign victims Canadian minister of foreign affairs Anita Anand confirmed that a Canadian citizen was killed by the Islamic Republic forces during the protests. [ 336 ] Reactions Reactions to the protests ranged from calls for dialogue and economic relief to warnings of force. Domestic Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei said officials should talk to protesters, but added that "rioters must be put in their place". [ 337 ] As the unrest continued, President Masoud Pezeshkian announced economic measures including changes to foreign-exchange subsidies intended to shift support directly to consumers. [ 338 ] Vice President Mohammad Reza Aref attempted to resign during the first days of the protests, but it was not accepted by President Pezeshkian. [ 339 ] Mohammad Baqer Qalibaf , Speaker of the Islamic Consultative Assembly , said "Malicious individuals and organised movements want to turn any kind of public demand and protest into chaos and chaos using their trained agents in the square, but the Iranian nation has repeatedly demonstrated its vigilance, awareness, and compassion for the country's security". [ 340 ] On 10 January 2026, the IRGC warned that safeguarding security is a "red line". [ 341 ] Chief Justice Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i , the head of Iran's judiciary, said that the punishment for rioters would "be decisive, maximum and without any legal leniency". [ 342 ] Attorney general Mohammad Movahedi Azad warned that anyone taking part in demonstrations is an " enemy of God ", a crime that carries the death penalty under Iranian law. [ 343 ] International Sovereign states United States – US president Donald Trump warned that the United States would intervene if Iranian authorities violently suppressed "peaceful protests". [ 344 ] On 9 January 2026, Trump stated on Truth Social that the US was "locked and loaded and ready to go" if the Iranian security forces killed protesters. [ 345 ] Trump later said that US is considering "very strong options" as a response to the Iran protests, among them possible military intervention, and he said: "we will hit them at levels that they've never been hit before". [ 346 ] A senior American official told The New York Times that Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu urged President Trump to delay a potential American attack against Iran. [ 347 ] On 15 January, multiple sources reported that Carrier Strike Group 3 was expected to arrive in the Middle East in "about a week", and The New York Times reported that an array of combat and refueling aircraft "were expected to start flowing into the region soon". [ 348 ] [ 349 ] Israel – Netanyahu said Israel "[identifies] with the struggle of the Iranian people for freedom, liberty and justice". He also mentioned the possibility that the people would take their fate into their hands. [ 350 ] Mossad , Israel's intelligence agency , claimed it was "with [the Iranian protesters] in the field". [ 351 ] Israel's former defence minister, Yoav Gallant , stated "At this time, when what matters is the action of the masses on the ground, we need to stay behind and direct things with an invisible hand". [ 352 ] Mossad , Israel's intelligence agency , claimed it was "with [the Iranian protesters] in the field". [ 351 ] Israel's former defence minister, Yoav Gallant , stated "At this time, when what matters is the action of the masses on the ground, we need to stay behind and direct things with an invisible hand". [ 352 ] France , Germany , and the United Kingdom 's leaders released a joint statement on 9 January urging Iran to exercise restraint. [ 62 ] German chancellor Friedrich Merz spoke out against the violent suppression of Iranian protesters, saying, "This violence is not an expression of strength, but rather a sign of weakness. This violence must end", [ 353 ] later saying "If a regime can only keep itself in power by force, then it's effectively at the end. I believe we are now seeing the final days and weeks of this regime. In any case, it has no legitimacy through elections in the population. The population is now rising up against this regime." [ 354 ] [ 355 ] German chancellor Friedrich Merz spoke out against the violent suppression of Iranian protesters, saying, "This violence is not an expression of strength, but rather a sign of weakness. This violence must end", [ 353 ] later saying "If a regime can only keep itself in power by force, then it's effectively at the end. I believe we are now seeing the final days and weeks of this regime. In any case, it has no legitimacy through elections in the population. The population is now rising up against this regime." [ 354 ] [ 355 ] Australia and Canada issued a joint statement condemning Iran's use of force against protesters. [ 356 ] New Zealand – Foreign minister Winston Peters expressed concern about the killing of protesters and described protests as a "fundamental human right." [ 357 ] Poland – On 15 January 2026, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs summoned the Iranian ambassador to express concern over the growing number of casualties and arrests, and called on Iran to cease violence against the protesters and initiate talks. [ 358 ] Turkey – Foreign minister Hakan Fidan stated that the protests in Iran were "being manipulated from abroad by Iran's rivals", including the United States and Israel, expressed a wish for the resolution of the perceived antagonism between Iran and the West through negotiations, and called on Iran to engage in "very genuine reconciliation and cooperation" with other Middle Eastern countries. [ 359 ] Vatican City – Pope Leo XIV expressed concern. [ 360 ] United Kingdom – On 13 January 2026, Foreign Secretary Yvette Cooper summoned the Iranian ambassador over the mass killings. [ 361 ] British Secretary of State for Transport Heidi Alexander told Sky News that the current priority is to "stem the violence" in Iran. She said Iran is a threat to the Middle East and represses its own people. [ 362 ] Intergovernmental and international organisations European Union : The European External Action Service urged Iran's security forces to exercise restraint and called on authorities to uphold rights including freedom of expression and peaceful assembly. [ 363 ] The EU also co-signed the aforementioned joint statement issued by Australia and Canada. [ 356 ] European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen , urged the release of imprisoned Iranian protesters, condemned the violent crackdown, and called for internet access to be restored, saying Europe stands "fully behind" those demonstrating. [ 364 ] European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen , urged the release of imprisoned Iranian protesters, condemned the violent crackdown, and called for internet access to be restored, saying Europe stands "fully behind" those demonstrating. [ 364 ] The United Nations criticised Iran's internet shutdown and violation of civil liberties. [ 365 ] Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch condemned the violent repression and documented indiscriminate killings and arrests. [ 366 ] [ 367 ] Political parties and organisations United Kingdom – Kemi Badenoch , the leader of the United Kingdom's opposition Conservative Party , told the BBC that she would "not have an issue" with Iranian regime change and said she supported the involvement of the US and its allies. She claimed that Iran posed a direct threat to the UK, saying it would "very happily wipe out the UK if it felt it could get away with it". [ 362 ] The Mobarizoun Popular Front, a newly-formed Baloch nationalist organisation, expressed its support for the protests. [ 19 ] The Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order expressed support for the Iranian opposition against the Iranian government in early January, calling the Iranian government a "fraudulent mullah regime." [ 368 ] The Kurdistan Free Life Party (PJAK) co-chair Amir Kerimi stated that the Islamic Republic had lost its social legitimacy and described the situation as an opportunity to build "a democratic and decentralised Iran … that transcends the nation-state , based on the self-governance of the people", while indicating "the construction of a new authoritarian regime through Reza Pahlavi" as his biggest concern. [ 369 ] Corporate organisations From 9 January 2026, multiple international airlines suspended or cancelled flights to and from Iran due to the protests, the internet blackout, and security concerns. Turkish Airlines cancelled flights between Istanbul and Iranian cities including Tehran, Tabriz and Mashhad, while AJet and Pegasus Airlines suspended all services to Iran. UAE carriers flydubai and Emirates halted flights to Iranian destinations, and Qatar Airways cancelled several flights from Doha to Iran. In Europe, Austrian Airlines cancelled its Vienna-Tehran flight on 9 January. Lufthansa , which had planned to resume flights on 16 January after it suspended them due to regional security concerns, delayed its plans to resume services due to the protests. [ 370 ] [ 371 ] [ 372 ] [ 181 ] [ 373 ] International travel advisories Since the outbreak of the protests, several countries have issued travel advisories or warnings for Iran and have advised their citizens to leave the country. These advisories cite security concerns and potential disruptions to transportation and communications. Countries that have issued such advisories include the United States, [ 374 ] the United Kingdom, [ 375 ] Canada, [ 376 ] Australia, [ 377 ] Germany, [ 378 ] France, [ 379 ] New Zealand, [ 380 ] Ireland, [ 381 ] and India. [ 382 ] Polling A January 2026 Quinnipiac poll, found that 70% oppose U.S. military involvement in Iran, 79% of Democrats, 80% of independents and 53% of Republicans opposed military involvement. [ 383 ] [ 384 ] [ 385 ] Analysis On 30 December, Iran International suggested that the protests were a "historic break" of Iranian bazaar merchants, historically a critical and old ally of the Islamic Republic, from the Iranian government. Such breaks, the news agency suggested, were fuelled by the Islamic Republic's blame towards the merchants as "price gougers" for rejecting state-standardised pricing and being unable to restock market inventories if they complied to their demands. Anger towards the government by merchants were also caused by the proposed 2025–26 Iranian budget , which would prioritise deficit spending and large tax increases to make up for a decline in oil revenues for government funding. [ 386 ] On 2 January, Iran International cited the opinion of analysts, including intelligence analysts and journalists, who suggested that Iran might have entered the early stages of regime collapse. [ 387 ] On 4 January, according to the New York Times , Iranian officials, including foreign minister Abbas Araghchi , described the government as being in a "survival mode", with difficulties in either reversing economic problems or handling the military threat of attack by the United States or Israel. Pezeshkian held two emergency meetings following the start of the protests. Some of his advisers recommended that he publicly criticise the role of Khamenei as supreme leader. [ 252 ] A 5 January analysis in Foreign Policy argues that the 2025–2026 protests differ from the Mahsa Amini protests in that the 2025–2026 protests are more geographically widespread, including small towns rather than just major cities, and involve a broader range of groups, including students, workers, women, and ethnic minorities. The analysis also saw differences in the international context as significant, with Trump's unpredictability and overt willingness to violate international law as a factor differing from Biden's approach, and the fall of the Assad regime as a weakening of Iran's regional support. The authors also saw the focus of the 2025–2026 protests as shifting from social reform to regime change. [ 7 ] In early January 2026, The Times referred to intelligence reports stating that Khamenei had an escape plan, for him and about twenty close associates and family members, including Khamenei's son Mojtaba Khamenei , ready to flee to Moscow in case security forces defected to the side of the protesters. Beni Sabti, a former Israeli intelligence officer, stated that he expected Moscow to be Khamenei's preferred location of exile if he fled. [ 254 ] Social scientist Mali Rezaei viewed the protests as showing a "deepening rupture between society and the ideological foundations of the state". She argued that one of the factors behind the protests was the context of Iran's multi-millenial history and ethnic and cultural diversity, in which the seventh century CE Muslim conquest of Persia left in place "a persistent resistance to absolutism". She pointed to a 2020 GAMAAN study that found that irreligion in Iran and support for secularism was growing. In addition to economic factors, Rezaei saw environmental crises such as the disappearance of Lake Urmia as playing a role. She viewed the Iranian government's destruction of some elements of Persian culture and a "passivity in defending [cultural] legacy" as a weakening of the government's protection of "the nation". Rezaei saw the Mahsa Amini protests and the Woman, Life, Freedom slogan as a key turning point in which the protest movement evolved to avoid cooptation by either the government and individual celebrities. She viewed the pro-Pahlavi slogans as mainly representing a desire for a secular democracy, not absolute monarchy, that would recover national agency . [ 388 ] View of the protests as an uprising On 10 January, human rights activist Hamid Enayat suggested that "dozens of instances" of disarmament of security forces during the protests, and the "breakdown of the deterrent function" of the Iranian state's monopoly of violence indicated a transition to a new phase , that of an uprising . Enayat cited cases of protesters stopping security forces on buses, disarming them and tying their hands, and a case of a stun gun being taken from a security forces member and used against him. He argued that Malekshahi County effectively came under insurgent control on 6 January when security forces fled from the protesters. He saw the protests as having shifted to a phase in which the Iranian state had lost its power to frighten citizens into obedience. [ 269 ] On 11 January, historian Mark Almond disagreed with comparison of the Iranian protests to the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989. He argued that it would be more like the Storming of the Bastille , because, if successful, the overthrow of the Islamic Republic would be a rebellion against an internally developed regime, rather than one imposed internationally. He argued that the protests already qualified for the term "revolution". [ 389 ] In contradistinction most Israeli analysts believed that the conditions for successful revolution had not yet been met, the existential threat to the regime notwithstanding. [ 390 ] [ 391 ] A minority view, such as held by retired Brigadier General Amir Avivi , chairman of the Israel Defence and Security Forum (IDSF),is that the Iranian regime faces imminent collapse. [ 392 ] See also Iran portal Middle East portal Politics portal 2025 Iran internal crisis 2025–26 Iranian budget Deaths during the Mahsa Amini protests Iran Prosperity Project Iranian energy crisis Iranian opposition Killing of Saghar Etemadi Political repression in the Islamic Republic of Iran Notes ^ Protests reported in over 145 locations, including Abadan , Abdanan , Ahvaz , Aligudarz , Alvand , Amlash , Amol , Arak , Arakvaz , Arsanjan , Asadabad , Asaluyeh , Ashkhaneh , Astara , Lorestan , Babaheydar , Babol , Bagh-e Malek , Bandar Abbas , Bandar Ganaveh , Bandar-e Anzali , Bandar Kangan , Baneh , Borazjan , Borujerd , Chaboksar , Chaharbagh , Chenar Shahijan , Dargahan , Dehloran , Delijan , Dezful , Dogonbadan , Dorud , Eqlid , Esfarayen , Eslamabad-e Gharb , Eslamshahr , Falavarjan , Fariman , Farsan , Fasa , Firuzabad , Firuzkuh , Fuladshahr , Garmdarreh , Garmsar , Gilan-e Gharb , Gonabad , Gorgan , Hafshejan , Hamadan , Harsin , Holeylan County , Ilam , Isfahan , Izeh , Jahrom , Junqan , Juyabad , Karaj , Kashan , Kavar , Kazerun , Kerend-e Gharb , Kerman , Kermanshah , Khash , Khomeyni Shahr , Khorramabad , Kish Island , Kuhchenar County , Kuhdasht , Lahijan , Lali , Lordegan , Lumar , Mahabad , Mahallat , Malard , Malayer , Maragheh , Marivan , Marvdasht , Mashhad , Meshkan , Murmuri , Nahavand , Najafabad , Neqab , Neyriz , Nishapur , Nurabad , Pardis , Paveh , Qaen , Qasr-e Shirin , Qazvin , Qeydar , Qom , Qorveh , Ramhormoz , Rasht , Robat Karim , Rudsar , Sabzevar , Safashahr , Sahneh , Salehabad, Ilam , Saman, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari , Saqqez , Sarpol-e Zahab , Sarvestan , Sari , Saveh , Semnan , Shahin Shahr , Shahrekord , Shahrud , Shalamzar , Shazand , Shiraz , Shirvan , Shush , Sonqor , Tabriz , Tehran , Tonekabon , Torbat-e Heydarieh , Tuyserkan , Urmia , Vahdatiyeh , Varamin , Varzaneh , Yasuj , Yazd , Yazdan Shahr , Zabol , Zahedan , Zanjan , Zarqan , Zarrinshahr and Zibashahr . ^ Lower estimate per an official speaking to Reuters , upper estimate per an official speaking to The New York Times . [ 38 ] [ 39 ] Including 121 security forces, per Iranian state media. [ 40 ] ^ Including 2,478 protestors, 163 government affiliated individuals, 20 non-protesting civilians, 16 minors and 1,693 other unidentified deaths. [ 41 ] ^ Including 800 individuals who received death sentences. [ 41 ] ^ Attributed to multiple sources: [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] [ 47 ] [ 48 ] [ 10 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Day Thirteen of the Protests: Nighttime Demonstrations Continue Amid Internet Shutdown" . 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Mr. Netanyahu spoke to Mr. Trump on Wednesday, the same day the American president said he had received information from "very important sources on the other side" that Iran had stopped killing protesters and was not going forward with executions. That appeared to signal that Mr. Trump was backing away from a potential U.S. attack on Iran, which he has been weighing for days. However, Mr. Trump sent a similar ambiguous signal last June even after he had largely made up his mind to order an attack on Iran. ^ Mitchell, Ellen. "Pentagon moving carrier strike group toward Middle East amid tensions with Iran" . The Hill . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Wong, Edward; Pager, Tyler; Schmitt, Eric. "Israel and Arab Nations Ask Trump to Refrain From Attacking Iran" . The New York Times . Retrieved 16 January 2026 . {{ cite web }} : Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= ( help ) ^ "Netanyahu: Now could be moment when Iranians 'take their fate into their own hands' " . 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Archived from the original on 12 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Dobrzyński, Łukasz (15 January 2026). "Polska reaguje na protesty w Iranie. MSZ wzywa ambasadora w Warszawie" . Gazeta Prawna (in Polish). Archived from the original on 16 January 2026. ^ "Bakan Fidan: Halep'te paralel yapı ortadan kalkacak" . TRT Haber (in Turkish). 9 January 2026. Archived from the original on 9 January 2026 . Retrieved 16 January 2026 . ^ "Iranischer Präsident warnt "Aufrührer" vor weiteren Protesten" . Morgenpost (in German). 11 January 2026 . Retrieved 11 January 2026 . ^ "UK summons Iranian ambassador over 'brutal' killings" . www.bbc.com . 13 January 2026 . Retrieved 13 January 2026 . ^ a b Mason, Rowena (11 January 2026). "UK wants peaceful transition of power in Iran, says minister" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 11 January 2026 . ^ "Iran: Statement by the spokesperson on developments across the country" . European External Action Service . 3 January 2026 . Retrieved 5 January 2026 . ^ "Von der Leyen condemns violent crackdown on Iranian protesters" . POLITICO . 10 January 2026 . Retrieved 12 January 2026 . ^ "International community increases pressure on Iran as its population is incommunicado – EFE" . EFE Noticias . 9 January 2026 . Retrieved 10 January 2026 . ^ "Iranian Authorities Brutally Repressing Protests" . Human Rights Watch. 6 January 2026 . Retrieved 10 January 2026 . ^ "Iran: Zahl der Toten und Verletzten steigt bei Massenprotesten" . Amnesty International (in German) . Retrieved 10 January 2026 . ^ "بيان جيش رجال الطريقة النقشبندية بتأييد ودعم ثورة الشعوب الإيرانية المباركة لإسقاط نظام ملالي الدجل والشعوذة في طهران – الموقع الرسمي لجيش رجال الطريقة النقشبندية" . ^ Kerimi, Amir (12 January 2026). "İran İslam Cumhuriyeti çökmüş durumda" . ANF News (Interview) (in Turkish). Interviewed by Majeed, Rebaz. Archived from the original on 13 January 2026 . Retrieved 13 January 2026 . ^ "Nearly 20 flights between Dubai and Iranian cities cancelled" . Reuters . 9 January 2026. ^ "Some Dubai and Turkish Airlines Temporarily Suspend Flights to Iran" . iranwire.com . Retrieved 11 January 2026 . ^ "Iran Protests: Major Airlines Suspend Flights Amid Demonstrations And Trump's Threats — Check Full List" . Times Now . 11 January 2026 . Retrieved 11 January 2026 . ^ "India closely following developments in Iran, says MEA" . The Hindu . 9 January 2026 . Retrieved 11 January 2026 . ^ "Iran Travel Advisory | Travel.State.gov" . travel.state.gov . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Iran travel advice" . GOV.UK . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Canada, Global Affairs (16 November 2012). "Travel advice and advisories for Iran" . Travel.gc.ca . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Iran: Do not travel" . ^ Amt, Auswärtiges. "Iran: Reise- und Sicherheitshinweise" . Auswärtiges Amt (in German) . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ étrangères, Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires (11 January 2026). "Iran- Sécurité" . France Diplomatie - Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères (in French) . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Iran" . www.safetravel.govt.nz . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Iran | Travel Advice | Department Of Foreign Affairs | Ireland.ie | Ireland.ie" . www.ireland.ie . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Travel Advisory for Iran" . ^ "New poll reveals majority of voters oppose US strike on Iran, say Trump has gone too far abroad" . POLITICO . 14 January 2026. ^ Flax, Debra (14 January 2026). "Majority of US voters say Washington should stay out of Iran, Quinnipiac poll suggests" . ^ Mancini, Ryan (14 January 2026). "7 in 10 say US should not take military action over deadly Iran protest crackdown: Survey" . ^ Machine-Chian, Mohamad (30 December 2025). "The bazaar finally breaks with the Islamic Republic" . Iran International . Retrieved 9 January 2026 . ^ Mojtahedi, Negar (2 January 2026). "Iran protests expose a system sliding toward collapse, experts say" . Retrieved 6 January 2026 . ^ Iran on the edge: What the outside world misunderstands about a nation in revolt , Australian Broadcasting Corporation , 11 January 2026, Wikidata Q137760700 , archived from the original on 7 January 2026 ^ Mark Almond (11 January 2026). "This Iranian uprising could be as pivotal as the French Revolution" . The Independent . ISSN 1741-9743 . Wikidata Q137760437 . Archived from the original on 11 January 2026. ^ "What's holding Iran's defiant, fragile regime together – for now" . Haaretz . ^ "Iran Protests, Explained: How Real Is the Danger to the Regime, and How Might Trump Intervene? - Iran" . ^ "Live - Iran closes airspace as US moves carrier strike group to Mideast" . www.iranintl.com . 15 January 2026. v t e 2025–2026 Iranian protests v t e Overview General Timeline [ fa ] Reactions Geographical scope [ fa ] Map Background Corruption Ethnic-based discrimination Inflation [ fa ] Food International sanctions Iran and state-sponsored terrorism Economic crisis Internal crisis Twelve-Day War United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites Mahsa Amini protests Sex segregation Energy crisis Water scarcity General Timeline [ fa ] Reactions Geographical scope [ fa ] Map Timeline [ fa ] Reactions Geographical scope [ fa ] Map Map Background Corruption Ethnic-based discrimination Inflation [ fa ] Food International sanctions Iran and state-sponsored terrorism Economic crisis Internal crisis Twelve-Day War United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites Mahsa Amini protests Sex segregation Energy crisis Water scarcity Corruption Ethnic-based discrimination Inflation [ fa ] Food Food International sanctions Iran and state-sponsored terrorism Economic crisis Internal crisis Twelve-Day War United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites Mahsa Amini protests Sex segregation Energy crisis Water scarcity People Deaths Saghar Etemadi Amirhesam Khodayarifard Shayan Asadollahi Reza Ghanbari Mohammad Nouri Reza Moradi Abdolvand Latif Karimi Kadyvrian brothers Death sentences Erfan Soltani Diaspora Reza Pahlavi Deaths Saghar Etemadi Amirhesam Khodayarifard Shayan Asadollahi Reza Ghanbari Mohammad Nouri Reza Moradi Abdolvand Latif Karimi Kadyvrian brothers Saghar Etemadi Amirhesam Khodayarifard Shayan Asadollahi Reza Ghanbari Mohammad Nouri Reza Moradi Abdolvand Latif Karimi Kadyvrian brothers Death sentences Erfan Soltani Erfan Soltani Diaspora Reza Pahlavi Reza Pahlavi Armed forces IRGC Cyber Command Basij Iranian police Special Units State-sponsored foreign militia [ fa ] IRGC Cyber Command Basij Cyber Command Basij Iranian police Special Units Special Units State-sponsored foreign militia [ fa ] Events Tehran's Tank Man Massacres Fardis Malekshahi Internet blackout Los Angeles ramming attack Tehran's Tank Man Massacres Fardis Malekshahi Fardis Malekshahi Internet blackout Los Angeles ramming attack Slogans " Death to Khamenei " " Death to the Dictator " " Neither Gaza nor Lebanon, My Life for Iran " " This is the final battle, Pahlavi will return " " Javid Shah [ fa ] " " Death to Khamenei " " Death to the Dictator " " Neither Gaza nor Lebanon, My Life for Iran " " This is the final battle, Pahlavi will return " " Javid Shah [ fa ] " Related PMOI/MEK NCRI Kurdish separatism in Iran Sistan and Baluchestan insurgency People's Fighters Front Iranian opposition Political repression in the Islamic Republic of Iran Lion and Sun flag Lion and Sun Pahlavi dynasty Iran International PMOI/MEK NCRI NCRI Kurdish separatism in Iran Sistan and Baluchestan insurgency People's Fighters Front People's Fighters Front Iranian opposition Political repression in the Islamic Republic of Iran Lion and Sun flag Lion and Sun Lion and Sun Pahlavi dynasty Iran International v t e Protests in Iran v t e 19th century Tobacco Protest (1890–1892) Tobacco Protest (1890–1892) 20th century 1906 revolution 1952 riots 1963 riots Iranian Revolution 1978 Qom protest 1978 Tabriz protests Black Friday (1978) 1979 Women Day protests 1981 protests 1999 student protests 1906 revolution 1952 riots 1963 riots Iranian Revolution 1978 Qom protest 1978 Tabriz protests Black Friday (1978) 1978 Qom protest 1978 Tabriz protests Black Friday (1978) 1979 Women Day protests 1981 protests 1999 student protests 21st century 2003 student protests 2005 Ahvaz unrest Green Movement 2009 presidential election protests 2009 Ashura protests 2011–2012 protests 2011 Khuzestan protests 2015 Mahabad riots 2015 Fitilieh programme protests 2016 Cyrus the Great Revolt 2017–2018 protests Iranian protests against compulsory hijab 2018 Dervish protests 2018 protests 2018–2019 general strikes and protests 2018 water protests August 2018 uprising 2018 protest movement 2018 university protests 2019 protests 2019–2020 protests Mahshahr massacre 2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 protests 2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 2021–2022 protests 2021 water protests 2022 food protests Mahsa Amini protests May 2025 Iranian protests 2025–2026 Iranian protests 2003 student protests 2005 Ahvaz unrest Green Movement 2009 presidential election protests 2009 Ashura protests 2009 presidential election protests 2009 Ashura protests 2009 Ashura protests 2011–2012 protests 2011 Khuzestan protests 2011 Khuzestan protests 2015 Mahabad riots 2015 Fitilieh programme protests 2016 Cyrus the Great Revolt 2017–2018 protests Iranian protests against compulsory hijab 2018 Dervish protests 2018 protests 2018–2019 general strikes and protests 2018 water protests August 2018 uprising 2018 protest movement 2018 university protests 2019 protests 2019–2020 protests Mahshahr massacre Mahshahr massacre 2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 protests 2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 2021–2022 protests 2021 water protests 2022 food protests 2021 water protests 2022 food protests Mahsa Amini protests May 2025 Iranian protests 2025–2026 Iranian protests v t e Ali Khamenei v t e Politics Ahl Al-Bayt World Assembly Assassination attempt October 1981 Iranian presidential election 1985 Iranian presidential election Supreme Leader of Iran Statement of 14 Political Activists Executive Order 13876 Mahsa Amini protests 2025–2026 Iranian protests Ahl Al-Bayt World Assembly Assassination attempt October 1981 Iranian presidential election 1985 Iranian presidential election Supreme Leader of Iran Statement of 14 Political Activists Executive Order 13876 Mahsa Amini protests 2025–2026 Iranian protests Policies Fatwa against nuclear weapons Islamic clerics in politics Iran Slogan of the Year Second Phase of the Revolution Sex segregation Anti-Zionism 8-Article Command to the Chiefs of Branches Fatwa against nuclear weapons Islamic clerics in politics Iran Slogan of the Year Second Phase of the Revolution Sex segregation Anti-Zionism 8-Article Command to the Chiefs of Branches Books and messages A 250 Years Old Person An Outline of Islamic Thought in the Quran Four main books of Biographical-Evaluation Ghena Palestine Ruhe-Tawhid, Nafye Obudiate GheireKhoda Sharh-e Esm Fatwa against insulting revered Sunni figures To the Youth in Europe and North America To the Youth in Western Countries Israel won't exist in 25 years A 250 Years Old Person An Outline of Islamic Thought in the Quran Four main books of Biographical-Evaluation Ghena Palestine Ruhe-Tawhid, Nafye Obudiate GheireKhoda Sharh-e Esm Fatwa against insulting revered Sunni figures To the Youth in Europe and North America To the Youth in Western Countries Israel won't exist in 25 years Family Mansoureh Khojasteh Bagherzadeh (wife) Mostafa (son) Mojtaba (son) Masoud (son) Javad (father) Mohammad (brother) Hadi (brother) Badri (sister) Ali Tehrani (brother-in-law) Farideh Moradkhani (niece) Mahmoud Moradkhani (nephew) Co-fathers-in-law : Azizollah Khoshvaght Gholam-Ali Haddad-Adel Mohsen Kharazi Mohammad Mohammadi Golpayegani Mansoureh Khojasteh Bagherzadeh (wife) Mostafa (son) Mojtaba (son) Masoud (son) Javad (father) Mohammad (brother) Hadi (brother) Badri (sister) Ali Tehrani (brother-in-law) Farideh Moradkhani (niece) Mahmoud Moradkhani (nephew) Co-fathers-in-law : Azizollah Khoshvaght Gholam-Ali Haddad-Adel Mohsen Kharazi Mohammad Mohammadi Golpayegani Economy Wealth of Khamenei family Wealth of Khamenei family Category 2025–2026 Iranian protests 2020s internet outages 2025 labor disputes and strikes 2025 protests 2026 in Iran 2026 labor disputes and strikes 2026 protests Ali Khamenei Arson in 2026 Arson in Iran Civil rights protests Conflicts involving the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran December 2025 in Iran Economic history of Iran Food riots Food security Gen Z protests in Asia History of civil rights and liberties in Iran History of the Islamic Republic of Iran Human rights abuses in Iran Internet censorship in Iran Iran–United States relations Iranian democracy movements Iranian nationalism Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps January 2026 in Iran Labour disputes in Iran Law enforcement in Iran Massacres in Iran Monarchism in Iran Movements for civil rights Opposition to the Islamic Republic of Iran Police brutality in Iran Police brutality in the 2020s Police misconduct in Iran Presidency of Masoud Pezeshkian Protest marches in Iran Protests in Iran Rebellions in Iran Reform movements Riots and civil disorder in Iran Middle Eastern crisis (2023–present) CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 uses Persian-language script (fa) CS1 Persian-language sources (fa) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 errors: generic name CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list CS1 errors: markup CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 Turkish-language sources (tr) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Current events from January 2026 Wikipedia move-protected pages Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Use dmy dates from January 2026 Use British English from January 2026 All Wikipedia articles written in British English All articles with bare URLs for citations Articles with bare URLs for citations from January 2026 Articles containing Persian-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 All pages needing factual verification Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2026 Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2026 All articles containing potentially 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Etymology and history Toggle Etymology and history subsection 1.1 19th century 1.2 20th and 21st centuries 1.1 19th century 1.2 20th and 21st centuries 2 Types Toggle Types subsection 2.1 Volunteering as utilized by service learning programs 2.2 Skills-based volunteering 2.3 Virtual volunteering 2.4 Micro-volunteering 2.5 Environmental volunteering 2.6 Volunteering in an emergency 2.7 Volunteering in schools 2.8 Corporate volunteering 2.9 Community volunteer work 2.10 Social volunteering or welfare volunteering 2.11 Volunteering at major sporting events 2.12 Medical Volunteering 2.13 Seva 2.1 Volunteering as utilized by service learning programs 2.2 Skills-based volunteering 2.3 Virtual volunteering 2.4 Micro-volunteering 2.5 Environmental volunteering 2.6 Volunteering in an emergency 2.7 Volunteering in schools 2.8 Corporate volunteering 2.9 Community volunteer work 2.10 Social volunteering or welfare volunteering 2.11 Volunteering at major sporting events 2.12 Medical Volunteering 2.13 Seva 3 Volunteer days, weeks and years 4 Political view Toggle Political view subsection 4.1 Difficulties in cross-national aid 4.1 Difficulties in cross-national aid 5 Moral resources, political capital and civil society 6 Potential benefits of volunteering Toggle Potential benefits of volunteering subsection 6.1 Academic 6.2 Longevity 6.3 Mental health 6.1 Academic 6.2 Longevity 6.3 Mental health 7 Statistics 8 Barriers to volunteering 9 Criticisms 10 Volunteering organizations in the United States 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links Volunteering العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Башҡортса Български Буряад Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili ລາວ Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ភាសាខ្មែរ Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Română Русский Shqip Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Тыва дыл Українська Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Volunteering is an optional and freely chosen act of an individual or group giving their time and labor, often for community service . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Many volunteers have specialized training in the fields that they work in, such as medicine , education , or emergency rescue . Others provide their services as needed, such as in response to a natural disaster . Etymology and history The verb was first recorded in 1755. It was derived from the noun volunteer , in c. 1600, "one who offers himself for military service," from the Middle French voluntaire . [ 3 ] In the non-military sense, the word was first recorded during the 1630s. The word volunteering has more recent usage—still predominantly military—coinciding with the phrase community service . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] In a military context, a volunteer army is a military body whose soldiers have chosen to enlist , as opposed to having been conscripted. Such volunteers do not work "for free" and are given regular pay. 19th century During this time, America experienced the Great Awakening . People became aware of the disadvantaged and realized the cause for movement against slavery. [ 5 ] In 1851, the first YMCA in the United States was started, followed seven years later by the first YWCA . During the American Civil War , women volunteered their time to sew supplies for the soldiers, and the "Angel of the Battlefield" Clara Barton and a team of volunteers began providing aid to servicemen. Barton founded the American Red Cross in 1881 and began mobilizing volunteers for disaster relief operations, including relief for victims of the Johnstown Flood in 1889. 20th and 21st centuries The Salvation Army is one of the oldest and largest organizations working for disadvantaged people. Though it is a charity organization , it has organized a number of volunteering programs since its inception. [ 6 ] Prior to the 19th century, few formal charitable organizations existed to assist people in need. In the first few decades of the 20th century, several volunteer organizations were founded, including the Rotary International , Kiwanis International , Association of Junior Leagues International , and Lions Clubs International . The Great Depression saw one of the first large-scale efforts to coordinate volunteering for a specific need in the US. During World War II, thousands of volunteer offices supervised the volunteers who helped with the many needs of the military and the home front , including collecting supplies, entertaining soldiers on leave, and caring for the injured. [ 6 ] After World War II , people shifted the focus of their altruistic passions to other areas, including helping the poor and volunteering overseas. A major development was the Peace Corps in the United States in 1960. When President Lyndon B. Johnson declared a War on Poverty in 1964, volunteer opportunities started to expand and continued into the next few decades. The process for finding volunteer work became more formalized, with more volunteer centers forming and new ways to find work appearing on the World Wide Web through organizations like JustServe and AmeriCorps . [ 6 ] [ 7 ] According to the Corporation for National and Community Service (in 2012), about 64.5 million Americans, or 26.5 percent of the adult population, gave 7.9 billion hours of volunteer service worth $175 billion. This calculates at about 125–150 hours per year or 3 hours per week at a rate of $22 per hour. Volunteer hours in the UK are similar; the data for other countries is unavailable. Types Volunteering as utilized by service learning programs Many schools on all education levels offer service-learning programs, which allow students to serve the community through volunteering while earning educational credit. [ 8 ] According to Alexander Astin in the foreword to Where's the Learning in Service-Learning? by Janet Eyler and Dwight E. Giles, Jr., "...we promote more wide-spread adoption of service-learning in higher education because we see it as a powerful means of preparing students to become more caring and responsible parents and citizens and of helping colleges and universities to make good on their pledge to 'serve society.'" [ 9 ] When describing service learning, the Medical Education at Harvard says, "Service learning unites academic study and volunteer community service in mutually reinforcing ways. ...service learning is characterized by a relationship of partnership: the student learns from the service agency and from the community and, in return, gives energy, intelligence, commitment, time and skills to address human and community needs." [ 8 ] Volunteering in service learning seems to have the result of engaging both mind and heart, thus providing a more powerful learning experience; according to Janet Eyler and Dwight E. Giles, it succeeds by the fact that it "...fosters student development by capturing student interest..." [ 9 ] : 1–2, 8 More recent scholarship has found shortcomings in the early assumptions of mutual benefit, since early studies were interested in educational benefits rather than community outcomes. An Indiana study found that the nonprofit agencies hosting student service-learners do not report a positive impact on service capacity, although service-learners do help to increase agency visibility. [ 10 ] In the end, service-learning must follow other principles of effective volunteer management such as screening, training, and supervising. [ editorializing ] Skills-based volunteering Skills-based volunteering is leveraging the specialized skills and the talents of individuals to strengthen the infrastructure of nonprofits, helping them build and sustain their capacity to successfully achieve their missions. [ 11 ] This is in contrast to traditional volunteering, where volunteers do something other than their professional work. [ 12 ] The average hour of traditional volunteering is valued by the Independent Sector at between $18–20 an hour. [ 13 ] Skills-based volunteering is, on average, valued at $220 an hour. [ 14 ] Virtual volunteering Also called e-volunteering or online volunteering , virtual volunteering is a volunteer who completes tasks, in whole or in part, offsite from the organization being assisted. They use the Internet and a home, school, telecenter or work computer, or other Internet-connected device, such as a PDA or smartphone . Virtual volunteering is also known as cyber service, telementoring, and teletutoring, as well as various other names. Virtual volunteering is similar to remote work , except that instead of online employees who are paid, these are online volunteers who are not paid. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Contributing to free and open source software projects or editing Wikipedia are examples of virtual volunteering. [ 17 ] Micro-volunteering Micro-volunteering is a task performed via an internet-connected device. An individual typically does this task in small, un-paid increments of time. Micro-volunteering is distinct from "virtual volunteering" in that it typically does not require the individual volunteer to go through an application process, screening process, or training period. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Environmental volunteering Environmental volunteering refers to the volunteers who contribute towards environmental management or conservation. Volunteers conduct a range of activities including environmental monitoring , ecological restoration such as re-vegetation and weed removal, protecting endangered animals, and educating others about the natural environment. [ 20 ] Volunteering in an emergency Volunteering often plays a pivotal role in the recovery effort following natural disasters, such as tsunamis, floods, droughts, hurricanes, and earthquakes. For example, the 1995 Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake in Japan was a watershed moment, bringing in many first-time volunteers for earthquake response . The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami attracted a large number of volunteers worldwide, deployed by non-governmental organizations , government agencies, and the United Nations . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] During the 2012 hurricane Sandy emergency, Occupy Sandy volunteers formed a laterally organized rapid-response team that provided much needed help during and after the storm, from food to shelter to reconstruction. It is an example of mutualism at work, pooling resources and assistance and leveraging social media. Volunteering is particularly consequential in the context of Disasters, which are those emergency situations associated with destruction and/or functional disruptions that may test or exceed the capacity of a community or society to respond. [ 23 ] In a time when disasters are increasing in frequency and intensity faster than the capacity of the community/society to respond can be developed, the relative importance of volunteer response will tend to grow. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] Volunteering in schools Resource poor schools around the world rely on government support or on efforts from volunteers and private donations, in order to run effectively. In some countries, whenever the economy is down, the need for volunteers and resources increases greatly. [ 27 ] School systems offer many volunteer opportunities with minimal requirements. Whether one is a high school or TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) graduate or college student, most schools require just voluntary and selfless effort. [ 28 ] Much like the benefits of any type of volunteering there are great rewards for the volunteer, student, and school. In addition to intangible rewards, volunteers can add relevant experience to their resumes. Volunteers who travel to assist may learn foreign culture and language. "Volunteering can give the students the sufficient experience in order to support and strengthen their CVs and resumes." [ 29 ] Volunteering in schools can be an additional teaching guide for the students and help to fill the gap of local teachers. Cultural and language exchange during teaching and other school activities can be the most essential learning experience for both students and volunteers. [ 28 ] Corporate volunteering Benefacto, a volunteering brokerage, describe corporate volunteering as "Companies giving their employees an allowance of paid time off annually, which they use to volunteer at a charity of their choice." [ 30 ] A majority of the companies at the Fortune 500 allow their employees to volunteer during work hours. These formalized Employee Volunteering Programs (EVPs), also called Employer Supported Volunteering (ESV), are regarded as a part of the companies' sustainability efforts and their social responsibility activities. [ 31 ] About 40% of Fortune 500 companies provide monetary donations , also known as volunteer grants , to nonprofits as a way to recognize employees who dedicate significant amounts of time to volunteering in the community. [ 32 ] According to the information from VolunteerMatch , a service that provides Employee Volunteering Program solutions, the key drivers for companies that produce and manage EVPs are building brand awareness and affinity, strengthening trust and loyalty among consumers, enhancing corporate image and reputation, improving employee retention , increasing employee productivity and loyalty, and providing an effective vehicle to reach strategic goals. [ 33 ] In April 2015, David Cameron pledged to give all UK workers employed by companies with more 250 staff mandatory three days' paid volunteering leave, which if implemented will generate an extra 360 million volunteering hours a year. [ 34 ] Community volunteer work Community volunteering, in the US called " community service ", refers globally to those who work to improve their local community. This activity commonly occurs through not for profit organizations, local governments and churches; but also encompasses ad-hoc or informal groups such as recreational sports teams. [ 35 ] Social volunteering or welfare volunteering In some European countries government organisations and non-government organisations provide auxiliary positions for a certain period in institutions like hospitals, schools, memorial sites and welfare institutions. The difference to other types of volunteering is that there are strict legal regulations, what organisation is allowed to engage volunteers and about the period a volunteer is allowed to work in a voluntary position. Due to that fact, the volunteer is getting a limited amount as a pocket money from the government. Organizations having the biggest manpower in Europe are the Voluntary social year (German: Freiwilliges Soziales Jahr ), with more than 50.000 volunteers per year, and the Federal volunteers service (German: Bundesfreiwilligendienst ), with about 30.000 to 40.000 volunteers per year. [ 36 ] [ 37 ] [ 38 ] Volunteering at major sporting events 25,000 volunteers worked at the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics . They supported the organisers in more than 20 functional areas: meeting guests, assisting navigation, organising the opening and closing ceremonies, organising food outlets, etc. Volunteer applications were open to any nationals of Russia and other countries. The Sochi 2014 Organising Committee received about 200,000 applications, 8 applicants per place. Volunteers received training over the course of more than a year at 26 volunteer centres in 17 cities across Russia. The majority of participants were between 17 and 22 years old. At the same time, 3000 applications were submitted from people over 55 years old. Some of them worked as volunteers during the 1980 Olympics in Moscow. It was the first experience with such a large-scale volunteer program in the contemporary Russia. The FIFA World Cup in 2018 was supported by 17,040 volunteers of the Russia 2018 Local Organising Committee. [ 39 ] Medical Volunteering Volunteering in the context of delivering medical care is referred to as medical volunteering . In general, medical volunteering has been lauded as a "ethical responsibility to aid the needy". The activities are often offered by both for profit and not for profit associations. Medical volunteers typically participate in unpaid medical volunteer programs in hospitals, clinics, and underserved areas. Typically, these regions are in underdeveloped nations or nations battling natural disasters, sickness, or violence. These activities typically involves volunteer physicians and nurses. Dental volunteering is a part of medical volunteering which predominantly focused on dental care. [ 40 ] Seva In Hinduism , seva means selfless service and is often associated with karma yoga , disciplined action, and bhakti yoga , disciplined devotion. Seva is also connected to other Sanskrit concepts such as dāna (gift giving), karunā (compassion), and preman (kindness). Seva is also performed as a form of ego -transcending spiritual practise known as Sadhana , and plays a large role in modern Hinduism. This is because a key concept in Hinduism is liberation ( Moksha ) from the cycle of births and deaths ( Saṃsāra ), and sadhana is the effort one makes to strive for liberation, highlighting the importance of service to others. [ 41 ] In Sikhism , the word seva also means "to worship, to adore, to pay homage through the act of love." In the writings of Sikh gurus , these two meanings of seva (service and worship) have been merged. Seva is expected to be a labour of love performed without desire and intention, and with humility. [ 41 ] Volunteer days, weeks and years Designated days, weeks and years observed by a country or as designated by the United Nations to encourage volunteering / community service Global Youth Service Day International Volunteer Day International Year of Volunteers Join Hands Day Mandela Day MLK Day of service Mitzvah Day Random Acts of Kindness Day Sewa Day Make A Difference Day World Kindness Day Political view Modern societies share a common value of people helping each other; not only do volunteer acts assist others, but they also benefit the volunteering individual on a personal level. [ 42 ] Despite having similar objectives, tension can arise between volunteers and state-provided services. In order to curtail this tension, most countries develop policies and enact legislation to clarify the roles and relationships among governmental stakeholders and their voluntary counterparts; this regulation identifies and allocates the necessary legal, social, administrative, and financial support of each party. This is particularly necessary when some voluntary activities are seen as a challenge to the authority of the state (e.g., on 29 January 2001, President Bush cautioned that volunteer groups should supplement—not replace—government agencies' work). [ 43 ] Volunteering that benefits the state but challenges paid counterparts angers labor unions that represent those who are paid for their volunteer work; this is particularly seen in combination departments, such as volunteer fire departments . Difficulties in cross-national aid Difficulties in the cross-national aid model of volunteering can arise when it is applied across national borders. The presence of volunteers who are sent from one state to another can be viewed as a breach of sovereignty and showing a lack of respect towards the national government of the proposed recipients. Thus, motivations are important when states negotiate offers to send aid and when these proposals are accepted, particularly if donors may postpone assistance or stop it altogether. Three types of conditionality have evolved: Financial accountability : Transparency in funding management to ensure that what is done by the volunteers is properly targeted Policy reform : Governmental request that developing countries adopt certain social, economic, or environmental policies; often, the most controversial relate to the privatization of services traditionally offered by the state Development objectives : Asking developing countries to adjust specific time-bound economic objectives Some international volunteer organizations define their primary mission as being altruistic: to fight poverty and improve the living standards of people in the developing world, (e.g. Voluntary Services Overseas has almost 2,000 skilled professionals working as volunteers to pass on their expertise to local people so that the volunteers' skills remain long after they return home). When these organizations work in partnership with governments, the results can be impressive. However, when other organizations or individual First World governments support the work of volunteer groups, there can be questions as to whether the organizations' or governments' real motives are poverty alleviation. Instead, a focus on creating wealth for some of the poor or developing policies intended to benefit the donor states is sometimes reported. [ 44 ] Many low-income countries' economies suffer from industrialization without prosperity and investment without growth. One reason for this is that development assistance guides many Third World governments to pursue development policies that have been wasteful, ill-conceived, or unproductive; some of these policies have been so destructive that the economies could not have been sustained without outside support. [ 45 ] Indeed, some offers of aid have distorted the general spirit of volunteering, treating local voluntary action as contributions in kind, i.e., existing conditions requiring the modification of local people's behavior in order for them to earn the right to donors' charity . This can be seen as patronizing and offensive to the recipients because the aid expressly serves the policy aims of the donors rather than the needs of the recipients. Moral resources, political capital and civil society Based on a case study in China, Xu and Ngai (2011) revealed that the developing grassroots volunteerism can be an enclave among various organizations and may be able to work toward the development of civil society in the developing countries. The researchers developed a "Moral Resources and Political Capital" approach to examine the contributions of volunteerism in promoting the civil society. Moral resource means the available morals could be chosen by NGOs. Political capital means the capital that will improve or enhance the NGOs' status, possession or access in the existing political system. [ 46 ] Moreover, Xu and Ngai (2011) distinguished two types of Moral Resources: Moral Resource-I and Moral Resource-II (ibid). Moral Resource I: Inspired by Immanuel Kant 's (1998 [1787]) argument of "What ought I to do," Moral Resource-I will encourage the NGOs' confidence and then have the courage to act and conquer difficulties by way of answering and confirming the question of "What ought I to do." [ 47 ] Moral Resource II: given that Adorno (2000) recognizes that moral or immoral tropes are socially determined, Moral Resource-II refers to the morals that are well accepted by the given society. [ 48 ] Thanks to the intellectual heritage of Blau and Duncan (1967), two types of political capital were identified: Political Capital-I refers to the political capital mainly ascribed to the status that the NGO inherited throughout history (e.g., the CYL). Political Capital-II refers to the Political Capital that the NGOs earned through their hard efforts. [ 49 ] Obviously, "Moral resource-I itself contains the self-determination that gives participants confidence in the ethical beliefs they have chosen", [ 50 ] almost any organizations may have Moral Resource-I, while not all of them have the societal recognized Moral Resource-II. However, the voluntary service organizations predominantly occupy Moral Resource-II because a sense of moral superiority makes it possible that for parties with different values, goals and cultures to work together in promoting the promotion of volunteering. Thus the voluntary service organizations are likely to win the trust and support of the masses as well as the government more easily than will the organizations whose morals are not accepted by mainstream society. In other words, Moral Resource II helps the grassroots organizations with little Political Capital I to win Political Capital-II, which is a crucial factor for their survival and growth in developing countries such as China. Therefore, the voluntary service realm could be an enclave of the development of civil society in the developing nations. [ 46 ] Potential benefits of volunteering Academic Volunteering for community service as part of a college curriculum ( service-learning ) provides opportunities for students to surround themselves with new people which helps them learn how to work together as a group, improve teamwork and relational skills, reduce stereotypes , and increases appreciation of other cultures. [ 9 ] Students participating in service-learning programs are shown to have more positive attitudes toward self, attitudes toward school and learning, civic engagement, social skills, and academic performance. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] They are also more likely to complete their degree. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] Longevity Volunteers are observed to have a reduced mortality risk compared to non-volunteers. [ 55 ] Therefore, the various types of work as a volunteer and psychological effects of such altruistic work may produce enough side-effects to contribute to a longer and more fulfilling life. A systematic review shows that adults over age of 65 years who volunteer may experience improved physical and mental health and potentially reduced mortality. [ 56 ] Mental health A worldwide survey was conducted in a study, suggesting that people who experience the highest levels of happiness are the most successful in terms of close relationships and volunteer work. [ 57 ] In comparison, charity in the form of monetary donations , which is another form of altruism (volunteering being one of them) is also known to have a similar effect. [ 58 ] [ 59 ] Another study finds that helping others is associated with higher levels of mental health, above and beyond the benefits of receiving help. [ 60 ] This is true across age groups. Observational evidence indicates that volunteering helps improve the mental health of adolescents. [ 61 ] Moreover, on the subject of service-learning, undergraduate students who volunteered 1 to 9 hours per week were less likely to feel depressed than students who did not volunteer. [ 62 ] Among people aged 65 years old or above, volunteering may reduce the risk of depression. [ 56 ] Volunteering in the aftermath of the 2011 Christchurch Earthquake was found to build social capital , increasing the social connectedness of individuals as well as community wellbeing. The researchers suggested healthcare professionals could prescribe volunteering to improve the health of individuals. [ 63 ] Statistics In the United States, statistics on volunteering have historically been limited, according to volunteerism expert Susan J. Ellis . [ 64 ] In 2013, the U.S. Current Population Survey included a volunteering supplement which produced statistics on volunteering. [ 65 ] Barriers to volunteering The UK's National Council for Voluntary Organisations (NCVO) has identified reluctance to enter into an ongoing commitment and work, study and other competing personal activities as barriers affecting willingness to volunteer. [ 66 ] The Scout Association in the UK also recognises that finance and accessibility can also act as barriers. [ 67 ] Criticisms In the 1960s, Ivan Illich offered an analysis of the role of American volunteers in Mexico in his speech entitled "To Hell With Good Intentions". His concerns, along with those of critics such as Paulo Freire and Edward Said , revolve around the notion of altruism as an extension of Christian missionary ideology . In addition, he mentions the sense of responsibility / obligation as a factor, which drives the concept of noblesse oblige —first developed by the French aristocracy as a moral duty derived from their wealth. Simply stated, these apprehensions propose the extension of power and authority over indigenous cultures around the world. Recent critiques of volunteering come from Westmier and Kahn (1996) and bell hooks (née Gloria Watkins) (2004). Also, Georgeou (2012) has critiqued the impact of neoliberalism on international aid volunteering. The field of the medical tourism (referring to volunteers who travel overseas to deliver medical care ) has recently attracted negative criticism when compared to the alternative notion of sustainable capacities, i.e., work done in the context of long-term, locally-run, and foreign-supported infrastructures. A preponderance of this criticism appears largely in scientific and peer-reviewed literature. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] [ 70 ] Recently, media outlets with more general readerships have published such criticisms as well. [ 71 ] This type of volunteering is pejoratively referred to as "medical voluntourism". [ 72 ] Another problem noted with volunteering is that it can be used to replace low paid entry positions. This can act to decrease social mobility, with only those capable of affording to work without payment able to gain the experience. [ 73 ] Trade unions in the United Kingdom (UK) have warned that long term volunteering is a form of exploitation, used by charities to avoid minimum wage legislation. [ 74 ] Some sectors now expect candidates for paid roles to have undergone significant periods of volunteer experience whether relevant to the role or not, setting up 'Volunteer Credentialism'. [ 75 ] Volunteers can be exposed to stressful situations and attitudes, which can cause them to suffer from burnout which in turn reduces their activism and overall well-being. [ 76 ] There is also a clear evidence that volunteering can become a moral obligation that prompts feelings of guilt when not performed. [ 77 ] Volunteering organizations in the United States American Red Cross Cajun Navy Catholic Charities USA Chaverim Endeavors (non-profit) Feeding America Habitat for Humanity JC's Girls Keep Indianapolis Beautiful Master gardener program National CleanUp Day Neighborhood association New Mexico Mounted Patrol Orchestra Society of Philadelphia Peace Corps Points of Light Reach Out Worldwide Rotary International Salvation Army Shomrim (neighborhood watch group) Team Rubicon Volunteer Center of North Texas Volunteers of America Wikipedia Wikipedians Yad Leah See also Association for Leaders in Volunteer Engagement (AL!VE) Association for Volunteer Administration (AVA) Avocation Community service Crossing guard European Solidarity Corps Federal volunteers service Helping behavior Intentional living International volunteering List of volunteer awards Micro-volunteering Mutual aid Peace Corps Pro bono Prosocial behavior Subbotnik Scout leader Technisches Hilfswerk (THW) Unpaid work Volunteer health practitioner Voluntary social year References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Wilson, John (2000). 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Developing World Bioethics , 9, 1–10. ^ "Think looking after turtles in Costa Rica for three weeks is good for your CV? Think again" . The Conversation. 4 November 2016 . Retrieved 11 November 2016 . ^ McLennan, Sharon (1 April 2014). "Medical voluntourism in Honduras: 'Helping' the poor?". Progress in Development Studies . 14 (2): 163– 179. doi : 10.1177/1464993413517789 . ISSN 1464-9934 . S2CID 144772758 . ^ McGuinness, F.; Ward, M. (2017). State of the Nation Report by the Social Mobility Commission (PDF) (Report). ^ Trade Union Congress (TUV) (2018) Guide to Internships. Accessed online at: ^ Walker, Mark (2018). " 'Own Transport Preferred': Potential problems with long-term volunteering and internships" . ECOS . ^ Konieczny, Piotr (1 January 2018), "Volunteer Retention, Burnout and Dropout in Online Voluntary Organizations: Stress, Conflict and Retirement of Wikipedians" , Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change , vol. 42, Emerald Publishing Limited, pp. 199– 219, doi : 10.1108/s0163-786x20180000042008 , ISBN 978-1-78756-895-2 , S2CID 155122668 , retrieved 29 April 2021 ^ Gill MJ. (2021) Understanding the Spread of Sustained Employee Volunteering: How Volunteers Influence Their Coworkers' Moral Identity Work. Journal of Management. Geiser, Ch.; Okun, M. A.; Grano, C. (2014). "Who is motivated to volunteer? A latent profile analysis linking volunteer motivation to frequency of volunteering" . Psychological Test and Assessment Modeling. 56(1). pp. 3–24. Further reading Georgeou, Nichole (2012). Neoliberalism, Development, and Aid Volunteering . New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415809153 . External links Volunteerism and legislation: a Guidance Note Inter-Parliamentary Union , United Nations Volunteers , International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies , 2004 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Charitable giving and practices v t e Main topics Alms Altruism Charity (practice) Compassion Donation Empathy Fundraising Humanity (virtue) Philanthropy Volunteering Alms Altruism Charity (practice) Compassion Donation Empathy Fundraising Humanity (virtue) Philanthropy Volunteering Types of charitable organizations Charitable trust / Registered charity Foundation Private Crowdfunding Mutual-benefit nonprofit corporation Non-governmental organization International Nonprofit organization Public-benefit nonprofit corporation Service club Social enterprise Religious corporation Voluntary association Charitable trust / Registered charity Foundation Private Private Crowdfunding Mutual-benefit nonprofit corporation Non-governmental organization International International Nonprofit organization Public-benefit nonprofit corporation Service club Social enterprise Religious corporation Voluntary association Charity and religion Charity (Christian virtue) Dāna Tithe Tzedakah Sadaqah Zakat Charity (Christian virtue) Dāna Tithe Tzedakah Sadaqah Zakat Charity evaluation Aid effectiveness Animal Charity Evaluators Candid Charity assessment Charity Navigator CharityWatch Distributional cost-effectiveness analysis GiveWell Giving Multiplier Giving What We Can GreatNonprofits Aid effectiveness Animal Charity Evaluators Candid Charity assessment Charity Navigator CharityWatch Distributional cost-effectiveness analysis GiveWell Giving Multiplier Giving What We Can GreatNonprofits Further topics Alternative giving Benefit concert Caffè sospeso Charity fraud Charity / thrift / op shop Click-to-donate site Drive Donor-advised fund Donor intent Earning to give Effective altruism Psychological barriers Ethics of philanthropy List of charitable foundations wealthiest Master of Nonprofit Organizations Matching funds Telethon Visiting the sick Voluntary sector Volunteer grant Wall of kindness Warm-glow giving Alternative giving Benefit concert Caffè sospeso Charity fraud Charity / thrift / op shop Click-to-donate site Drive Donor-advised fund Donor intent Earning to give Effective altruism Psychological barriers Psychological barriers Ethics of philanthropy List of charitable foundations wealthiest wealthiest Master of Nonprofit Organizations Matching funds Telethon Visiting the sick Voluntary sector Volunteer grant Wall of kindness Warm-glow giving v t e Employment v t e Classifications Academic tenure Casual Contingent work Full-time job Gig worker Job sharing Part-time job Self-employment Side job Skilled worker Journeyman Technician Tradesperson Independent contractor Labour hire Temporary work Laborer Wage labour Academic tenure Casual Contingent work Full-time job Gig worker Job sharing Part-time job Self-employment Side job Skilled worker Journeyman Technician Tradesperson Journeyman Technician Tradesperson Independent contractor Labour hire Temporary work Laborer Wage labour Hiring Application Background check Business networking Cover letter Curriculum vitae Drug testing Employment contract Employment counsellor Executive search list Induction programme Job fair Job fraud Job hunting Job interview Letter of recommendation Onboarding Overqualification Person–environment fit Personality–job fit theory Personality hire Probation Realistic job preview Recruitment Résumé Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates Underemployment Work-at-home scheme Application Background check Business networking Cover letter Curriculum vitae Drug testing Employment contract Employment counsellor Executive search list list Induction programme Job fair Job fraud Job hunting Job interview Letter of recommendation Onboarding Overqualification Person–environment fit Personality–job fit theory Personality hire Probation Realistic job preview Recruitment Résumé Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates Underemployment Work-at-home scheme Roles Cooperative Employee Employer Internship Job Labour hire Permanent employment Supervisor Volunteering Cooperative Employee Employer Internship Job Labour hire Permanent employment Supervisor Volunteering Working class Blue-collar Green-collar Grey-collar Pink-collar Precariat White-collar Red-collar New-collar No-collar Orange-collar Scarlet-collar Black-collar Gold-collar Blue-collar Green-collar Grey-collar Pink-collar Precariat White-collar Red-collar New-collar No-collar Orange-collar Scarlet-collar Black-collar Gold-collar Career and training Apprenticeship Artisan Master craftsman Avocation Career assessment Career counseling Career development Coaching Creative class Education Continuing education E-learning Employability Further education Graduate school Induction training Knowledge worker Licensure Lifelong learning Overspecialization Practice-based professional learning Professional association Professional certification Professional development Professional school Reflective practice Retraining Vocational education Vocational school Vocational university Mentorship Occupational Outlook Handbook Practice firm Profession Operator Professional Tradesman Vocation Apprenticeship Artisan Master craftsman Master craftsman Avocation Career assessment Career counseling Career development Coaching Creative class Education Continuing education E-learning Employability Further education Graduate school Induction training Knowledge worker Licensure Lifelong learning Overspecialization Practice-based professional learning Professional association Professional certification Professional development Professional school Reflective practice Retraining Vocational education Vocational school Vocational university Continuing education E-learning Employability Further education Graduate school Induction training Knowledge worker Licensure Lifelong learning Overspecialization Practice-based professional learning Professional association Professional certification Professional development Professional school Reflective practice Retraining Vocational education Vocational school Vocational university Mentorship Occupational Outlook Handbook Practice firm Profession Operator Professional Operator Professional Tradesman Vocation Attendance Break Break room Career break Compassionate leave Bereavement leave Furlough Gap year Leave of absence Long service leave No call, no show Sabbatical Sick leave Stress leave Time clock Break Break room Career break Compassionate leave Bereavement leave Bereavement leave Furlough Gap year Leave of absence Long service leave No call, no show Sabbatical Sick leave Stress leave Time clock Schedules 35-hour workweek Four-day week Eight-hour day 996 working hour system Flextime On-call Overtime Remote work Six-hour day Shift work Working time Workweek and weekend 35-hour workweek Four-day week Eight-hour day 996 working hour system Flextime On-call Overtime Remote work Six-hour day Shift work Working time Workweek and weekend Wages and salaries Frisch elasticity of labor supply Global labor arbitrage Labour economics Labor share Labour supply Living wage Maximum wage National average salary World Europe Minimum wage Canada Hong Kong Europe United States Price elasticity of demand Progressive wage Singapore Overtime rate Paid time off Performance-related pay Remuneration Salary cap Frisch elasticity of labor supply Global labor arbitrage Labour economics Labor share Labour supply Living wage Maximum wage National average salary World Europe World Europe Minimum wage Canada Hong Kong Europe United States Canada Hong Kong Europe United States Price elasticity of demand Progressive wage Singapore Singapore Overtime rate Paid time off Performance-related pay Remuneration Salary cap Benefits Annual leave Casual Friday Child care Disability insurance Health insurance Life insurance Marriage leave Parental leave Pension By country Perk-cession Sick leave United States Take-home vehicle Well-being washing Annual leave Casual Friday Child care Disability insurance Health insurance Life insurance Marriage leave Parental leave Pension By country By country Perk-cession Sick leave United States United States Take-home vehicle Well-being washing Taxes Payroll tax Tax bracket Income tax Negative Disposable income Salary packaging Unreported employment Payroll tax Tax bracket Income tax Negative Disposable income Tax bracket Income tax Negative Negative Disposable income Salary packaging Unreported employment Safety and health Crunch Epilepsy and employment Human factors and ergonomics Karoshi List of countries by rate of fatal workplace accidents Occupational burnout Occupational disease Occupational exposure limit Occupational health psychology Occupational injury Occupational noise Occupational stress Personal protective equipment Repetitive strain injury Right to sit United States Sick building syndrome Work accident Occupational fatality Workers' compensation Workers' right to access the toilet Workplace health promotion Workplace phobia Workplace wellness Crunch Epilepsy and employment Human factors and ergonomics Karoshi List of countries by rate of fatal workplace accidents Occupational burnout Occupational disease Occupational exposure limit Occupational health psychology Occupational injury Occupational noise Occupational stress Personal protective equipment Repetitive strain injury Right to sit United States United States Sick building syndrome Work accident Occupational fatality Occupational fatality Workers' compensation Workers' right to access the toilet Workplace health promotion Workplace phobia Workplace wellness Equal opportunity Affirmative action Discrimination Equal pay for equal work Gender pay gap Glass ceiling Affirmative action Discrimination Equal pay for equal work Gender pay gap Glass ceiling Infractions Corporate collapses and scandals Accounting scandals Control fraud Corporate behaviour Corporate crime Exploitation of labour Dress code Employee handbook Employee monitoring Evaluation Labour law Sexual harassment Sleeping while on duty Wage theft Whistleblower Workplace bullying Workplace harassment Workplace incivility Corporate collapses and scandals Accounting scandals Control fraud Corporate behaviour Corporate crime Accounting scandals Control fraud Corporate behaviour Corporate crime Exploitation of labour Dress code Employee handbook Employee monitoring Evaluation Labour law Sexual harassment Sleeping while on duty Wage theft Whistleblower Workplace bullying Workplace harassment Workplace incivility Willingness Boreout Careerism Civil conscription Conscription Critique of work Dead-end job Employment rate List Job satisfaction McJob Organizational commitment Refusal of work Slavery Bonded labour Human trafficking Labour camp Penal labour Peonage Truck wages Unfree labour Wage slavery Stay interview Workforce Work ethic Work–life interface Downshifting Slow living Workaholic Boreout Careerism Civil conscription Conscription Critique of work Dead-end job Employment rate List List Job satisfaction McJob Organizational commitment Refusal of work Slavery Bonded labour Human trafficking Labour camp Penal labour Peonage Truck wages Unfree labour Wage slavery Bonded labour Human trafficking Labour camp Penal labour Peonage Truck wages Unfree labour Wage slavery Stay interview Workforce Work ethic Work–life interface Downshifting Slow living Downshifting Slow living Workaholic Termination At-will employment Dismissal Banishment room Constructive dismissal Wrongful dismissal Employee offboarding Employee turnover Exit interview Labour market flexibility Layoff Notice period Pink slip Resignation Letter of resignation Restructuring Retirement Mandatory retirement Retirement planning Retirement spend-down Severance package Golden handshake Golden parachute At-will employment Dismissal Banishment room Constructive dismissal Wrongful dismissal Banishment room Constructive dismissal Wrongful dismissal Employee offboarding Employee turnover Exit interview Labour market flexibility Layoff Notice period Pink slip Resignation Letter of resignation Letter of resignation Restructuring Retirement Mandatory retirement Retirement planning Retirement spend-down Mandatory retirement Retirement planning Retirement spend-down Severance package Golden handshake Golden parachute Golden handshake Golden parachute Unemployment Barriers to entry Discouraged worker Economic depression Great Depression Long Depression Frictional unemployment Full employment Graduate unemployment Involuntary unemployment Jobless recovery NEET Phillips curve Recession Great Recession Job losses caused by the Great Recession Lists of recessions Recession-proof job Reserve army of labour Structural unemployment Technological unemployment Types of unemployment Unemployment benefits Unemployment Convention, 1919 Unemployment extension List of countries by unemployment rate Wage curve Youth unemployment Barriers to entry Discouraged worker Economic depression Great Depression Long Depression Great Depression Long Depression Frictional unemployment Full employment Graduate unemployment Involuntary unemployment Jobless recovery NEET Phillips curve Recession Great Recession Job losses caused by the Great Recession Lists of recessions Recession-proof job Great Recession Job losses caused by the Great Recession Lists of recessions Recession-proof job Reserve army of labour Structural unemployment Technological unemployment Types of unemployment Unemployment benefits Unemployment Convention, 1919 Unemployment extension List of countries by unemployment rate Wage curve Youth unemployment Public programs Workfare Unemployment insurance Make-work job Job creation program Job creation index Job guarantee Employer of last resort Guaranteed minimum income Right to work Historical: U.S.A.: Civil Works Administration Works Progress Administration Comprehensive Employment and Training Act Workfare Unemployment insurance Make-work job Job creation program Job creation index Job guarantee Employer of last resort Guaranteed minimum income Right to work Historical: U.S.A.: Civil Works Administration Works Progress Administration Comprehensive Employment and Training Act See also Bullshit job Busy work Credentialism and educational inflation Emotional labor Evil corporation Going postal Kiss up kick down Labor rights Make-work job Narcissism in the workplace Post-work society Presenteeism Psychopathy in the workplace Sunday scaries Slow movement (culture) Toxic leader Toxic workplace Wage compression Working poor Workhouse Bullshit job Busy work Credentialism and educational inflation Emotional labor Evil corporation Going postal Kiss up kick down Labor rights Make-work job Narcissism in the workplace Post-work society Presenteeism Psychopathy in the workplace Sunday scaries Slow movement (culture) Toxic leader Toxic workplace Wage compression Working poor Workhouse See also templates Aspects of corporations Aspects of jobs Aspects of occupations Aspects of organizations Aspects of workplaces Corporate titles Critique of work Organized labor Aspects of corporations Aspects of jobs Aspects of occupations Aspects of organizations Aspects of workplaces Corporate titles Critique of work Organized labor Authority control databases International GND FAST GND FAST National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Latvia Israel 2 United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Latvia Israel 2 2 Other İslâm Ansiklopedisi İslâm Ansiklopedisi Volunteering Work CS1: unfit URL CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2019 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2025 All articles with minor POV problems Articles with minor POV problems from October 2021 Wikisource templates with missing id Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 8 December 2025, at 04:20 (UTC) . 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Strona główna Losuj artykuł Kategorie artykułów Najlepsze artykuły Częste pytania (FAQ) O Wikipedii Kontakt Pierwsze kroki Portal wikipedystów Ogłoszenia Zasady Pomoc Strony specjalne Ostatnie zmiany Wspomóż Wikipedię Utwórz konto Zaloguj się Wspomóż Wikipedię Utwórz konto Zaloguj się Spis treści Początek 1 Kontekst Przełącz podsekcję Kontekst 1.1 Buforowa rola Ukrainy 1.2 Eskalacja napięć rosyjsko-ukraińskich 1.3 Żądania Rosji wobec NATO i stanowisko państw zachodnich 1.4 Bezpośrednie przygotowania do inwazji 1.1 Buforowa rola Ukrainy 1.2 Eskalacja napięć rosyjsko-ukraińskich 1.3 Żądania Rosji wobec NATO i stanowisko państw zachodnich 1.4 Bezpośrednie przygotowania do inwazji 2 Siły i zamiary rosyjskie Przełącz podsekcję Siły i zamiary rosyjskie 2.1 Cele wojskowe i polityczne 2.2 Kierunek kijowski 2.3 Kierunek charkowski 2.4 Donbas 2.5 Ugrupowanie z Krymu 2.1 Cele wojskowe i polityczne 2.2 Kierunek kijowski 2.3 Kierunek charkowski 2.4 Donbas 2.5 Ugrupowanie z Krymu 3 Siły ukraińskie 4 Działania wojenne Przełącz podsekcję Działania wojenne 4.1 Wojna powietrzna 4.1.1 Wojna dronów 4.1 Wojna powietrzna 4.1.1 Wojna dronów 4.1.1 Wojna dronów 5 Straty Przełącz podsekcję Straty 5.1 Straty bojowe 5.1.1 Całkowite straty bojowe Rosjan w okresie od 24 lutego 2022 do 15 stycznia 2026 5.2 Straty w sferze ukraińskiego dziedzictwa kulturowego 5.1 Straty bojowe 5.1.1 Całkowite straty bojowe Rosjan w okresie od 24 lutego 2022 do 15 stycznia 2026 5.1.1 Całkowite straty bojowe Rosjan w okresie od 24 lutego 2022 do 15 stycznia 2026 5.2 Straty w sferze ukraińskiego dziedzictwa kulturowego 6 Negocjacje ukraińsko-rosyjskie 7 Uchodźcy 8 Pseudoreferenda i ogłoszenie aneksji terytoriów okupowanych 9 Następstwa Przełącz podsekcję Następstwa 9.1 Konsekwencje prawne 9.2 Następstwa społeczne na Ukrainie 9.3 Konsekwencje gospodarcze 9.3.1 Sytuacja w krajach konfliktu 9.3.2 Wpływ na gospodarkę globalną 9.3.3 Sankcje międzynarodowe 9.3.3.1 Sankcje odwetowe 9.3.4 Blokady przestrzeni powietrznych i blokady morskie 9.3.5 Reakcje przedsiębiorstw 9.1 Konsekwencje prawne 9.2 Następstwa społeczne na Ukrainie 9.3 Konsekwencje gospodarcze 9.3.1 Sytuacja w krajach konfliktu 9.3.2 Wpływ na gospodarkę globalną 9.3.3 Sankcje międzynarodowe 9.3.3.1 Sankcje odwetowe 9.3.4 Blokady przestrzeni powietrznych i blokady morskie 9.3.5 Reakcje przedsiębiorstw 9.3.1 Sytuacja w krajach konfliktu 9.3.2 Wpływ na gospodarkę globalną 9.3.3 Sankcje międzynarodowe 9.3.3.1 Sankcje odwetowe 9.3.3.1 Sankcje odwetowe 9.3.4 Blokady przestrzeni powietrznych i blokady morskie 9.3.5 Reakcje przedsiębiorstw 10 Reakcje międzynarodowe Przełącz podsekcję Reakcje międzynarodowe 10.1 ONZ 10.2 Rada Europy 10.3 Unia Europejska 10.4 NATO 10.5 Reakcje państw i organizacji 10.5.1 Rola Białorusi 10.5.2 Pomoc militarna dla Ukrainy 10.5.3 Pomoc dla Ukrainy w cyberwojnie 10.6 Reakcja społeczności międzynarodowej 10.6.1 Sport 10.6.2 Muzyka 10.1 ONZ 10.2 Rada Europy 10.3 Unia Europejska 10.4 NATO 10.5 Reakcje państw i organizacji 10.5.1 Rola Białorusi 10.5.2 Pomoc militarna dla Ukrainy 10.5.3 Pomoc dla Ukrainy w cyberwojnie 10.5.1 Rola Białorusi 10.5.2 Pomoc militarna dla Ukrainy 10.5.3 Pomoc dla Ukrainy w cyberwojnie 10.6 Reakcja społeczności międzynarodowej 10.6.1 Sport 10.6.2 Muzyka 10.6.1 Sport 10.6.2 Muzyka 11 Uwagi 12 Przypisy Inwazja Rosji na Ukrainę Afrikaans አማርኛ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chi-Chewa Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Gaeilge Gaelg Galego 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Ikinyarwanda Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Кыргызча ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Ligure Lombard 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Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikinews Element Wikidanych Ten artykuł dotyczy trwającego wydarzenia . Informacje w nim zamieszczone mogą się zmienić lub zdezaktualizować wraz z postępem zdarzenia, a początkowe doniesienia mogą być niepewne . Ostatnie zmiany tego artykułu mogą nie odzwierciedlać najbardziej aktualnych informacji. wojna rosyjsko-ukraińska Sytuacja militarna 3 grudnia 2025 Terytoria kontrolowane przez Ukrainę Terytoria kontrolowane lub okupowane przez Rosję Terytoria dawniej okupowane przez Rosję lub terytoria Rosji okupowane przez Ukrainę Terytoria kontrolowane przez Ukrainę Terytoria kontrolowane lub okupowane przez Rosję Terytoria dawniej okupowane przez Rosję lub terytoria Rosji okupowane przez Ukrainę Czas od 24 lutego 2022 od 24 lutego 2022 Terytorium Ukraina , Rosja , Morze Czarne Ukraina , Rosja , Morze Czarne Wynik trwa trwa Strony konfliktu Ukraina Rosja Doniecka Republika Ludowa [ a ] Ługańska Republika Ludowa [ a ] Wsparcie: Białoruś [ b ] Korea Północna [ 3 ] Ukraina Rosja Doniecka Republika Ludowa [ a ] Ługańska Republika Ludowa [ a ] Wsparcie: Białoruś [ b ] Korea Północna [ 3 ] Doniecka Republika Ludowa [ a ] Ługańska Republika Ludowa [ a ] Wsparcie: Białoruś [ b ] Korea Północna [ 3 ] Dowódcy Wołodymyr Zełenski [ c ] Ołeksij Reznikow [ d ] Rustem Umierow [ e ] Wałerij Załużny [ f ] Ołeksandr Syrski [ g ] Serhij Szaptała [ h ] Anatolij Barhyłewycz [ i ] Andrij Hnatow [ j ] Władimir Putin [ k ] Siergiej Szojgu [ l ] Andriej Biełousow [ m ] Walerij Gierasimow [ n ] Aleksandr Dwornikow [ o ] Giennadij Żydko [ p ] Siergiej Surowikin [ q ] Wołodymyr Zełenski [ c ] Ołeksij Reznikow [ d ] Rustem Umierow [ e ] Wałerij Załużny [ f ] Ołeksandr Syrski [ g ] Serhij Szaptała [ h ] Anatolij Barhyłewycz [ i ] Andrij Hnatow [ j ] Władimir Putin [ k ] Siergiej Szojgu [ l ] Andriej Biełousow [ m ] Walerij Gierasimow [ n ] Aleksandr Dwornikow [ o ] Giennadij Żydko [ p ] Siergiej Surowikin [ q ] brak współrzędnych Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons Wiadomości w Wikinews Wiadomości w Wikinews Inwazja Rosji na Ukrainę, wojna rosyjsko-ukraińska (w rosyjskiej propagandzie „ specjalna operacja wojskowa ” [ 4 ] , ros. специальная военная операция ; w skrócie SWO, ros. СВО [ 5 ] ) – inwazja na Ukrainę rozpoczęta 24 lutego 2022 roku przez Rosję , stanowiąca eskalację wojny trwającej od 2014 roku . Została poprzedzona rosyjskimi żądaniami wykluczenia możliwości dalszego poszerzania NATO i redukcji potencjału militarnego sojuszu w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej do stanu sprzed 1997 roku. Rosja zaczęła gromadzić swoje wojska wzdłuż granicy z Ukrainą na przełomie października i listopada 2021. W lutym 2022 przeprowadzone zostały ćwiczenia wojskowe na Białorusi wspólne z siłami zbrojnymi tego kraju, po których wojska rosyjskie nie wróciły już do Rosji. 17 lutego w rejonie frontu z separatystycznymi republikami, Ługańską i Doniecką , zaczęły nasilać się ostrzały, o które Rosja oskarżała Ukraińców. Następnie Rosja wysunęła oskarżenia: pod adresem Ukraińców – o „ludobójstwo”, a pod adresem Zachodu – o „zachęcanie Kijowa do agresji militarnej”. 21 lutego Rosja uznała niepodległość „republik”, których przedstawiciele 23 lutego zwrócili się o pomoc w odparciu „agresji”. 24 lutego wojska zgromadzone wzdłuż granic Ukrainy ruszyły do natarcia. Pierwsze dni konfliktu nie przyniosły Rosjanom spektakularnych sukcesów, za to w ogromnym stopniu zjednoczyły Ukraińców w oporze przeciw najeźdźcom [ 6 ] [ 7 ] , natomiast opinię publiczną wielu państw świata, włączając w to rządy i organizacje międzynarodowe, w proteście przeciw inwazji. Wobec Rosji zostały wdrożone znaczące sankcje gospodarcze (a oprócz nich także działania symboliczne, m.in. wykluczenie rosyjskich reprezentacji z ważnych sportowych imprez międzynarodowych), natomiast Ukraina otrzymała pomoc, włączając w to zarówno wsparcie humanitarne , jak i wojskowe. Od stycznia 2022 roku do marca 2024 roku Ukraina otrzymała z zagranicy pomoc o wartości ponad 380 miliardów dolarów, w tym 118 miliardów pomocy wojskowej [ 8 ] . Kontekst Buforowa rola Ukrainy Z punktu widzenia władz Rosji Ukraina postrzegana jest geostrategicznie jako bufor oddzielający ją od Organizacji Traktatu Północnoatlantyckiego (NATO). Również potencjał demograficzny i gospodarczy Ukrainy sprawia, że Rosja wielokrotnie podejmowała próby włączenia jej do kontrolowanych przez siebie eurazjatyckich struktur integracyjnych [ 9 ] . Natomiast ewentualny sukces demokratycznej transformacji Ukrainy, poprzez przyjmowanie przez nią standardów europejskich i integrację polityczno-gospodarczą ze strukturami zachodnimi, według Rosji stanowi zagrożenie zarówno dla bezpieczeństwa Federacji Rosyjskiej, jak i dla stabilności rządzącego nią autorytarnego reżimu [ 9 ] . W 2014 roku Rosja, w odpowiedzi na obalenie prorosyjskiego prezydenta Ukrainy Wiktora Janukowycza , doprowadziła do oderwania Krymu od Ukrainy , a następnie do zbrojnej secesji części obwodów donieckiego i ługańskiego , prowadzącej do faktycznej wojny rosyjsko-ukraińskiej na wschodzie kraju. Paradoksalnie z punktu celów rosyjskich, doprowadziło to do dominacji wśród ludności Ukrainy nastrojów antyrosyjskich i zacieśnienia relacji z Unią Europejską oraz współpracy wojskowej z NATO [ 10 ] . Jej armia, której efektywność była krytykowana w 2014 roku, została zreorganizowana, lepiej wyszkolona z pomocą państw NATO , oraz doposażona w nowsze uzbrojenie, w tym kupowane na Zachodzie [ 10 ] . Spowodowało to też zwiększenie aktywności wojskowej USA w krajach wschodniej flanki NATO [ 10 ] . 12 lipca 2021 roku prezydent Rosji Władimir Putin opublikował manifest historiozoficzny „O historycznej jedności Rosjan i Ukraińców”, który odwoływał się do propagandowo dobranych i zinterpretowanych faktów historycznych i został odczytany przez komentatorów za oficjalną manifestację zamiarów Rosji w stosunku do Ukrainy oraz ultimatum postawione jej władzom, grożące rozbiorem państwa [ 11 ] . Wyraził w nim pogląd, że Wielkorusi ( Rosjanie ), Małorusi ( Ukraińcy ) i Białorusini są jednym narodem , a teza o istnieniu trzech odrębnych narodów słowiańskich została utrwalona przez politykę ZSRR oraz państwa obce [ 12 ] . Putin stwierdził, że dzisiejsza Ukraina jest „w pełni tworem epoki radzieckiej” i w znacznej mierze powstała kosztem historycznej Rosji, która została „de facto okradziona” przez arbitralne decyzje terytorialne bolszewików . Odciągnięcie Ukrainy od Rosji przedstawił jako celowe działania państw zachodnich, które „zawsze próbowały podkopać naszą jedność”, wręcz kontrolują Ukrainę i instalują tam infrastrukturę NATO, podczas gdy miliony Ukraińców myślą o Rosji „z wielką miłością”, jaką i Rosjanie czują do Ukrainy. Oskarżył władze ukraińskie o tworzenie pod bezpośrednim zarządem zagranicy projektu „anty-Rosji”, uderzenie w język rosyjski , a także w duchową jedność prawosławnych Słowian, przez planowanie podziału Cerkwi [ 12 ] . Zagroził, że „nigdy nie pozwolimy, żeby nasze historyczne ziemie i bliscy nam mieszkający tam ludzie zostali wykorzystani przeciw Rosji”, a ci, którzy podejmą taką próbę, „zniszczą swój kraj” [ 12 ] . Według analityków, działania Putina były motywowane chęcią zapisania się w historii jako jeden z wielkich rosyjskich przywódców, przywracający potęgę państwa rosyjskiego w Europie przez przyłączenie Ukrainy [ 13 ] . Eskalacja napięć rosyjsko-ukraińskich Konflikt zbrojny w Donbasie stanowił zarówno zagrożenie dla bezpieczeństwa Ukrainy , jak i chroniczny punkt zapalny generujący problemy polityczne i gospodarcze [ 9 ] . Rosja testowała reakcję Zachodu już w kwietniu 2021 r., poprzez demonstracyjne ruchy znacznych sił na terenie przygranicznym z Ukrainą. Działania te nie przyniosły wprawdzie ustępstw ze strony Ukrainy, ale też ówczesne reakcje innych państw w formie deklaracji zaniepokojenia mogły sugerować, że w sytuacji rzeczywistej agresji ich reakcja byłaby również ograniczona [ 9 ] . Na przełomie marca i kwietnia 2021 Rosja zaczęła gromadzić tysiące żołnierzy oraz sprzęt wojskowy w pobliżu swojej granicy z Ukrainą , co stanowiło największą mobilizację sił od czasu aneksji Krymu w 2014 roku [ 14 ] [ 15 ] . Przyczyniło się to do powstania międzynarodowego kryzysu i wywołało obawy związane z potencjalną inwazją. Oddziały zostały częściowo usunięte m.in. z Półwyspu Krymskiego w maju 2021, po ogłoszeniu ministra obrony Rosji Siergieja Szojgu [ 16 ] . We wrześniu 2021 roku Rosja przeprowadziła wspólnie z Białorusią wzdłuż ukraińskich i NATO-wskich granic cykliczne manewry „ Zapad 2021 ”, na największą skalę od czasu rozpadu ZSRR [ 17 ] . Po ich zakończeniu Rosja pozostawiła na poligonach wzdłuż granicy z Ukrainą sprzęt wojskowy oraz centra dowodzenia [ 18 ] . Kryzys został wznowiony na przełomie października i listopada 2021 roku, kiedy zarejestrowano ponowne rozmieszczanie się wojsk rosyjskich przy granicy z Ukrainą w liczbie do 90 tysięcy [ 18 ] . Czynnikiem sprzyjającym Rosji w realizacji eskalacji napięć był też gwałtowny wzrost cen nośników energii, zwłaszcza na rynku europejskim. Związany z tym kryzys został podgrzany również działaniami Rosji. Oceniano, że te w tych okolicznościach Unia Europejska, w obawie przed dalszą destabilizacją rynku energetycznego, będzie mniej skłonna do ostrej reakcji [ 9 ] . Analitycy wskazywali, że władze Rosji nie wierzyły w determinację państw zachodnich do pomocy Ukrainie i wprowadzenia poważnych sankcji, a nadto Rosja zgromadziła znaczne rezerwy walutowe, które miały jej pomóc przetrwać sankcje [ 13 ] . Okolicznościami, które mogły uprawdopodobnić oczekiwanie słabej i niekonsekwentnej reakcji państw zachodnich były: upadek prestiżu USA po pośpiesznym wycofaniu sił z Afganistanu , zastąpienie w Niemczech wieloletniej kanclerz Angeli Merkel przez nowy niesprawdzony rząd, osłabienie ekonomiczne Wielkiej Brytanii po Brexicie , oraz wybory prezydenckie we Francji w 2022 roku, zmuszające prezydenta Macrona do skupienia się na reelekcji [ 13 ] . Żądania Rosji wobec NATO i stanowisko państw zachodnich Z kryzysem ukraińsko-rosyjskim związane są żądania Rosji wobec państw zachodnich, która domagała się gwarancji nierozszerzania NATO i ograniczenia aktywności na jego wschodniej flance [ 19 ] . Władze Rosji w drugiej połowie 2021 roku wielokrotnie w mediach prezentowały stanowisko, że Ukraina jest bezpośrednio kontrolowana przez państwa zachodnie i ekspansja wojskowa NATO na jej terytorium już trwa, co stanowi zagrożenie dla Federacji Rosyjskiej [ 18 ] . W grudniu 2021 Rosja przedstawiła dwa projekty traktatów zawierających żądania tego, co nazwała „gwarancjami bezpieczeństwa”, w tym prawnie wiążącą obietnicę, że Ukraina nie przystąpi do NATO, a także redukcję wojsk NATO i sprzętu wojskowego stacjonującego w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej. Niespełnienie żądań spotkałoby się z nieokreśloną odpowiedzią wojskową [ 20 ] . Działania sił rosyjskich były cały czas monitorowane przez wywiady i rozpoznanie elektroniczne państw zachodnich [ 21 ] . W październiku 2021 roku wywiad USA poinformował prezydenta Joego Bidena o planowanej zimą pełnoskalowej inwazji Rosji na Ukrainę i jej kierunkach oraz planach zabicia prezydenta Zełenskiego [ 13 ] . Na skutek tego, 2 listopada dyrektor CIA William Burns (inne języki) został wysłany z misją do Moskwy, aby odwieść władze rosyjskie od planów ataku i uprzedzić o sankcjach, co nie przyniosło rezultatu [ 13 ] . W tym okresie o ustaleniach wywiadu USA zostały też poinformowane władze Ukrainy oraz bliscy sojusznicy USA [ 13 ] . 9 i 10 stycznia 2022 odbyły się w Genewie rozmowy USA–Rosja na temat przedstawionych przez Rosję w połowie grudnia 2021 r. żądań w sferze bezpieczeństwa europejskiego [ 22 ] . 12 stycznia 2022 odbyło się posiedzenie Rady NATO–Rosja z udziałem przedstawicieli 30 państw członkowskich NATO. Delegacja rosyjska podtrzymała na nim żądania dotyczące prawnie wiążących „gwarancji bezpieczeństwa” w zakresie nierozszerzania NATO, nierozmieszczania w krajach graniczących z Rosją systemów uderzeniowych mogących razić cele na jej obszarze, nierozlokowywania w Europie rakiet średniego i pośredniego zasięgu, likwidacji infrastruktury powstałej na terytorium członków, którzy wstąpili do NATO po 1997 r. oraz wycofania z tych państw sił natowskich [ 22 ] . NATO odrzuciło te prośby, a Stany Zjednoczone ostrzegły Rosję przed „szybkimi i surowymi” sankcjami gospodarczymi w przypadku dalszej inwazji na Ukrainę [ 19 ] . Bezpośrednie przygotowania do inwazji Ukraina Rosja 209 000 Aktywny personel wojskowy 900 000 900 000 Żołnierze rezerwy 2 000 000 2040 Artyleria 7571 12 303 Transportery opancerzone 30 122 2596 Czołgi 12 420 34 Śmigłowce szturmowe 544 98 Samoloty myśliwskie 1511 5,9 mld dol. / 8,8% Wydatki obronne / % wydatków rządowych 61,7 mld dol. / 11,4% W styczniu 2022 w pobliżu granicy stacjonowało ponad 120 tys. rosyjskich żołnierzy [ 24 ] . 14 stycznia Rosja zaczęła przerzucać na Białoruś uderzeniowe związki taktyczne ze Wschodniego Okręgu Wojskowego pod pretekstem kolejnych ćwiczeń [ 25 ] . W drugiej połowie stycznia Rosja przerzuciła również na Morze Czarne trzy duże okręty desantowe z Floty Bałtyckiej i trzy z Floty Północnej , z oddziałami piechoty morskiej, które dołączyły do sił desantowych Floty Czarnomorskiej [ r ] [ 21 ] . Na przełomie stycznia i lutego 2022 roku realizowane były wspólne z armią białoruską nadzwyczajne ćwiczenia „Sojusznicza Stanowczość 2022” na terenie Białorusi (w których udział wzięło ok. 60–80 tys. żołnierzy rosyjskich i białoruskich), a także seria ćwiczeń Marynarki Wojennej FR [ 25 ] . Faza aktywna ćwiczeń miała trwać od 10 do 20 lutego. Komentatorzy podkreślali, że po raz pierwszy w Rosji ćwiczenia strategiczne przeprowadzono zimą, a nadto po raz pierwszy przerzucono do Europy wojska rosyjskie z Dalekiego Wschodu [ 25 ] . Po zakończeniu ćwiczeń władze obu krajów ogłosiły, że przedłużą „inspekcję sił zbrojnych” [ 26 ] . Niepokojącym obserwatorów symptomem było to, że w połowie stycznia Rosjanie zaczęli stopniowo wycofywać swój personel dyplomatyczny z Ukrainy [ 21 ] . Od jesieni 2021 roku państwa zachodnie ujawniały publicznie informacje pochodzące ze źródeł wywiadowczych o planowanej przez Rosję wojnie. Na przełomie stycznia i lutego wywiady państw zachodnich podawały szczegóły przygotowywanych prowokacji, które miały obarczyć Ukrainę odpowiedzialnością i stanowić usprawiedliwienie do wojny [ 27 ] . Informowano też o przerzucaniu na Ukrainę rosyjskich sabotażystów i prowokatorów [ 27 ] . Odbywały się w tym czasie intensywne konsultacje między państwami zachodnimi oraz próby ich rozmów z Rosją, która dementowała plany wojenne [ 28 ] . Rosja ogłosiła na przełomie stycznia i lutego deeskalację i wycofanie części wojsk znad granicy do baz, jednakże wywiad amerykański temu zaprzeczył [ 28 ] . Już wówczas spodziewano się ataku na kierunkach, na których faktycznie później do niego doszło, w tym na Kijów [ 28 ] . 17 lutego prezydent USA Joe Biden poinformował, że atak może nastąpić w ciągu najbliższych kilku dni [ 28 ] . 17 lutego nastąpiło gwałtowne przerwanie stosunkowo długiego (37-dniowego) okresu ciszy na froncie w Donbasie [ 29 ] . Następnego dnia przywódcy separatystycznych „republik” ogłosili przystąpienie do ewakuacji kobiet i dzieci do Rosji z powodu „groźby ukraińskiej ofensywy” oraz przymusową mobilizację mężczyzn w wieku 18–55 lat. W tym czasie odnotowywano rosnącą częstotliwość łamania rozejmu, o co obie strony obwiniały się wzajemnie. 17 lutego było 60 ostrzałów, 18 lutego – 66, 19 lutego – 136. Specjalna Misja Monitoringowa OBWE (z udziałem Rosjan) określała je jako „nieokreślonego pochodzenia” [ 30 ] . W opinii Ośrodka Studiów Wschodnich z 21 lutego działania separatystów, tj. ostrzał własnego terytorium i „ewakuacja”, to „zaplanowana przez Rosję operacja specjalna”. Służyła ona prowokowaniu Sił Zbrojnych Ukrainy do ataku i oskarżaniu jej wojsk o masowe zbrodnie na ludności cywilnej [ 30 ] . Wobec tych działań władze Rosji zaczęły używać określenia „ludobójstwo” i oskarżać Zachód o „zachęcanie Kijowa do agresji militarnej” [ 30 ] . W mediach rosyjskich przedstawiano sfabrykowane materiały o atakach ukraińskich prowadzonych także na terytorium Rosji [ 31 ] . 21 lutego 2022 Władimir Putin podpisał deklarację uznającą niepodległość i suwerenność dwóch separatystycznych republik: Donieckiej i Ługańskiej Republiki Ludowej [ 32 ] . 22 i 23 lutego Ługańska Republika Ludowa i Doniecka Republika Ludowa zapowiedziały podjęcie działań w kierunku opanowania całości obwodów ługańskiego i donieckiego z możliwym wsparciem Rosji [ 33 ] . 23 lutego wieczorem zwróciły się do Rosji o „pomoc w odparciu agresji”, jaką miała rzekomo podjąć wobec nich armia Ukrainy [ 34 ] . Siły i zamiary rosyjskie Cele wojskowe i polityczne Według amerykańskiego wywiadu plan działań zakładał: osiągnięcie panowania w powietrzu w ciągu pierwszych 12 godzin, sparaliżowanie łączności, okrążenie Kijowa i zmuszenie ukraińskiego rządu do ucieczki w ciągu 48 godzin, a następnie wprowadzenie marionetkowego rządu po 72 godzinach [ 37 ] . To, że zakładano osiągnięcie celów wojny w ciągu trzech dni, potwierdziła pośrednio także depesza rosyjskiej państwowej agencji informacyjnej RIA Novosti opublikowana automatycznie 26 lutego rano, mówiąca o zjednoczeniu Ukrainy z Rosją [ 38 ] . Najistotniejszym celem do zdobycia była ukraińska stolica – Kijów – którego opanowanie, zwłaszcza w razie ucieczki władz, ułatwiłoby wprowadzenie nowych rządów [ 37 ] . Podkreślano, że zdobycie Kijowa miałoby również dużą wartość symboliczną, zarówno jako stolicy, jak i z powodów historycznych, jako pierwszego ważnego ośrodka państwowości wschodniosłowiańskiej ( Rusi Kijowskiej ) [ 37 ] . Niemiecki wywiad przed rozpoczęciem inwazji przewidywał, że po zdobyciu terytorium utworzony zostanie marionetkowy parlament Ukrainy w postaci Rady Ludowej, który miałby wybrać rząd [ 37 ] . Nadałoby to sytuacji po inwazji pozory legalności, a oporni lub niebezpieczni obywatele trafiliby do obozów [ 37 ] . Wywiad amerykański ostrzegał, że w Rosji przygotowywane są listy osób uznawanych za wrogie, w tym działaczy politycznych, społecznych i organizacji pozarządowych, oraz mieszkających tam białoruskich i rosyjskich dysydentów [ 37 ] . Nowe władze ukraińskie mogłyby razem z Białorusią i Rosją utworzyć państwo związkowe, nawiązujące terytorialnie do byłego ZSRR [ 37 ] . Brytyjski wywiad sugerował przed inwazją, że kandydatem Rosji na prezydenta Ukrainy mógł być były ukraiński deputowany Jewhenij Murajew (inne języki) [ 37 ] . W grę wchodziłby również ukrywający się w Rosji były prorosyjski prezydent Wiktor Janukowycz , którego pozbawienie władzy Rosja uznawała za nielegalne [ 37 ] . W razie częściowego tylko powodzenia inwazji możliwy był rozbiór Ukrainy, na przykład z kolaboracyjnym rządem na wschodzie [ 37 ] . Oceniano, że oprócz osiągnięcia celów geopolitycznych, inwazja na Ukrainę miała przynieść Putinowi szybki sukces i przez to zdecydowanie umocnić jego władzę w kraju [ 39 ] . Strona rosyjska liczyła przy tym na słaby opór, a także bierność lub poparcie ze strony rosyjskojęzycznych obywateli stanowiących znaczną część wschodniej Ukrainy [ 39 ] . Do takich oczekiwań mogły tym bardziej skłonić Rosję doświadczenia z zajęcia Krymu oraz części obwodów ługańskiego i donieckiego w 2014 roku [ 40 ] . Z późniejszych relacji jeńców rosyjskich wynikało, że wojsko rosyjskie nie było przygotowane na zdecydowany opór, a wręcz żołnierze byli przez dowódców przekonywani, że będą „witani kwiatami” [ 41 ] . Przebieg pierwszego tygodnia walk i różnice w skuteczności ataku rosyjskiego na południu i północy skłoniły ekspertów do przypuszczeń, że początkowo przygotowano operację militarną na mniejszą skalę, skoncentrowaną na froncie południowym i wschodnim, której celem miało być poszerzenie zbuntowanych republik Ługańskiej i Donieckiej do granic administracyjnych obwodów oraz utworzenie lądowego połączenia między nimi a Krymem [ 42 ] . Dodatkowo pierwotnym celem było zdobycie położonego we wschodniej części Ukrainy Charkowa , do czego przeznaczono najsilniejszą rosyjską formację szczebla operacyjnego ( 1 Armię Pancerną Gwardii ) [ 42 ] . Stosunkowo słabsze jednostki skoncentrowane na Białorusi miały służyć do celów pozoracyjnych w stosunku do głównych działań. Analitycy wyrażali przypuszczenie, że władze rosyjskie później podjęły też polityczną decyzję zajęcia Kijowa, co wymusiło zmianę przygotowanych planów i wprowadzenie do walki na głównym kijowskim kierunku nienależycie przygotowanych oddziałów oraz ściągnięcie dodatkowych sił z innych kierunków do natarcia na Kijów [ 42 ] . Siły rosyjskie przeznaczone do operacji na Ukrainie szacowano początkowo na od 150 do 190 tysięcy żołnierzy, uwzględniając w większej liczbie także prorosyjskich bojowników w Donbasie [ 28 ] . Stanowiły one znaczną część rosyjskich wojsk lądowych (ogółem 280 tysięcy) [ 39 ] . Wojska lądowe podzielone były na batalionowe grupy bojowe w sile ok. 1500 żołnierzy [ 41 ] . Wsparcie zapewniały siły specjalne i dywersanci [ 41 ] . Pod koniec 2021 roku siły lotnicze przewidziane do wsparcia inwazji szacowano na ok. 340 samolotów i 230 śmigłowców z 4. i 6. Armii Lotniczej i Obrony Powietrznej [ 40 ] . Oddziały biorące udział w inwazji zostały częściowo zidentyfikowane na podstawie ich rozpoznanych dyslokacji przed atakiem, a już w toku kampanii przy pomocy jeńców i zdobywanych dokumentów. Jeszcze przed rozpoczęciem działań rosyjskie pojazdy przeznaczone do inwazji otrzymały namalowane znaki szybkiej identyfikacji : Z oznaczające siły wschodnie, Z w kwadracie – siły z Krymu, O – siły z Białorusi, V – piechotę morską [ s ] , X – Czeczeńców , A – siły specjalne [ 43 ] . Litera „Z”, nieobecna w cyrylicy , stała się następnie symbolem oficjalnie używanym przez rosyjską propagandę wojenną oraz wspierających ją obywateli jako wyraz poparcia dla działań militarnych Rosji [ 43 ] . 3 kwietnia 2022, już w toku wojny, w wywiadzie dla rządowej agencji RIA Nowosti , politolog Timofiej Siergiejew, związany z władzami Rosji, przedstawił manifest celów na Ukrainie, niepotwierdzony jako oficjalne stanowisko władz Rosji, lecz tak powszechnie odebrany [ 44 ] . Zgodnie z nim, na „wyzwolonych” terytoriach miały powstać nowe republiki ludowe, ze stałą militarną obecnością Rosji. Koniecznym procesem miała być „denazyfikacja”, która miała oznaczać również „deukrainizację” – rezygnację ze „sztucznej” jego zdaniem „samoidentyfikacji ludności terytoriów historycznej Małorosji i Noworosji” [ 45 ] . Po przeprowadzonej operacji nazwa Ukraina nie mogła zostać zachowana [ 45 ] . Rosyjska armia miała nie zajmować jedynie pięciu obwodów w zachodniej Ukrainie, które miały skupić ludność niechętną Rosji i miały być neutralne oraz w razie potrzeby poddane dalszym operacjom rosyjskim [ 45 ] . Większość ukraińskiego społeczeństwa miała zostać poddana przymusowej „denazyfikacji”, polegającej na rusyfikacji i represjach, jak zastąpienie ukraińskich szkół rosyjskimi, zniszczenie fizyczne przedstawicieli władz państwowych, kara śmierci, obozy pracy przymusowej, powołanie władz okupacyjnych i rozwiązanie ukraińskich sił zbrojnych [ 45 ] . Proces deukrainizacji miał zająć czas nie krótszy niż jedno pokolenie, „które urodzi się i zostanie wychowane w duchu denazyfikacji” [ 44 ] . Po opublikowaniu tego manifestu, 5 kwietnia zastępca Putina w Radzie Bezpieczeństwa, były prezydent Dmitrij Miedwiediew w oficjalnej wypowiedzi podważył tożsamość ukraińską, twierdząc, że „takiego zjawiska nigdy nie było w historii” i ważnym celem na rzecz pokoju jest „zmienić krwawą i pełną fałszywych mitów świadomość części dzisiejszych Ukraińców” [ 45 ] . Po niepowodzeniu w zdobycia Kijowa, 22 kwietnia rosyjski generał Rustam Minnekajew ogłosił, że celem „drugiego etapu operacji specjalnej” będzie ustanowienie pełnej kontroli nad Donbasem i południową Ukrainą, pozwalające na stworzenie korytarza lądowego do granicy z Naddniestrzem , co nie zostało oficjalnie potwierdzone przez władze Rosji [ 46 ] . Kierunek kijowski Największe siły rosyjskie zostały skierowane do zdobycia położonego na północy kraju Kijowa . Na kierunki działania wojsk miało wpływ to, że Dniepr , przepływający przez Kijów z północy na południe, stanowił poważną i trudną do sforsowania przeszkodę wodną, rozdzielającą rosyjskie ugrupowania, przy tym ważniejsza część miasta położona jest na zachodnim brzegu [ 47 ] . Zasadnicze uderzenie zostało skierowane z terenu Białorusi na południe, z rejonu Mozyrza , wzdłuż prawego, zachodniego brzegu Dniepru [ 48 ] . Operowały na tym kierunku rosyjskie oddziały ściągnięte z Dalekiego Wschodu : 35 Armia, obejmująca 38 Witebską Brygadę Zmechanizowaną Gwardii i 64 Brygadę Zmechanizowaną, oraz 127 Dywizja Zmechanizowana [ 49 ] . Łącznie w ich składzie znalazło się pięć batalionów czołgów (ponad 150 czołgów) i 15 batalionów zmechanizowanych (9 tysięcy żołnierzy piechoty i 450 bojowych wozów piechoty lub transporterów ) wsparte artylerią [ 49 ] . Z kolei na wschodnim brzegu Dniepru przez Czernihów w kierunku Kijowa uderzyła 36 Armia, również z Dalekiego Wschodu ( Ułan Ude ), obejmująca 5 Tacyńską Brygadę Pancerną Gwardii i 37 Budapesztańską Brygadę Zmechanizowaną Gwardii (łącznie cztery bataliony czołgów i cztery bataliony zmechanizowane oraz artyleria) [ 49 ] . W drugim rzucie z Białorusi uderzały: 29 Armia i 127 Dywizja Zmechanizowana z 5. Armii, również ze Wschodniego Okręgu Wojskowego [ 48 ] . Dodatkowo planowano, że desant śmigłowcowy opanuje lotnisko Hostomel na północny zachód w pobliżu Kijowa, gdzie następnie przerzucone zostaną z Białorusi za pomocą ciężkich samolotów transportowych Ił-76 oddziały 98 Świrskiej Dywizji Powietrznodesantowej Gwardii i 76 Czernihowskiej Dywizji Desantowo-Szturmowej Gwardii, które opanują zachodnią część Kijowa i utrzymają ją 1–2 dni do czasu przybycia sił lądowych od północy [ 47 ] . Od wschodu pod Kijów miały podejść dalsze dwie armie. 41 Armia, atakująca przez Konotop , obejmowała 35 Stalingradzko-Kijowską Brygadę Zmechanizowaną Gwardii, 74 Zwenigorodsko-Berlińską Brygadę Zmechanizowaną Gwardii i 55 Zmotoryzowaną Brygadę Piechoty Górskiej [ 49 ] . 6 Armia, atakująca przez Sumy , obejmowała 47 Niżniednieprowską Dywizję Pancerną Gwardii, 200 Peczengską Brygadę Zmechanizowaną, 138 Brygadę Zmechanizowaną Gwardii i 25 Sewastopolską Brygadę Zmechanizowaną Gwardii [ t ] [ 49 ] . Kierunek charkowski Drugim istotnym celem był Charków , drugie najludniejsze miasto Ukrainy, położone blisko granicy rosyjskiej. Na tym kierunku uderzała elitarna 1 Gwardyjska Armia Pancerna z Zachodniego Okręgu Wojskowego, obejmująca 2 Gwardyjską Tamańską Dywizję Zmechanizowaną im. M. Kalinina oraz 4 Gwardyjską Kantemirowską Dywizję Pancerną im. Jurija Andropowa [ 47 ] . Ponadto wraz z 1 Gwardyjską Armią Pancerną rozmieszczone zostały jeszcze dwie brygady: 6 Częstochowska Brygada Pancerna [ 50 ] i 27 Samodzielna Gwardyjska Brygada Zmechanizowana , a także pododdziały artylerii, saperów i inne [ 40 ] . Jako odwód rozlokowana została w rejonie Kurska i Biełgorodu 20 Gwardyjska Armia Ogólnowojskowa , której główne oddziały stanowiły dwie dywizje zmechanizowane: 3 Gwardyjska Dywizja Zmechanizowana i 144 Gwardyjska Jelnińska Dywizja Zmechanizowana [ 40 ] . Donbas Na tereny separatystycznych republik donieckiej i ługańskiej weszła rosyjska 8 Armia Gwardii, która miała nacierać na południowy wschód, w stronę Mariupola [ 47 ] . Jej główne oddziały stanowiły: 150 Idrycko-Berlińska Dywizja Zmechanizowana i 20 Przykarpacko-Berlińska Brygada Zmechanizowana Gwardii [ 40 ] . Ukraińska obrona w tym rejonie, rozbudowywana od 2014 roku, była dobrze przygotowana i obejmowała umocnienia i pola minowe [ 47 ] . Pomocniczy atak siły rosyjskie miały wyprowadzić na północ od Ługańska, na Siewierskodonieck [ 47 ] . Ugrupowanie z Krymu Na południu, z Krymu operowała 58 Armia, obejmująca dwie dywizje zmechanizowane i brygadę, a także co najmniej dwie brygady piechoty morskiej z Flot: Północnej i Bałtyckiej [ 47 ] . Z uwagi na połączenie Krymu z resztą Ukrainy przez wąski Przesmyk Perekopski , siły stamtąd przerzucono okrętami desantowymi przez Morze Azowskie [ 47 ] . Siły z Krymu zaatakowały następnie w dwóch kierunkach. 42 Eupatorijska Dywizja Zmechanizowana Gwardii uderzyła na północ, na Chersoń i dalej na Mikołajów i w ewentualnej dalszej perspektywie na Odessę [ 47 ] . 19 Woronesko-Szumlińska Dywizja Zmechanizowana uderzyła zaś na wschód na Melitopol [ 47 ] . Na Krym został też przerzucony 56 Pułk Powietrznodesantowy [ 40 ] . Siły ukraińskie Po stronie ukraińskiej walczyły przede wszystkim regularne Siły Zbrojne Ukrainy , uzupełniane przez Gwardię Narodową Ukrainy . Główny ciężar walk spoczywał na wojskach lądowych Sił Zbrojnych, które były w stanie powstrzymać i opóźnić przeważające siły rosyjskie. Szczegóły działań regularnych ukraińskich wojsk lądowych nie są upubliczniane przez ukraińskie ministerstwo obrony ani walczących żołnierzy [ 42 ] . Dla wzmocnienia morale szeroko nagłaśniane, zwłaszcza w mediach społecznościowych, były natomiast sukcesy Gwardii Narodowej, niszczącej głównie kolumny logistyczne za głównymi siłami rosyjskimi [ 42 ] . Ochotnicy spoza Ukrainy weszli w skład Międzynarodowego Legionu Obrony Terytorialnej Ukrainy [ 51 ] . Wspierający Ukrainę Rosjanie weszli w skład Legionu Wolność Rosji i Rosyjskiego Korupusu Ochotniczego [ 52 ] , zaś Białorusini Pułku im. Konstantego Kalinowskiego [ 53 ] . Wielkie znaczenie dla ukraińskiej obrony miało to, że na krótko przed wojną oraz w jej toku Ukraina otrzymywała od państw zachodnich duże partie nowoczesnej broni przeciwpancernej oraz ręcznych zestawów przeciwlotniczych krótkiego zasięgu. Analitycy podkreślali, że nasycenie wojsk nowoczesnymi środkami rażenia tego rodzaju osiągnęło poziom, jakiego w normalnych warunkach armia ukraińska nie byłaby w stanie uzyskać [ 41 ] . Działania wojenne O godzinie 4:55 czasu wschodnioeuropejskiego (5:55 czasu moskiewskiego , 3:55 czasu polskiego) Władimir Putin ogłosił, że podjął decyzję o rozpoczęciu „ specjalnej operacji wojskowej ” we wschodniej Ukrainie [ 54 ] [ 55 ] [ 5 ] . Bezpośrednio po przemówieniu Putina o 5:00 czasu wschodnioeuropejskiego (4:00 czasu polskiego) rozpoczęła się inwazja Rosji na Ukrainę [ 56 ] . Rosyjskie wojska lądowe zaatakowały 24 lutego 2022 roku rano na wszystkich planowanych kierunkach, po uprzednim ostrzale rakietowym ukraińskich baz lotniczych i infrastruktury wojskowej. Atak rakietowy nie doprowadził jednak do zniszczenia ukraińskiego lotnictwa. Siły rosyjskie na wszystkich kierunkach spotkały się z zaciętym oporem i nie osiągnęły przełamania ukraińskiej obrony. W szczególności pod Czernihowem i Charkowem rozpoczęły się ciężkie walki z regularną armią ukraińską, nieprzynoszące sukcesu stronie nacierającej. Oddziały rosyjskie weszły w ciągu pierwszych dwóch dni najgłębiej na 50 km w głąb Ukrainy [ 47 ] . Lekkie siły ukraińskie, działając z zasadzek, zadawały spore straty kolumnom pancernym i zmechanizowanym przy pomocy wyrzutni rakiet przeciwpancernych [ 49 ] . Pomimo wielokrotnie liczniejszego lotnictwa rosyjskiego, jego działania nie były bardzo aktywne, a Rosjanie nie zdołali wywalczyć zdecydowanego panowania w powietrzu [ 41 ] . Desant śmigłowcowy na lotnisko Hostomel pod Kijowem odniósł początkowe powodzenie, lecz na skutek poważnych rosyjskich błędów organizacji i dowodzenia, nie udało się Rosjanom dostarczyć tam żadnych oddziałów ani ciężkiego sprzętu samolotami, co zaważyło na całym rosyjskim ataku na Kijów [ 49 ] . Również ataki z terytoriów separatystycznych republik nie przyniosły powodzenia z uwagi na dobrze przygotowaną obronę ukraińską w tym rejonie. Większe postępy odnotowało ugrupowanie z Krymu, forsując Dniepr pod Nową Kachowką na wschód od Chersonia [ 47 ] . Czołowe oddziały rosyjskie idące wzdłuż Dniepru dotarły pod Kijów 25 lutego i w nocy na 26 lutego przystąpiły do próby wdarcia się do miasta, która została odparta [ 49 ] . Po pierwszych dniach walk ogół komentatorów zwracał uwagę na nadspodziewanie silny opór ukraiński i małe postępy osiągane przez rosyjską armię. Podkreślano widoczne poświęcenie i wolę walki ukraińskich oddziałów [ 49 ] . Znaczna część rosyjskich oddziałów składała się natomiast z żołnierzy rezerwy powołanych na ćwiczenia, którzy na ogół nie wykazywali dużej woli walki. Niewątpliwym czynnikiem wpływającym na to na początku inwazji była też konieczność walki z pokrewnym narodem, z którym Rosję łączyła wspólna historia i inne więzy. Zwracano też uwagę, że większość żołnierzy rosyjskich spędziła ostatnie miesiące w trudnych zimowych warunkach poligonowych, co również negatywnie wpłynęło na ich stopień gotowości bojowej i morale [ 41 ] . Niewydolna okazała się logistyka armii, prowadząca do porzucania sprzętu, zwłaszcza w warunkach przedłużających się działań oraz ataków ukraińskich sił lekkich na kolumny zaopatrzeniowe. Z drugiej strony, podkreślano wyjątkowo profesjonalne prowadzenie przez Ukrainę wojny informacyjnej, polegającej na ujawnianiu wyselekcjonowanych informacji i nagrań, mających wzmocnić wolę walki strony ukraińskiej i sympatię światowej opinii publicznej. W jej ramach też Ukraińcy publikowali nagrania dobrze traktowanych przez siebie jeńców rosyjskich [ 41 ] . Przełom w dotychczasowych działaniach nastąpił, kiedy na skutek oporu ukraińskiego wokół Kijowa i strat ponoszonych na drogach zaopatrzeniowych, rosyjskie dowództwo zdecydowało się wycofać z końcem marca 2022 roku wszystkie siły skierowane na Kijów na pozycje wyjściowe [ 48 ] . W kwietniu siły z Białorusi zostały przerzucone na inne odcinki [ 48 ] . 20 maja zakończyły się walki w Mariupolu [ 57 ] . Niepowodzeniem natomiast okazała się próba zdobycia Mikołajowa [ 58 ] . W międzyczasie nasiliły się ataki powietrzne, np. na obwód lwowski [ 59 ] . Do 2 lipca siły ukraińskie wycofały się z Lisiczańska , a siłom rosyjskim nie udało się ich okrążyć ani zniszczyć. Obrona ukraińska w Donbasie przeniosła się tym samym na kolejną linię w rejonie Siewierska i Bachmutu [ 60 ] . Na koniec sierpnia, linia frontu w Donbasie nie uległa większym przesunięciom od połowy lipca [ 61 ] . Komentatorzy podkreślali, że brak wyraźnego postępu sił rosyjskich po trzech pierwszych miesiącach wojny związany był z brakiem decyzji o przeprowadzeniu w Rosji mobilizacji powszechnej i przestawieniu gospodarki na tory wojenne, zamiast czego prowadzono tajną mobilizację w sposób ograniczony, przede wszystkim na prowincji [ 60 ] . Skutkowało to jedynie ograniczonym uzupełnianiem walczących oddziałów przez żołnierzy rezerwy, a przy tym często niedoszkolonych i o mniejszej wartości w walce [ 60 ] . Podkreślano, że w społeczeństwie rosyjskim istnieje opór przeciwko mobilizacji powszechnej; zdarzały się również przypadki podpaleń biur rekrutacyjnych [ 60 ] . Począwszy od 9 sierpnia Ukraina rozpoczęła serię ataków za pomocą pocisków kierowanych, dronów lub sabotażystów na infrastrukturę wojskową na zajętym przez Rosję Krymie, nie przyznając się do tego oficjalnie [ 61 ] . W kolejnych dniach rejestrowano wybuchy na lotniskach, w bazach wojskowych i magazynach amunicji. Rosja oficjalnie twierdziła, że niektóre z wybuchów nastąpiły na skutek niedbalstwa lub z innych przyczyn. Ataki te komplikowały rosyjską logistykę i odnosiły efekt psychologiczny, z uwagi na niemożność zapewnienia bezpieczeństwa terytorium przyłączonemu do Rosji [ 61 ] . 6 września siły ukraińskie rozpoczęły kontrofensywę w obwodzie charkowskim [ 62 ] . Według przedstawicieli ukraińskiego ministerstwa obrony przez pierwsze dziesięć dni kontrofensywy wojska ukraińskie odbiły powierzchnię około 8,5 tysiąca km² [ 63 ] . 21 września prezydent Rosji Władimir Putin ogłosił w kraju częściową mobilizację [ 64 ] . Według rosyjskiego ministra obrony Siergieja Szojgu docelowo miała objąć ona około 300 000 rezerwistów [ 65 ] [ 66 ] . Na początku października Ukraińcy odbili miasto Łyman w obwodzie donieckim [ 67 ] . 11 listopada 2022 wojska ukraińskie wkroczyły do opuszczonego przez Rosjan Chersonia [ 68 ] . Na przełomie roku 2022 i 2023 najcięższe walki toczyły się w rejonie Bachmutu [ 69 ] [ 70 ] . Nasiliły się również trwające od początku inwazji rosyjskie ataki na ukraińską infrastrukturę krytyczną [ 71 ] [ 72 ] . Równolegle w marcu szczególnie intensywne działania zbrojne toczyły się także w rejonie Awdijiki [ 73 ] . W maju 2023 siły rosyjskie ostatecznie zajęły Bachmut [ 74 ] . W maju 2023 rosyjskie formacje ochotnicze walczące po stronie Ukrainy dokonały akcji militarnej na terenie obwodu biełgorodzkiego . 6 czerwca 2023 roku wysadzona została położona w Nowej Kachowce zapora Kachowskiej Elektrowni Wodnej [ 75 ] [ 76 ] . W czerwcu 2023 siły ukraińskie rozpoczęły kontrofensywę celem wyzwolenia zajętych przez wroga terenów [ 77 ] . 24 czerwca ukraiński generał Ołeksandr Tarnawski poinformował o zajęciu przez wojska ukraińskie okolic miejscowości Krasnohoriwka w obwodzie donieckim , która od 2014 roku znajdowała się poza kontrolą Ukrainy [ 78 ] . Pierwsze tygodnie kontrofensywy przyniosły Ukrainie ograniczone efekty [ 79 ] . Pod koniec sierpnia strona ukraińska poinformowała o wyzwoleniu wsi Robotyne w obwodzie zaporoskim [ 80 ] . Po pięciu miesiącach kontrofensywy armia ukraińska posunęła się o 17 kilometrów w głąb pozycji rosyjskich [ potrzebny przypis ] . Z powodu niewielkich postępów ukraińska kontrofensywa została uznana przez część mediów za niepowodzenie [ 81 ] [ 82 ] , a naczelny dowódca Sił Zbrojnych Ukrainy Walerij Załużny stwierdził, że sytuacja na froncie znalazła się w „ślepym zaułku” i żadna ze stron konfliktu nie jest w stanie przeprowadzić ofensywy [ 83 ] . Zachodnie media, jak i ukraińskie dowództwo wojskowe zaczęły charakteryzować konflikt jako wojnę pozycyjną [ 84 ] [ 85 ] . 17 lutego 2024 roku rosyjskie wojska zajęły Awdijiwkę [ 86 ] . Według szacunków Instytutu Studiów nad Wojną w czasie walk o Awdijiwkę Rosjanie stracili około siedemnastu tysięcy żołnierzy [ 87 ] . Na przełomie kwietnia i maja, w związku z ponad sześciomiesięcznym impasem w Kongresie (na skutek sprzeciwu części Republikanów ) dotyczącym przyjęcia wartego ponad 60 miliardów dolarów amerykańskiego pakietu pomocowego dla Ukrainy [ 88 ] [ 89 ] , wojska ukraińskie zaczęły borykać się z brakiem amunicji [ 90 ] [ 91 ] . W maju 2024 roku siły rosyjskie rozpoczęły ofensywę w obwodzie charkowskim, która skierowała się na miasto Wołczańsk [ 92 ] . Dodatkowo nasiliły się ukraińskie ataki dronami na rafinerie znajdujące się w głębi Rosji [ 93 ] [ 94 ] [ 95 ] . Od kapitulacji Awdijiwki do początku sierpnia 2024 roku wojska rosyjskie przesunęły się na tym kierunku o 16 kilometrów na zachód. Rosyjskie uderzenie w kierunku Wołczańska zostało wyhamowane przez wojsko ukraińskie. Rosjanie rozpoczęli uderzenie w kierunku Pokrowska , którego celem ma być okrążenie Ukraińców (lub zmuszenie do wycofania się z zajmowanych pozycji) oraz przecięcie ich węzłów logistycznych [ 87 ] . Ukraińcy zwyciężyli w niewielkiej bitwie pancernej pod Kurachowem . 6 sierpnia wojsko ukraińskie rozpoczęło ofensywę na znajdujący się w Rosji obwód kurski . Siły ukraińskie zaskoczyły na tym kierunku wojsko rosyjskie; w ciągu 48 godzin operacji zajęły 11 miejscowości, granicę rosyjską przekroczyło ponad tysiąc żołnierzy ukraińskich. Ukraińcy przedarli się w głąb Rosji na ponad 35 kilometrów [ 96 ] . Rosjanie utracili kontrolę nad odpowiadającą za przesył gazu do Europy stacją pomiarową Gazpromu Sudża [ 97 ] [ 98 ] . W odpowiedzi na ukraiński rajd w obwodach kurskim , biełgorodzkim i briańskim Rosja ogłosiła reżim antyterrorystyczny [ 99 ] . Według Ołeksandra Syrskiego do 15 sierpnia Ukraińcy zajęli w obwodzie kurskim terytorium obejmujące 82 miejscowości i 1150 kilometrów kwadratowych [ 100 ] . W wyniku operacji Rosjanie przesiedli z tamtych obszarów co najmniej 121 000 cywilów [ 101 ] . 1 października 2024 roku wojska rosyjskie zajęły Wuhłedar [ 102 ] . W marcu 2025 roku administracja prezydenta Stanów Zjednoczonych poinformowała o zawieszeniu pomocy wywiadowczej i militarnej dla Ukrainy [ 103 ] [ 104 ] [ 105 ] [ 106 ] , jednak wkrótce amerykańska pomoc została wznowiona po zgodzie Ukrainy na ewentualne trzydziestodniowe zawieszenie broni, do którego nie doszło [ 107 ] . 1 czerwca 2025 Ukraina przeprowadziła operację specjalną Pajęczyna przeciwko rosyjskiemu lotnictwu strategicznemu [ 108 ] . Wojna powietrzna Tuż przed początkiem rosyjskiej inwazji w lutym 2022 roku, Rosja dysponowała 1391 samolotami bojowymi, podczas gdy Ukraina 132 – z których wszystkie były przestarzałe w stosunku do większości samolotów rosyjskich [ 109 ] . W początkowej fazie wojny, Siły Powietrzno-Kosmiczne Federacji Rosyjskiej przeprowadziły intensywne ataki na ukraińskie systemy obrony powietrznej, z użyciem kombinowanych ataków za pomocą pocisków manewrujących i pocisków balistycznych , a także pocisków przeciwradarowych [ 110 ] . W tym okresie, Rosja zaangażowała w atak na Ukrainę także trzon swoich wojsk walki elektronicznej – Rosjanie zaangażowali ofensywne systemy elektroniczne oraz powietrzne pułapki, obliczone na przeciążenie ukraińskich radarów obrony powietrznej, z których wiele musiało zostać wyłączonych i repozycjonowanych [ 110 ] . Mimo połączonego ataku kinetycznego i nie-kinetycznego na ukraińskie systemy obrony powietrznej, siły powietrzne Ukrainy przetrwały i – co więcej – zdołały zapobiec osiągnięciu przez Rosję przewagi powietrznej [ 110 ] . Stanowi to znaczne osiągnięcie, biorąc pod uwagę znacznie mniejszą liczbę ukraińskich pilotów oraz samolotów, którzy musieli przeciwstawić się nie tylko rosyjskiej przewadze liczebnej, lecz także jakościowej. Rosyjskie siły powietrzne dysponowały bowiem znacznie bardziej zaawansowanymi technicznie samolotami, wyposażonymi w lepsze uzbrojenie, sensory i systemy walki elektronicznej, wspieranymi przez systemy wczesnego ostrzegania [ 110 ] . Ukraińscy piloci narażeni przy tym są na stałe zagrożenie ze strony rosyjskich systemów przeciwlotniczych S-400 , w tym rozmieszczonych na Krymie i Białorusi [ 110 ] . Mimo bardzo niekorzystnej sytuacji taktycznej, siły powietrzne Ukrainy adaptowały taktykę do nowej sytuacji, celem przetrwania i pozostania efektywnymi. Ukraińscy piloci, latając nisko – często poniżej pułapu 30 metrów – byli w stanie ukryć się poniżej horyzontu rosyjskich radarów i wykorzystując ukształtowanie terenu celem uniknięcia wykrycia, przed wzniesieniem się i atakiem na rosyjskie samoloty [ 110 ] . Także rosyjskie samoloty zmuszone zostały do latania na niskim pułapie, celem uniknięcia wykrycia i zestrzelenia przez ukraińskie średniego i wysokiego pułapu systemy SAM . Naraziło je to jednak na ataki przenośnych systemów przeciwlotniczych niskiego pułapu typu MANPAD, w tym Stinger , Igła i naprowadzanych laserowo Starstreak [ 110 ] . Mimo że siły ukraińskie znacząco ograniczyły rosyjskie operacje powietrzne na niskim pułapie, rosyjskie samoloty myśliwskie Su-35 i MiG-31 na wysokim pułapie – za pomocą pocisków dalekiego zasięgu – zniszczyły znaczną liczbę ukraińskich samolotów wsparcia pola walki Su-24 [ 110 ] . W przedstawionej Kongresowi informacji, zdaniem Departamentu Obrony USA , do marca 2023 roku, Rosja straciła 70 samolotów na Ukrainie zestrzelonych przez naziemne systemy przeciwlotnicze, podczas gdy ukraińskie siły powietrzne, straciły z tego samego powodu 60 maszyn [ 109 ] . W rezultacie, ani dysponujące teoretycznie znacznie nowocześniejszymi samolotami lotnictwo rosyjskie, ani lotnictwo ukraińskie używające przestarzałych MiG-29 i starszych wersji Su-27 , ze znacznie mniejszymi możliwościami swoich radarów i pocisków, nie jest dotąd w stanie zapewnić sobie ani przewagi , ani dominacji w powietrzu [ 110 ] [ 109 ] . Według zachodnich przewidywań tuż przed wybuchem wojny, siły rosyjskie miały zapewnić sobie dominację w powietrzu w ciągu 72 godzin – zachodnie oceny okazały się całkowicie nietrafne. W dużej mierze dzięki odwadze ukraińskich pilotów oraz ich efektywności, według zachodnich analiz zaś, także dzięki niskiemu wyszkoleniu w rosyjskich siłach powietrznych [ 111 ] . Spowodowało to że rosyjskie lotnictwo nie jest w stanie zapewnić właściwego wsparcia powietrznego dla działań wojsk lądowych [ 111 ] . Z drugiej strony nieefektywność rosyjskich ataków rakietowych na ukraińskie instalacje obrony przeciwlotniczej w pierwszych dniach wojny, umożliwiło ich przetrwanie, zaś ich mobilność spowodowała, że w dalszym przebiegu działań siły rosyjskie nie są w stanie skutecznie ich wykrywać i bronić się przed nimi [ 111 ] . Sytuację rosyjskich sił powietrznych pogorszyło także dostarczenie Ukrainie z krajów zachodnich nowoczesnych systemów NASAMS (inne języki) , MIM-104 Patriot i Iris-T SLM ze znacznie lepszymi radarami, które Ukraina skutecznie używa nawet do zwalczania rosyjskich lotniczych pocisków balistycznych Ch-47M2 Kindżał [ 112 ] [ u ] . Wyrazem braku rosyjskiego panowania w powietrzu, stało się zestrzelenie 14 stycznia 2024 roku rosyjskiego samolotu wczesnego ostrzegania Berijew A-50 , które należą zwykle do najbardziej chronionych statków powietrznych każdych sił powietrznych nimi dysponujących [ 114 ] . Tego samego dnia, poważnie uszkodzono także rosyjski samolot dowodzenia Il-22M11 , który zdołał wprawdzie awaryjnie wylądować na lotnisku w Anapie , z uwagi jednak na stopień zniszczeń, nie będzie prawdopodobnie mógł zostać przywrócony do służby [ 114 ] . 4 sierpnia 2024 roku Ukraina oficjalnie otrzymała na swoim terytorium pierwsze zachodnie samoloty myśliwskie F-16 Fighting Falcon , rozpoczynając proces dostosowania ukraińskich sił powietrznych do standardów zachodnich [ 115 ] . W 2025 roku ukraińskie siły powietrzne dyspoinują nieznaną liczbą F-16 oraz francuskich samolotów Dassault Mirage 2000 . W 2024 roku Ukraina otrzymała co najmniej jeden przekazany przez Szwecję samolot AWACS Saab 340 AEW&C Erieye , który pełni rolę samolotu wczesnego ostrzegania i powietrznego centrum dowodzenia [ 116 ] . Wojna dronów W miarę rozwoju konfliktu, od połowy 2024 roku co raz wiekszego znaczenia w wojnie nabierają ataki przeprowadzane za pomocą bezzałogowych statków powietrznych , zwłaszcza dronów FPV ( First Person View ) [ 117 ] . Według niektórych opinii, w roku 2024 drony FVP odpowiadały nawet za 80% strat stron konfliktu. Drony tej klasy wykorzystywane są zarówno do zwalczania siły żywej stron konfliktu, jak i pojazdów wojskowych. Produkowane w Rosji na licencji irańskiej drony Shahed 136 wykorzystywane są przez Rosję do ataków na ukraińską infrastrukturę i inne obiekty cywilne, drony zaś FPV używane są przez obie strony jako narzędzie taktyczne na polu walki. 1 czerwca 2025 roku doszło do bezprecedensowego w dziejach wojen powietrznych ataku dronów FPV wspomaganych algorytmami sztucznej inteligencji (AI) na cztery rosyjskie bazy lotnicze na terytorium całej Rosji, w których zniszczeniu uległo – wg różnych źródeł od 13 do 41 rosyjskich bombowców strategicznych Tu-95MS oraz Tu-22M3 [ 118 ] . Ukraiński atak na lotniska lotnictwa strategicznego na całym terytorium Rosji w odległości tysięcy kilometrów od Ukrainy wywołał szok w Federacji Rosyjskiej, zmuszając rosyjskie dowództwo wojskowe do większego rozproszenia swoich zasobów strategicznych oraz odsunięcia ich od granic Ukrainy. Wywołał też duży oddźwięk na całym świecie, jako pierwszy w historii atak tego rodzaju i o tak dużej skali, uświadamiając zagrożenie ze strony dronów dla baz wojskowych na całym świecie [ 117 ] . Straty Straty bojowe 12 marca 2022 Wołodymyr Zełenski poinformował, że straty wśród żołnierzy ukraińskich wyniosły nieco ponad 1,3 tys. Natomiast 16 kwietnia poinformował o śmierci od 2500 do 3000 i 10 000 rannych ukraińskich żołnierzy [ 119 ] [ 120 ] . 2 marca rzecznik Ministerstwa Obrony Federacji Rosyjskiej , gen. Igor Konaszenkow , stwierdził, że Rosja straciła 498 żołnierzy i 1597 zostało rannych. Ukraina straciła 2870 żołnierzy, a 3700 zostało rannych [ 121 ] [ 122 ] . 21 marca Rosja przekazała Komitetowi Czerwonego Krzyża informację o przetrzymywaniu ponad 500 ukraińskich jeńców wojennych [ 123 ] [ 124 ] . 25 marca Sergei Rudskoi przekazał informację o śmierci 1351 rosyjskich żołnierzy i 3825 rannych [ 125 ] . Natomiast BBC 6 kwietnia podało – jak twierdzi – oficjalne dane Rosji, mówiące o śmierci 1083 żołnierzy, z czego 217 osób było oficerami rosyjskiej armii [ 126 ] [ 127 ] . 16 kwietnia Rosja przekazała, że Ukraina straciła 23 367 żołnierzy [ 128 ] . Rzecznik milicji Donieckiej Republiki Ludowej Eduard Basurin przekazał 7 marca, że zginęło ich 47 żołnierzy, a 179 zostało rannych [ 129 ] . Natomiast rosyjski urzędnik Tatyana Moskalkova przekazała na dzień 11 marca o śmierci 96 żołnierzy i 1083 rannych (wraz z rezerwistami) [ 130 ] . Według Stanów Zjednoczonych po dwóch tygodniach walk (do 9 marca) zginęło od 2 do 4 tys. żołnierzy ukraińskich i od 5 do 6 tys. rosyjskich, aczkolwiek straty Rosji mogły być zbliżone do 3500 [ 131 ] . 17 marca „ The New York Times ” podał liczbę ponad 7 tys. zabitych rosyjskich żołnierzy. Rannych było od 7 do 14 tysięcy. Szacowane liczby pochodzą z ostrożnych szacunków amerykańskiego wywiadu [ 132 ] [ 133 ] . 30 marca Victoria Nuland poinformowała o ponad 10 tysiącach zabitych rosyjskich żołnierzy [ 134 ] [ 135 ] . 23 marca wysoki rangą urzędnik NATO przekazał dla „ The Wall Street Journal ” o oszacowaniu do 40 tys. rosyjskich żołnierzy, którzy zostali zabici, zranieni, wzięci w niewolę oraz zaginęli na Ukrainie [ v ] . Sama liczba zabitych wyniosła od 7 do 15 tysięcy [ w ] [ 136 ] [ 137 ] [ 138 ] [ 139 ] . 2 marca służby ratownicze Ukrainy poinformowały o 2 tys. zabitych cywilów [ 140 ] . 16 marca w samym Charkowie zginęło co najmniej 500 obywateli Ukrainy [ 141 ] . 14 marca doradca prezydenta Ukrainy Ołeksij Arestowycz w wystąpieniu telewizyjnym mówił o ponad 2,5 tys. mieszkańców Mariupola [ 142 ] . 24 marca szef Czernihowskiej Obwodowej Administracji Wojskowej Viacheslav Chaus poinformował o śmierci (od 24 lutego) około 200 cywilów [ 143 ] . 18 kwietnia ukraińska policja przekazała o prowadzeniu śledztw w sprawie 900 zaginionych, 2500 zabitych i 500 nielegalnie uprowadzonych [ 144 ] . Na dzień 20 kwietnia ONZ poinformowało o śmierci 2224 cywilów i 2897 rannych. Rzeczywista liczba ofiar była prawdopodobnie wyższa [ 145 ] . Minister gospodarki Ukrainy Julia Swyrydenko 28 marca przekazała, że straty gospodarcze Ukrainy wyniosły 564,9 mld dolarów [ 146 ] . WHO potwierdziła 64 ataki na punkty medyczne od 24 lutego do 21 marca [ 147 ] . 21 marca wieczorem w rosyjskim prorządowym tabloidzie „ Komsomolskaja prawda ” ukazała się informacja, że straty wojsk rosyjskich wyniosły 9861 żołnierzy zabitych i 16 153 rannych. Szacunki te zestawiono z danymi pochodzących ze sztabu wojsk ukraińskich, które 20 marca wykazywały, że Rosja straciła 96 samolotów, 118 śmigłowców i 14 700 żołnierzy [ 148 ] . Po około 40 minutach portal publikację tę usunął, a następnie zamieścił wyjaśnienie, że informacja ta była nieprawdziwa i była skutkiem włamania hakerskiego na stronę „Komsomolskiej prawdy” [ 149 ] [ 150 ] [ 151 ] [ 152 ] [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] . Od początku konfliktu straty w sprzęcie po obu stronach konfliktu monitorowane są przez holenderski blog Oryx specjalizujący się w białym wywiadzie . Obliczenia Oryxa często tworzą absolutne minimum dla oszacowań strat [ 156 ] . Dane Oryxa cytowane były w głównych mediach takich jak TVN24 , TVP Info , CNN i The Guardian [ 157 ] [ 158 ] [ 159 ] [ 160 ] . 10 listopada 2022 gen. Mark Milley , szef sztabu US Army, stwierdził, że wg jego szacunków Rosjanie stracili ponad 100 000 żołnierzy (rannych i poległych). Podobne straty miała odnieść strona ukraińska. Ponadto wskazał, że w wojnie zginęło około 40 000 cywili [ 161 ] . Według ujawnionych w marcu 2023 tajnych dokumentów i oceny opracowanej przez amerykańską Agencję Wywiadu Obronnego, Rosja poniosła od 189 tys. do 223 tys. strat w ludziach, z czego 35–43 tys. to zabici, a 154–180 tys. to ranni. Ukraina miała stracić od 124 do 131 tys. żołnierzy, z czego 15–17 tys. to zabici, a 109–113 tys. to ranni [ 162 ] . W sierpniu 2023 Wałerij Załużny , Naczelny Dowódca Wojsk Ukrainskich potwierdził, że w czerwcu 2023 w trakcie najcięższych walk w Donbasie straty wynosiły nawet 100 do 200 żołnierzy dziennie, później miały znacznie spaść [ 163 ] . Całkowite straty bojowe Rosjan w okresie od 24 lutego 2022 do 15 stycznia 2026 Według danych Sztabu Generalnego Sił Zbrojnych Ukrainy straty po stronie rosyjskiej wynosiły [ 164 ] : około 1 223 090 żołnierzy (wliczając w to jeńców wojennych i rannych) 23 904 pojazdy opancerzone 74 306 pojazdów kołowych i cystern 11 557 czołgów 36 182 systemów artyleryjskich 107 357 bezzałogowych statków powietrznych 1 611 wyrzutni rakietowych 434 samoloty 347 śmigłowców 4 163 pociski manewrujące 1 277 systemów obrony przeciwlotniczej 4 042 sztuki wyposażenia specjalnego 28 jednostek nawodnych 1 okręt podwodny Straty w sferze ukraińskiego dziedzictwa kulturowego Zgodnie ze stanem na koniec marca 2024 roku armia rosyjska zniszczyła albo uszkodziła 1046 obiektów ukraińskiego dziedzictwa kulturowego [ 165 ] . Wśród nich znalazły się obiekty o znaczeniu narodowym – 128, znaczeniu lokalnym – 848, dopiero zatwierdzone (wcześniej niewłączone do rejestrów) – 70 [ 165 ] . Obiekty dziedzictwa kulturowego zostały uszkodzone lub zdewastowane w 17 obwodach Ukrainy [ 165 ] . Najwięcej – zgodnie z danymi rządu – w obwodzie charkowskim (294), chersońskim (136) i donieckim (125) [ 165 ] . Według danych ukraińskiego Ministerstwa Kultury zostały zrujnowane lub zniszczone obiekty następujących kategorii: 57 zabytków archeologii, 294 zabytki architektury, 312 zabytków architektury i urbanistyki, 66 zabytków historii, architektury i urbanistyki, 1 zabytek sztuki monumentalnej, 7 zabytków architektury i sztuki monumentalnej, 40 zabytków architektury i historii, 221 zabytków historii, 5 zabytków urbanistyki, 19 zabytków urbanistyki i sztuki monumentalno-dekoracyjnej, 21 zabytków sztuki monumentalnej, 2 zabytki nauki i techniki, architektury, 1 zabytek sztuki parkowo-ogrodniczej [ 165 ] . Największe straty w sferze kultury odnotowano w obwodach donieckim, charkowskim, chersońskim, kijowskim oraz w Kijowie, mikołajowskim, ługańskim i zaporoskim. Najbardziej ucierpiały placówki kulturalne – 48% [ 165 ] . Spis zniszczonych i uszkodzonych obiektów z podziałem na kategorie: placówki kulturalne – 929, biblioteki – 689, placówki edukacji artystycznej – 154, muzea i galerie – 133, teatry i kina oraz filharmonie – 38, parki, zoo, rezerwaty – 12, cyrki – 3 [ 165 ] . Wśród najbardziej symbolicznych zniszczonych i uszkodzonych obiektów kultury można wymienić teatr w Mariupolu , cerkiew św. Mikołaja z 1797 roku w Bachmucie, gmach Muzeum Krajoznawczego w Orichowie z 1893 roku, Muzeum Bohdana i Warwary Chanenków, wybudowane w latach 1887–1891 w Kijowie, cerkiew św. Jerzego we wsi Zaworyczi z obwodu kijowskiego, budynek Słowo w Charkowie, kościół Podwyższenia Krzyża Świętego z 1771 roku we wsi Brzozdowce z obwodu lwowskiego, Muzeum Sztuki im. Archipa Kuindży w Mariupolu, stuletnie gimnazjum w Łysyczańsku, muzeum Hryhorija Skoworody w obwodzie charkowskim, Odeskie Muzeum Sztuki [ 165 ] . Negocjacje ukraińsko-rosyjskie W południe czasu polskiego 28 lutego 2022 na Białorusi [ 166 ] , w miejscowości Homel , rozpoczęły się – bez warunków wstępnych – negocjacje ukraińsko-rosyjskie [ 167 ] . W skład ukraińskiej delegacji weszli: przewodniczący partii Sługa Ludu – Dawid Arachamia (inne języki) , minister obrony – Ołeksij Reznikow , doradca szefa gabinetu prezydenta – Mychajło Podolak , pierwszy zastępca przewodniczącego ukraińskiej delegacji do Trójstronnej Grupy Kontaktowej – Andrij Kostin, zastępca przewodniczącego ukraińskiej delegacji do Zgromadzenia Parlamentarnego Rady Europy – Rustem Umierow , wiceminister spraw zagranicznych – Nikołaj Tochicki . Stronę rosyjską reprezentowali: przewodniczący delegacji i doradca prezydenta Putina – Władimir Miedinski , ambasador Rosji na Białorusi – Boris Gryzłow , poseł – Leonid Słucki , wiceminister spraw zagranicznych – Andriej Rudenko (inne języki) , wiceminister obrony – Aleksandr Fominych . Negocjacje trwały ok. 5 godzin. Miediński zapowiedział dalsze spotkania [ 168 ] . Druga tura negocjacji rozpoczęła się 3 marca na białoruskim obszarze Puszczy Białowieskiej . Strony porozumiały się w kwestii utworzenia korytarzy humanitarnych dla ewakuacji ludności cywilnej z obszarów, na których toczone były najcięższe walki, tj. Mariupol i Chersoń. Zapowiedziano stworzenie specjalnych kanałów komunikacyjnych i sformułowanie stosownych procedur logistycznych w celu przeprowadzenia ewakuacji [ 166 ] . Trzecia runda negocjacji odbyła się w poniedziałek, 7 marca w obwodzie brzeskim na Białorusi i trwała ponad 3 godziny. Według strony ukraińskiej rozmowy nie przyniosły znaczącego przełomu. Ukraiński negocjator Mychajło Podolak poinformował, że doszło do niewielkiego postępu w sprawie organizacji korytarzy humanitarnych [ 169 ] . Tego samego dnia minister spraw zagranicznych Turcji Mevlut Cavusoglu ogłosił, że szefowie dyplomacji Rosji i Ukrainy spotkają się w czwartek w Antalyi [ 170 ] . Również w poniedziałek rzecznik Kremla, Dmitrij Pieskow , przedstawił warunki, jakie muszą być spełnione, by Rosjanie przerwali działania zbrojne na Ukrainie. Są to: zmiana konstytucji Ukrainy tak, aby zapisano w niej neutralność kraju, uznanie rosyjskiej aneksji Krymu i uznanie niepodległości Donieckiej Republiki Ludowej i Ługańskiej Republiki ludowej [ 171 ] . Mediacji podjęli się wcześniej prezydent Francji i premier Izraela. Emmanuel Macron w sprawie koncentracji wojsk przy granicy rosyjsko–ukraińskiej spotykał się z Putinem w Moskwie jeszcze przed inwazją – 7 i 11 lutego. Po pierwszej z tych wizyt odwiedził również Kijów. Już po ataku kilkukrotnie przeprowadził z prezydentem Rosji wielogodzinne rozmowy telefoniczne. Do 6 marca Macron z Putinem rozmawiali w ten sposób czterokrotnie [ 172 ] [ 173 ] [ 174 ] . Natomiast Naftali Bennett odwiedził Moskwę 5 marca – dziesiątego dnia walk. Był pierwszym przywódcą państw zachodnich, który złożył wizytę w Moskwie od rozpoczącia inwazji na Ukrainę. Tego samego dnia Bennett rozmawiał telefonicznie z prezydentem Ukrainy, po czym do 8 marca rozmawiał dwukrotnie telefonicznie z prezydentem Rosji [ 175 ] [ 176 ] [ 177 ] [ 178 ] . Podczas kurtuazyjnej wizyty inaugurującej sprawowanie urzędu, sprawę ukraińską poruszał również kanclerz Niemiec – Olaf Scholz , rozmawiając z Putinem w Moskwie 15 lutego, dzień po wizycie w Kijowie [ 179 ] . 20 listopada 2025 upubliczniono plan pokojowy prezydenta USA Donalda Trumpa , zakładający zawarcie kompleksowego porozumienia o nieagresji między stronami konfliktu. 28-punktowy plan zawiera m.in. propozycję potwierdzenia przez Rosję suwerenności Ukrainy w zamian za uznanie za rosyjskie Krymu , całości obwodu donieckiego i ługańskiego , oraz częściowe uznanie obwodu chersońskiego i zaporoskiego , w granicach linii kontaktowej frontu. Plan zawiera także gwarancje dotyczące nieprzystąpienia Ukrainy do NATO oraz gwarancje dotyczące zaprzestania dalszego rozszerzania Sojuszu [ 180 ] [ 181 ] . Uchodźcy Z rozpoczęciem działań wojennych tysiące Ukraińców skierowało się do zachodnich granic swego państwa. Już pierwszego dnia konfliktu na przejściach granicznych z Polską , Słowacją , Węgrami , Mołdawią i Rumunią powstały kolejki pojazdów i pieszych [ 182 ] . Większość uchodźców stanowiły kobiety i dzieci [ 183 ] . W związku z wprowadzeniem stanu wojennego mężczyzn obywatelstwa ukraińskiego w wieku od 18 do 60 lat obowiązuje zakaz wyjazdu z kraju [ 184 ] . Według danych UNHCR do 19 kwietnia Ukrainę opuściło 5 mln 34 tys. osób, z czego 2 mln 825 tys. udało się do Polski, 757 tys. do Rumunii, 550 tys. do Rosji, 471 tys. na Węgry, 427 tys. do Mołdawii, 343 tys. na Słowację, 24 tys. na Białoruś [ x ] [ 185 ] . Uchodźcy w Mołdawii i Rumunii w niewielkiej części starali się o status uchodźcy – większość planowała dostać się do Czech i Polski [ 186 ] . Pseudoreferenda i ogłoszenie aneksji terytoriów okupowanych 30 września 2022 roku po nieuznawanych przez społeczność międzynarodową referendach na okupowanych ziemiach ukraińskich prezydent Rosji Władimir Putin ogłosił aneksję obwodu donieckiego , zaporoskiego , ługańskiego i chersońskiego (wraz z miastem Snihuriwka i częścią Półwyspu Kinburnskiego , które w ramach ukraińskiego podziału administracyjnego wchodzą w skład obwodu mikołajowskiego ) do Rosji [ 187 ] [ 188 ] . Następstwa Konsekwencje prawne Inwazja Rosji na Ukrainę stanowi naruszenie Karty Narodów Zjednoczonych . Zgodnie z prawem międzynarodowym stanowi zbrodnię agresji , która może być ścigana na mocy jurysdykcji uniwersalnej [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] . 25 lutego organizacja Amnesty International oświadczyła, że posiada niezbite dowody na to, że Rosja naruszyła międzynarodowe prawo humanitarne , a niektóre z jej ataków mogą być uznane za zbrodnie wojenne . Organizacja ta oraz Human Rights Watch stwierdziły, że siły rosyjskie przeprowadziły masowe ataki na obiekty cywilne, w tym na szpitale, m.in. wystrzeliły w kierunku szpitala w Wuhłedarze pocisk balistyczny 9K79 Toczka z głowicą zawierającą amunicję kasetową , w wyniku czego zginęło czterech cywilów, a dziesięciu zostało rannych, w tym sześciu pracowników służby zdrowia [ 192 ] [ 193 ] . Po ostrzelaniu przez Rosjan (w piątek 25 lutego, około południa) przedszkola w Ochtyrce , ukraińskie ministerstwo spraw zagranicznych zapowiedziało, że dotychczasowe i przyszłe ataki na ludność cywilną posłużą jako materiał dowodowy w postępowaniu przed Międzynarodowym Trybunałem Karnym , mającym na celu zbadanie aktów ludobójstwa i zbrodni wojennych popełnionych na Ukrainie [ 194 ] [ 195 ] . 27 lutego Ukraina skierowała do Międzynarodowego Trybunału Sprawiedliwości pozew przeciwko Rosji [ 196 ] . Następnego dnia naczelny prokurator MTK Karim Khan (inne języki) rozpoczął śledztwo w sprawie ewentualnych zbrodni na Ukrainie [ 197 ] . 27 lutego również polski Instytut Pileckiego powołał Centrum Dokumentowania Zbrodni Rosyjskich na Ukrainie im. Rafała Lemkina , które zajmuje się zbieraniem świadectw ludności cywilnej i żołnierzy ukraińskich [ 198 ] , podobne dane od uchodźców gromadzi ABW [ 199 ] , a także Instytut na Rzecz Kultury Prawnej Ordo Iuris [ 200 ] . 10 marca 2022 organizacja Human Rights Watch napisała do ukraińskiego rządu o swoich zastrzeżeniach wobec traktowania rosyjskich żołnierzy. 16 marca z powodu braku odpowiedzi opublikowała komunikat na swojej stronie internetowej odnośnie do swoich uwag. Służby Bezpieczeństwa Ukrainy i Ministerstwo Spraw Wewnętrznych prowadząc swoje oficjalne kanały w mediach społecznościowych, miały dopuścić się złamania trzeciej konwencji genewskiej poprzez publikowanie danych personalnych jeńców wojennych oraz przedstawianie ich w upokarzających sytuacjach. Według organizacji na platformach społecznościowych były także udostępniane zdjęcia i filmy zabitych rosyjskich żołnierzy, które nie mogą zostać zweryfikowane. W tym samym oświadczeniu Human Rights Watch stwierdził, że udokumentował liczne przypadki łamania prawa wojennego przez stronę rosyjską. Wśród nich znajdują się ataki na ludność cywilną oraz uniemożliwianie jej opuszczania rejonów objętych starciami wojsk [ 201 ] . 16 marca MTS postanowił o środkach tymczasowych w sporze Ukraina–Rosja, które sprowadzają się do nakazu wstrzymania przez Rosję i podległe jej oddziały operacji wojskowych na terytorium Ukrainy oraz do nakazu powstrzymania się przez obie strony od akcji, które mogłyby spotęgować ten spór [ 202 ] . Ponad rok po rozpoczęciu inwazji, 17 marca 2023 r. Międzynarodowy Trybunał Karny wydał nakazy aresztowania prezydenta Rosji Władimira Putina i komisarz ds. praw dziecka w Rosji, Mariji Lwowej-Biełowej . Sąd karny zarzucał obu osobom odpowiedzialność za bezprawną deportację ukraińskich dzieci do Rosji i popełnienie w związku z tym zbrodni wojennych [ 203 ] [ 204 ] [ 205 ] . Rzecznik Dmitrij Pieskow stwierdził, że Rosja nie uznaje jurysdykcji Międzynarodowego Trybunału Karnego i tego rodzaju decyzje są dla Rosji nieistotne [ 206 ] . Następstwa społeczne na Ukrainie Inwazja wpłynęła na osłabienie Ukraińskiego Kościoła Prawosławnego Patriarchatu Moskiewskiego przejawiające się przechodzeniem poszczególnych parafii do autokefalicznego Kościoła Prawosławnego Ukrainy oraz spadku reputacji w społeczeństwie. Według badań opinii publicznej z sierpnia 2022 z podległą Patriarchatowi Moskiewskiemu Cerkwią identyfikowało się 4% Ukraińców deklarujących się jako prawosławni, zaś według badań z grudnia 54% badanych opowiadało się za jej delegalizacją [ 207 ] . Konsekwencje gospodarcze Sytuacja w krajach konfliktu Natychmiastowym skutkiem inwazji stała się zapowiedź sankcji gospodarczych ze strony wielu państw i organizacji międzynarodowych. W efekcie już pierwszego dnia inwazji nastąpił na giełdzie moskiewskiej (inne języki) gwałtowny spadek indeksu RTS o 39% [ 208 ] i to pomimo dwugodzinnego zawieszenia notowań [ 209 ] . Notowania zawiesiła także Giełda Papierów Wartościowych w Petersburgu [ 210 ] . Obrót na giełdzie w Moskwie, początkowo w ograniczonym zakresie, został przywrócony 24 marca [ 211 ] . Wartość rubla rosyjskiego spadła do rekordowo niskiego poziomu w stosunku do dolara amerykańskiego . W celu ustabilizowania rynku Centralny Bank Federacji Rosyjskiej ogłosił pierwszą interwencję rynkową od czasu aneksji Krymu w 2014 roku [ 212 ] . Mimo tych działań rubel wciąż tracił i 25 lutego dolar kosztował 92 ruble (74 przed konfliktem), a euro – 103 ruble (wobec ok. 80 rubli). Rosjanie zaczęli masowo dokonywać wypłat, zwłaszcza oszczędności walutowych, oraz zakupów sprzętu elektronicznego i AGD (objętych sankcjami), który w efekcie podrożał nawet o 30% [ 213 ] . 28 lutego rano wartość rubla spadła do 119 za dolara. Niektóre banki oferowały dolara nawet za ponad 170 rubli. Centralny Bank Federacji Rosyjskiej dla ratowania sytuacji finansowo-gospodarczej podniósł główną stopę referencyjną z 9,5% do 20% [ 214 ] [ 215 ] . Po tygodniu inwazji i wprowadzania kolejnych sankcji agencje ratingowe takie jak: Moody’s , Fitch i S&P Global Ratings obniżyły ratingi Rosji do poziomu śmieciowego, a ostatnia z agencji ostrzegła nawet przed bankructwem kraju [ 216 ] . Po początkowym gwałtownym spadku wartości rubla władze Rosji wprowadziły regulacje, w wyniku których kurs waluty zaczął być sztucznie wzmacniany (wprowadzenie dla obywateli zakazu transferów pieniężnych za granicę, nakazanie podmiotom gospodarczym zamiany 80% przychodów w walutach obcych na ruble, wymuszenie zakupów surowców z zagranicy za ruble), co w efekcie spowodowało, że w maju 2022 rubel był najmocniej zyskującą walutą w skali globalnej. W tym też czasie indeks RTS moskiewskiej giełdy wzrósł o 107%, ale zakaz sprzedaży aktywów nierezydentom spowodował utratę przez giełdę statusu międzynarodowego [ 217 ] . Narodowy Bank Ukrainy zawiesił rynki walutowe i ustalił kurs sztywny. Ograniczył także wypłaty gotówki do 100 tys. hrywien dziennie oraz zabronił wypłat w walutach obcych przez obywateli. Ukraińska Giełda Papierów Wartościowych PFTS (inne języki) poinformowała 24 lutego, że obrót został zawieszony z powodu „zdarzeń nadzwyczajnych” [ 218 ] . W związku z wnioskiem rosyjskiego Ministerstwa Obrony o wstrzymanie lotów przez jednostki kontroli ruchu lotniczego Ukrainy, przestrzeń powietrzna nad Ukrainą została ograniczona do ruchu niecywilnego, a cały obszar został uznany przez Agencję UE ds. Bezpieczeństwa Lotniczego za strefę aktywnego konfliktu [ 219 ] . Wskutek sankcji nastąpiło zmniejszenie obrotów handlowych między Rosją a krajami UE. Według danych Eurostatu od lutego do grudnia 2022 roku udział Rosji w imporcie pozaunijnym państw Unii Europejskiej spadł z 9,5 do 4,3% w omawianym okresie, zaś w przypadku eksportu udział Rosji spadł z 4 do 2%. Wartość importu z Rosji spadła z 21,9 mld w marcu 2022 roku do 10,3 mld euro w grudniu 2022 (spadek o 53%). Wpływ na to miał przede wszystkim spadek wartości importu surowców energetycznych [ 220 ] . Sankcje spowodowały także ograniczenie wydobycia ropy naftowej [ 221 ] i przekierowanie części eksportu do innych krajów m.in. Indii [ 222 ] . W okresie pomiędzy I kwartałem 2022 a I kwartałem 2023 PKB Ukrainy spadł o 10,5% [ 223 ] , natomiast w 2024 roku odnotowano 4% wzrostu PKB [ 224 ] . Wpływ na gospodarkę globalną Następstwem inwazji był też wzrost ceny ropy Brent powyżej 100 dolarów za baryłkę (po raz pierwszy od 2014 roku) [ 225 ] . Znacząco podrożała pszenica , osiągając cenę najwyższą od 2008 roku (Rosja i Ukraina wytwarzają 30% światowej podaży) [ 226 ] . W niektórych krajach zależnych od importu rosyjskiej i ukraińskiej pszenicy (np. Egipcie ) skok cen wywołał obawy przed niepokojami społecznymi [ 227 ] . Dyrektor zarządzająca Międzynarodowego Funduszu Walutowego , Kristalina Georgiewa , ostrzegła, że konflikt stanowi poważne ryzyko gospodarcze dla regionu i w skali międzynarodowej. Dodała, że Fundusz może pomóc innym krajom dotkniętym konfliktem, rozszerzając pakiet pożyczek o wartości 2,2 miliarda dolarów przygotowywany na pomoc Ukrainie. Podobnie prezes Banku Światowego David Malpass stwierdził, że konflikt będzie miał daleko idące skutki gospodarcze i społeczne. Zapowiedział też przygotowanie możliwości znacznego wsparcia gospodarczego i fiskalnego dla Ukraińców oraz państw regionu [ 228 ] . Sankcje międzynarodowe Natychmiast po wybuchu konfliktu przywódcy wielu krajów i organizacji międzynarodowych potępili atak Rosji i zapowiedzieli wprowadzenie sankcji gospodarczych wobec tego kraju. 24 lutego rano przewodnicząca Komisji Europejskiej Ursula von der Leyen zapowiedziała wprowadzenie „potężnych” sankcji unijnych skierowanych przeciw Rosji. Objęto nimi transfery technologiczne, rosyjskie banki i aktywa [ 229 ] . Wysoki przedstawiciel UE do spraw zagranicznych Josep Borrell zapowiedział, że Rosja stanie w obliczu „bezprecedensowej izolacji”, ponieważ sankcje UE będą „najostrzejszym pakietem kiedykolwiek wdrożonym przez Unię”. Stwierdził także, że „są to jedne z najczarniejszych godzin w Europie od II wojny światowej ” [ 230 ] . Brytyjski premier Boris Johnson ogłosił zamknięcie rosyjskim bankom i ponad stu osobom fizycznym z Rosji dostępu do brytyjskiego systemu finansowego oraz zamrożenie ich aktywów [ 231 ] . Niemiecki kanclerz Olaf Scholz w odpowiedzi na rosyjską inwazję zamroził proces certyfikacji gazociągu Nord Stream 2 [ 232 ] . 28 lutego dotychczas zachowująca neutralność Szwajcaria zdecydowała się na przyłączenie do unijnych sankcji. Według dziennika „ Bild ” w Szwajcarii mogło znajdować się nawet 1/3 majątków rosyjskich oligarchów [ 233 ] . Tego samego dnia również Monako zadeklarowało wdrożenie unijnych sankcji na Rosję [ 234 ] . Prezydent Stanów Zjednoczonych Joe Biden ogłosił wprowadzenie sankcji wobec czterech rosyjskich banków oraz „skorumpowanych miliarderów” bliskich Putinowi [ 235 ] . Stany Zjednoczone wprowadziły również kontrolę eksportu, ograniczyły dostęp Rosji do zaawansowanych technologicznie produktów, zarówno sprzętu, jak i oprogramowania, do których stworzenia wykorzystano jakąkolwiek część lub własność intelektualną pochodzącą ze Stanów Zjednoczonych. Sankcja wymaga, aby każda osoba lub firma, która chce sprzedawać do Rosji technologię, półprzewodniki, oprogramowanie szyfrujące, lasery lub czujniki, zażądała licencji, której domyślnie się odmawia. Sankcja koncentruje się na przemyśle stoczniowym, lotniczym i obronnym. Oznacza to m.in., że nie będzie możliwości aktualizacji oprogramowania i poprawek luk w zabezpieczeniach (wyjątek przyjęto dla aktualizacji smartfonów Google i Apple , aby mieć mniejszy wpływ na przeciętnych Rosjan). Uważa się, że sankcja w odniesieniu do sprzętu spowoduje stopniową degradację infrastruktury technologicznej Rosji [ 236 ] . 8 marca Biden ogłosił wprowadzenie całkowitego embarga na import ropy, gazu i węgla z Rosji [ 237 ] . Jedną z najcięższych sankcji wobec Rosji było jej odcięcie od globalnego systemu płatności międzybankowych SWIFT . Głównym powodem oporów przed jej wprowadzeniem były obawy o wstrzymanie w konsekwencji dostaw do Europy niezbędnych surowców energetycznych z Rosji [ 238 ] . 26 lutego ostatni kraj UE, który bronił usunięcia Rosji ze SWIFT, Niemcy, zgodziły się na „ukierunkowane” usunięcie Rosji ze SWIFT [ 239 ] . Wprowadzone 2 marca blokady w systemie SWIFT nie obejmują jednak rosyjskich banków obsługujących płatności za energię: Sbierbanku i Gazprombanku (inne języki) [ 240 ] . Sankcje odwetowe Dekret z 28 lutego zakazuje rezydentom Rosji (m.in. osobom przebywającym na terenie Rosji przez co najmniej 183 dni w roku) przelewania obcych walut na konta w zagranicznych bankach i instytucjach finansowych oraz dokonywania przelewów za pomocą elektronicznych środków płatniczych zagranicznych dostawców bez otwierania rachunku bankowego [ 241 ] . 1 marca, ze skutkiem od 2 marca, Putin zadekretował, że obywatele państw „nieprzyjaznych Rosji i jej obywatelom” potrzebują do dokonania transakcji rosyjskimi papierami wartościowymi, nieruchomościami oraz pożyczkami i kredytami w rublach zezwolenia komisji rządu Rosji ds. kontroli inwestycji zagranicznych. Komisja ta może też ustalać warunki, po których spełnieniu cudzoziemiec związany z państwem „nieprzyjaznym” Rosji będzie mógł sprzedać lub kupić w Rosji papiery wartościowe i nieruchomości lub zaciągnąć pożyczkę [ 242 ] . Ten sam dekret zakazuje wywozu z Rosji waluty obcej w ilości przekraczającej równowartość 10 tys. USD [ 243 ] . Inny dekret Putina stanowi, że od kwietnia odbiorcy rosyjskiego gazu z państw „nieprzyjaznych” Rosji mają obowiązek płacić za dostarczany surowiec w rublach, nawet jeżeli kontrakty przewidują zapłatę w euro lub dolarach. Importerzy, którzy się do tego obowiązku nie zastosują, mają nie otrzymać zakontraktowanego gazu [ 244 ] . W grudniu 2022 roku weszło w życie embargo na sprowadzanie drogą morską rosyjskiej ropy naftowej do krajów oraz ustalony przez państwa grupę G7, UE i Australię limit ceny rosyjskiej ropy naftowej transportowanej drogą morską w wysokości 60 dolarów za baryłkę [ 245 ] . Blokady przestrzeni powietrznych i blokady morskie 25 lutego jako pierwsza Wielka Brytania, a następnie Polska, Bułgaria i Czechy zakazały rosyjskim liniom lotniczym i samolotom prywatnym korzystania ze swojej przestrzeni powietrznej [ 246 ] [ 247 ] . Wkrótce dołączyły do tego zakazu także Mołdawia, Estonia, Rumunia, Słowenia, Łotwa i Litwa [ 248 ] [ 249 ] [ 250 ] . Ten sam krok zapowiedziały 27 lutego Finlandia , Szwecja , Dania [ 251 ] , Niemcy (na okres 3 miesięcy), Włochy , Belgia , Austria i Irlandia [ 252 ] , 28 lutego przestrzeń powietrzną zamknęła Grecja i Cypr [ 253 ] . W sumie praktycznie cała przestrzeń nad Europą, a poza nią także nad Kanadą [ 254 ] i USA [ 255 ] , została zamknięta dla samolotów rosyjskich. Rosjanie w odpowiedzi zamknęli swoją przestrzeń powietrzną najpierw dla przewoźników z krajów, które zainicjowały blokadę (Wielkiej Brytanii, Bułgarii i Polski) [ 254 ] , a następnie dla wszystkich 36 [ 256 ] . Największy rosyjski przewoźnik krajowy, S7 Airlines , ogłosił, że odwołuje wszystkie loty do Europy, a amerykański przewoźnik Delta Air Lines ogłosił, że zawiesił współpracę z Aerofłotem [ 247 ] [ 257 ] . Aerofłot odcięty został 3 marca od Globalnego Systemu Dystrybucji, umożliwiającego dokonywanie rezerwacji lotów i ich zakupu na loty zagraniczne i krajowe [ 258 ] . 28 lutego swoje porty dla rosyjskich statków zamknęła Wielka Brytania. 1 marca to samo uczyniła Kanada, rozszerzając przy tym blokadę na kanadyjskie wody terytorialne [ 259 ] . Reakcje przedsiębiorstw W ciągu kolejnych dni inwazji wiele prywatnych przedsiębiorstw zdecydowało się na nałożenie na Rosję (często również na Białoruś) sankcji we własnym zakresie. 28 lutego w Polsce wycofanie z obrotu produktów wyprodukowanych w Rosji lub należących do firm z kapitałem rosyjskim ogłosiły: sieć Netto , polskie oddziały sieci Rossmann i InPost [ 260 ] . Koncern paliwowy BP ogłosił decyzję o sprzedaży swoich akcji (19,75%) w rosyjskim Rosniefcie [ 261 ] . Disney , Sony i Warner Bros. wstrzymały premiery kinowe w Rosji [ 262 ] . 1 marca o wstrzymaniu zleceń na przewóz kontenerów do i z Rosji postanowili trzej liderzy światowego transportu kontenerowego: Mediterranean Shipping Company , Maersk i CMA CGM [ 259 ] . Norweski Państwowy Fundusz Emerytalny zadecydował o sprzedaży swoich inwestycji w Rosji [ 263 ] . Dostawy przesyłek do Rosji zawiesił Fedex , UPS i DHL . Sprzedaż pojazdów i części do Rosji zawiesił Mercedes , Jaguar , Harley-Davidson , Ford , General Motors , BMW , Chevrolet , Cadillac , Audi , Porsche , Renault , Scania , Toyota i Volvo . Z firm technologicznych sprzedaż lub dostawy produktów do Rosji zawiesiła Nokia , HP , Dell , AMD , Intel , Apple , Ericsson , Lenovo . Możliwość transakcji w Rosji lub z rosyjskimi bankami objętymi sankcjami zablokowała Visa , MasterCard , PayPal oraz Paysera [ 264 ] . Kontrowersje wzbudziły niejasności wokół koncernu Coca-Cola , który posiada w Rosji 10 fabryk. 4 marca rosyjska agencja prasowa Tass poinformowała, że koncern nie zamierza zakończyć działalności w tym kraju [ 265 ] . Tego samego dnia wieczorem ukraińska agencja Interfax–Ukraine poinformowała o decyzji dużych sieci ukraińskich sklepów (Novus, Varus, Silpo, Fora, FOZZY , Thrash), wycofujących ze sprzedaży produkty Coca-Coli [ 266 ] [ 267 ] . Informacja o kontynuacji działalności przez Coca-Colę w Rosji odbiła się szerokim echem w krajach zachodnich, na co koncern odpowiedział następnego dnia informując o wycofaniu się z rynku rosyjskiego [ 268 ] . W podobnej atmosferze odebrano doniesienia brytyjskiego dziennika „ Daily Mail ”, który (powołując się na chiński portal branżowy „Reports in China” i poniedziałkowy komentarz ministra obrony Australii Petera Duttona ) poinformował 7 marca, że chiński Huawei wspierał inwazję, szkoląc 50 tysięcy rosyjskich specjalistów w walce z cyberatakami . Szkolenie miało się odbyć bezpośrednio po ataku na rosyjskie strony rządowe (w pierwszym tygodniu inwazji), na których hakerzy publikowali zdjęcia nagrobków [ 269 ] [ 270 ] . Agencja public relations reprezentująca polski oddział Huawei, w lakoniczym komunikacie zdementowała tę informację. Niemniej współpracę sponsorską z koncernem zerwał m.in. Robert Lewandowski , o czym informowały nawet media spoza Europy [ 271 ] [ 272 ] . Kontrakt z Lewandowskim opiewał na 5 milionów euro [ 270 ] . Reakcje międzynarodowe ONZ 25 lutego Rada Bezpieczeństwa Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych głosowała nad rezolucją potępiającą agresję Rosji na Ukrainę przygotowaną przez Stany Zjednoczone i Albanię. Większość krajów głosowała za rezolucją, ale weto Rosji uniemożliwiło jej przyjęcie. Od głosu wstrzymały się: Chiny, Indie i Zjednoczone Emiraty Arabskie [ 273 ] . 2 marca Zgromadzenie Ogólne ONZ przyjęło rezolucję potępiającą Rosję i wzywającą do wycofania jej wojsk z terenu Ukrainy [ 274 ] . Za przyjęciem rezolucji opowiedziało się 141 państw, przeciwnych było 5 krajów, w tym oprócz Rosji i Białorusi: Syria , Korea Północna i Erytrea [ 274 ] . Od głosu wstrzymało się 35 państw między innymi: Armenia , Iran , Chiny , Kazachstan , Indie [ 274 ] [ 275 ] [ 276 ] . 7 kwietnia Rosja w wyniku głosowania Zgromadzenia Ogólnego Narodów Zjednoczonych została pierwszym krajem zawieszonym w Radzie Praw Człowieka Narodów Zjednoczonych. „Za” zagłosowały 93 kraje, 58 wstrzymało się, a 24 wyraziło sprzeciw. Głosowanie przeprowadzono na wniosek Stanów Zjednoczonych [ 277 ] [ 278 ] [ 279 ] . Rada Europy 25 lutego z inicjatywy Polski i Ukrainy Rosja została zawieszona w prawach członka Rady Europy [ 280 ] . 15 marca Rosja została wydalona z Rady Europy, po tym jak formalnie złożyła wniosek w sprawie wystąpienia z tej organizacji [ 281 ] . Unia Europejska 3 marca Rada ds. Wymiaru Sprawiedliwości i Spraw Wewnętrznych ustaliła istnienie sytuacji masowego napływu wysiedleńców w rozumieniu art. 5 dyrektywy o ochronie tymczasowej [ 282 ] , która tym samym zostaje zastosowana po raz pierwszy. Uchodźcy z Ukrainy zyskują prawo tymczasowego pobytu w każdym państwie członkowskim, do którego dotrą, bez konieczności wszczynania postępowania azylowego. Mają przy tym dostęp do rynku pracy, edukacji, opieki medycznej i świadczeń socjalnych [ 283 ] [ 284 ] . Poza tym Komisja Europejska zdecydowała o przeznaczeniu co najmniej 500 mln euro z budżetu UE na pomoc dla uchodźców z Ukrainy oraz dalszych 500 mln euro, w ramach Europejskiego Instrumentu na rzecz Pokoju, na zakup sprzętu dla Ukrainy, w tym – po raz pierwszy – śmiercionośnego [ 285 ] [ 286 ] . Kolejne 500 mln euro na sprzęt wojskowy i broń dla ukraińskiego wojska z tego instrumentu zatwierdzono na szczycie w Wersalu, który odbył się 10–11 marca. Tam też zdecydowano, że nie będzie szybkiej ścieżki przyjęcia Ukrainy do UE [ 287 ] . NATO Na wniosek Polski, Rumunii, Litwy, Łotwy i Estonii na podstawie art. 4 traktatu północnoatlantyckiego rozpoczęły się konsultacje Rady Północnoatlantyckiej [ 288 ] . Premier Estonii Kaja Kallas wydała oświadczenie: „Szeroko zakrojona agresja Rosji jest zagrożeniem dla całego świata i wszystkich państw NATO, dlatego należy zainicjować konsultacje NATO w sprawie wzmocnienia bezpieczeństwa członków sojuszu. Najskuteczniejszą odpowiedzią na rosyjską agresję jest jedność” [ 289 ] . NATO ogłosiło plany zwiększenia liczebności swoich wojsk w krajach bałtyckich, Rumunii i Polsce [ 290 ] [ 291 ] [ 292 ] . Po posiedzeniu Rady Bezpieczeństwa ONZ 25 lutego Stoltenberg zapowiedział, że po raz pierwszy część NATO Response Force zostanie rozmieszczona wśród członków NATO wzdłuż wschodniej granicy Sojuszu. Stwierdził, że będą to siły zdolne do szybkiego reagowania (ang. Very High Readiness Joint Task Force , VJTF), obecnie kierowane przez Francję. Stany Zjednoczone ogłosiły 24 lutego, że rozmieszczą dodatkowo 7 tys. żołnierzy, którzy dołączą do 5 tys. już znajdujących się w Europie [ 293 ] . Pod dowództwo NATO, po raz pierwszy od czasów zimnej wojny, trafiła także grupa uderzeniowa lotniskowców z USS Harry S. Truman , która weszła na Morze Śródziemne w poprzednim tygodniu w ramach planowanych ćwiczeń [ 294 ] . Reakcje państw i organizacji Rzeczniczka chińskiego MSZ Hua Chunying (inne języki) w pierwszym dniu po ataku wojsk rosyjskich na Ukrainę oświadczyła, że „Rosja to niepodległy kraj i może sama podejmować decyzje na podstawie własnych interesów”. Sprzeciwiła się nazywaniu rosyjskich działań na Ukrainie „inwazją” i oskarżyła USA o podsycanie napięć [ 296 ] . Chiny obwiniają o wojnę NATO. Państwo Środka uznaje suwerenność Ukrainy. Jednocześnie uznaje agresję Rosji za popartą uzasadnionymi obawami i nie popiera polityki stosowania sankcji wobec Federacji Rosyjskiej. Indie zachowują neutralną politykę wobec decyzji Rosji. Chiny i Indie wzywają do zawieszenia broni przez obie strony konfliktu [ 297 ] [ 298 ] . W marcu Polska, Litwa, Łotwa, Estonia, Bułgaria zredukowały liczebność personelu ambasad rosyjskich na swoich terytoriach [ 299 ] [ 300 ] [ 301 ] . Sejm Polski 23 marca oraz Senat USA 16 marca uznały Władimira Putina za zbrodniarza wojennego [ 302 ] [ 303 ] . Polska, Litwa i Dania poparły misję pokojową NATO na Ukrainie [ 304 ] . W dniach 15–16 czerwca w Szwajcarii nad Jeziorem Czterech Kantonów odbył się szczyt w sprawie pokoju na Ukrainie. Uczestniczyli w nim przedstawiciele 92 krajów, jednak bez przedstawicieli Rosji [ 305 ] [ 306 ] . Komunikat końcowy szczytu zwrócił uwagę na bezpieczne wykorzystanie obiektów jądrowych, bezpieczeństwo żywnościowe i powiązaną z nim swobodę żeglugi handlowej i dostęp do portów na Morzu Czarnym oraz pełną wymianę jeńców [ 307 ] . Rola Białorusi Pomimo obaw ze strony społeczności międzynarodowej i doniesień wywiadowczych, Białoruś ani jej siły zbrojne nie przyłączyły się do operacji wojskowej po stronie Rosji [ 48 ] . Niemniej Białoruś udostępniła Rosji na podstawie porozumienia swoje bazy i terytorium oraz wykonywała usługi transportowe i logistyczne na rzecz wojsk rosyjskich [ 48 ] . Siły rosyjskie wyprowadziły między innymi z terytorium Białorusi atak na Ukrainę 24 lutego. Operowało też stamtąd rosyjskie lotnictwo atakujące Kijów i zachodnią część Ukrainy, a także wystrzeliwano z jej terytorium rosyjskie pociski balistyczne Iskander [ 48 ] . Wkrótce po rozpoczęciu inwazji, uwidoczniły się też działania lokalnego białoruskiego ruchu oporu, przeciwnego wojnie, głównie dezorganizującego transport kolejowy na Białorusi przez wywoływanie awarii systemów kierowania ruchem [ 48 ] . Miało to miejsce między innymi 27 lutego [ 48 ] . Białoruskie służby prowadziły na skutek tego śledztwa, a wykryte osoby były skazywane na długoletnie kary pozbawienia wolności [ 48 ] . Również liczni internauci z Białorusi informowali w portalach społecznościowych o ruchach wojsk rosyjskich na terenie tego kraju, udostępniając tym samym dane wywiadowcze [ 48 ] . 4 października 2022 Alaksandr Łukaszenka po raz pierwszy oficjalnie potwierdził zaangażowanie swego państwa w wojnę po stronie rosyjskiej. Stwierdził, że Białoruś chce w ten sposób zapobiec rozprzestrzenieniu się konfliktu na jej terytorium [ 1 ] [ 308 ] . Pomoc militarna dla Ukrainy Jednym z pierwszych państw zachodnich, które zadeklarowało wsparcie militarne, była Wielka Brytania, prowadząca szkolenia wojskowe na terenie Ukrainy co najmniej od jesieni 2020 roku. W listopadzie 2021 roku w Kijowie doszło do wizyty ministra obrony Wielkiej Brytanii, Bena Wallace’a , w wyniku której podpisano porozumienie dotyczące współpracy w obszarze rozwoju marynarki wojennej Ukrainy [ 309 ] [ 310 ] . 1 lutego 2022 – na trzy tygodnie przed inwazją – doszło w Kijowie do spotkania premierów Wielkiej Brytanii, Polski i Ukrainy. BBC nazwała spotkanie „nowym sojuszem obronnym” w obliczu rosyjskiego zagrożenia [ 311 ] [ 312 ] . Jeszcze do połowy lutego 2022 roku stu brytyjskich żołnierzy było obecnych na Ukrainie, przeprowadzając szkolenia z obsługi broni przeciwpancernej [ 313 ] . 23 lutego – dzień przed inwazją – premier Boris Johnson poinformował o kolejnych dostawach brytyjskiej broni do Ukrainy oraz o wszczęciu postępowania mającego na celu zbadanie, czy rosyjska stacja telewizyjna RT (dawniej Russia Today ) nie naruszała warunków brytyjskiej licencji, co mogłoby być podstawą do odebrania jej uprawnień do nadawania. Kwestia tego, że stacja w otwarty sposób przekazująca punkt widzenia Kremla swobodnie nadawała w Wielkiej Brytanii, była kilkukrotnie podnoszona podczas dyskusji w Izbie Gmin [ 314 ] . Państwa zachodnie nie zaangażowały się wprost w konflikt militarnie, lecz USA i Wielka Brytania udostępniały na bieżąco władzom Ukrainy informacje wywiadowcze, w szczególności dane wywiadu elektronicznego (inne języki) , pozwalające na organizację obrony [ 315 ] . Przez wiele tygodni przed inwazją powołany na początku grudnia 2021 roku nowy rząd niemiecki odmawiał dostaw broni dla Ukrainy. Minister spraw zagranicznych, Annalena Baerbock , uzasadniała to stanowisko doświadczeniami historycznymi. Jednocześnie, jak wskazywał Sztokholmski Międzynarodowy Instytut Badań nad Pokojem (SIPRI) , Niemcy pozostawały jednym z największych na świecie producentów i eksporterów broni [ 316 ] . Rząd niemiecki początkowo zadeklarował tylko przekazanie 5000 hełmów, co spotkało się z krytyką w wielu mediach europejskich [ 317 ] . Jednak kilka dni po inwazji, w piątek 26 lutego, kanclerz Niemiec Olaf Scholz , poinformował, że z rezerwy Bundeswehry na Ukrainę dostarczonych zostanie 1000 sztuk broni przeciwpancernej i 500 rakiet ziemia-powietrze „ Stinger ”. 3 marca dodano do tego 2700 radzieckich ręcznych pocisków rakietowych „ Strela ” [ 318 ] . Do zmiany stanowiska po trzech dniach od inwazji doszło również we Francji i w Belgii. Przedtem rząd Belgii „stał na wypracowanym w drodze konsensusu” stanowisku ignorowania próśb z Kijowa. Jednak w piątek 26 lutego minister spraw zagranicznych Belgii Sophie Wilmes zadeklarowała pomoc militarną. Tego samego dnia Francja podjęła decyzję o dodatkowych transportach sprzętu defensywnego oraz zapewniła dostawy paliwa dla Ukrainy. Jednocześnie administracja prezydenta poinformowała o zamrożeniu aktywów finansowych rosyjskich „osobistości” we Francji oraz dyplomatyczne wsparcie na rzecz wykluczenia Rosji z systemu SWIFT [ 319 ] [ 320 ] . W pierwszym dniu inwazji w wypowiedzi dla TVN24 ambasador Ukrainy w Polsce, Andrij Deszczycia , poinformował, że na Ukrainie jest już polski sprzęt wojskowy. Armia ukraińska dysponowała m.in. polskimi przenośnymi przeciwlotniczymi zestawami rakietowymi Piorun , dronami i amunicją wyprodukowaną w Polsce [ 321 ] . 28 lutego portal Onet upublicznił informację, że Polska wspomagała Ukrainę również pociskami rakietowymi powietrze-powietrze R-73 , które są uzbrojeniem MiG-ów-29 , popularnych myśliwców na Ukrainie [ 322 ] . Tego samego dnia 18 krajów europejskich oraz Stany Zjednoczone i Kanada przekazały lub zadeklarowały przekazanie Ukrainie sprzętu wojskowego, amunicji, paliw, środków komunikacji i transportowych. Pozostałe kraje europejskie zadeklarowały przynajmniej pomoc humanitarną. Po raz pierwszy w historii Unii Europejskiej także ona przekazała 450 mln euro na uzbrojenie ofensywne i 50 milionów na defensywne. Rolę centrum logistycznego dla przerzutu sprzętu na terytorium Ukrainy pełni Polska [ 323 ] . 15 marca, 21. dnia inwazji koleją do Kijowa przybyła pierwsza delegacja rządowa. W jej skład weszli szef polskiego rządu – Mateusz Morawiecki, wicepremier Jarosław Kaczyński , premier Czech Petr Fiala i premier Słowenii Janez Janša . Na konferencji prasowej po wieczornym spotkaniu z prezydentem Ukrainy, Jarosław Kaczyński wezwał do powołania misji pokojowej NATO o charakterze militarnym. Według Kaczyńskiego nie wymaga ona członkowska Ukrainy w NATO. Na pytanie dziennikarza o przekazanie przez Polskę myśliwców bojowych, Kaczyński odpowiedział, że nie wszystkie ustalenia mogą być obecnie ujawnione [ 324 ] [ 325 ] . Od 2020 roku Turcja dostarcza do Ukrainy drony Bayraktar TB2 wraz z uzbrojeniem podwieszanym – lekkimi bombami naprowadzanymi laserowo MAM-C i MAM-L. Informacje o ostatniej dostawie podał 2 marca minister obrony Ukrainy [ 326 ] . W poniedziałek 28 lutego, piątego dnia od inwazji, po tym, jak władze Ukrainy ogłosiły tworzenie ochotniczych oddziałów międzynarodowych, pojawiły się pierwsze akty wsparcia. Parlament Łotwy jednomyślnie uchwalił poprawkę do ustawy o bezpieczeństwie narodowym (dotychczas zabraniającej udziału w wojskach obcych państw), w której zapisano, że łotewscy ochotnicy będą mogli walczyć w obronie Ukrainy. Jednocześnie zastrzeżono, że wspierający stronę rosyjską będą musieli się liczyć z odpowiedzialnością karną [ 327 ] . 3 marca rzecznik rosyjskiego ministerstwa obrony Igor Konaszenkow stwierdził, że cudzoziemcy walczący w legionie międzynarodowym będą ścigani jak przestępcy oraz nie mogą mieć tytułu kombatantów i jeńców wojennych [ 328 ] . W sierpniu 2023 USA zgodziły się na przekazanie Ukrainie myśliwców F-16 przez Danię i Holandię [ 329 ] . W sierpniu następnego roku dostarczono Siłom Powietrznym Ukrainy 10 maszyn [ 330 ] . Od stycznia 2022 roku do marca 2024 roku Ukraina otrzymała z zagranicy pomoc o wartości ponad 380 miliardów dolarów, w tym 118 miliardów pomocy wojskowej. 41% kwoty przeznaczonej na pomoc militarną pochodziło ze Stanów Zjednoczonych, zaś 43% z krajów Unii Europejskiej (głównie Niemiec, Danii, Holandii i Polski); największą kwotę na pomoc dla Ukrainy w stosunku do swojego Produktu Krajowego Brutto przekazały Estonia i Dania [ 331 ] . Pomoc dla Ukrainy w cyberwojnie Przyłączenie się do blokowania rosyjskich stron internetowych i „wypowiedzenie wojny Rosji” zadeklarowała międzynarodowa grupa hakerów Anonymous [ 332 ] oraz Cyber Partizans (inne języki) – białoruscy hakerzy walczący z reżimem Aleksandra Łukaszenki [ 333 ] . Przypuszczano, że działania grupy zwanej „ IT Army (inne języki) ” były koordynowane przez przedstawicieli administracji ukraińskiej [ 334 ] . Hakerzy ogłosili zhakowanie rosyjskiej telewizji państwowej (zamiast jej transmisji nadali materiały przygotowane przez stronę ukraińską), mieli wyłączyć internetową telewizję Russia Today , przyłączyć się do blokady stron administracji rządowej i największych przedsiębiorstw rosyjskich na czele z Gazpromem . Ogłosili też udostępnienie bazy danych wykradzionych z Białorusi i nagrań wojskowej komunikacji rosyjskiej armii [ 333 ] [ 335 ] . Władze rosyjskie początkowo zaprzeczały, że strony rządowe są atakowane z zewnątrz [ 336 ] , ale 27 lutego państwowa agencja prasowa TASS przyznała, że strony rosyjskie padają ofiarą ataków DDoS [ 337 ] . Dla zapewnienia kontaktu z siecią na terenie Ukrainy Elon Musk 27 lutego uruchomił nad tym krajem Starlink i zapowiedział rychłe dostarczenie odbiorników połączonych z przetwornikami sygnału nadawanego przez satelity [ 338 ] [ 339 ] , co nastąpiło już następnego dnia [ 340 ] . W pomoc dla Ukrainy w cyberwojnie zaangażowała się też polska branża IT. Powstał projekt Tech for Ukraine, w ramach którego przedsiębiorstwa informatyczne angażują się w walkę z dezinformacją oraz pomagają utrzymywać ukraińskie systemy informatyczne [ 341 ] . Reakcja społeczności międzynarodowej W wielu krajach świata (między innymi w Polsce [ 342 ] , Stanach Zjednoczonych [ 343 ] , Kanadzie [ 344 ] , Czechach [ 345 ] [ 346 ] , Niemczech [ 347 ] i krajach byłego ZSRR [ 348 ] [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] ) zorganizowano protesty potępiające inwazję Rosji na Ukrainę (inne języki) [ 352 ] . W Rosji głównymi ośrodkami takich manifestacji były Moskwa i Petersburg [ 353 ] [ 354 ] [ 355 ] (oprócz tego znaczne demonstracje odbyły się między innymi w Jekaterynburgu [ 353 ] , Nowosybirsku [ 356 ] czy Niżnym Nowogrodzie [ 357 ] ). Według niezależnej od rosyjskiego rządu monitorującej łamanie praw człowieka i prześladowania polityczne strony internetowej OVD-Info (inne języki) w wyniku protestów trwających po rozpoczęciu inwazji w Rosji zatrzymano ponad 15 000 osób [ 358 ] [ 359 ] [ 360 ] . Druga fala protestów w Rosji rozpoczęła się we wrześniu 2022 roku po ogłoszeniu decyzji o częściowej mobilizacji rezerwistów [ 361 ] [ 362 ] [ 363 ] [ 364 ] ; szczególnie intensywne protesty miały miejsce na Kaukazie Północnym , w Dagestanie doszło do starć pomiędzy protestującymi a rosyjską policją [ 365 ] [ 366 ] . Niezadowolenie społeczne wywoływała również nadreprezentatywność przedstawicieli niesłowiańskich grup etnicznych wśród zmobilizowanych [ 367 ] . W Polsce bojkotowane są firmy, które nie wycofały się ze swojej działalności w Rosji [ 368 ] . Bank PKO poinformował o zmniejszonej dynamice obrotów tych firm [ 369 ] [ 370 ] . Demonstracje prorosyjskie odbyły się m.in. w Serbii [ y ] [ 371 ] , Bośni i Hercegowinie [ 372 ] , Czarnogórze [ z ] [ 373 ] , Cyprze [ 374 ] , Czechach [ 375 ] , Niemczech [ 376 ] [ 377 ] [ 378 ] [ 379 ] [ 380 ] [ 381 ] [ 382 ] , Polsce [ 383 ] , Republice Środkowoafrykańskiej [ 384 ] . 25 lutego w Grecji odbył się protest Komunistycznej Partii Grecji i Syrizy , które potępiły atak Rosji na Ukrainę oraz uczestnictwo Grecji w NATO [ aa ] [ 385 ] . Według sondażu przeprowadzonego przez ABC News i „ The Washington Post ” nastroje Amerykanów względem Rosji zbliżyły się do tych z okresu zimnej wojny . Obywatele USA popierają sankcje skierowane przeciwko Rosji, jednak ta aprobata spada wraz ze wzrostem cen m.in. energii [ ab ] [ 386 ] . Natomiast sondaż AP opublikowany 28 marca pokazał, że 56% Amerykanów chce ostrzejszych sankcji wobec Federacji Rosyjskiej, nawet jeśli dotkną one gospodarkę USA. Przy tym 88% obawia się użycia broni jądrowej przez Rosję wobec innych krajów, a 75% przeciwko USA [ 387 ] [ 388 ] . W m.in. Stanach Zjednoczonych, Portugalii, Czechach, Niemczech dochodziło do wrogich działań wobec mniejszości rosyjskiej, która nie deklarowała poparcia dla agresji Rosji względem Ukrainy [ 389 ] [ 390 ] [ 391 ] [ 392 ] [ 393 ] . Natychmiast po wybuchu wojny władze państwowe i samorządowe, organizacje humanitarne i indywidualni wolontariusze rozpoczęli akcję zbiórki środków i zaopatrzenia, a także organizacji przewozu i pobytu dla napływającej fali uchodźców [ 394 ] . 64% Polaków zaangażowało się w pomoc Ukraińcom [ 395 ] . Wśród oddolnie organizowanych akcji wsparcia dla Ukraińców wykorzystana została m.in. aplikacja Airbnb , za pomocą której osoby również spoza Europy masowo rezerwowały noclegi u prywatnych właścicieli mieszkań na Ukrainie, nie zamierzając przyjeżdżać do ogarniętego wojną kraju, a jedynie w celu przekazania pieniędzy i dodania otuchy w komentarzach [ 396 ] . Jednocześnie w usługach internetowych umożliwiających dodanie opinii o obiektach komercyjnych w Rosji np. Google Maps czy TripAdvisor – wielu użytkowników przekazywało Rosjanom informacje o rzeczywistej sytuacji na froncie [ 397 ] . Sport Władze fińskiego klubu hokeja na lodzie Jokerit 25 lutego 2022 wycofały drużynę z rosyjskich rozgrywek KHL w sezonie 2021/2022 [ 398 ] [ 399 ] . Na skutek inwazji ze wszystkich struktur tych rozgrywek 27 lutego 2022 wycofał się łotewski klub Dinamo Ryga , uczestniczący w lidze od jej początku w 2008 [ 400 ] . 28 lutego 2022 Międzynarodowa Federacja Hokeja na Lodzie (IIHF) zawiesiła udział wszystkich drużyn narodowych i klubowych z Rosji i Białorusi każdej kategorii wiekowej we wszystkich zawodach i imprezach do odwołania [ 401 ] . Tego samego dnia FIA za porozumieniem sponsorów podjęła decyzję o odwołaniu planowanego na 25 września 2022 Grand Prix Rosji Formuły 1 [ 402 ] [ 403 ] . Międzynarodowa Federacja Narciarska 25 lutego ogłosiła odwołanie wszystkich mających odbyć się w Rosji zawodów w sezonie 2021/2022. Ponadto podczas wszystkich ceremonii zamiast hymnu i flagi Rosji będzie używany hymn i flaga FIS, choć zawodnicy z Rosji mogą startować jako reprezentanci swojego kraju [ 404 ] . 25 lutego Międzynarodowa Federacja Szachowa zadecydowała o przeniesieniu 44. Olimpiady Szachowej oraz 93. Kongresu FIDE, które pierwotnie miały się odbyć w Moskwie między 26 lipca a 8 sierpnia 2022 [ 405 ] . 16 marca FIDE zawiesiła do odwołania możliwość startu w oficjalnych turniejach FIDE drużynom narodowym Rosji i Białorusi [ 406 ] . 21 marca Komisja Etyki i Dyscypliny FIDE zadecydowała o wykluczeniu arcymistrza Sergieja Karjakina ze wszystkich zawodów szachowych rangi FIDE na okres sześciu miesięcy, argumentując to naruszeniem Kodeksu Etycznego FIDE w związku z jego wypowiedziami w mediach społecznościowych odnośnie konfliktu zbrojnego na Ukrainie [ 407 ] [ 408 ] . 26 lutego 2022 Polski Związek Piłki Nożnej ogłosił, że reprezentacja Polski w piłce nożnej nie zagra meczu barażowego do mistrzostw świata przeciw Rosji (zaplanowanego na 24 marca 2022) [ 409 ] . Tego samego dnia szwedzka federacja piłkarska wydała komunikat, że także kadra tego kraju nie zagra ewentualnego spotkania z Rosją w ramach tych samych baraży [ 410 ] . 27 lutego o takiej samej decyzji poinformowała federacja czeska [ 411 ] . Międzynarodowa Unia Biathlonu oraz Międzynarodowa Federacja Gimnastyczna ogłosiły 26 lutego, że sportowcy z Rosji i Białorusi będą mogli startować w organizowanych przez nie zawodach tylko jako zawodnicy neutralni, niereprezentujący swoich państw [ 412 ] [ 413 ] . 28 lutego 2022 władze niemieckiego klubu piłkarskiego FC Schalke 04 ogłosiły przedterminowe zakończenie współpracy z głównym sponsorem, rosyjskim przedsiębiorstwem Gazprom , która trwała od 2007, zgodnie z odnowioną umową z 2021 miała obowiązywać do 2025 [ 414 ] [ 415 ] . Tego samego dnia FIFA i UEFA ogłosiły zawieszenie rosyjskich klubów i reprezentacji narodowej we wszystkich rozgrywkach. UEFA podjęła również decyzję o zakończeniu współpracy z Gazpromem we wszystkich organizowanych rozgrywkach, tj. Lidze Mistrzów , rozgrywkach reprezentacji narodowych w ramach UEFA oraz Mistrzostwach Europy w 2024 r. [ 234 ] 1 marca Międzynarodowa Federacja Narciarska , po deklaracjach strony polskiej (organizatorów Mistrzostw Świata Juniorów w Zakopanem ), oraz strony norweskiej (organizatorów Raw Air , a następnie Mistrzostw Świata w Lotach Narciarskich ), ogłosiła, że zawiesza do końca sezonu 2021–2022 starty zawodników z Rosji i Białorusi [ 416 ] . 1 marca Europejska Konfederacja Piłki Siatkowej (CEV) oraz Międzynarodowa Federacja Piłki Siatkowej (FIVB) oświadczyły, że „wszystkie rosyjskie i białoruskie drużyny narodowe, sportowcy, kluby i działacze nie kwalifikują się do udziału w imprezach”, co dotyczy imprez siatkówki halowej , plażowej i na śniegu [ 417 ] . Wcześniej władze klubu ZAKSA Kędzierzyn-Koźle ogłosiły, że drużyna nie przystąpi do rywalizacji w ćwierćfinale siatkarskiej Ligi Mistrzów przeciwko Dinamo Moskwa [ 418 ] . Również 1 marca FIVB ogłosił odebranie Rosji Mistrzostw Świata w piłce siatkowej mężczyzn , które miały się odbyć na przełomie sierpnia i września 2022 roku [ 419 ] . Imprezę ostatecznie zorganizowały wspólnie Polska i Słowenia [ 420 ] . 1 marca oświadczenie wydała także Międzynarodowa Federacja Tenisowa (ITF), która odwołała wszystkie wydarzenia pod egidą ITF w Rosji i Białorusi, a także zawiesiła członkostwo w swoich strukturach Rosyjskiej i Białoruskiej Federacji Tenisowych. Podobne sankcje nałożyły władze kobiecej ( Women’s Tennis Association ) i męskiej ( Association of Tennis Professionals ) federacji tenisowej [ 421 ] . Również 1 marca organizacja promująca walki MMA – KSW zapowiedziała zawieszenie współpracy z rosyjskimi zawodnikami oraz zablokowanie transmisji z gali w rosyjskiej telewizji [ 422 ] . W dniu 22 lipca 2022 polskie Ministerstwo Sportu i Turystyki ogłosiło rekomendacje obejmujące warunki dotyczące ewentualnego uczestnictwa zawodników z Rosji i Białorusi we współzawodnictwie sportowym na terenie Polski, wzywając do ich przestrzegania [ 423 ] . Muzyka Rosja została wykluczona z udziału w Konkursie Piosenki Eurowizji 2022 [ 424 ] [ 425 ] . Wielu polskich artystów muzycznych nagrało proukraińskie utwory (np. „Mimo burz” Margaret i Kacezeta [ 426 ] oraz „ Mamo tyś płakała ” autorstwa Sanah i Igora Herbuta [ 427 ] [ 428 ] ) lub przeznaczyło dochód ze swoich albumów dla potrzebujących Ukraińców [ 429 ] [ 430 ] . Symbolem walki ukraińskich żołnierzy stał się utwór „ Bayraktar ” nawiązujący do tureckich dronów bojowych o tej samej nazwie [ 431 ] , napisany i skomponowany przez ukraińskiego żołnierza Tarasa Borovoka [ 432 ] [ 433 ] ; w pierwszych dniach wojny został wyświetlony ponad milion razy [ 434 ] . Telewizja Polska wraz z organizacją Caritas 27 lutego zorganizowały koncert „Solidarni z Ukrainą” [ 435 ] . Inny koncert został zorganizowany przez Narodowe Forum Muzyki [ 436 ] . Swój sprzeciw wyrażali również ukraińscy muzycy i zespoły, tacy jak Go A [ 437 ] czy Lena Usenko [ 438 ] . 7 kwietnia zespół Pink Floyd opublikował w celu zebrania funduszy dla Ukrainy pierwszy od 28 lat nowy utwór „Hey Hey Rise Up” z wykorzystaniem pieśni „ Tam na łące czerwona kalina ” śpiewanej przez Andrija Chływniuka zarejestrowanej w atakowanym Kijowie [ 439 ] . Pod hasłem #StandWithUkraine, po rozpoczęciu rosyjskiej inwazji, hymn państwowy Ukrainy grany i śpiewany był przez lokalnych artystów w salach koncertowych, filharmoniach, teatrach i operach na całym świecie, od Tallinna , przez Katowice , Berlin , Mediolan , Wiedeń , Paryż , Londyn , Nowy Jork i Los Angeles , po Tokio , a w jej początkowych dniach nawet w Rosji podczas pacyfikowanych przez rosyjskie siły bezpieczeństwa protestów przeciw wojnie [ 440 ] . Uwagi ↑ a b Państwo nieuznawane utworzone przez prorosyjskich separatystów na terytorium Ukrainy. 30 września 2022 anektowane przez Rosję. ↑ 4 października 2022 przywódca Białorusi oficjalnie potwierdził zaangażowanie swego państwa w konflikt po stronie rosyjskiej [ 1 ] . Białoruskie siły zbrojne nie biorą jednak bezpośredniego udziału w inwazji. Białoruś zapewnia natomiast rosyjskim siłom zbrojnym wsparcie logistyczne oraz udostępnia swoje terytorium, umożliwiając prowadzenie z niego ataków lądowych, lotniczych i rakietowych [ 2 ] . ↑ Prezydent Ukrainy i zwierzchnik Sił Zbrojnych Ukrainy (cały czas trwania inwazji). ↑ Minister Obrony Ukrainy (od początku inwazji do 2023). ↑ Minister Obrony Ukrainy (od 2023). ↑ Naczelny Dowódca Sił Zbrojnych Ukrainy (od początku inwazji do 2024). ↑ Naczelny Dowódca Sił Zbrojnych Ukrainy (od 2024). ↑ Szef Sztabu Generalnego Sił Zbrojnych Ukrainy (od początku inwazji do 2024). ↑ Szef Sztabu Generalnego Sił Zbrojnych Ukrainy (2024–2025). ↑ Szef Sztabu Generalnego Sił Zbrojnych Ukrainy (od 2025). ↑ Prezydent Federacji Rosyjskiej i zwierzchnik Sił Zbrojnych Federacji Rosyjskiej (cały czas trwania inwazji). ↑ Minister Obrony Federacji Rosyjskiej (od początku inwazji do 2024). ↑ Minister Obrony Federacji Rosyjskiej (od 2024). ↑ Szef Sztabu Generalnego Sił Zbrojnych Federacji Rosyjskiej (cały czas trwania inwazji) i dowódca Połączonego Zgrupowania Wojsk w Strefie Specjalnej Operacji Wojskowej (od 2023). ↑ Dowódca Połączonego Zgrupowania Wojsk w Strefie Specjalnej Operacji Wojskowej (od początku inwazji do 2022). ↑ Dowódca Połączonego Zgrupowania Wojsk w Strefie Specjalnej Operacji Wojskowej (2022), po odwołaniu przeszedł na emeryturę i jako cywil zmarł w 2023 roku. ↑ Dowódca Połączonego Zgrupowania Wojsk w Strefie Specjalnej Operacji Wojskowej (2022–2023) ↑ Okręty desantowe z Floty Bałtyckiej: „Minsk”, „Kaliningrad” i „Korolow” projektu 775 , z Floty Północnej: „Olenegorskij Gorniak” i „Gieorgij Pobiedonosiec” projektu 775 i „Piotr Morgunow” projektu 11711 (Michał Fiszer: Rosja grozi Ukrainie wojną. Czy już się zaczęło? , Polityka.pl, 20 stycznia 2022). ↑ W istocie znaki „V” widywane są na pojazdach wojsk powietrznodesantowych, np. bojowych wozach desantu BMD-2 . ↑ Początkowo siły działające na kierunku Sum identyfikowano jako 20. Armię [ 47 ] . ↑ Według rosyjskiego rządowego aparatu informacyjnego, pociski Kindżał są pociskami hipersonicznymi, mimo że nie spełniają technicznych kryteriów klasyfikacji jako broń hipersoniczna [ 113 ] ↑ Dane zostały oszacowane na podstawie informacji przekazanych od rządów Ukrainy i Rosji. Opierano się na danych oficjalnych i przekazanych nieumyślnie. ↑ Ustalono poprzez wykorzystanie średnich danych statystycznych z poprzednich konfliktów. Dzięki nim przyjęto, że na jedną ofiarę śmiertelną przypada 3 rannych. ↑ Przy czym zsumowane liczby z poszczególnych krajów są wyższe aniżeli łączna liczba uchodźców z Ukrainy, ponieważ uwzględniają one także osoby przekraczające granicę między Rumunią a Mołdawią. ↑ Organizatorem były Nocne Wilki . ↑ Była ona mniejsza od potępiającej inwazję Rosji na Ukrainę. ↑ W tym samym mieście 25 lutego odbyła się osobna demonstracja, która potępiła wyłącznie inwazję Rosji na Ukrainę. ↑ Badanie było prowadzone od 20 do nocy 24 lutego. Negatywne nastroje były największe od 1983 r. i były zbliżone do tego w okresie inwazji na Krym w 2014 r. Przypisy ↑ a b Łukaszenka przyznał publicznie, że Białoruś uczestniczy w wojnie z Ukrainą. Zagroził też eskalacją konfliktu . pap.pl, 4 października 2022. [dostęp 2022-10-12]. ↑ Anna Maria Dyner: Białorusko-rosyjska współpraca w czasie wojny z Ukrainą . [w:] Polski Instytut Spraw Międzynarodowych [on-line]. pism.pl, 15 marca 2022. [dostęp 2022-10-09]. ↑ Krzysztof Pawliszak: Korea Płn. wysłała do Rosji co najmniej 3 tys. dodatkowych żołnierzy . PAP, 2025-03-27. [dostęp 2025-04-26]. ( pol. ) . ↑ Andrzej Wilk, Maria Domańska, Rosyjski atak na Ukrainę (24 lutego, godz. 9.00) . ↑ a b Путин объявил о начале военной операции на Украине . TASS, 2022-02-24. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ( ros. ) . ↑ Wojna w Ukrainie [Na żywo, 21.03.2022 ]. misyjne.pl, 2022-03-21 20:17. [dostęp 2022-07-25]. [zarchiwizowane z tego adresu (2022-07-25)]. ( pol. ) . ↑ Maciej Tyszka: Rachunek poniesionych przez Ukrainę strat i zysków podczas rosyjskiej agresji w 2022 roku . Instytut Nowej Europy, 2022-06-23. [dostęp 2022-07-25]. [zarchiwizowane z tego adresu (2022-07-25)]. ( pol. ) . ↑ Henrik H. Pettersson Henrik H. , Aid to Ukraine: Where the money in their war against Russia is coming from [online], CNN, 6 października 2023 [dostęp 2024-06-19] ( ang. ) . ↑ a b c d e Ukraiński dylemat Rosji: strategia Moskwy wobec Kijowa , Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich. ↑ a b c Jagienka Wilczak: Wojenne gry graniczne wokół Ukrainy. Czego tym razem chce Putin? . Polityka.pl, 25 listopada 2021. [dostęp 2022-03-10]. ↑ Wacław Radziwinowicz: Ostatnie kremlowskie ostrzeżenie, czyli Putin grozi Ukrainie . wyborcza.pl, 14 lipca 2021. [dostęp 2022-07-13]. ↑ a b c Władimir Putin: Putin: Dzisiejsza Ukraina jest tworem epoki radzieckiej. Powstała kosztem historycznej Rosji . wyborcza.pl, 31 lipca 2021. [dostęp 2022-07-13]. ↑ a b c d e f Shane S. Harris Shane S. , Karen K. DeYoung Karen K. , Isabelle I. Khurshudyan Isabelle I. , Ashley A. Parker Ashley A. , Liz L. Sly Liz L. , Road to war: US struggled to convince allies, and Zelenskyy, of risk of invasion [online], The Washington Post, 16 sierpnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-08-17] ( ang. ) . ↑ Rosyjska presja na Ukrainę – wymiary wojskowy i polityczny [online], OSW Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich, 14 kwietnia 2021 [dostęp 2022-02-19] . ↑ Russian force on Ukraine border larger than any time since 2014, U.S. says , „ Reuters ”, 8 kwietnia 2021 [dostęp 2022-02-19] ( ang. ) . ↑ Ukraina: Rosjanie wycofują wojska z Krymu, ale nie w obwodzie woroneskim [online], infosecurity24.pl [dostęp 2022-02-19] . ↑ Marta Burza: Zapad-2021. Ruszają największe manewry w Europie od czasu rozpadu Związku Radzieckiego . gazeta.pl, 2021-09-10. [dostęp 2021-09-09]. ↑ a b c Rosja gromadzi wojska blisko Ukrainy . defence24.pl, 2021-10-31. [dostęp 2022-02-01]. ↑ a b Odpowiedzi USA i NATO na żądania Kremla – reakcje rosyjskie [online], osw.waw.pl, 28 stycznia 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-01] . ↑ Rosyjski szantaż wobec Zachodu [online], OSW Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich, 20 grudnia 2021 [dostęp 2022-02-19] . ↑ a b c Michał Fiszer: Rosja grozi Ukrainie wojną. Czy już się zaczęło? . Polityka.pl, 20 stycznia 2022. [dostęp 2022-03-10]. ↑ a b Spotkanie Rady NATO–Rosja: między dialogiem a konfrontacją , Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich. ↑ Why hasn’t Russia mobilized its vast air power against Ukraine? . Al-Dżazira . [dostęp 2022-03-03]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Co czeka gospodarkę w przypadku rozszerzenia rosyjskiej agresji na Ukrainę? Tygodnik Gospodarczy PIE, 27 stycznia 2022 r. ↑ a b c Andrzej Wilk: Rosyjska demonstracja siły na Białorusi i oceanie światowym . Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich, 2022-01-24. ↑ Rosyjskie wojsko nie wyjedzie z Białorusi. „Ćwiczenia” się skończyły, „inspekcja” nie [online], Rzeczpospolita, 20 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-25] . ↑ a b Maciej Czarnecki: Zachodnie służby wywiadowcze krzyżują Rosji szyki w sprawie Ukrainy. Chaos w Kijowie byłby na rękę Moskwie . wyborcza.pl, 9 lutego 2022. [dostęp 2022-03-19]. ↑ a b c d e Maciej Czarnecki: Groźba rosyjskiej inwazji na Ukrainę. Wywiad USA: Wieści o deeskalacji były „celowym podstępem” . wyborcza.pl, 18 lutego 2022. [dostęp 2022-03-19]. ↑ Andrzej A. Łomanowski Andrzej A. , Donbas szykuje się na wojnę. Nie wiadomo, jak przebiega pobór i ile osób uchyla się od niego [online], Rzeczpospolita, 21 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-25] . ↑ a b c Piotr P. Żochowski Piotr P. , Rosja prowokuje zaostrzenie sytuacji w Donbasie [online], OSW Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich, 21 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-25] . ↑ Ukraińscy dywersanci, których nikt nie widział. Rosja dezinformuje . [w:] demagog.org.pl [on-line]. onet.pl, 2022-02-26. [dostęp 2022-02-26]. ↑ Putin podpisał dekret o niepodległości dwóch republik w Donbasie. Co to oznacza? [online], Wprost [dostęp 2022-02-24] . ↑ Przywódca separatystów mówi o powrocie republik do „administracyjnych granic” [online], rp.pl, 23 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-24] . ↑ akr//now, Liderzy separatystycznych „republik” w Donbasie poprosili Putina o „pomoc w odparciu agresji” [online], tvn24.pl, 23 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-24] . ↑ Putin declares war on Ukraine . The Kyiv Independent, 2022-02-24. [dostęp 2025-11-07]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Putin announces formal start of Russia’s invasion in eastern Ukraine . Meduza, 2022-02-24. [dostęp 2025-11-07]. [zarchiwizowane z tego adresu (2022-02-24)]. ( ang. ) . ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Jędrzej Winiecki: Rząd marionetkowy w Kijowie? Putin ma w głowie sowiecką strategię . Polityka.pl, 28 lutego 2022. [dostęp 2022-02-28]. ↑ Arkadiusz A. Jastrzębski Arkadiusz A. , Niezbity dowód na fiasko planu Putina. Wpadka rosyjskiej agencji [online], wiadomosci.wp.pl, 28 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2023-03-14] ( pol. ) . ↑ a b c Michał Fiszer: Niemoc dyktatora. Czy to początek końca Putina? . Polityka.pl, 27 lutego 2022. [dostęp 2022-02-28]. ↑ a b c d e f Michał Fiszer: Czy to koniec Ukrainy? Tak może wyglądać scenariusz inwazji . Polityka.pl, 9 grudnia 2021. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ↑ a b c d e f g Juliusz Ćwieluch: Gen. Cieniuch dla „Polityki”: Putin źle ocenił sytuację . Polityka.pl, 10 marca 2022. [dostęp 2022-03-12]. ↑ a b c d e Michał Fiszer: Ósmy dzień wojny. Ukraina się broni, cierpią cywile . Polityka.pl, 3 marca 2022. [dostęp 2022-02-28]. ↑ a b Agnieszka Bryc: „Z”, tajemniczy symbol rosyjskiej inwazji na Ukrainę . Polityka.pl, 12 marca 2022. [dostęp 2022-04-12]. ↑ a b Agnieszka Bryc: Rosyjski „Mein Kampf”? To nie jest wojna Putina, to wojna Rosjan . Polityka.pl, 7 kwietnia 2022. [dostęp 2022-04-12]. ↑ a b c d e Rusłan Szoszyn: Plan Kremla: deukrainizacja, czyli Europa bez Ukrainy . rp.pl, 5 kwietnia 2022. ↑ Paulina Godlewska: Wojna w Ukrainie. Media: Rosyjski generał wskazał cel nowego etapu inwazji Rosji . interia.pl, 22 kwietnia 2022. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Michał Fiszer: Rosjanie utknęli. Ukraińcy stawiają opór na wszystkich frontach . Polityka.pl, 25 lutego 2022. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Michał Fiszer: 176. dzień wojny. Rosjanie na Białorusi jednak nie mogą robić, co chcą . Polityka.pl, 18 sierpnia 2022. [dostęp 2022-08-18]. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Michał Fiszer: Trzeci dzień wojny. Blamaż Rosji, bohaterska obrona Kijowa . Polityka.pl, 26 lutego 2022. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ↑ Michał M. Hyra Michał M. , „Częstochowska” brygada pancerna zbiera się przy granicy z Ukrainą [online], Częstochowa Wyborcza.pl, 12 grudnia 2021 [dostęp 2023-02-22] . ↑ 20,000 foreign volunteers in Ukraine ‘to join fight against Russia’ [online], South China Morning Post, 7 marca 2022 [dostęp 2023-02-18] ( ang. ) . ↑ Ci Rosjanie walczą u boku Ukraińców. „Jestem przeciwko reżimowi Putina, przeciwko złu” [online], Onet Wiadomości, 29 grudnia 2022 [dostęp 2023-12-26] ( pol. ) . ↑ Batalion im. Kalinowskiego tworzy pułk złożony z dwóch batalionów [online], belsat.eu [dostęp 2023-12-26] . ↑ Ukraine conflict: What we know about the invasion . BBC.com, 2022-02-24. [dostęp 2022-02-24]. ↑ Full text: Putin’s declaration of war on Ukraine . The Spectator , 2022-02-24. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Ukraiński MSW: rozpoczęła się inwazja, doszło do ataków rakietowych na Kijów i Charków [online], PAP, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-24] . ↑ War in Ukraine: Kyiv orders Azovstal troops to stop fighting, Russia claims control of Mariupol [online], 20 maja 2022 [dostęp 2025-10-13] ( ang. ) . ↑ Michał M. Fiszer Michał M. , Jacek J. Fiszer Jacek J. , 198. dzień wojny. Jak Rosjanie wpadli w pułapkę pod Chersoniem [online], polityka.pl, 2022 [dostęp 2025-11-08] . ↑ Rosyjskie rakiety spadły na Jaworów przy granicy z Polską [online], tvn24.pl, 13 marca 2022 [dostęp 2025-11-08] . ↑ a b c d Michał Fiszer: 130. dzień wojny. Armia na kroplówce. Jak Rosjanie marnują swoje zasoby? . Polityka.pl, 3 lipca 2022. [dostęp 2022-07-10]. ↑ a b c Marek Świerczyński: Walka z duchami. Ukraińcy znaleźli nowy sposób na Rosjan . Polityka.pl, 24 sierpnia 2022. [dostęp 2022-08-26]. ↑ Pięć dni błyskawicznych sukcesów. Tereny odbite przez Ukraińców na mapie [online], TVN24 [dostęp 2022-09-23] ( pol. ) . ↑ Ukraina umacnia się na Charkowszczyźnie. Wojna po 204 dniach [online], OSW Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich, 16 września 2022 [dostęp 2022-09-23] ( pol. ) . ↑ Reuters , Russia calls up 300,000 reservists, says 6,000 soldiers killed in Ukraine , „Reuters”, 21 września 2022 [dostęp 2022-09-23] ( ang. ) . ↑ Pułkownik Switan o mobilizacji: Putin się spóźnił, Rosja nie zdąży [online], TVN24 [dostęp 2022-09-23] ( pol. ) . ↑ Częściowa mobilizacja w Rosji. Wojna po 209 dniach [online], OSW Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich, 21 września 2022 [dostęp 2022-09-23] ( pol. ) . ↑ Łyman odbity. 221. dzień wojny [online], osw.waw.pl [dostęp 2023-06-27] . ↑ Ukrainian Forces Enter Kherson as Russia Completes Retreat . The Wall Street Journal, 2022-11-11. [dostęp 2022-11-12]. ↑ Tu toczą się najcięższe walki. Eksperci nie mają wątpliwości [online], wydarzenia.interia.pl [dostęp 2023-02-18] ( pol. ) . ↑ Russia and Ukraine Battle for Bakhmut: Live Updates – The New York Times [online], web.archive.org, 1 lutego 2023 [dostęp 2023-02-18] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2023-02-01] . ↑ Rosyjska wojna na wyniszczenie. Zmasowane ataki na ukraińską infrastrukturę krytyczną i ich skutki | Instytut Europy Środkowej [online], ies.lublin.pl, 30 listopada 2022 [dostęp 2023-02-18] ( pol. ) . ↑ Ukraińska infrastruktura krytyczna ponownie ostrzelana przez Rosję. Są ofiary śmiertelne, kilka obwodów i dużych miast odciętych od dostaw prądu – Studium Europy Wschodniej UW [online] [dostęp 2023-02-18] ( pol. ) . ↑ Awdijiwka. Anatomia bitwy [online], defenc24.pl [dostęp 2023-07-05] . ↑ Bachmut: kto wygrał bitwę? [online], belsat.eu, 22 maja 2023 [dostęp 2023-06-12] . ↑ PAB , Rosjanie wysadzili zaporę. „Poziom krytyczny za 5 godzin” [online], wiadomosci.wp.pl, 6 czerwca 2023 [dostęp 2023-06-28] ( pol. ) . ↑ Rosjanie wysadzili zaporę w Nowej Kachowce. Elektrownia „całkowicie zburzona”. Zobacz nagranie [online], TVN24, 6 czerwca 2023 [dostęp 2023-06-28] ( pol. ) . ↑ Ukraińska kontrofensywa na południu kraju. 470. dzień wojny [online], osw.waw.pl, 9 czerwca 2023 [dostęp 2023-06-12] . ↑ akw / prpb: Dowódca wojsk na południu: Ukraina wyzwoliła okupowaną od 2014 roku miejscowość . tvn24.pl, 2023-06-24. [dostęp 2023-06-24]. [zarchiwizowane z tego adresu (2023-06-24)]. ( pol. ) . ↑ Ukraińska ofensywa – przełom czy stagnacja? Co dalej? [online], defence24.pl, 30 sierpnia 2023 [dostęp 2023-09-01] . ↑ Informacyjna Agencja Radiowa: Kluczowe Robotyne wyzwolone – kontrofensywa prze dalej. Wiceminister obrony Ukrainy potwierdza informacje . polskieradio.pl, 2023-08-28. [dostęp 2023-08-28]. ( pol. ) . ↑ Koalicja morska. Okręty płyną do Ukrainy [online], WP Wiadomości, 12 grudnia 2023 [dostęp 2023-12-26] ( pol. ) . ↑ Długa wojna. Ukraina i Rosja po niepowodzeniu ukraińskiej kontrofensywy [online] . ↑ Andrzej A. Wilk Andrzej A. , Piotr P. Żochowski Piotr P. , Ukraina potwierdza niepowodzenie kontrofensywy. 617. dzień wojny [online], Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich . ↑ Generał Walerij Załużny szykuje się na „nowoczesną wojnę pozycyjną”. Sytuacja na froncie [online], oko.press [dostęp 2023-12-26] ( pol. ) . ↑ Wojna pozycyjna już trwa. To dla Ukrainy wielkie zagrożenie – DW – 05.11.2023 [online], dw.com [dostęp 2023-12-26] ( pol. ) . ↑ Russia claims control of Avdiivka after outnumbered Ukrainian defenders withdrew [online], PBS NewsHour, 17 lutego 2024 [dostęp 2024-02-22] ( ang. ) . ↑ a b Bitwa o Pokrowsk. Dlaczego Rosjanie nacierają na to miasto? [online], defence24.pl, 7 sierpnia 2024 [dostęp 2024-08-11] ( pol. ) . ↑ Ekspert: Pakiet pomocowy pozwoli Ukrainie utrzymać teren, na kolejne ofensywy nie ma co liczyć [online], pap.pl [dostęp 2024-05-18] . ↑ Ponad 60 mld dolarów dla Ukrainy. Kongres USA przegłosował pakiet pomocy [online], rmf24.pl [dostęp 2024-05-18] ( pol. ) . ↑ Braki amunicji grożą przerwaniem frontu na Ukrainie [online], gazetaprawna.pl, 3 kwietnia 2024 [dostęp 2024-05-18] ( pol. ) . ↑ ISW: jeśli Ukrainie nadal będzie brakować amunicji, nawet źle wyszkolona rosyjska armia zrobi postępy [online], pap.pl [dostęp 2024-05-18] . ↑ Ofensywa pod Charkowem. Rosjanie koncentrują się na zdobyciu Wołczańska – ISW [online], belsat.eu [dostęp 2024-05-17] ( pol. ) . ↑ „Rosyjska obrona powietrzna nie jest w stanie niczego ochronić”. Rafinerie w Rosji płoną jedna po drugiej [online], Onet Wiadomości, 24 kwietnia 2024 [dostęp 2024-05-17] ( pol. ) . ↑ Michael C. M.C. DiCianna Michael C. M.C. , Don’t Condemn Ukraine’s Refinery Attacks – Help Them [online], CEPA, 22 kwietnia 2024 [dostęp 2024-05-17] ( ang. ) . ↑ Joe J. Barnes Joe J. , Ukraine launches its biggest drone attack on Russian oil facilities , „ The Telegraph ”, 17 maja 2024 , ISSN 0307-1235 [dostęp 2024-05-17] ( ang. ) . Brak numerów stron w czasopiśmie ↑ Incursion into Russia’s Kursk region: A risky gamble for Ukraine? [online], France 24, 9 sierpnia 2024 [dostęp 2024-08-11] ( ang. ) . ↑ Tim T. Lister Tim T. , CNN , ‘Doing the least obvious thing’: Ukraine embarrasses Putin with surprise assault on southern Russia [online], CNN, 10 sierpnia 2024 [dostęp 2024-08-11] ( ang. ) . błąd autorów! ↑ Atak na obwód kurski. Ukraina przejęła kontrolę nad ważnym gazociągiem [online], Onet Wiadomości, 8 sierpnia 2024 [dostęp 2024-08-11] ( pol. ) . ↑ Kreml reaguje na ofensywę. Czołgi, artyleria, rakiety i specjalny reżim [online], TVN24, 10 sierpnia 2024 [dostęp 2024-08-11] ( pol. ) . ↑ Ukraińcy: utworzyliśmy komendanturę wojskową na terytorium Rosji [online], TVN24, 15 sierpnia 2024 [dostęp 2024-08-15] ( pol. ) . ↑ Russia evacuates 121,000 people from Kursk region as Ukraine advances [online], France 24, 12 sierpnia 2024 [dostęp 2024-10-02] ( ang. ) . ↑ Aishwarya A. Parikh Aishwarya A. , Ukraine’s Vuhledar Town Falls To Russian Troops, Claim Reports [online], StratNews Global, 2 października 2024 [dostęp 2024-10-02] ( ang. ) . ↑ What pause in US military aid could mean for Ukraine [online], bbc.com, 4 marca 2025 [dostęp 2025-03-09] ( ang. ) . ↑ How pausing US intelligence impacts Ukraine’s military operation [online], bbc.com, 5 marca 2025 [dostęp 2025-03-09] ( ang. ) . ↑ US suspends all military aid to Ukraine effective immediately [online], 4 marca 2025 [dostęp 2025-03-09] ( ang. ) . ↑ Pause in U.S. intelligence help for Ukraine will hurt but not cripple Kyiv’s war effort, ex-officials say [online], NBC News, 5 marca 2025 [dostęp 2025-03-09] ( ang. ) . ↑ Redakcja „Polityki” , Ameryka wznawia pomoc dla Ukrainy. Musk uderza w Sikorskiego. 5 tematów na dziś [online], polityka.pl, 2025 [dostęp 2025-06-22] . ↑ Chris York: 'Russian bombers are burning en masse' – Ukraine’s SBU drones hit 'more than 40' aircraft in mass attack, source says . kyivindependent.com, 2025-06-01. [dostęp 2025-07-05]. ( ang. ) . ↑ a b c Transferring Fighter Aircraft to Ukraine: Issues and Options for Congress . Congressional Research Service. s. 5–7. [dostęp 2024-01-26]. ( ang. ) . ↑ a b c d e f g h i Duncan McCrory. Electronic Warfare in Ukraine . „The Journal of the Joint Air Power Competence Centre”, s. 69–74, październik 2023. ( ang. ) . ↑ a b c Tyson Wetzel: Ukraine air war examined: A glimpse at the future of air warfare . Atlantic Council. [dostęp 2024-01-26]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Patriot Missile Success in Ukraine Has Shocked Even the Pentagon . Newsweek. [dostęp 2024-01-26]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Alex Hollings: How russia fooled the world about its ‘hypersonic’ kinzhal . sandboxx, 19 sierpnia 2022. [dostęp 2024-03-23]. ( ang. ) . ↑ a b David Cenciotti: Ukraine Shot Down A Russian A-50 Radar Aircraft And Damaged An Il-22 Airborne Command Post . The Aviationist, 15 stycznia 2024. [dostęp 2024-01-26]. ( ang. ) . ↑ David Cenciotti: Here’s Our First Look At The First Ukrainian Air Force F-16 Jets . The Aviationist, 4 sierpnia 2024. [dostęp 2024-11-04]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Parth Satam: Ukraine to Get Sweden’s AWACS in First Airborne Radar Donation . The Aviationist, 29 maja 2024. [dostęp 2025-06-08]. ( ang. ) . ↑ a b Significance and Implications of Ukraine’s Operation Spiderweb . Trends Research & Advisory, 3 czerwca 2025. [dostęp 2025-06-08]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Thomas Newdick: Confirmed Losses Of Russian Aircraft Mount After Ukrainian Drone Assault . The War Zone, 4 czerwca 2025. [dostęp 2025-06-08]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Reuters , Ukraine’s Zelenskiy: Between 2,500 to 3,000 Ukrainian troops have died in war , „Reuters”, 16 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-04-20] ( ang. ) . ↑ Jeremy J. Herb Jeremy J. , Exclusive: Zelensky says world should be prepared for possibility Putin could use nuclear weapons [online], CNN [dostęp 2022-04-20] . ↑ Reuters , Russia says 498 of its soldiers killed, 1,597 wounded in Ukraine – RIA , „Reuters”, 2 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-21] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-18] ( ang. ) . ↑ Ukraine’s losses exceed 2,800 dead nationalists, troops – Russian Defense Ministry [online], interfax.com, 2 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-21] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-02] . ↑ ICRC receives information on over 500 Ukrainians being held in captivity by Russia – Russian human rights commissioner [online], Interfax-Ukraine, 21 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-25] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-25] ( ang. ) . ↑ Svitlana S. Kizilova Svitlana S. , “Enough deaths, enough malice”: Russia, asking for less “blood”, is ready for prisoner swap [online], Ukrayinska Pravda, 21 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-25] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-25] ( ang. ) . ↑ Main objectives of first stage of special operation in Ukraine generally accomplished – Russian General Staff [online], interfax.com, 25 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-31] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-31] . ↑ Каждый пятый – офицер. О чем говорят подтвержденные потери России в войне с Украиной , „BBC News Русская служба”, 6 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-04-07] ( ros. ) . ↑ BBC: oficerowie stanowią 20 procent rosyjskich strat osobowych na Ukrainie [online], Polska Agencja Prasowa SA, 6 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-04-07] ( pol. ) . ↑ Russian claims over 23,000 Ukrainian troops killed in war [online], aa.com.tr [dostęp 2022-04-20] . ↑ DPR reports its losses: 47 dead, 179 injured during special military operation [online], interfax.com [dostęp 2022-03-18] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-17] . ↑ DPR fatalities number 96 since launch of Russian special military operation – ombudsman [online], interfax.com [dostęp 2022-04-05] . ↑ Up to 6,000 Russians may have been killed in Ukraine so far, U.S. official estimates [online], cbsnews.com [dostęp 2022-03-18] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-17] ( ang. ) . ↑ Helene H. Cooper Helene H. , Julian E. Barnes i Eric J.E.B.E. Schmitt Julian E. Barnes i Eric J.E.B.E. , As Russian Troop Deaths Climb, Morale Becomes an Issue, Officials Say , [w:] The New York Times [online], 17 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-17] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-17] ( ang. ) . ↑ „NYT”: według wywiadu USA na Ukrainie zginęło ponad 7 tys. żołnierzy rosyjskich [online], Polska Agencja Prasowa SA [dostęp 2022-03-17] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-17] . ↑ Yury Y. Baranyuk Yury Y. , Russia ‘Taking Incredible Losses’ In Ukraine, Senior U.S. Official Says [online], RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty, 30 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-31] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-31] ( ang. ) . ↑ Замгоссекретаря США: в войне в Украине убиты более 10 тысяч российских военных. Минобороны РФ сообщало о 1351 погибшем [online], Настоящее Время, 30 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-31] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-30] ( ros. ) . ↑ Daniel D. Michaels Daniel D. , NATO: Up to 40,000 Russian Troops Killed, Wounded, Taken Prisoner or Missing in Ukraine [online], The Wall Street Journal, 23 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-23] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-23] ( ang. ) . ↑ WSJ: Up to 40,000 Russian troops killed, wounded, taken prisoner or missing in Ukraine. [online], The Kyiv Independent, 23 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-23] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-24] ( ang. ) . ↑ Wojna na Ukrainie. Najnowsze doniesienia NATO. Rosja straciła 40 tys. żołnierzy [online], Wprost, 23 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-23] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-24] ( pol. ) . ↑ Nebi N. Qena Nebi N. , Cara C. Anna Cara C. , NATO: 7,000 to 15,000 Russian troops dead in Ukraine [online], AP NEWS, 23 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-23] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-23] ( ang. ) . ↑ Reuters , More than 2,000 Ukrainian civilians killed during Russian invasion – Ukrainian emergency service , „Reuters”, 2 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-21] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-18] ( ang. ) . ↑ Reuters , At least 500 Kharkiv city residents killed so far in war with Russia – emergency service , „Reuters”, 16 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-21] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-16] ( ang. ) . ↑ Ukraina. Od początku wojny zginęło ponad 2,5 tysiąca mieszkańców Mariupola [online], Polska Agencja Prasowa SA [dostęp 2022-03-21] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-14] . ↑ Russian troops killed almost 200 civilians in Chernihiv [online], ukrinform.net, 24 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-24] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-24] ( ang. ) . ↑ National police: 900 Ukrainians missing, 2,500 killed, 500 illegally imprisoned [online], Interfax-Ukraine [dostęp 2022-04-21] ( ang. ) . ↑ Ukraine: civilian casualty update 20 April 2022 [online], United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Comissioner, 20 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-04-21] . ↑ Rosyjska inwazja mocno uderza w ukraińską gospodarkę. Minister podała szacunkowe straty [online], TVN24 Biznes [dostęp 2022-03-29] ( pol. ) . ↑ Ukraine: 28 days of war, 64 verified attacks on health care, and 18 million people affected [online], WHO Europe, 24 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-26] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ Минобороны сообщило, что российские войска завершают разгром националистического батальона «Донбасс» – KP.Ru [online], web.archive.org, 21 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-22] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-21] . ↑ Stanisław Skarżyński: Rosyjska gazeta przez przypadek opublikowała dane o gigantycznych stratach Rosji w Ukrainie. „To może być wstęp do obalenia Putina” . wyborcza.pl, 2022-03-21. [dostęp 2022-03-21]. ↑ Paweł P. Basiak Paweł P. , Rosyjska gazeta informowała o zabitych żołnierzach. Tekst „poprawiono” [online], wydarzenia.interia.pl, 21 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-22] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-21] . ↑ amk, Rosja straciła prawie 10 tys. żołnierzy. Informacja znika ze stron gazety [online], Rzeczpospolita, 21 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-22] . ↑ Grayson Quay: Pro-Kremlin tabloid stealth edits report that 9,861 Russian soldiers have been killed in Ukraine . The Week, 2022-03-21. [dostęp 2022-03-22]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Pro-Kremlin site briefly posts apparent Russian toll: 9,861 killed, 16,153 injured [online], The Times of Israel, 22 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-22] ( ang. ) . ↑ Mark M. Trevelyan Mark M. , Russian newspaper blames army death toll report on hackers [online], Reuters, 22 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-22] ( ang. ) . ↑ Mason M. Bissada Mason M. , 500 Or 10,000 Deaths? Russian Media Finally Seems To Report Dire Troop Casualty Numbers – And Then Deletes Them [online], Forbes, 22 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-22] ( ang. ) . ↑ David D. Hambling David D. , How Heavy Are Russian Losses, And What Does It Mean For Their Offensive? [online], Forbes, 26 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-05-21] . ↑ Jakie straty ponoszą Rosjanie? Holenderscy eksperci podają dane oparte na zdjęciach. Przyznają, że ich zaskoczyły [online], TVN24, 8 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-05-25] ( pol. ) . ↑ Media: Państwa NATO za pośrednictwem USA przekażą Ukrainie poradzieckie czołgi [online], tvp.info, 2 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-05-25] ( pol. ) . ↑ Brad B. Lendon Brad B. , Russia’s tanks in Ukraine have a ‘jack-in-the-box’ design flaw [online], CNN, 29 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-05-25] . ↑ How many Russian soldiers have died in the war in Ukraine? [online], the Guardian, 22 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-05-25] ( ang. ) . ↑ Generał z USA: Rosja straciła 100 tys. żołnierzy. Zginęło 40 tys. cywilów [online], Rzeczpospolita [dostęp 2022-11-10] ( pol. ) . ↑ 350 tysięcy. To prawdziwa liczba ofiar wojny w Ukrainie? [online], wp.pl [dostęp 2023-04-13] ( pol. ) . ↑ Naczelny dowódca ukraińskiej armii ujawnił straty. Zginęło 9 tys. żołnierzy [online], Newsweek, 22 sierpnia 2022 [dostęp 2023-08-12] ( pol. ) . ↑ [These are the indicative ultimatum of Russia’s combat losses as of Jan. 15, according to the Armed Forces of Ukraine.] [online], X, 15 stycznia 2026 [dostęp 2026-01-15] ( ang. ) . ↑ a b c d e f g h Andrij A. Lubka Andrij A. , W Ukrainie kultura stała się częścią systemu bezpieczeństwa , [w:] Odporność i solidarność: ukraińskie społeczeństwo wobec wojny , Warszawa: 125-139, 2025, ISBN 978-83-68235-39-5 . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ a b Negocjacje Ukraina – Rosja. Są pierwsze ustalenia [online], wyborcza.pl, 3 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-03] . ↑ Katarzyna K. Wójcik Katarzyna K. , Urszula U. Gwiazda Urszula U. , Ukraina rozmawia z Rosją. Negocjacje ws. ewentualnego zawieszenia broni [online], rmf24.pl, 28 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-28] . ↑ Zakończyły się negocjacje Rosja – Ukraina. Są pierwsze ustalenia [online], wprost.pl, 28 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-28] . ↑ Trzy godziny negocjacji. Zakończyło się trzecie spotkanie Ukraina – Rosja [online], rp.pl, 7 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-07] . ↑ Maciej M. Czarnecki Maciej M. , Trzecia tura negocjacji Ukrainy i Rosji. Kreml przedstawił swoje warunki wstrzymania walk [online], wyborcza.pl, 7 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-07] . ↑ Wojna Rosji z Ukrainą. Rosja przedstawia konkretne warunki przerwania walk [online], Rzeczpospolita [dostęp 2022-03-08] . ↑ Macron heads to Kyiv in bid to broker diplomatic settlement [online], France 24, 8 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-06] ( ang. ) . ↑ Tara T. John Tara T. , Joseph J. Ataman Joseph J. , Xiaofei X. Xu Xiaofei X. , Anna A. Chernova Anna A. , Why the big table in Moscow? Macron refused a Russian Covid test [online], CNN [dostęp 2022-03-06] . ↑ Macron rozmawiał z Putinem. Prezydent Rosji jest gotów na spotkanie [online], Onet Wiadomości, 6 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-07] . ↑ Dan D. Williams Dan D. , Maayan M. Lubell Maayan M. , Israeli PM meets Putin in Moscow, then speaks with Zelenskiy by phone , „Reuters”, 5 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-06] ( ang. ) . ↑ Telephone conversation with Prime Minister of Israel Naftali Bennett [online], President of Russia [dostęp 2022-03-09] ( ang. ) . ↑ Reuters , Putin, Israel’s Bennett discuss Ukraine by phone , „Reuters”, 8 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-09] ( ang. ) . ↑ T.O. T.O. I. T.O. T.O. , Tal T. Schneider Tal T. , Bennett holds follow-up call with Putin after Moscow meeting [online], timesofisrael.com [dostęp 2022-03-09] ( ang. ) . ↑ Colm C. Quinn Colm C. , Germany’s Scholz Meets Putin in Moscow [online], Foreign Policy [dostęp 2022-03-06] ( ang. ) . ↑ Dawid Sieńkowski: Oto plan pokojowy USA dla Ukrainy. Jeden punkt dotyczy Polski . 2025-11-25. [dostęp 2025-11-25]. ↑ Artur Bartkiewicz: Znamy wszystkie 28 punktów planu pokojowego Donalda Trumpa dla Rosji i Ukrainy. Oto ich treść . 2025-11-21. [dostęp 2025-11-25]. ↑ Robert R. Horbaczewski Robert R. , Uchodźcy z Ukrainy nie muszą się rejestrować w punktach recepcyjnych [online], Prawo.pl, 28 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-01] . ↑ Ukraine conflict: Refugees rush to borders to flee Russia’s war . bbc.com, 2022-02-25. [dostęp 2022-02-25]. ↑ Aleksy Kiełbasa: Wojna w Ukrainie. Mężczyźni w wieku 18–60 lat z zakazem wyjazdu z kraju . gazeta.pl, 2022-02-25. [dostęp 2022-02-25]. ↑ Ukraine Refugee Situation . unhcr.org. [dostęp 2022-04-20]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Nearly 26,000 Ukrainians Have Reached Moldova & Romania [online], schengenvisainfo.com, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2023-08-05] . ↑ Wojna Rosji z Ukrainą. Moskwa ogłasza aneksję okupowanej Ukrainy [online], Rzeczpospolita [dostęp 2022-10-12] ( pol. ) . ↑ Putin annexes four regions of Ukraine in major escalation of Russia’s war [online], the Guardian, 30 września 2022 [dostęp 2022-10-12] ( ang. ) . ↑ A Reminder of the Importance of the Crime of Aggression: Considering the Situation of Russia and Ukraine [online], Opinio Juris, 4 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ Douglas D. Guilfoyle Douglas D. , Juliette J. McIntyre Juliette J. , Tamsin Phillipa T.P. Paige Tamsin Phillipa T.P. , Is international law powerless against Russian aggression in Ukraine? No, but it’s complicated [online], The Conversation, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ Molly M. Quell Molly M. , Ukraine has few legal options to hold Russia accountable for invasion [online], courthousenews.com, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] . ↑ Russian veto on UN Security Council should be countered [online], amnesty.org.uk, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] . ↑ Ukraine: Russian Cluster Munition Hits Hospital [online], Human Rights Watch, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ Tragiczne doniesienia z Ukrainy. „To zbrodnie wojenne”. Informują Trybunał w Hadze [online], wiadomosci.onet.pl [dostęp 2022-02-26] . ↑ Crime watch: ICC prosecutor is monitoring Ukraine invasion [online], news.yahoo.com [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ Jolanta J. Ojczyk Jolanta J. , Ukraina skarży Rosję do Trybunału Sprawiedliwości w Hadze [online], Prawo.pl, 27 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-28] . ↑ Statement of ICC Prosecutor, Karim A.A. Khan QC, on the Situation in Ukraine: “I have decided to proceed with opening an investigation.” [online], icc-cpi.int, 28 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-28] ( ang. ) . ↑ Instytut Pileckiego powołał Centrum Dokumentowania Zbrodni Rosyjskich na Ukrainie im. R. Lemkina [online], dzieje.pl [dostęp 2022-03-05] . ↑ Wyborcza.pl [online], wyborcza.pl [dostęp 2022-03-06] . ↑ Zbrodnie wojenne muszą być udokumentowane i osądzone! [online], Stop War Crimes [dostęp 2022-03-06] . ↑ Ukraine: Respect the Rights of Prisoners of War [online], Human Rights Watch, 16 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-17] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2020-03-17] ( ang. ) . ↑ 16 March 2022 Order . icj-cij.org. [dostęp 2022-03-16]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Laura King: International Criminal Court issues arrest warrant for Putin on alleged Ukraine war crimes . Los Angeles Times , 2023-03-17. [dostęp 2023-03-18]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Julian Borger, Pjotr Sauer: ICC judges issue arrest warrant for Vladimir Putin over alleged war crimes . The Guardian , 2023-03-17. [dostęp 2023-03-18]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Claire Parker, Robyn Dixon: ICC issues arrest warrant for Putin over war crimes in Ukraine . The Washington Post , 2023-03-17. [dostęp 2023-03-18]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Haftbefehl gegen Putin erlassen . tagesschau.de, 2023-03-17. [dostęp 2023-03-18]. ( niem. ) . ↑ Ukraina: decydujący cios w Patriarchat Moskiewski? [online], osw.waw.pl, 17 kwietnia 2023 [dostęp 2023-06-18] . ↑ Mark M. Thompson Mark M. , Chris Ch. Liakos Chris Ch. , Russian stocks crash 33% and ruble plunges to record low [online], CNN, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] . ↑ Reuters , Moscow Exchange suspends trading on all markets , „Reuters”, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ AFP-Agence A.A. France-Presse AFP-Agence A.A. , Moscow, Saint Petersburg Exchanges Say Trading Suspended [online], barrons.com, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ Charles Riley: Russia’s stock market reopens after month-long closure . CNN Business, 2022-03-24. [dostęp 2022-03-24]. ↑ Elena E. Fabrichnaya Elena E. , Katya K. Golubkova Katya K. , Russia ramps up aid to banks, forex market after invasion of Ukraine , „Reuters”, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ Iwona I. Wiśniewska Iwona I. , Nowe zachodnie sankcje przeciwko Rosji [online], OSW Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] . ↑ Rubel spada do najniższego poziomu w historii. Początek krachu walutowego w Rosji . money.pl, 2022-02-28. [dostęp 2022-02-28]. ↑ Centralny Bank Rosji próbuje ratować gospodarkę. Gigantyczna podwyżka stóp procentowych . businessinsider.com.pl, 2022-02-28. [dostęp 2022-02-28]. ↑ Rosyjska gospodarka trafiła właśnie na śmietnik. „Jest skazana na upadek” . money.pl, 2022-03-04. [dostęp 2022-03-04]. ↑ Michał Kubicki: Rubel najdroższy od lat. Najmocniej zyskująca waluta w tym roku . bankier.pl, 2022-05-23. [dostęp 2022-05-28]. ↑ Caitlin C. Ostroff Caitlin C. , Ukraine Central Bank Halts Currency Market, Limits Cash Withdrawals [online], WSJ, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ Operations in Flight Information Regions (...) . EASA , 2022-02-24. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Handel Unii Europejskiej z Rosją maleje. [online], money.pl, 5 marca 2023 [dostęp 2023-05-05] . ↑ Reuters: Rosja planuje duże ograniczenie eksportu ropy w marcu [online], rp.pl, 23 lutego 2023 [dostęp 2023-05-05] . ↑ Indie opite rosyjską ropą. Bez wstydu zwiększają zakupy [online], rp.pl, 11 marca 2023 [dostęp 2023-05-05] . ↑ Rząd: PKB Ukrainy spadł w ciągu roku o 10,5 proc. [online], pb.pl, 9 czerwca 2023 [dostęp 2023-06-12] . ↑ Jak w 2024 r. radziła sobie gospodarka Ukrainy? [online], cire.pl [dostęp 2025-07-05] . ↑ Hudson H. Lockett Hudson H. , Asian stocks tumble as US warns Russia on brink of full Ukraine invasion , „Financial Times”, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] . ↑ Ana A. Swanson Ana A. , Ukraine Invasion Threatens Global Wheat Supply , „ The New York Times ”, 24 lutego 2022 , ISSN 0362-4331 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . Brak numerów stron w czasopiśmie ↑ How tensions in Ukraine could rile Egypt , „ The Economist ”, 3 lutego 2022 , ISSN 0013-0613 [dostęp 2022-02-26] . Brak numerów stron w czasopiśmie ↑ AFP-Agence A.A. France-Presse AFP-Agence A.A. , IMF, World Bank Chiefs Warn Of Global Impacts From Ukraine War [online], barrons.com, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ Andrew A. Rettman Andrew A. , ‘Massive’ EU sanctions to target Putin’s war chest [online], EUobserver, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ EEAS, Russia’s aggression against Ukraine: Press Statement by High Representative/Vice-President Josep Borrell [online], 24 lutego 2022 . ↑ KRO , Wielka Brytania zaostrza sankcje. Premier: zamykamy rosyjskim bankom dostęp do rynków finansowych [online], money.pl, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] . ↑ Szymon Kardaś S.K. Michał Kędzierski Szymon Kardaś S.K. , Agata A. Łoskot-Strachota Agata A. , Nord Stream 2: zamrożenie projektu wskutek rosyjskiej agresji na Ukrainę [online], OSW Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] . ↑ Neutralna Szwajcaria nakłada sankcje na Rosję. To zaboli oligarchów [online], businessinsider.com.pl, 28 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-28] . ↑ a b Monako dołącza do sankcji wobec Rosji. Atak Iskanderami na Kijów [online], polityka.pl, 28 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-28] . ↑ Remarks by President Biden Announcing Response to Russian Actions in Ukraine [online], The White House, 22 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ America has targeted Russia’s technological fabric , „ The Economist ”, 25 lutego 2022 , ISSN 0013-0613 [dostęp 2022-02-26] . Brak numerów stron w czasopiśmie ↑ Bartłomiej B. Sawicki Bartłomiej B. , USA zakazują importu ropy, gazu i węgla z Rosji. Niezależnie od UE [online], parkiet.com, 8 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-09] . ↑ Reuters , U.S., EU unlikely to cut Russia off SWIFT for now -Biden , „Reuters”, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ EU Ministers to Discuss SWIFT Sanctions Sunday: Ukraine Update [online], yahoo.com, 26 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2023-04-04] ( ang. ) . ↑ Czołowe rosyjskie banki pozostają w SWIFT. Premier Morawiecki komentuje [online], TVN24 Biznes [dostęp 2022-03-06] . ↑ Wiktoria W. Bieliaszyn Wiktoria W. , Rosja odpowiada na sankcje Zachodu. Ograniczenia dla obywateli w przelewach i korzystaniu z płatności elektronicznych [online], wyborcza.pl, 28 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-02] . ↑ Andrzej A. Kublik Andrzej A. , Putin wziął w jasyr majątki inwestorów z państw nieprzyjaznych Rosji [online], wyborcza.biz, 1 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-02] . ↑ Radosław R. Święcki Radosław R. , Putin zakazuje wywozu z kraju waluty przekraczającej 10 tys. dolarów [online], biznes.wprost.pl, 1 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-04] . ↑ Andrzej A. Kublik Andrzej A. , Dekret Putina: rosyjski gaz dla Zachodu tylko za ruble [online], wyborcza.biz, 31 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-04-01] . ↑ Limit cenowy na rosyjską ropę wchodzi w życie. Do porozumienia dołączyły państwa G7 [online], bankier.pl, 5 grudnia 2022 [dostęp 2023-05-05] . ↑ Czech Republic, Poland, UK, Bulgaria shut airspace to Russian planes [online], Daily Sabah, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ a b Ukraine live updates: Kyiv warns of sabotage groups as curfew imposed [online], BBC News [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ Adrienne Vogt i in., 4 more countries ban Russian airlines from their airspace [online], CNN, 26 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ Russia closes airspace to carriers from Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Slovenia [online], mint, 27 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ Taylor T. Ardrey Taylor T. , Estonia and Romania ban Russian airlines from their airspace, following the UK, Poland, Moldova and Czech Republic [online], BusinessInsider, 26 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] . ↑ Anne A. Kauranen Anne A. , Niklas N. Pollard Niklas N. , Nordic countries prepare to shut airspace to Russian planes , „Reuters”, 27 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ Ukraine invasion: Russian planes face near-total airspace ban to west , „BBC News”, 27 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ Rząd Grecji zamknął przestrzeń powietrzną dla rosyjskich samolotów [online], Onet.pl, 28 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-01] . ↑ a b Allison A. Lampert Allison A. , David D. Shepardson David D. , Europe and Canada move to close skies to Russian planes [online], reuters.com, 28 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-01] . ↑ David D. Shepardson David D. , Jamie J. Freed Jamie J. , Foo Yun F.Y. Chee Foo Yun F.Y. , U.S. follows Canada, Europe on Russian aircraft ban [online], reuters.com, 2 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-04] . ↑ Odwet Putina na sankcje. Rosja zamyka niebo. Lista krajów jest długa [online], gazeta.pl, 1 marca 2021 [dostęp 2022-03-01] . ↑ Leslie L. Josephs Leslie L. , Delta cuts Aeroflot ties as fallout from Russia’s invasion of Ukraine spreads in air travel [online], CNBC, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ Sabre zrywa umowę z liniami Aerofłot [online], rynek-lotniczy.pl, 3 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-04] . ↑ a b Andrzej A. Kublik Andrzej A. , Elektronika, żywność, AGD, nawet karma dla zwierząt nie dopłyną do Rosji. Zaczęła się morska blokada agresora [online], wyborcza.biz, 2 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-02] . ↑ Netto, Rossmann i Topaz wycofują rosyjskie produkty ze swoich sklepów [online], wirtualnemedia.pl [dostęp 2022-02-28] . ↑ Andrzej A. Kublik Andrzej A. , Romansowali z oligarchami, teraz BP już nie chce mieć udziałów Rosnieft. To naftowy rozwód stulecia [online], wyborcza.biz, 27 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-28] . ↑ Ukraine conflict: Disney, Warner, Sony halt release of films in Russia [online], bbc.com, 1 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-02] ( ang. ) . ↑ Andrzej A. Kublik Andrzej A. , Norweski fundusz naftowy porzuca Rosję. To cios dla Rosji, dla Norwegii drobna strata [online], wyborcza.biz, 28 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-28] . ↑ Od Apple po Volvo. Kilkadziesiąt marek opuszcza rosyjski rynek [online], businessinsider.com.pl, 2 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-03] . ↑ Wyborcza.pl [online], wyborcza.biz [dostęp 2022-03-07] . ↑ Ukrainian retail chains remove Coca-Cola products from sale due to its continued operation in Russia [online], Interfax-Ukraine [dostęp 2022-03-07] ( ang. ) . ↑ Calls grow to boycott Coca-Cola, McDonald’s and PepsiCo as major firms stay in Russia [online], The Independent, 6 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-07] ( ang. ) . ↑ Coca-Cola i Danone opuszczają rosyjski rynek [online], Polska Agencja Prasowa SA [dostęp 2022-03-07] . ↑ Charlie Ch. Moore Charlie Ch. , Peter Dutton accuses Huawei of helping Russia [online], Mail Online, 7 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-08] . ↑ a b Lewandowski zerwał umowę z Huawei. Wiemy, ile na tym stracił [online], telepolis.pl [dostęp 2022-03-08] . ↑ Wyborcza.pl [online], wyborcza.biz [dostęp 2022-03-08] . ↑ Lewandowski drops sponsor Huawei amid Ukraine crisis [online], France 24, 7 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-08] ( ang. ) . ↑ Rosja zawetowała rezolucję Rady Bezpieczeństwa ONZ potępiającą agresję Rosji na Ukrainę [online], Polska Agencja Prasowa SA, 26 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] . ↑ a b c ONZ potępiło Rosję. Pięć państw zagłosowało przeciw rezolucji [online], rmf24.pl [dostęp 2022-03-03] . ↑ Zgromadzenie Ogólne ONZ przyjęło rezolucję potępiającą inwazję Rosji na Ukrainę, pięć państw było przeciwko [online], TVN24 [dostęp 2022-03-03] . ↑ Ukraine: General Assembly passes resolution demanding aid access, by large majority [online], UN News, 24 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-27] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-24] ( ang. ) . ↑ „Historyczna decyzja”. Rosja zawieszona w Radzie Praw Człowieka ONZ [online], polityka.pl, 7 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-04-07] ( pol. ) . ↑ Rosja zawieszona w Radzie Praw Człowieka Narodów Zjednoczonych [online], Onet Wiadomości, 7 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-04-07] ( pol. ) . ↑ UN General Assembly votes to suspend Russia from the Human Rights Council [online], UN News, 7 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-04-07] ( ang. ) . ↑ Krzysztof K. Sobczak Krzysztof K. , Rosja została zawieszona w członkostwie Rady Europy [online], Prawo.pl, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] . ↑ Rosja poza Radą Europy. Wynik głosowania przyjęty burzą oklasków [online], wydarzenia.interia.pl [dostęp 2022-03-15] . ↑ Dyrektywa Rady 2001/55/WE z dnia 20 lipca 2001 r. w sprawie minimalnych standardów przyznawania tymczasowej ochrony na wypadek masowego napływu wysiedleńców oraz środków wspierających równowagę wysiłków między Państwami Członkowskimi związanych z przyjęciem takich osób wraz z jego następstwami . ↑ EU einigt sich auf vorübergehenden Schutz für Flüchtlinge [online], zeit.de, 3 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-06] ( niem. ) . ↑ UE oferuje bezprecedensową pomoc ws. uchodźców z Ukrainy. Polska na razie odmawia [online], 300gospodarka.pl, 4 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-06] . ↑ UE przeznacza miliard euro na pomoc Ukrainie [online], money.pl, 1 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-06] . ↑ . ↑ EU will weitere Waffenlieferungen an die Ukraine finanzieren [online], zeit.de, 11 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-13] ( niem. ) . ↑ l , Rosja atakuje Ukrainę – konsultacje na podstawie artykułu 4 Paktu Północnoatlantyckiego [online], Prawo.pl, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] . ↑ Jessie J. Yeung Jessie J. i inni , Poland and Baltic countries trigger consultations under NATO article 4 [online], CNN, 23 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ Lorne L. Cook Lorne L. , NATO leaders agree to bolster eastern forces after invasion [online], ABC News, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-11-02] ( ang. ) . ↑ NATO puts warplanes on alert, to increase troop presence on eastern flank [online], The Star, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ Andrew A. Rettman Andrew A. , Nato troops moving east to avert ‘spillover’ from Ukraine war [online], EUobserver, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ NATO Agrees To Partial Deployment Of Response Force To Eastern Member Countries [online], RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ Julie J. Coleman Julie J. , NATO takes command of US carrier strike group as allies send more jets and warships to deter Russia’s threat against Ukraine [online], news.yahoo.com, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ Reuters , Poland and Lithuania say Ukraine deserves EU candidate status due to ‘current security challenges’ , „Reuters”, 23 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-16] ( ang. ) . ↑ Katarzyna K. Bartman Katarzyna K. , Cichy partner czy „skarbonka” Rosji? Tak Chiny rozgrywają wojnę na Ukrainie [online], money.pl [dostęp 2022-02-26] . ↑ Ministrowie spraw zagranicznych Indii i Chin wezwali do zawieszenia broni w Ukrainie [online], pap.pl, 25 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-25] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-25] ( pol. ) . ↑ India says U.S., Russia ties 'stand on their own merit’ despite Ukraine war , „Reuters”, 24 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-25] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-25] ( ang. ) . ↑ Rzecznik MSZ: Polska podjęła decyzję o redukcji personelu ambasady Rosji. Nasze terytorium opuści 45 osób [online], Polska Agencja Prasowa SA, 23 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-23] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-23] ( pol. ) . ↑ Polska zarzuca działalność szpiegowską 45 dyplomatom z Rosji. Jest komentarz rosyjskiego ambasadora [online], Rzeczpospolita, 23 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-23] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-23] ( pol. ) . ↑ l , Bułgaria wydala 10 rosyjskich dyplomatów. Litwa, Łotwa i Estonia uznała za persony non grata kolejne 10 osób [online], Wprost, 18 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-23] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-18] ( pol. ) . ↑ Sejm przyjął przez aklamację uchwałę ws. popełniania zbrodni wojennych przez Rosję w Ukrainie [online], Polska Agencja Prasowa SA, 23 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-26] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-24] ( pol. ) . ↑ Senat USA jednogłośnie uznał Putina za zbrodniarza wojennego [online], Polska Agencja Prasowa SA, 16 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-26] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-26] ( pol. ) . ↑ Morawiecki o misji pokojowej NATO: kolejne kraje członkowskie wyraziły aprobatę [online], polsatnews.pl, 25 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-26] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-26] ( pol. ) . ↑ Summit on Peace in Ukraine [online], eda.admin.ch [dostęp 2024-06-19] ( ang. ) . ↑ 92 countries to be present at Peace Summit in Switzerland, almost 60 at highest level [online], Ukrainska Pravda [dostęp 2024-06-19] ( ang. ) . ↑ Violetta V. Baran Violetta V. , Jest komunikat ze Szwajcarii. Niektóre państwa nie podpisały się [online], wiadomosci.wp.pl, 16 czerwca 2024 [dostęp 2024-06-19] ( pol. ) . ↑ Лукашенко подтвердил участие Беларуси в СВО в Украине, но есть важные нюансы . belta.by, 4 października 2022. [dostęp 2022-10-12]. ( ros. ) . ↑ Wsparcie wojskowe Wielkiej Brytanii dla Ukrainy [online], OSW Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich, 22 listopada 2021 [dostęp 2022-02-27] . ↑ Hundreds of UK troops parachute into Ukraine for joint exercises [online], gov.uk [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ Matthias M. Williams Matthias M. , Gabriela G. Baczynska Gabriela G. , Britain, Poland and Ukraine in cooperation talks over Russian threat , „Reuters”, 1 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ Nowy sojusz polsko-brytyjsko-ukraiński? Rewelacje BBC [online], gospodarka.dziennik.pl, 31 stycznia 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] . ↑ UK troops sent to help train Ukrainian army to leave country [online], the Guardian, 12 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ Wielka Brytania przekaże kolejną broń Ukrainie i zbada status stacji RT [online], belsat.eu [dostęp 2022-02-27] . ↑ Piotr Niemczyk: Upadek mitu Putina, czyli porażka rosyjskiego wywiadu . wyborcza.pl, 2 marca 2022. [dostęp 2022-03-03]. ↑ Deutsche D. Welle Deutsche D. , Dlaczego Niemcy odmawiają dostaw broni na Ukrainę. „Myśl trudna do zniesienia” | DW | 21.01.2022 [online], DW.COM [dostęp 2022-02-27] . ↑ Niemcy wreszcie wysyłają na Ukrainę niesławne hełmy. Absurdalny powód opóźnienia [online], Wprost, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] . ↑ Reuters , Germany mulls supplying anti-aircraft missiles to Ukraine – source , „Reuters”, 3 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-06] ( ang. ) . ↑ Rząd Belgii zmienia zdanie. Chce dostarczyć broń Ukrainie [online], forsal.pl, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-26] . ↑ Francja zwiększy dostawy sprzętu wojskowego dla Ukrainy [online], PolskieRadio24.pl [dostęp 2022-02-27] . ↑ Pioruny, drony i amunicja. Polskie uzbrojenie w drodze na Ukrainę [online], Rzeczpospolita [dostęp 2022-02-27] . ↑ Polska przekazała Ukrainie pociski rakietowe R-73 do samolotów MiG-29. Niebawem wyśle myśliwce? [online], Onet Wiadomości, 28 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-01] . ↑ Jaka broń i skąd dociera do Ukrainy? Lista [online], wiadomosci.onet.pl, 28 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-28] . ↑ James J. Mackenzie James J. , Top Polish politician calls for peacekeeping mission in Ukraine , „Reuters”, 15 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-16] ( ang. ) . ↑ „Nie ma mowy o wojnie NATO z Rosją”. Dworczyk tłumaczy słowa Kaczyńskiego z Kijowa o misji pokojowej [online], Rzeczpospolita [dostęp 2022-03-16] . ↑ Kolejne Bayraktary TB2 wraz z uzbrojeniem dotarły na Ukrainę [online], Rzeczpospolita [dostęp 2022-03-07] . ↑ Ochotnicy z Łotwy będą mogli walczyć na Ukrainie. Parlament przyjął szczególną poprawkę [online], PolskieRadio24.pl [dostęp 2022-02-28] . ↑ Jason J. Lemon Jason J. , Russia Vows Prosecution of Foreign Fighters After 16K Join Ukraine [online], Newsweek [dostęp 2022-05-03] ( ang. ) . ↑ Kiedy i jakie F-16 dla Ukrainy [online], defence24.pl, 19 sierpnia 2023 [dostęp 2023-09-01] . ↑ Zełenski pokazał F-16 [online], TVN24, 4 sierpnia 2024 [dostęp 2024-08-06] ( pol. ) . ↑ Henrik H. Pettersson Henrik H. , Aid to Ukraine: Where the money in their war against Russia is coming from [online], CNN, 6 października 2023 [dostęp 2024-06-19] ( ang. ) . ↑ Anonymous wypowiadają wojnę Putinowi. „Wkrótce poczujesz gniew hakerów z całego świata” . wprost.pl, 2022-02-27. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ↑ a b Bolesław Breczko: Wojna w Ukrainie. Anonymous dołączyli do wojny przeciwko Rosji. Mają już pierwszy sukces . [w:] Wprost Biznes [on-line]. Wprost.pl, 2022-02-25. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ↑ Andrew Griffin: Hundreds of thousands join Ukraine ‘IT Army’ to fight cyberwar with Russia . independent.co.uk, 2022-02-28. [dostęp 2022-03-01]. ↑ Łukasz Gołąbiowski: Anonymous: przechwyciliśmy wojskową komunikację Rosjan . komputerswiat.pl, 2020-02-27. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ↑ Vasco Cotovio, Mia Alberti: Anonymous claims responsibility for „ongoing” hacking of Russian government sites . CNN. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ↑ Сайт Роскосмоса вновь подвергся массированной DDoS-атаке . TASS, 2022-02-27. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ↑ Bartosz Witoszka: Elon Musk: uruchomiliśmy Starlink nad Ukrainą. Jest też zapowiedź dalszej pomocy . komputerswiat.pl. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ↑ Live updates: Musk’s Starlink internet ‘active’ in Ukraine . independent.co.uk, 2022-02-27. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ↑ Błyskawiczna reakcja Elona Muska na prośbę. Wicepremier Ukrainy pokazał efekt . tvn24.pl, 2022-02-28. [dostęp 2022-03-01]. ↑ Polacy zbierają specjalistów IT, by bronić Ukrainy [online], Rzeczpospolita [dostęp 2022-09-22] ( pol. ) . ↑ Oktawia O. Kromer Oktawia O. , Protest pod ambasadą Rosji w Warszawie. Ludzie płaczą i krzyczą: „Norymberga dla Putina!” [online], warszawa.wyborcza.pl [dostęp 2022-03-01] . ↑ Demonstrators protest outside Russian Embassy in Washington after Russia invades Ukraine [online], cbsnews.com [dostęp 2022-03-01] ( ang. ) . ↑ Ukrainian-Canadians rally outside embassy in Ottawa ahead of Russian invasion [online], Ottawa, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-01] ( ang. ) . ↑ Cały świat protestuje przeciw rosyjskiej inwazji. Setki tysięcy ludzi na ulicach. Zdjęcia [online], Onet Wiadomości, 27 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-01] . ↑ Obrazem: Šedesátitisícový dav v Praze volal po míru a sankcích, které Rusko zabolí [online], forum24.cz [dostęp 2022-03-01] ( cz. ) . ↑ Deutsche D. Welle Deutsche D. , Ukraine-Russia conflict: Protests in Berlin | DW | 23.02.2022 [online], DW.COM [dostęp 2022-03-01] ( ang. ) . ↑ AP , Hundreds of Belarusians protest Russian attack on Ukraine [online], timesofisrael.com [dostęp 2022-03-01] ( ang. ) . ↑ Ресей консулдығының алдында пикет өткізгендерді полиция ұстап әкетті [online], Азаттық радиосы [dostęp 2022-03-01] ( kaz. ) . ↑ In Photos: Georgians March for Ukraine [online], Civil.ge, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-01] ( ang. ) . ↑ D18 Hərəkatı Ukraynaya dəstək aksiyası keçirib [online], meydan.tv, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-01] ( azer. ) . ↑ Al Jazeera A.J. Staff Al Jazeera A.J. , Russia-Ukraine: Mapping anti-war protests around the world [online], aljazeera.com [dostęp 2022-03-26] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-24] ( ang. ) . ↑ a b Thousands in Russia protest Ukraine war, hundreds detained [online], France 24, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-01] ( ang. ) . ↑ Reuters , Anti-war protests held in cities across Russia, 2,000 people arrested , „Reuters”, 27 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-01] ( ang. ) . ↑ Ivan I. Nechepurenko Ivan I. , Dan D. Bilefsky Dan D. , Thousands of Russians protest President Vladimir V. Putin’s assault on Ukraine. Some chant: ‘No to war!’ , „ The New York Times ”, 24 lutego 2022 , ISSN 0362-4331 [dostęp 2022-03-01] ( ang. ) . Brak numerów stron w czasopiśmie ↑ ČTK , Nejsme vojáčci. Policie v Rusku zadržuje protestující proti válce s Ukrajinou , „Deník.cz”, 24 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-01] ( cz. ) . ↑ Al Jazeera A.J. Staff Al Jazeera A.J. , Russia-Ukraine: Mapping anti-war protests around the world [online], aljazeera.com [dostęp 2022-03-01] ( ang. ) . ↑ Независимый правозащитный медиа-проект ОВД-Инфо [online], ОВД-Инфо [dostęp 2022-03-07] ( ros. ) . strona główna serwisu ↑ More than 15,000 Russians have been arrested in anti-war protests , „ The Economist ” , ISSN 0013-0613 [dostęp 2022-05-31] . Brak numerów stron w czasopiśmie ↑ Christina Pazzanese Harvard Staff Ch.P.H.S. Writer Christina Pazzanese Harvard Staff Ch.P.H.S. , What would be signs protests in Russia are making a difference? [online], Harvard Gazette, 13 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-05-31] ( ang. ) . ↑ В России проходят акции протеста против мобилизации – DW – 21.09.2022 [online], dw.com [dostęp 2022-09-25] ( ros. ) . ↑ W Rosji wrze. Zatrzymania na protestach przeciwko mobilizacji [online], wiadomosci.onet.pl [dostęp 2022-09-25] . ↑ Ponad 730 osób zatrzymanych w Rosji po protestach przeciwko mobilizacji [online], Rzeczpospolita [dostęp 2022-09-25] ( pol. ) . ↑ Hundreds arrested as Russian draft protests continue [online], BBC News, 24 września 2022 [dostęp 2022-09-25] ( ang. ) . ↑ Warning shots at Russian anti-mobilization protest – DW – 09/25/2022 [online], dw.com [dostęp 2023-10-31] ( ang. ) . ↑ Scores detained after police clash with people opposed to mobilisation in Russia’s Dagestan , „Reuters”, 25 września 2022 [dostęp 2023-10-31] ( ang. ) . ↑ Anna A. Wolska Anna A. , Rosja: Mobilizacja wymierzona głównie w mniejszości etniczne? [online], euractiv.pl, 24 września 2022 [dostęp 2023-10-31] ( pol. ) . ↑ Katarzyna K. Bartman Katarzyna K. , „Nic już u was nie kupimy”. Polacy bojkotują biznes z Rosji [online], money.pl [dostęp 2022-06-16] ( pol. ) . ↑ MLG , Bojkot sieci handlowych to więcej niż hasła. Dane nie kłamią [online], money.pl [dostęp 2022-03-26] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-24] ( pol. ) . ↑ PKO BP pokazał, że polski bojkot Auchan i Leroy Merlin naprawdę boli sieci, które pozostały w Rosji [online], Bezprawnik, 23 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-26] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-25] ( pol. ) . ↑ Branko B. Filipovic Branko B. , Pro-Russia Serbs march in Belgrade as country treads ever finer line between East and West , „Reuters”, 5 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-18] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-13] ( ang. ) . ↑ Aleksandar A. Brezar Aleksandar A. , Bosnian Serb ‘Night Wolves’ bikers stage protests in support of Putin [online], euronews, 12 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-18] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-17] ( ang. ) . ↑ Serb nationalists in Montenegro rally in support of Russia , „Reuters”, 28 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-18] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-13] ( ang. ) . ↑ Antigoni A. Pitta Antigoni A. , Pro-Putin protest outside Nicosia embassy | Cyprus Mail [online], Cyprus mail, 12 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-18] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-17] ( ang. ) . ↑ Aleksandra Cieślik: Nacjonalistyczne protesty w Pradze. Chcieli zdjąć ukraińską flagę . wydarzenia.interia.pl, 2023-03-11. [dostęp 2024-09-08]. ↑ Russen-Fahnen und laute Musik: Auto-Korso der Schande in Berlin [online], bild.de [dostęp 2022-04-05] ( niem. ) . ↑ Ambasador Ukrainy w Niemczech: jak mogliście pozwolić na tę rosyjską paradę hańby w Berlinie [online], Polska Agencja Prasowa SA [dostęp 2022-04-05] ( pol. ) . ↑ W Berlinie znaleźli sposób na Rosjan z „parady hańby”. Niemieccy śledczy ruszyli do akcji [online], naTemat.pl [dostęp 2022-04-05] ( pol. ) . ↑ Niemcy. Prorosyjskie demonstracje i bezsilność władz [online], DW.COM, 5 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-04-06] ( pol. ) . ↑ Prorussischer Autokorso in Stuttgart: Nationalhymnen und „Kalinka” , „Die Welt”, 9 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-04-09] ( niem. ) . ↑ Pro-Russische Autokorsos in Stuttgart und Lübeck: Vier Anzeigen wegen Kriegshetze [online], bild.de [dostęp 2022-04-10] ( niem. ) . ↑ Niemcy. Prorosyjskie demonstracje w Hanowerze i Frankfurcie. „Wielu to ślepo oddani zwolennicy Putina” [online], Polska Agencja Prasowa SA [dostęp 2022-04-10] ( pol. ) . ↑ Antyukraiński marsz przeszedł przez Warszawę: wybielali Rosję ku radości Kremla [online], oko.press [dostęp 2023-10-14] ( pol. ) . ↑ AfricaNews , Pro-Russia protesters rally in Central African Republic [online], Africanews, 5 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-18] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-17] ( ang. ) . ↑ Thousands protest at Russian Embassy in Athens | eKathimerini.com [online], eKathimerini, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-20] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-02-25] ( ang. ) . ↑ Negative views of Russia near Cold War levels amid Ukraine crisis: POLL [online], ABC News, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-26] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-25] ( ang. ) . ↑ Nuclear fears in US amid Russia-Ukraine war: AP-NORC poll [online], AP News, 28 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-29] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-29] ( ang. ) . ↑ USA. Sondaż: większość Amerykanów chce ostrzejszej postawy wobec Rosji, choć obawia się wojny jądrowej [online], Polska Agencja Prasowa SA, 28 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-29] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-29] ( pol. ) . ↑ As Ukraine war intensifies, some Russian speakers far from Moscow are feeling hostility , [w:] The Washington Post [online] [dostęp 2022-03-26] ( ang. ) . ↑ Anti-Russian hate in Europe is making chefs and school children out to be enemies , [w:] The Washington Post [online] [dostęp 2022-03-26] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-25] ( ang. ) . ↑ James J. Beardsworth James J. , Russians Abroad: Blamed for a Regime They Sought to Escape , [w:] The Moscow Times [online], 6 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-26] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-06] . ↑ Russian Americans face misdirected blame for war in Ukraine , „Christian Science Monitor”, 10 marca 2022 , ISSN 0882-7729 [dostęp 2022-03-26] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-24] . Brak numerów stron w czasopiśmie ↑ Narasta wrogość wobec Rosjan w Niemczech [online], DW.COM, 6 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-04-06] ( pol. ) . ↑ Katarzyna Kaczorowska: Już blisko 30 tysięcy Ukraińców uciekło do Polski . Polityka, 2022-02-25. [dostęp 2022-03-04]. ↑ Dwie trzecie Polaków pomogło uchodźcom z Ukrainy [online], ARC Rynek i Opinia, 28 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-29] [zarchiwizowane z adresu 2022-03-29] ( pol. ) . ↑ Faith F. Karimi Faith F. , Samantha S. Kelly Samantha S. , People around the world are booking Airbnbs in Ukraine. They don’t plan to check in [online], CNN [dostęp 2022-03-07] ( ang. ) . ↑ Google Maps i TripAdvisor blokują dodawanie opinii o niektórych miejscach w Rosji – NowyMarketing [online], NowyMarketing.pl, 3 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-07] . ↑ Jokereiden kausi on ohi . jokerit.com, 2022-02-25. [dostęp 2022-02-26]. ( fiń. ) . ↑ Jokerit to miss 2021–2022 . en.khl.ru, 2022-02-25. [dostęp 2022-02-26]. ( ang. ) . ↑ AS Dinamo Rīga paziņojums . dinamoriga.lv, 2022-02-27. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ( łot. ) . ↑ IIHF Council takes definitive action over Russia, Belarus . iihf.com, 2022-02-28. [dostęp 2022-03-01]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Russian GP off after Ukraine invasion , „BBC Sport” [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ A statement on the Russian Grand Prix [online], Twitter [dostęp 2022-02-27] . ↑ FIS Cancels all Remaining 2021-22 Season Events in Russia [online], fis-ski.com [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ 2022 Chess Olympiad to be moved from Moscow . fide.com, 2022-02-25. [dostęp 2022-05-08]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Russia and Belarus teams suspended from FIDE competitions . fide.com, 2022-03-16. [dostęp 2022-05-08]. ( ang. ) . ↑ FIDE Ethics imposes a six-month ban on Karjakin . fide.com, 2022-03-21. [dostęp 2022-05-08]. ( ang. ) . ↑ Peter Doggers: Karjakin zawieszony na 6 miesięcy! Nie weźmie udziału w Turnieju Kandydatów . chess.com, 2022-03-21. [dostęp 2022-05-08]. ↑ Polska nie chce grać z Rosją! Wspólne stanowisko PZPN i piłkarzy reprezentacji . pzpn.pl. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ↑ SvFF: herrlandslaget kommer inte att spela mot Ryssland . svff.svenskfotboll.se, 2022-02-26. [dostęp 2022-02-27]. ( szw. ) . ↑ Sebastian S. Kowalski Sebastian S. , Czesi się przełamali! Dołączają do Polski i Szwecji. „Nie zagramy z Rosją” [online], Sport.pl, 27 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] . ↑ Russian and Belarussian biathletes to compete as neutral athletes in IBU events [online], International Biathlon Union – IBU, 26 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ FIG decision regarding the conflict in Europe [online], gymnastics.sport [dostęp 2022-02-27] . ↑ Partnerschaft zwischen S04 und Gazprom wird vorzeitig beendet . schalke04.de, 2022-02-28. [dostęp 2022-02-28]. ( niem. ) . ↑ Schalke hält an Partnerschaft mit Sponsor Gazprom fest . sportschau.de, 2022-02-22. [dostęp 2022-02-28]. ( niem. ) . ↑ Robert Czykiel: Koniec milczenia. FIS podjęła decyzję ws. Rosji i Białorusi . wp.pl, 2022-03-01. [dostęp 2022-03-01]. ↑ Dominika Pawlik: Nareszcie! CEV i FIVB podjęły decyzję, na którą wszyscy czekali . wp.pl, 2022-03-01. [dostęp 2022-03-01]. ↑ Grupa Azoty ZAKSA Kędzierzyn-Koźle: Stanowisko Klubu dotyczące meczu Ligi Mistrzów z Dynamo Moskwa . zaksa.pl, 2022-03-01. [dostęp 2022-03-02]. ↑ Fédération Internationale de Volleyball: FIVB Volleyball Men’s World Championship 2022 To Be Removed From Russia . fivb.com, 2022-03-01. [dostęp 2022-12-13]. ↑ Fédération Internationale de Volleyball: Poland And Slovenia To Host Relocated FIVB Volleyball Men’s World Championship 2022 . fivb.com, 2022-04-15. [dostęp 2022-12-13]. ↑ Rafał Smoliński: Rosja i Białoruś zawieszone przez ITF. Jest decyzja ATP i WTA! . wp.pl, 2022-03-01. [dostęp 2022-03-01]. ↑ Wirtualna Polska W.P. Media Wirtualna Polska W.P. , „Nie mieliśmy wyjścia”. Organizacja KSW zdecydowała w sprawie rosyjskich zawodników – WP SportoweFakty [online], sportowefakty.wp.pl, 1 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-10] . ↑ Ministerstwo Sportu i Turystyki wzywa polskie środowisko sportowe do stosowania rekomendacji w sprawie zawodników z Rosji i Białorusi . gov.pl, 2022-07-22. [dostęp 2022-07-23]. ↑ Eurowizja 2022 bez Rosji. „Udział Rosjan mógłby narazić konkurs na szwank” [online], Onet Kultura, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] . ↑ EBU statement regarding the participation of Russia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022 [online], Eurovision.tv, 25 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-02-27] ( ang. ) . ↑ Newsroom 360 , Co słychać u Margaret? Zobacz nowe fotki, które wrzuciła na swój Instagram [online], Głos Koszaliński, 3 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-03] . ↑ Niezwykły duet polskich artystów! „Krzyk mój to za mało” [online], muzyka.interia.pl [dostęp 2022-03-10] . ↑ Sanah i Igor Herbut – „Mamo tyś płakała”. „Najważniejszy do tej pory projekt w moim życiu” [online], gazeta.pl [dostęp 2022-03-10] . ↑ Marie – 2 marca . [dostęp 2022-03-03]. ↑ Sarsa – premiera online 1 marca . [dostęp 2022-03-03]. ↑ Piosenka o dronach Bayraktar jest hitem w Ukrainie. „To kandydat do Eurowizji” [online], Rzeczpospolita [dostęp 2022-03-03] . ↑ Guy Van Vlierden: ‘Bayraktar! Bayraktar!’ Hoe een Turk de tweede grootste held van Oekraïne is geworden . ad.nl, 2022-03-05. [dostęp 2022-05-26]. ( duń. ) . ↑ Хіт про „Байрактар” написав кадровий військовий, і він вже готує наступну прем'єру . tsn.ua, 2022-03-08. [dostęp 2022-05-26]. ( ukr. ) . ↑ Bayraktar – Official Song (English Subtitles) – Ukraine Russia War . [dostęp 2022-03-03]. ↑ Koncert „Solidarni z Ukrainą”. Oglądaj transmisję [online], tvp.info, 27 lutego 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-03] . ↑ „Naszą bronią jest muzyka”. Koncert na rzecz Ukrainy w Narodowym Forum Muzyki [online], rmf24.pl [dostęp 2022-03-03] . ↑ Iceland: Go_A will no longer perform at the Söngvakeppnin 2022 final [online], wiwibloggs, 8 marca 2022 [dostęp 2022-03-10] ( ang. ) . ↑ Вы этого хотели, русская власть..? [online], Instagram [dostęp 2022-03-10] . ↑ Jarek J. Szubrycht Jarek J. , Pierwsze nagranie Pink Floyd od 28 lat! Z ukraińskim wokalistą żołnierzem [online], wyborcza.pl, 8 kwietnia 2022 [dostęp 2022-04-19] . ↑ Ukraine’s National Anthem Reverberates Around the World . The New York Times. [dostęp 2024-01-26]. 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Siewierskodonieck i Lisiczańsk Bitwa o Starobielsk Bitwa o Wołnowachę Kontrofensywa charkowska Bitwa pod Szewczenkowem Bitwa o Bachmut Bitwa o Sołedar Ofensywa charkowska (2024) Walki o Nowomychajliwkę Bitwa pod Kurachowem Bitwa o Marjinkę (2022–2023) Bitwa o Czasiw Jar Bitwa o Torećk Bitwa o Wuhłedar Bitwa o Krasnohoriwkę północno-wschodnia Ukraina Bitwa o Czernihów Bitwa o Konotop Walki o Ochtyrkę Walki o Trościaniec Bitwa o Sumy Rosyjska okupacja obwodu czernihowskiego Rosyjska okupacja obwodu sumskiego Kijów i obwód kijowski Bitwa o Kijów Bitwa o Hostomel Bitwa o Czarnobyl Bitwa o Wasylków Bitwa o Irpień południowa Ukraina Bitwa o Berdiańsk Bitwa o Enerhodar Bitwa o Chersoń Bitwa o Melitopol Bitwa o Mikołajów Bitwa pod Wozniesieńskiem Bitwa o Zaporoże Kontrofensywa w obwodzie zaporoskim Rosyjska okupacja obwodu mikołajowskiego na terytorium Rosji Rajd na obwód biełgorodzki Bunt Grupy Wagnera Atak na Biełgorod (2023) Operacja kurska Ukraińska okupacja obwodu kurskiego Eksplozja magazynu amunicji w Toropcu Operacja Pajęczyna inne Walki o Wyspę Wężową Rosyjska okupacja obwodu żytomierskiego Ataki powietrzne na Lwów Eksplozja na moście Krymskim (2022) Atak na koszary w Makiejewce Eksplozja na moście Krymskim (2023) Strzelanina na poligonie w Sołoti Naruszenia przestrzeni powietrznej nieobjętej działaniami wojennymi Eksplozja rakiety w Przewodowie wtargnięcie rosyjskich dronów na terytorium Polski w 2025 roku Wysadzenie tamy w Nowej Kachowce Katastrofa Embraera Legacy 600 Grupy Wagnera pod Kużenkinem Katastrofa lotnicza w Jabłonowie zbrodnie wojenne Bombardowanie Borodzianki Zbrodnia w Buczy Ostrzał Mikołajowa amunicją kasetową Nalot na szpital w Mariupolu Atak lotniczy na teatr w Mariupolu Atak rakietowy na budynek administracji obwodowej w Mikołajowie Atak rakietowy na dworzec w Kramatorsku Atak rakietowy na centrum handlowe w Krzemieńczuku Atak rakietowy na Serhijiwkę Atak rakietowy na Czasiw Jar Atak rakietowy na Winnicę Masakra w więzieniu w Ołeniwce Atak rakietowy na akademiki w Charkowie Atak rakietowy na stację kolejową w Czapłynem Zbrodnia w Iziumie Atak na cywilną kolumnę pod Kupiańskiem Atak rakietowy na kolumnę humanitarną w Zaporożu Uprowadzenia dzieci podczas rosyjskiej inwazji na Ukrainę Egzekucja Ołeksandra Maciewskiego Atak rakietowy na Dniepr Atak rakietowy na Humań Nalot na Słowiańsk Ostrzał Chersonia Atak rakietowy na Kramatorsk Atak rakietowy na Sumy jednostki wojskowe V Służba Federalnej Służby Bezpieczeństwa Federacji Rosyjskiej Gruziński Legion Narodowy Korpus Afrykański Legion Wolna Rosja Międzynarodowy Legion Obrony Terytorialnej Ukrainy Pułk im. Konstantego Kalinowskiego Rosyjski Korpus Ochotniczy Sztorm-Z Sztorm-V wschodnia Ukraina Walki o Awdijiwkę Bitwa o Charków Walki o Izium Oblężenie Mariupola Walki o Siewierskodonieck i Lisiczańsk Bitwa o Starobielsk Bitwa o Wołnowachę Kontrofensywa charkowska Bitwa pod Szewczenkowem Bitwa o Bachmut Bitwa o Sołedar Ofensywa charkowska (2024) Walki o Nowomychajliwkę Bitwa pod Kurachowem Bitwa o Marjinkę (2022–2023) Bitwa o Czasiw Jar Bitwa o Torećk Bitwa o Wuhłedar Bitwa o Krasnohoriwkę Walki o Awdijiwkę Bitwa o Charków Walki o Izium Oblężenie Mariupola Walki o Siewierskodonieck i Lisiczańsk Bitwa o Starobielsk Bitwa o Wołnowachę Kontrofensywa charkowska Bitwa pod Szewczenkowem Bitwa pod Szewczenkowem Bitwa o Bachmut Bitwa o Sołedar Ofensywa charkowska (2024) Walki o Nowomychajliwkę Bitwa pod Kurachowem Bitwa o Marjinkę (2022–2023) Bitwa o Czasiw Jar Bitwa o Torećk Bitwa o Wuhłedar Bitwa o Krasnohoriwkę północno-wschodnia Ukraina Bitwa o Czernihów Bitwa o Konotop Walki o Ochtyrkę Walki o Trościaniec Bitwa o Sumy Rosyjska okupacja obwodu czernihowskiego Rosyjska okupacja obwodu sumskiego Bitwa o Czernihów Bitwa o Konotop Walki o Ochtyrkę Walki o Trościaniec Bitwa o Sumy Rosyjska okupacja obwodu czernihowskiego Rosyjska okupacja obwodu sumskiego Kijów i obwód kijowski Bitwa o Kijów Bitwa o Hostomel Bitwa o Czarnobyl Bitwa o Wasylków Bitwa o Irpień Bitwa o Kijów Bitwa o Hostomel Bitwa o Czarnobyl Bitwa o Wasylków Bitwa o Irpień południowa Ukraina Bitwa o Berdiańsk Bitwa o Enerhodar Bitwa o Chersoń Bitwa o Melitopol Bitwa o Mikołajów Bitwa pod Wozniesieńskiem Bitwa o Zaporoże Kontrofensywa w obwodzie zaporoskim Rosyjska okupacja obwodu mikołajowskiego Bitwa o Berdiańsk Bitwa o Enerhodar Bitwa o Chersoń Bitwa o Melitopol Bitwa o Mikołajów Bitwa pod Wozniesieńskiem Bitwa o Zaporoże Kontrofensywa w obwodzie zaporoskim Rosyjska okupacja obwodu mikołajowskiego na terytorium Rosji Rajd na obwód biełgorodzki Bunt Grupy Wagnera Atak na Biełgorod (2023) Operacja kurska Ukraińska okupacja obwodu kurskiego Eksplozja magazynu amunicji w Toropcu Operacja Pajęczyna Rajd na obwód biełgorodzki Bunt Grupy Wagnera Atak na Biełgorod (2023) Operacja kurska Ukraińska okupacja obwodu kurskiego Eksplozja magazynu amunicji w Toropcu Operacja Pajęczyna inne Walki o Wyspę Wężową Rosyjska okupacja obwodu żytomierskiego Ataki powietrzne na Lwów Eksplozja na moście Krymskim (2022) Atak na koszary w Makiejewce Eksplozja na moście Krymskim (2023) Strzelanina na poligonie w Sołoti Naruszenia przestrzeni powietrznej nieobjętej działaniami wojennymi Eksplozja rakiety w Przewodowie wtargnięcie rosyjskich dronów na terytorium Polski w 2025 roku Wysadzenie tamy w Nowej Kachowce Katastrofa Embraera Legacy 600 Grupy Wagnera pod Kużenkinem Katastrofa lotnicza w Jabłonowie Walki o Wyspę Wężową Rosyjska okupacja obwodu żytomierskiego Ataki powietrzne na Lwów Eksplozja na moście Krymskim (2022) Atak na koszary w Makiejewce Eksplozja na moście Krymskim (2023) Strzelanina na poligonie w Sołoti Naruszenia przestrzeni powietrznej nieobjętej działaniami wojennymi Eksplozja rakiety w Przewodowie wtargnięcie rosyjskich dronów na terytorium Polski w 2025 roku Eksplozja rakiety w Przewodowie wtargnięcie rosyjskich dronów na terytorium Polski w 2025 roku Wysadzenie tamy w Nowej Kachowce Katastrofa Embraera Legacy 600 Grupy Wagnera pod Kużenkinem Katastrofa lotnicza w Jabłonowie zbrodnie wojenne Bombardowanie Borodzianki Zbrodnia w Buczy Ostrzał Mikołajowa amunicją kasetową Nalot na szpital w Mariupolu Atak lotniczy na teatr w Mariupolu Atak rakietowy na budynek administracji obwodowej w Mikołajowie Atak rakietowy na dworzec w Kramatorsku Atak rakietowy na centrum handlowe w Krzemieńczuku Atak rakietowy na Serhijiwkę Atak rakietowy na Czasiw Jar Atak rakietowy na Winnicę Masakra w więzieniu w Ołeniwce Atak rakietowy na akademiki w Charkowie Atak rakietowy na stację kolejową w Czapłynem Zbrodnia w Iziumie Atak na cywilną kolumnę pod Kupiańskiem Atak rakietowy na kolumnę humanitarną w Zaporożu Uprowadzenia dzieci podczas rosyjskiej inwazji na Ukrainę Egzekucja Ołeksandra Maciewskiego Atak rakietowy na Dniepr Atak rakietowy na Humań Nalot na Słowiańsk Ostrzał Chersonia Atak rakietowy na Kramatorsk Atak rakietowy na Sumy Bombardowanie Borodzianki Zbrodnia w Buczy Ostrzał Mikołajowa amunicją kasetową Nalot na szpital w Mariupolu Atak lotniczy na teatr w Mariupolu Atak rakietowy na budynek administracji obwodowej w Mikołajowie Atak rakietowy na dworzec w Kramatorsku Atak rakietowy na centrum handlowe w Krzemieńczuku Atak rakietowy na Serhijiwkę Atak rakietowy na Czasiw Jar Atak rakietowy na Winnicę Masakra w więzieniu w Ołeniwce Atak rakietowy na akademiki w Charkowie Atak rakietowy na stację kolejową w Czapłynem Zbrodnia w Iziumie Atak na cywilną kolumnę pod Kupiańskiem Atak rakietowy na kolumnę humanitarną w Zaporożu Uprowadzenia dzieci podczas rosyjskiej inwazji na Ukrainę Egzekucja Ołeksandra Maciewskiego Atak rakietowy na Dniepr Atak rakietowy na Humań Nalot na Słowiańsk Ostrzał Chersonia Atak rakietowy na Kramatorsk Atak rakietowy na Sumy jednostki wojskowe V Służba Federalnej Służby Bezpieczeństwa Federacji Rosyjskiej Gruziński Legion Narodowy Korpus Afrykański Legion Wolna Rosja Międzynarodowy Legion Obrony Terytorialnej Ukrainy Pułk im. Konstantego Kalinowskiego Rosyjski Korpus Ochotniczy Sztorm-Z Sztorm-V V Służba Federalnej Służby Bezpieczeństwa Federacji Rosyjskiej Gruziński Legion Narodowy Korpus Afrykański Legion Wolna Rosja Międzynarodowy Legion Obrony Terytorialnej Ukrainy Pułk im. Konstantego Kalinowskiego Rosyjski Korpus Ochotniczy Sztorm-Z Sztorm-V Wpływ i reakcje Sankcje osoby objęte sankcjami Specjalna misja monitorująca OBWE na Ukrainie Ustawa z 2014 roku Sprawa w MTS Okupowane terytoria Ukrainy Strefa konfrontacji rosyjsko-ukraińskiej w Donbasie Ofiary wojny rosyjsko-ukraińskiej lista zabitych rosyjskich generałów Referendum na Krymie w 2014 roku Lista państw nieprzyjaznych Rosji Kryzys gospodarczy w Rosji Ukraiński kryzys uchodźczy Sankcje osoby objęte sankcjami osoby objęte sankcjami Specjalna misja monitorująca OBWE na Ukrainie Ustawa z 2014 roku Sprawa w MTS Okupowane terytoria Ukrainy Strefa konfrontacji rosyjsko-ukraińskiej w Donbasie Ofiary wojny rosyjsko-ukraińskiej lista zabitych rosyjskich generałów lista zabitych rosyjskich generałów Referendum na Krymie w 2014 roku Lista państw nieprzyjaznych Rosji Kryzys gospodarczy w Rosji Ukraiński kryzys uchodźczy Cyberwojna Cyberwojna rosyjsko-ukraińska Cyberatak na ukraińską sieć energetyczną Surkov Leaks Cyberataki na Ukrainę 2017 2022 Cyberwojna rosyjsko-ukraińska Cyberatak na ukraińską sieć energetyczną Surkov Leaks Cyberataki na Ukrainę 2017 2022 2017 2022 Media i kultura popularna Zielone ludziki Duch Kijowa Dezinformacja w wojnie rosyjsko-ukraińskiej Rosyjska propaganda Specjalna operacja wojskowa Putinizm Faszyzm rosyjski Z (symbol wojskowy) Putin chujło Putler Cyborgi Russkij wojennyj korabl, idi na chuj Sława Ukrajini! Bayraktar (piosenka) Biały wywiad podczas wojny rosyjsko-ukraińskiej Oryx DeepStateMap.Live NAFO Kraj královecký Jesteśmy razem z Rosją Mamo tyś płakała Kogut z majoliki wasylkowskiej Aleja Odwagi Patron (pies) Stepan (kot) Zielone ludziki Duch Kijowa Dezinformacja w wojnie rosyjsko-ukraińskiej Rosyjska propaganda Specjalna operacja wojskowa Putinizm Faszyzm rosyjski Z (symbol wojskowy) Putin chujło Putler Cyborgi Russkij wojennyj korabl, idi na chuj Sława Ukrajini! Bayraktar (piosenka) Biały wywiad podczas wojny rosyjsko-ukraińskiej Oryx DeepStateMap.Live Oryx DeepStateMap.Live NAFO Kraj královecký Jesteśmy razem z Rosją Mamo tyś płakała Kogut z majoliki wasylkowskiej Aleja Odwagi Patron (pies) Stepan (kot) p d e w granicach Rosji wojna osetyjsko-inguska wojny czeczeńskie listopadowy szturm Groznego pierwsza druga konflikt na Kaukazie Północnym wojna o Dagestan wojna domowa w Inguszetii wojna osetyjsko-inguska wojny czeczeńskie listopadowy szturm Groznego pierwsza druga konflikt na Kaukazie Północnym listopadowy szturm Groznego pierwsza druga konflikt na Kaukazie Północnym wojna o Dagestan wojna domowa w Inguszetii w granicach Gruzji I wojna w Osetii Płd. I wojna w Abchazji wojna domowa w Gruzji II wojna w Abchazji II wojna w Osetii Płd. I wojna w Osetii Płd. I wojna w Abchazji wojna domowa w Gruzji II wojna w Abchazji II wojna w Osetii Płd. wojny o Górski Karabach (Arcach) pierwsza czterodniowa druga starcia we wrześniu 2022 trzecia pierwsza czterodniowa druga starcia we wrześniu 2022 trzecia wojna rosyjsko-ukraińska prorosyjski separatyzm na Ukrainie wojna w Donbasie aneksja Krymu przez Rosję incydent w Cieśninie Kerczeńskiej inwazja Rosji na Ukrainę wkroczenie wojsk ukraińskich do obwodu kurskiego prorosyjski separatyzm na Ukrainie wojna w Donbasie aneksja Krymu przez Rosję incydent w Cieśninie Kerczeńskiej inwazja Rosji na Ukrainę wkroczenie wojsk ukraińskich do obwodu kurskiego w innych krajach wojna o Naddniestrze wojna domowa w Tadżykistanie wojna o Naddniestrze wojna domowa w Tadżykistanie p d e Afryka konflikt w Casamance rebelia Armii Bożego Oporu wojna domowa w Somalii piąta faza konflikt w Kabindzie rebelia Sojuszu Sił Demokratycznych terroryzm w Maghrebie terroryzm w Nigerii rebelia ADF w Ugandzie konflikt wewnętrzny w Sudanie Południowym wojna domowa w Republice Środkowoafrykańskiej kryzys anglofoński w Kamerunie wojna domowa w Sudanie wojna w Amharze konflikt w Casamance rebelia Armii Bożego Oporu wojna domowa w Somalii piąta faza piąta faza konflikt w Kabindzie rebelia Sojuszu Sił Demokratycznych terroryzm w Maghrebie terroryzm w Nigerii rebelia ADF w Ugandzie konflikt wewnętrzny w Sudanie Południowym wojna domowa w Republice Środkowoafrykańskiej kryzys anglofoński w Kamerunie wojna domowa w Sudanie wojna w Amharze Ameryka wojny narkotykowe w Meksyku wojna domowa w Peru powstanie w Paragwaju wojny narkotykowe w Meksyku wojna domowa w Peru powstanie w Paragwaju Azja spór o Kaszmir konflikty wewnętrzne w Mjanmie konflikt etniczny w Rakhine konflikt w Karen konflikt w Kaczin wojna domowa w Mjanmie konflikt w Beludżystanie konflikt w Papui powstanie maoistowskie w Indiach rebelia maoistowska na Filipinach wojna narkotykowa na Filipinach republikańska rebelia w Afganistanie wojna w Pakistanie rebelia islamska w Tajlandii konflikt graniczny między Tajlandią i Kambodżą spór o Kaszmir konflikty wewnętrzne w Mjanmie konflikt etniczny w Rakhine konflikt w Karen konflikt w Kaczin wojna domowa w Mjanmie konflikt etniczny w Rakhine konflikt w Karen konflikt w Kaczin wojna domowa w Mjanmie konflikt w Beludżystanie konflikt w Papui powstanie maoistowskie w Indiach rebelia maoistowska na Filipinach wojna narkotykowa na Filipinach republikańska rebelia w Afganistanie wojna w Pakistanie rebelia islamska w Tajlandii konflikt graniczny między Tajlandią i Kambodżą Bliski Wschód konflikt izraelsko-arabski konflikt izraelsko-palestyński wojna Izraela z Hamasem konflikt izraelsko-irański wojna izraelsko-irańska konflikt kurdyjsko-turecki wojna domowa w Syrii reakcje międzynarodowa interwencja inwazja Izraela na Syrię wojna domowa w Jemenie rebelia islamska w Jemenie konflikt izraelsko-arabski konflikt izraelsko-palestyński wojna Izraela z Hamasem wojna Izraela z Hamasem konflikt izraelsko-irański wojna izraelsko-irańska wojna izraelsko-irańska konflikt kurdyjsko-turecki wojna domowa w Syrii reakcje międzynarodowa interwencja inwazja Izraela na Syrię reakcje międzynarodowa interwencja inwazja Izraela na Syrię wojna domowa w Jemenie rebelia islamska w Jemenie Europa wojna rosyjsko-ukraińska inwazja na Ukrainę wojna rosyjsko-ukraińska inwazja na Ukrainę inwazja na Ukrainę LCCN : sh2022006260 GND : 106969780X BnF : 180092558 SUDOC : 262125706 BNCF : 74088 NKC : ph1150394 PLWABN : 9812644776805606 J9U : 987012182175805171 LNB : 000317551 Britannica : event/2022-Russian-invasion-of-Ukraine Aktualne Inwazja Rosji na Ukrainę Wojny w historii Rosji Wojny w historii Ukrainy 2022 na Ukrainie 2022 w Rosji 2023 na Ukrainie 2023 w Rosji 2024 na Ukrainie 2024 w Rosji 2025 na Ukrainie 2025 w Rosji Szablon cytowania zamienił nazwę czasopisma Uniwersalny szablon cytowania – brak strony Szablon cytuj do sprawdzenia Szablony cytowania – problemy – cytuj – strona główna Szablony lokalizacyjne – brak współrzędnych – Wojna infobox Artykuły z propozycjami tłumaczeń Artykuły z brakującymi przypisami od 2024-02 Tę stronę ostatnio edytowano 15 sty 2026, 08:46. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.1 January 2 Scheduled events 3 See also 4 References 5 External links 2026 in science Беларуская Français 日本語 Română Русский Українська Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item List of years in science ( table ) … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The following scientific events occurred, or are scheduled to occur in 2026 . Events January 1 January – Researchers operating China’s Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) report the first experimental verification of a theorised density-free plasma operating regime, achieving stable electron densities approximately 1.3–1.65 times the Greenwald limit . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] 2 January – Researchers at the Vienna University of Technology and the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology demonstrate self-sustained superradiant microwave emission, produced by interacting spins in diamond , offering potential applications in quantum communication and sensing. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] 4–8 January – 247th Meeting of the American Astronomical Society [ 5 ] 5 January – NASA announces that it has awarded contracts to seven companies to study technologies for the Habitable Worlds Observatory , a next-generation telescope that could launch in the 2040s. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] 7 January – Astronomers using data from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory report that 2025 MN 45 has the fastest spin of any known asteroid larger than 0.5 km (0.31 mi) in diameter, completing one rotation every 1.88 minutes. [ 8 ] 13 January – The European Copernicus Climate Change Service reports that 2025 was the world's third hottest year on record (2024 was the hottest and 2023 the second hottest). In Antarctica, the average annual temperature was the warmest since measurements began and in the Arctic, it was the second highest. [ 9 ] 14 January Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Scheduled events NASA's first crewed lunar‑orbit mission in decades is slated for early 2026. [ 19 ] See also 2026 in spaceflight 2026 in Antarctica 2026 in climate change References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Liu, Jiaxing; Zhu, Ping; Escande, Dominique Franck; Liu, Wenbin; Xue, Shiwei; Lin, Xin; Tang, Panjun; Wang, Liang; Yan, Ning; Yang, Jinju; Duan, Yanmin; Jia, Kai; Wu, Zhenwei; Cheng, Yunxin; Zhang, Ling (2 January 2026). "Accessing the density-free regime with ECRH-assisted ohmic start-up on EAST" . Science Advances . 12 (1). doi : 10.1126/sciadv.adz3040 . ISSN 2375-2548 . PMC 12757026 . PMID 41477826 . ^ Mishra, Prabhat Ranjan (1 January 2026). "China's EAST Tokamak achieves stable operation at densities beyond limits" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ Kersten, Wenzel; de Zordo, Nikolaus; Diekmann, Oliver; Redchenko, Elena S.; Kanagin, Andrew N.; Angerer, Andreas; Munro, William J.; Nemoto, Kae; Mazets, Igor E.; Rotter, Stefan; Pohl, Thomas; Schmiedmayer, Jörg (2 January 2026). "Self-induced superradiant masing" . Nature Physics . doi : 10.1038/s41567-025-03123-0 . ISSN 1745-2473 . ^ Paleja, Ameya (2 January 2026). "First self-powered quantum microwave signal achieved in experiment" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 4 January 2026 . ^ "Calendar" . Secretary-General’s Scientific Advisory Board . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . ^ "NASA Selects Tech Proposals to Advance Search-for-Life Mission" . NASA . 5 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NASA seeks to accelerate development of Habitable Worlds Observatory" . Space News . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory Spots Record-Breaking Asteroid in Pre-Survey Observations" . Vera C. Rubin Observatory . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 11 January 2026 . ^ "Global Climate Highlights 2025" . copernicus.eu. 14 January 2025 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Yi, Difan; Liu, Qian; Chen, Shi; Dong, Chunlai; Feng, Huanbo; Gao, Chaosong; Huang, Wenqian; Jing, Xinmei; Kong, Lingquan; Li, Jin; Li, Peirong; Liang, Enwei; Ma, Ruiting; Su, Chenguang; Su, Liangliang (15 January 2026). "Direct observation of the Migdal effect induced by neutron bombardment" . Nature . 649 (8097): 580– 583. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09918-8 . ISSN 0028-0836 . ^ Nuo, Xu (16 January 2026). "New finding to help probe dark matter" . global.chinadaily.com.cn . Retrieved 16 January 2026 . ^ Communication, N. B. I. (15 January 2026). "Copenhagen researchers make the front page of Nature: Solving the mystery of the universe's 'little red dots' " . nbi.ku.dk . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Rusakov, V.; Watson, D.; Nikopoulos, G. P.; Brammer, G.; Gottumukkala, R.; Harvey, T.; Heintz, K. E.; Damgaard, R.; Sim, S. A.; Sneppen, A.; Vijayan, A. P.; Adams, N.; Austin, D.; Conselice, C. J.; Goolsby, C. M. (2026). "Little red dots as young supermassive black holes in dense ionized cocoons" . Nature . 649 (8097): 574– 579. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09900-4 . ISSN 1476-4687 . ^ "Ice from Swiss glacier is safely stored in Antarctica" . blue News . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antarctica ice sanctuary launched to preserve the cores of dying glaciers" . Yahoo News . 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Schneehöhle als Klima-Archiv der Erde: Erste Eisbohrkerne in Antarktis-Lagerstätte" . stern.de (in German). 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Stocker, Thomas (14 January 2026). "La première bibliothèque de carottes glaciaires en Antarctique pour protéger la mémoire climatique de l'humanité" . The Conversation . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antartide: nasce archivio mondiale ghiaccio con primi campioni da Alpi - Borsa Italiana" . www.borsaitaliana.it . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Artemis II 2026: NASA prepares first crewed mission to circle around the moon in 50 years, scheduled for February" . The Times of India . 25 September 2025. ISSN 0971-8257 . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Major epidemics and pandemics Toggle Major epidemics and pandemics subsection 1.1 By death toll 1.2 Infectious diseases with high prevalence 1.1 By death toll 1.2 Infectious diseases with high prevalence 2 Chronology Toggle Chronology subsection 2.1 Pre-1500s 2.2 1500s 2.3 1600s 2.4 1700s 2.5 1800s 2.6 1900s 2.7 2000s 2.8 Ongoing 2.1 Pre-1500s 2.2 1500s 2.3 1600s 2.4 1700s 2.5 1800s 2.6 1900s 2.7 2000s 2.8 Ongoing 3 See also 4 Explanatory notes 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links List of epidemics and pandemics አማርኛ العربية Català Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Հայերեն हिन्दी Italiano مصرى Português Русский සිංහල Simple English Српски / srpski Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item This is a list of the largest known epidemics and pandemics caused by an infectious disease in humans. Widespread non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer are not included. An epidemic is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of people in a given population within a short period of time; in meningococcal infections , an attack rate in excess of 15 cases per 100,000 people for two consecutive weeks is considered an epidemic. [ 1 ] Due to the long time spans, the first plague pandemic (6th century – 8th century) and the second plague pandemic (14th century – early 19th century) are shown by individual outbreaks, such as the Plague of Justinian (first pandemic) and the Black Death (second pandemic). Infectious diseases with high prevalence are listed separately (sometimes in addition to their epidemics), such as malaria , which may have killed 50–60 million people. [ 2 ] Major epidemics and pandemics By death toll Ongoing epidemics and pandemics are in bold face. For a given epidemic or pandemic, the average of its estimated death toll range is used for ranking. If the death toll averages of two or more epidemics or pandemics are equal, then the smaller the range, the higher the rank. For the historical records of major changes in the world population, see world population . [ 3 ] Rank Epidemics/pandemics Disease Death toll Percentage of population lost Years Location 1 Plague of Justinian Bubonic plague 15–100 million 25–60% of European population [ 4 ] 541–549 North Africa, Europe, and Western Asia 2 HIV/AIDS pandemic HIV/AIDS 45 million (as of 2026 [update] ) – 1981–present [ 5 ] Worldwide 3 Black Death Bubonic plague 25–50 million 30–60% of European population [ 6 ] 1346–1353 Europe, Asia, and North Africa 4 1918 "Spanish" influenza pandemic Influenza A/H1N1 25–50 million 1–5.4% of global population [ 7 ] 1918–1920 Worldwide 5 COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 7.12–38 million [ 8 ] [ 9 ] (as of 2026) – 2019 [ a ] –present [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ b ] Worldwide 6 Third plague pandemic Bubonic plague 12–15 million – 1855–1960 Worldwide 7 Cocoliztli epidemic of 1545–1548 Cocoliztli, caused by an unidentified pathogen 5–15 million 27–80% of Mexican population [ 12 ] 1545–1548 Mexico 8 Antonine Plague Smallpox or measles 5–10 million 25–33% of Roman population [ 13 ] 165–180 (possibly up to 190) Roman Empire 9 1520 Mexico smallpox epidemic Smallpox 5–8 million 23–37% of Mexican population [ 12 ] 1519–1520 Mexico 10 1957–1958 influenza pandemic Influenza A/H2N2 1–4 million – 1957–1958 Worldwide 11 Hong Kong flu Influenza A/H3N2 1–4 million – 1968–1969 Worldwide 12 1918–1922 Russia typhus epidemic Typhus 2–3 million 1–1.6% of Russian population [ 14 ] 1918–1922 Russia 13 Cocoliztli epidemic of 1576 Cocoliztli 2–2.5 million 50% of Mexican population [ 12 ] 1576–1580 Mexico 14 1772–1773 Persian Plague Bubonic plague 2 million – 1772–1773 Persia 15 735–737 Japanese smallpox epidemic Smallpox 2 million 33% of Japanese population [ 15 ] 735–737 Japan 16 Naples Plague Bubonic plague 1.25 million – 1656–1658 Southern Italy 17 1889–1890 pandemic Influenza or human coronavirus OC43 [ 16 ] [ 17 ] 1 million – 1889–1890 Worldwide 18 1629–1631 Italian plague Bubonic plague 1 million – 1629–1631 Italy 19 1846–1860 cholera pandemic Cholera 1 million – 1846–1860 Worldwide Infectious diseases with high prevalence There have been various major infectious diseases with high prevalence worldwide, but they are currently not listed in the above table as epidemics/pandemics due to the lack of definite data, such as time span and death toll. Malaria has had multiple documented temporary epidemics in otherwise non-affected or low-prevalence areas. Malaria is commonly spread by mosquitoes. The vast majority of its deaths are due to its constant prevalence in affected areas. [ 2 ] Tuberculosis (TB) became epidemic in Europe in the 18th and 19th century, showing a seasonal pattern, and is still taking place globally. Its symptoms include coughing up blood. It can generally be treated with strong antibiotics; untreated TB can be fatal. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] An opportunistic infection , TB is the leading cause of death of those with HIV/AIDS , and is considered an AIDS-defining clinical condition . The association between HIV/AIDS and TB has been described as the "TB/HIV syndemic". [ 21 ] [ 22 ] According to the World Health Organization , approximately 10 million new TB infections occur every year, and 1.5 million people die from it each year – making it the world's top infectious killer (before COVID-19 pandemic ). [ 21 ] However, there is a lack of sources which describe major TB epidemics with definite time spans and death tolls. Hepatitis B : According to the World Health Organization, as of 2019 [update] there are about 296 million people living with chronic hepatitis B, with 1.5 million new infections each year. In 2019, hepatitis B caused about 820,000 deaths, mostly from cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (primary liver cancer ). [ 23 ] In many places of Asia and Africa, hepatitis B has become endemic . [ 24 ] In addition, a person is sometimes infected with both hepatitis B virus (HBV) and HIV, and this population (about 2.7 million) accounts for about 1% of the total HBV infections. [ 23 ] Hepatitis C : According to the World Health Organization, there are approximately 58 million people with chronic hepatitis C, with about 1.5 million new infections occurring per year. In 2019, approximately 290,000 people died from the disease, mostly from cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (primary liver cancer ). [ 25 ] There have been many hepatitis C virus (HCV) epidemics in history. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 28 ] Chronology Pre-1500s Event Years Location Disease Death toll (estimate) Ref. 1350 BC plague of Megiddo 1350 BC (circa) Megiddo , land of Canaan Amarna letters EA 244, Biridiya , the mayor of Megiddo complains to Amenhotep III of his area being "consumed by death, plague and dust" Unknown [ 29 ] Hittite Plague /"Hand of Nergal" 1330 BC (circa) Near East , Hittite Empire , Alashiya , possibly Egypt Unknown, possibly Tularemia . Mentioned in Amarna letter EA 35 as the "Hand of Nergal", cause of death of Šuppiluliuma I . Unknown Plague of Athens 430–426 BC Greece, Libya , Egypt, Ethiopia Unknown, possibly typhus , typhoid fever or viral hemorrhagic fever 75,000–100,000 [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] 412 BC epidemic 412 BC Greece ( Northern Greece , Roman Republic ) Unknown, possibly influenza 473,000 (10% of the Roman Population) [ 34 ] Antonine Plague 165–180 (possibly up to 190) Roman Empire Unknown, possibly smallpox 5–10 million [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Jian'an Plague 217 Han dynasty Unknown, possibly typhoid fever or viral hemorrhagic fever 2 million [ 37 ] [ 38 ] Plague of Cyprian 249–262 Europe Unknown, possibly smallpox or viral hemorrhagic fever 310,000 [ 39 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ] Plague of Justinian (beginning of first plague pandemic ) 541–549 Europe and West Asia Bubonic plague 15–100 million [ 4 ] [ 42 ] [ 43 ] 580 Dysentery Epidemic in Gaul 580 Gaul Dysentery or possibly smallpox 450,000 (10% of the Gaul population) [ 44 ] Roman Plague of 590 (part of first plague pandemic ) 590 Rome , Byzantine Empire Bubonic plague Unknown [ 45 ] Plague of Sheroe (part of first plague pandemic ) 627–628 Bilad al-Sham Bubonic plague 25,000+ Plague of Amwas (part of first plague pandemic ) 638–639 Byzantine Empire , West Asia , Africa Bubonic plague 25,000+ [ 46 ] Plague of 664 (part of first plague pandemic ) 664–689 British Isles Bubonic plague Unknown [ 47 ] Plague of 698–701 (part of first plague pandemic ) 698–701 Byzantine Empire , West Asia , Syria , Mesopotamia Bubonic plague Unknown [ 48 ] 735–737 Japanese smallpox epidemic 735–737 Japan Smallpox 2 million (approx. .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px} 1 ⁄ 3 of Japanese population) [ 15 ] [ 49 ] Plague of 746–747 (part of first plague pandemic ) 746–747 Byzantine Empire , West Asia , Africa Bubonic plague Unknown [ 46 ] Black Death (start of the second plague pandemic ) 1346–1353 Eurasia and North Africa Bubonic plague 75–200 million (30–60% of European population and 33% percent of the Middle Eastern population) [ 50 ] Sweating sickness (multiple outbreaks) 1485–1551 Britain (England) and later continental Europe Unknown, possibly an unknown species of hantavirus 10,000+ [ 51 ] 1489 Spain typhus epidemic 1489 Spain Typhus 17,000 [ 52 ] 1500s Event Years Location Disease Death toll (estimate) Ref. 1510 influenza pandemic 1510 Asia, North Africa , Europe Influenza Unknown, around 1% of those infected [ 53 ] 1520 Mexico smallpox epidemic 1519–1520 Mexico Smallpox 5–8 million (40% of population) [ 12 ] Cocoliztli epidemic of 1545–1548 1545–1548 Mexico Possibly Salmonella enterica 5–15 million (80% of population) [ 54 ] [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] 1557 influenza pandemic 1557–1559 Asia, Africa, Europe, and Americas Influenza Unknown (10% of the infected) 1561 Chile smallpox epidemic 1561–1562 Chile Smallpox 120,000–150,000 (20–25% of native population) [ 58 ] 1563 London plague (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1563–1564 London , England Bubonic plague 20,100+ [ 59 ] Cocoliztli epidemic of 1576 1576–1580 Mexico Possibly Salmonella enterica 2–2.5 million (50% of population) [ 54 ] [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] 1582 Tenerife plague epidemic (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1582–1583 Tenerife , Spain Bubonic plague 5,000–9,000 [ 60 ] 1592–1596 Seneca nation measles epidemic 1592–1596 Seneca nation , North America Measles Unknown [ 61 ] 1592–1593 Malta plague epidemic (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1592–1593 Malta Bubonic plague 3,000 [ 62 ] 1592–1593 London plague (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1592–1593 London , England Bubonic plague 19,900+ [ 63 ] 1596–1602 Spain plague epidemic (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1596–1602 Spain Bubonic plague 600,000–700,000 [ 64 ] 1600s Event Years Location Disease Death toll (estimate) Ref. 1600–1650 South America malaria epidemic 1600–1650 South America Malaria Unknown [ citation needed ] 1603 London plague (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1603 London , England Bubonic plague 40,000 [ 65 ] [ 66 ] [ 67 ] 1616 New England infections epidemic 1616–1620 Southern New England , British North America , especially the Wampanoag people Unknown, possibly leptospirosis with Weil syndrome . Classic explanations include yellow fever , bubonic plague , influenza , smallpox , chickenpox , typhus , and syndemic infection of hepatitis B and hepatitis D 1,143–3,429 (estimated 30–90% of population) [ 68 ] [ 69 ] 1629–1631 Italian plague (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1629–1631 Italy Bubonic plague 1 million [ 70 ] 1632–1635 Augsburg plague epidemic (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1632–1635 Augsburg , Germany Bubonic plague 13,712 [ 71 ] Massachusetts smallpox epidemic 1633–1634 Massachusetts Bay Colony , Thirteen Colonies Smallpox 1,000 [ 72 ] 1634–1640 Wyandot people epidemic 1634–1640 Wyandot people , North America Smallpox and Influenza 15,000–25,000 [ 73 ] 1637 London plague epidemic (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1636–1637 London and Westminster , England Bubonic plague 10,400 [ 74 ] Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1633–1644 China Bubonic plague 200,000+ [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Great Plague of Seville (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1647–1652 Spain Bubonic plague 500,000 [ 77 ] 1648 Central America yellow fever epidemic 1648 Central America Yellow fever Unknown [ 78 ] Naples Plague (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1656–1658 Italy Bubonic plague 1,250,000 [ 79 ] 1663–1664 Amsterdam plague epidemic (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1663–1664 Amsterdam , Netherlands Bubonic plague 24,148 [ 80 ] Great Plague of London (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1665–1666 England Bubonic plague 100,000 [ 81 ] [ 82 ] 1668 France plague (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1668 France Bubonic plague 40,000 [ 83 ] 1675–1676 Malta plague epidemic (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1675–1676 Malta Bubonic plague 11,300 [ 84 ] 1676–1685 Spain plague (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1676–1685 Spain Bubonic plague Unknown [ 85 ] 1677–1678 Boston smallpox epidemic 1677–1678 Massachusetts Bay Colony , British North America Smallpox 750–1,000 [ 86 ] Great Plague of Vienna (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1679 Vienna , Austria Bubonic plague 76,000 [ 87 ] 1681 Prague plague epidemic (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1681 Prague , Czech Kingdom Bubonic plague 83,000 [ 88 ] 1687 South Africa influenza outbreak 1687 South Africa Unknown, possibly influenza Unknown [ 89 ] 1693 Boston yellow fever epidemic 1693 Boston , Massachusetts Bay Colony , British North America Yellow fever 3,100+ [ 90 ] 1699 Charleston and Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic 1699 Charleston and Philadelphia , British North America Yellow fever 520 (300 in Charleston, 220 in Philadelphia) [ 91 ] 1700s Event Years Location Disease Death toll (estimate) Ref. 1702 New York City yellow fever epidemic 1702 New York City , British North America Yellow fever 500 [ 92 ] 1702–1703 St. Lawrence Valley smallpox epidemic 1702–1703 New France , Canada Smallpox 1,300 [ 93 ] 1707–1708 Iceland smallpox epidemic 1707–1709 Iceland Smallpox 18,000+ (36% of population) [ 94 ] Great Northern War plague outbreak (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1710–1712 Denmark, Sweden, Lithuania Bubonic plague 164,000 [ 95 ] [ 96 ] 1713–1715 North America measles epidemic 1713–1715 Thirteen Colonies and New France , Canada Measles Unknown [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Great Plague of Marseille (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1720–1722 France Bubonic plague 100,000+ [ 99 ] 1721 Boston smallpox outbreak 1721–1722 Massachusetts Bay Colony Smallpox 844 [ 100 ] 1730 Cádiz yellow fever epidemic 1730 Cádiz , Spain Yellow fever 2,200 [ 101 ] 1732–1733 Thirteen Colonies influenza epidemic 1732–1733 Thirteen Colonies Influenza Unknown [ 102 ] 1733 New France smallpox epidemic 1733 New France , Canada Smallpox Unknown [ 103 ] 1735–1741 diphtheria epidemic 1735–1741 New England , Province of New York , Province of New Jersey , British North America Diphtheria 20,000 [ 104 ] Great Plague of 1738 (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1738 Balkans Bubonic plague 50,000 [ 105 ] 1738–1739 North Carolina smallpox epidemic 1738–1739 Province of Carolina , Thirteen Colonies Smallpox 7,700–11,700 [ 106 ] 1741 Cartagena yellow fever epidemic 1741 Cartagena , Colombia Yellow fever 20,000 [ 107 ] 1743 Sicily plague epidemic (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1743 Messina , Sicily , Italy Bubonic plague 40,000–50,000 [ 108 ] [ 109 ] 1759 North America measles outbreak 1759 North America Measles Unknown [ 110 ] 1760 Charleston smallpox epidemic 1760 Charleston , British North America Smallpox 730–940 [ 111 ] [ 112 ] 1762 Havana yellow fever epidemic 1762 Havana , Cuba Yellow fever 8,000 [ 107 ] 1763 Pittsburgh area smallpox outbreak 1763 North America, present-day Pittsburgh area Smallpox Unknown [ 113 ] 1770–1772 Russian plague (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1770–1772 Russia Bubonic plague 50,000 [ 114 ] 1772 North America measles epidemic 1772 North America Measles 1,080 [ 115 ] 1772–1773 Persian Plague (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1772–1773 Persia Bubonic plague 2 million [ 116 ] 1775–1776 England influenza outbreak 1775–1776 England Influenza Unknown [ 117 ] 1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic 1775–1782 Native populations in what is now the Pacific Northwest of the United States Smallpox 11,000+ [ 118 ] [ 119 ] 1778 Spain dengue fever outbreak 1778 Spain Dengue fever Unknown [ 120 ] 1782 Influenza pandemic 1782 Worldwide Influenza Unknown 1788 Pueblo Indians smallpox epidemic 1788 Pueblo Indians in northern New Spain (what is now the Southwestern United States ) Smallpox Unknown [ 121 ] 1789–1790 New South Wales smallpox epidemic 1789–1790 New South Wales , Australia Smallpox 125,251–175,351 (50–70% of native population) [ 122 ] [ 123 ] 1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic 1793 Philadelphia , United States Yellow fever 5,000+ [ 124 ] 1800s Event Years Location Disease Death toll (estimate) Ref. 1800–1803 Spain yellow fever epidemic 1800–1803 Spain Yellow fever 60,000+ [ 125 ] 1801 Ottoman Empire and Egypt bubonic plague epidemic 1801 Ottoman Empire , Egypt Bubonic plague Unknown [ 126 ] 1802–1803 Saint-Domingue yellow fever epidemic 1802–1803 Saint-Domingue Yellow fever 29,000–55,000 [ 127 ] 1812 Russia typhus epidemic 1812 Russia Typhus 300,000 [ 52 ] 1812–1819 Ottoman plague epidemic (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1812–1819 Ottoman Empire Bubonic plague 300,000+ [ 128 ] 1813–1814 Malta plague epidemic (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1813–1814 Malta Bubonic plague 4,500 [ 129 ] Caragea's plague (part of the second plague pandemic ) 1813 Romania Bubonic plague 60,000 [ 130 ] 1817–1819 Ireland typhus epidemic 1817–1819 Ireland Typhus 65,000 [ 131 ] First cholera pandemic 1817–1824 Asia, Europe Cholera 100,000+ [ 132 ] 1820 Savannah yellow fever epidemic 1820 Savannah, Georgia , United States Yellow fever 700 [ 133 ] 1821 Barcelona yellow fever epidemic 1821 Barcelona , Spain Yellow fever 5,000–20,000 [ 134 ] [ 135 ] Second cholera pandemic 1826–1837 Asia, Europe, North America Cholera 100,000+ [ 136 ] 1828–1829 New South Wales smallpox epidemic 1828–1829 New South Wales , Australia Smallpox 19,000 [ 137 ] [ 138 ] Groningen epidemic 1829 Netherlands Malaria 2,800 [ 139 ] 1829–1833 Pacific Northwest malaria epidemic 1829–1833 Pacific Northwest , United States Malaria , possibly other diseases too 150,000 [ 140 ] [ 141 ] 1829–1835 Iran plague outbreak 1829–1835 Iran Bubonic plague Unknown [ 142 ] 1834–1836 Egypt plague epidemic 1834–1836 Egypt Bubonic plague Unknown [ 143 ] 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic 1837–1838 Great Plains , United States and Canada Smallpox 17,000+ [ 144 ] 1841 Southern United States yellow fever epidemic 1841 Southern United States (especially Louisiana and Florida ) Yellow fever 3,498 [ 145 ] 1847 North American typhus epidemic 1847–1848 Canada Typhus 20,000+ [ 146 ] 1847 Southern United States yellow fever epidemic 1847 Southern United States (especially New Orleans ) Yellow fever 3,400 [ 147 ] 1847–1848 influenza epidemic 1847–1848 Worldwide Influenza Unknown [ 148 ] 1848–1849 Hawaii epidemic of infections 1848–1849 Hawaiian Kingdom Measles , whooping cough , dysentery and influenza 10,000 [ 149 ] 1853 New Orleans yellow fever epidemic 1853 New Orleans , United States Yellow fever 7,970 [ 134 ] Third cholera pandemic 1846–1860 Worldwide Cholera 1 million+ [ 150 ] 1853 Ottoman Empire plague epidemic 1853 Ottoman Empire Bubonic plague Unknown [ 151 ] 1853 Copenhagen cholera outbreak 1853 Copenhagen , Denmark Cholera 4,737 [ 152 ] 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak 1854 London , England Cholera 616 [ 153 ] 1855 Norfolk yellow fever epidemic 1855 Norfolk and Portsmouth , England Yellow fever 3,000 (2,000 in Norfolk, 1,000 in Portsmouth) [ 154 ] Third plague pandemic 1855–1960 Worldwide Bubonic plague 12–15 million (India and China) [ 155 ] [ 156 ] 1855–1857 Montevideo yellow fever epidemic 1855–1857 Montevideo , Uruguay Yellow fever 3,400 (first wave; 900, second wave; 2,500) [ 157 ] 1857 Lisbon yellow fever epidemic 1857 Lisbon , Portugal Yellow fever 6,000 [ 134 ] 1857 Victoria smallpox epidemic 1857 Victoria , Australia Smallpox Unknown [ 158 ] 1857–1859 Europe and the Americas influenza epidemic 1857–1859 Europe, North America, South America Influenza Unknown [ 159 ] 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic 1862–1863 Pacific Northwest , Canada and United States Smallpox 20,000+ [ 160 ] [ 161 ] [ 162 ] 1861–1865 United States typhoid fever epidemic 1861–1865 United States Typhoid fever 80,000 [ 163 ] Fourth cholera pandemic 1863–1875 Middle East Cholera 600,000 [ 164 ] 1867 Sydney measles epidemic 1867 Sydney , Australia Measles 748 [ 165 ] 1871 Buenos Aires yellow fever epidemic 1871 Buenos Aires , Argentina Yellow fever 13,500–26,200 [ 166 ] 1870–1875 Europe smallpox epidemic 1870–1875 Europe Smallpox 500,000 [ 167 ] [ 168 ] 1875 Fiji measles outbreak 1875 Fiji Measles 40,000 [ 169 ] 1875–1876 Australia scarlet fever epidemic 1875–1876 Australia Scarlet fever 8,000 [ 165 ] 1876 Ottoman Empire plague epidemic 1876 Ottoman Empire Bubonic plague 20,000 [ 170 ] 1878 New Orleans yellow fever epidemic 1878 New Orleans , United States Yellow fever 4,046 [ 127 ] 1878 Mississippi Valley yellow fever epidemic 1878 Mississippi Valley , United States Yellow fever 13,000 [ 127 ] Fifth cholera pandemic 1881–1896 Asia, Africa, Europe, South America Cholera 298,600 [ 171 ] 1885 Montreal smallpox epidemic 1885 Montreal , Canada Smallpox 3,164 [ 172 ] 1889–1890 pandemic 1889–1890 Worldwide Influenza or Human coronavirus OC43 / HCoV-OC43 [ 17 ] [ 173 ] (disputed) 1 million [ 174 ] 1894 Hong Kong plague (part of the third plague pandemic ) 1894–1929 Hong Kong Bubonic plague 20,000+ [ 175 ] Bombay plague epidemic (part of the third plague pandemic ) 1896–1905 Bombay , India Bubonic plague 20,788 [ 176 ] 1896–1906 Congo Basin African trypanosomiasis epidemic 1896–1906 Congo Basin African trypanosomiasis 500,000 [ 177 ] 1899 Porto plague outbreak (part of the third plague pandemic ) 1899 Porto , Portugal Bubonic plague 132 [ 178 ] Sixth cholera pandemic 1899–1923 Europe, Asia, Africa Cholera 800,000+ [ 179 ] 1900s Event Years Location Disease Death toll (estimate) Ref. San Francisco plague of 1900–1904 (part of the third plague pandemic ) 1900–1904 San Francisco , United States Bubonic plague 119 [ 180 ] 1900 Sydney bubonic plague epidemic (part of the third plague pandemic ) 1900 Australia Bubonic plague 103 [ 181 ] 1900–1920 Uganda African trypanosomiasis epidemic 1900–1920 Uganda African trypanosomiasis 200,000–300,000 [ 177 ] Papua New Guinea kuru epidemic 1901–2009 Papua New Guinea Kuru 2,700–3,000+ [ 182 ] [ 183 ] 1903 Fremantle plague epidemic (part of the third plague pandemic ) 1903 Fremantle, Western Australia Bubonic plague 4 [ 184 ] 1906 malaria outbreak in Ceylon 1906–1936 Ceylon Malaria 80,000 [ 185 ] Manchurian plague (part of the third plague pandemic ) 1910–1911 China Pneumonic plague 60,000 [ 186 ] 1916 United States polio epidemic 1916 United States Poliomyelitis 7,130 [ 187 ] 1918 influenza pandemic ('Spanish flu') 1918–1920 Worldwide Influenza A virus subtype H1N1 17–100 million [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] 1918–1922 Russia typhus epidemic 1918–1922 Russia Typhus 2–3 million [ 191 ] 1919–1930 encephalitis lethargica epidemic 1919–1930 Worldwide Encephalitis lethargica 500,000 [ 192 ] [ 193 ] [ 194 ] Duwaimeh smallpox epidemic 1921–1922 Duwaimeh, Mandatory Palestine Smallpox 16 [ 195 ] 1924 Los Angeles pneumonic plague outbreak 1924 Los Angeles , United States Pneumonic plague 30 [ 196 ] 1924–1925 Minnesota smallpox epidemic 1924–1925 Minnesota , United States Smallpox 500 [ 197 ] 1927 Montreal typhoid fever epidemic 1927 Montreal , Canada Typhoid fever 538 [ 198 ] 1929–1930 psittacosis pandemic 1929–1930 Worldwide Psittacosis 100+ [ 199 ] 1937 Croydon typhoid outbreak 1937 Croydon , United Kingdom Typhoid fever 43 [ 200 ] 1937 Australia polio epidemic 1937 Australia Poliomyelitis Unknown [ 201 ] 1938 South Africa bubonic plague 1938 South Africa Bubonic plague Unknown [ 202 ] 1940 Sudan yellow fever epidemic 1940 Sudan Yellow fever 1,627 [ 203 ] 1942–1944 Egypt malaria epidemic 1942–1944 Egypt Malaria Unknown [ 143 ] [ 204 ] 1946 Egypt relapsing fever epidemic 1946 Egypt Relapsing fever Unknown [ 143 ] [ 204 ] 1947 Egypt cholera epidemic 1947 Egypt Cholera 10,277 [ 143 ] [ 204 ] [ 205 ] 1948–1952 United States polio epidemic 1948–1952 United States Poliomyelitis 9,000 [ 187 ] 1957–1958 influenza pandemic ('Asian flu') 1957–1958 Worldwide Influenza A virus subtype H2N2 1–4 million [ 188 ] [ 206 ] [ 207 ] 1960–1962 Ethiopia yellow fever epidemic 1960–1962 Ethiopia Yellow fever 30,000 [ 208 ] Hong Kong flu 1968–1970 Worldwide Influenza A virus subtype H3N2 1–4 million [ 188 ] [ 206 ] [ 207 ] 1971 Staphorst polio epidemic 1971 Staphorst , Netherlands Poliomyelitis 5 [ 209 ] 1972 Yugoslav smallpox outbreak 1972 Yugoslavia Smallpox 35 [ 210 ] London flu 1972–1973 United States Influenza A virus subtype H3N2 1,027 [ 211 ] 1973 Italy cholera epidemic 1973 Italy Cholera ( El Tor strain ) 24 [ 212 ] 1974 smallpox epidemic in India 1974 India Smallpox 15,000 [ 213 ] 1977 Russian flu 1977–1979 Worldwide Influenza A virus subtype H1N1 700,000 [ 214 ] [ 215 ] Sverdlovsk anthrax leak 1979 Russia Anthrax 105 [ 216 ] 1984 Western Sahara plague 1984 Western Sahara Bubonic plague 64 [ citation needed ] 1986 Oju yellow fever epidemic 1986 Oju , Nigeria Yellow fever 5,600+ [ 217 ] 1987 Mali yellow fever epidemic 1987 Mali Yellow fever 145 [ 218 ] 1988 Shanghai hepatitis A epidemic 1988 Shanghai , China Hepatitis A 31–47 [ 219 ] [ 220 ] [ 221 ] 1991 Bangladesh cholera epidemic 1991 Bangladesh Cholera 8,410–9,432 [ 222 ] 1991 Latin America cholera epidemic 1991–1993 Peru , Chile , Bolivia , Ecuador , Colombia , Mexico, El Salvador , Guatemala Cholera 8,000 [ 223 ] [ 224 ] 1994 plague in India 1994 India Bubonic plague and Pneumonic plague 56 [ 225 ] United Kingdom BSE outbreak 1996–2001 United Kingdom Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease / vCJD 178 [ 226 ] [ 227 ] 1996 West Africa meningitis epidemic 1996 West Africa Meningitis 10,000 [ 228 ] 1998–1999 Malaysia Nipah virus outbreak 1998–1999 Malaysia Nipah virus infection 105 [ 229 ] 1998–2000 Democratic Republic of the Congo Marburg virus outbreak 1998–2000 Democratic Republic of the Congo Marburg virus 128 [ 230 ] 2000s Event Years Location Disease Death toll (estimate) Ref. 2000 Central America dengue epidemic 2000 Central America Dengue fever 40+ [ 231 ] 2001 Nigeria cholera epidemic 2001 Nigeria Cholera 400+ [ 232 ] 2001 South Africa cholera epidemic 2001 South Africa Cholera 139 [ 233 ] [ 234 ] 2002–2004 SARS outbreak 2002–2004 Worldwide Severe acute respiratory syndrome / SARS 774 [ 235 ] 2003–2019 Asia and Egypt avian influenza epidemic 2003–2019 China , Southeast Asia and Egypt Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 455 [ 236 ] 2004 Indonesia dengue epidemic 2004 Indonesia Dengue fever 658 [ 237 ] 2004 Sudan Ebola outbreak 2004 Sudan Ebola 7 [ 238 ] 2004–2005 Angola Marburg virus outbreak 2004–2005 Angola Marburg virus 227 [ 230 ] 2005 dengue outbreak in Singapore 2005 Singapore Dengue fever 27 [ 239 ] 2006 Luanda cholera epidemic 2006 Luanda , Angola Cholera 1,200+ [ 240 ] 2006 Ituri Province plague epidemic 2006 Ituri Province , Democratic Republic of the Congo Bubonic plague 61 [ 241 ] [ 242 ] 2006 India malaria outbreak 2006 India Malaria 17 [ 243 ] 2006 dengue outbreak in India 2006 India Dengue fever 50+ [ 244 ] 2006 dengue outbreak in Pakistan 2006 Pakistan Dengue fever 50+ [ 245 ] 2006 Philippines dengue epidemic 2006 Philippines Dengue fever 1,000 [ 246 ] 2006–2007 East Africa Rift Valley fever outbreak 2006–2007 East Africa Rift Valley fever 394 [ 247 ] Mweka Ebola epidemic 2007 Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola 187 [ 248 ] 2007 Ethiopia cholera epidemic 2007 Ethiopia Cholera 684 [ 249 ] 2007 Iraq cholera outbreak 2007 Iraq Cholera 10 [ 250 ] 2007 Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, and Mexico dengue fever epidemic 2007 Puerto Rico , Dominican Republic , Mexico Dengue fever 183 [ 251 ] 2007 Uganda Ebola outbreak 2007 Uganda Ebola 37 [ 238 ] 2007 Netherlands Q-fever epidemic 2007–2018 Netherlands Q-fever 95 [ 252 ] 2008 Brazil dengue epidemic 2008 Brazil Dengue fever 67 [ 253 ] 2008 Cambodia dengue epidemic 2008 Cambodia Dengue fever 407 [ 254 ] 2008 Chad cholera epidemic 2008 Chad Cholera 123 [ 255 ] 2008–2017 China hand, foot, and mouth disease epidemic 2008–2017 China Hand, foot, and mouth disease 3,322+ [ 256 ] 2008 India cholera epidemic 2008 India Cholera 115 [ 257 ] 2008 Madagascar plague outbreak 2008 Madagascar Bubonic plague 18+ [ 258 ] 2008 Philippines dengue epidemic 2008 Philippines Dengue fever 172 [ 259 ] 2008 Zimbabwean cholera outbreak 2008–2009 Zimbabwe Cholera 4,293 [ 260 ] 2009 Bolivian dengue fever epidemic 2009 Bolivia Dengue fever 18 [ 261 ] 2009 Gujarat hepatitis outbreak 2009 India Hepatitis B 49 [ 262 ] Queensland 2009 dengue outbreak 2009 Queensland , Australia Dengue fever 1+ (503 cases) [ 263 ] 2009–2010 West African meningitis outbreak 2009–2010 West Africa Meningitis 1,100 [ 264 ] 2009 swine flu pandemic 2009–2010 Worldwide Influenza A virus subtype H1N1 Lab confirmed deaths: 18,449 (reported to the WHO ) [ 265 ] Estimated death toll: 284,000 (possible range 151,700–575,400) [ 266 ] 2010s Haiti cholera outbreak 2010–2019 Haiti Cholera (strain serogroup O1, serotype Ogawa) 10,075 [ 267 ] 2010–2014 Democratic Republic of the Congo measles outbreak 2010–2014 Democratic Republic of the Congo Measles 4,500+ [ 268 ] [ 269 ] 2011 Vietnam hand, foot, and mouth disease epidemic 2011 Vietnam Hand, foot, and mouth disease 170 [ 270 ] [ 271 ] 2011 dengue outbreak in Pakistan 2011 Pakistan Dengue fever 350+ [ 272 ] 2012 yellow fever outbreak in Darfur, Sudan 2012 Darfur , Sudan Yellow fever 171 [ 273 ] 2013 dengue outbreak in Singapore 2013 Singapore Dengue fever 8 2013 Vietnam measles outbreak 2013–2014 Vietnam Measles 142 [ 274 ] Western African Ebola virus epidemic 2013–2016 Worldwide, primarily concentrated in Guinea , Liberia , Sierra Leone Ebola 11,323+ [ 275 ] [ 276 ] [ 277 ] 2013–2014 chikungunya outbreak 2013–2015 Americas Chikungunya 183 [ 278 ] 2013–19 avian influenza epidemic 2013–2019 China Influenza A virus subtype H7N9 616 [ 279 ] 21st century Madagascar plague outbreaks 2014–2017 Madagascar Bubonic plague 292 [ 280 ] Flint water crisis 2014–2015 Flint, Michigan , United States Legionnaires' disease 12 [ 281 ] 2014 Odisha hepatitis outbreak 2014–2015 India Primarily Hepatitis E , but also Hepatitis A 36 [ 282 ] 2015 Indian swine flu outbreak 2015 India Influenza A virus subtype H1N1 2,035 [ 283 ] [ 284 ] [ 285 ] 2015–16 Zika virus epidemic 2015–2016 Worldwide Zika virus 53 [ 286 ] 2016 Angola and Democratic Republic of the Congo yellow fever outbreak 2016 Angola and Democratic Republic of the Congo Yellow fever 498 (377 in Angola, 121 in Congo) [ 287 ] 2016–2022 Yemen cholera outbreak 2016–2023 Yemen Cholera 4,004 (as of June 11, 2023 [update] ) [ 288 ] 2017 Nigeria Lassa fever epidemic 2017–2023 Nigeria Lassa fever 1103 (as of April 2023) [ 289 ] 2017 dengue outbreak in Peshawar 2017 Peshawar , Pakistan Dengue fever 69 [ 290 ] 2017 Gorakhpur hospital deaths 2017 India Japanese encephalitis 1,317 [ 291 ] 2017 dengue outbreak in Sri Lanka 2017 Sri Lanka Dengue fever 440 [ 292 ] 2018 Nipah virus outbreak in Kerala 2018 India Nipah virus infection 17 [ 293 ] Kivu Ebola epidemic 2018–2020 Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda Ebola 2,280 [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] 2018 NDM-CRE outbreak in Italy 2018–2019 Italy New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase -producing Carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae 31 (as of September 2019) [ 297 ] 2019–2020 measles outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 2019–2020 Democratic Republic of the Congo Measles 7,018+ [ 298 ] 2019–2020 New Zealand measles outbreak 2019–2020 New Zealand Measles 2 [ 299 ] 2019 measles outbreak in the Philippines 2019 Philippines Measles 415 [ 300 ] 2019 Kuala Koh measles outbreak 2019 Kuala Koh, Malaysia Measles 15 [ 301 ] 2019 Samoa measles outbreak 2019 Samoa Measles 83 [ 302 ] 2019–2020 dengue fever epidemic 2019–2020 Asia-Pacific , Latin America Dengue fever 3,931 [ 303 ] 2020 Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola outbreak 2020 Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola 55 [ 304 ] 2020 dengue outbreak in Singapore 2020 Singapore Dengue fever 32 [ 305 ] 2020 Nigeria yellow fever epidemic 2020 Nigeria Yellow fever 296 (as of 31 December 2020) [ 306 ] 2021 South Sudan disease outbreak 2021 South Sudan Unknown 97 (as of December 2021) [ 307 ] 2021 India black fungus epidemic 2021–2022 India Black fungus (COVID-19 condition) 4,332 [ 308 ] 2022 hepatitis of unknown origin in children 2021–2022 Worldwide Hepatitis by Adenovirus variant AF41 (Unconfirmed) 18 [ 309 ] [ 310 ] [ 311 ] 2022–2024 Southern Africa cholera outbreak 2022–2024 Southern Africa Cholera 11,400+ [ 312 ] 2022–2023 mpox outbreak 2022–2023 Worldwide Mpox 280 [ 313 ] [ 314 ] [ 315 ] [ 316 ] 2022 Uganda Ebola outbreak 2022–2023 Uganda Sudan ebolavirus 77 [ 317 ] 2023–2024 Zambian cholera outbreak (part of the 2022–2024 Southern Africa cholera outbreak ) 2023–2024 Zambia Cholera 685 [ 318 ] 2023 South Poland Legionellosis outbreak 2023 Poland Legionnaires' disease 41 [ 319 ] [ 320 ] 2023–2024 Bangsamoro measles outbreak 2023–2024 Bangsamoro , Philippines Measles 14 2023–2024 Oropouche virus disease outbreak 2023–2024 Brazil Oropouche fever 2 [ 321 ] [ 322 ] [ 323 ] 2024 American dengue epidemic 2024 Latin America and the Caribbean Dengue fever 9,875 [ 324 ] 2024 Kwango province malaria outbreak 2024 Democratic Republic of the Congo Malaria 143 [ 325 ] Ongoing Event Years Location Disease Death toll (estimate) Ref. Seventh cholera pandemic 1961–present Worldwide Cholera ( El Tor strain ) 21,000–143,000 each year, millions total; 1.4-9.3 million (as of 2026) [ 326 ] [ 327 ] HIV/AIDS pandemic 1981–present Worldwide HIV/AIDS 45 million (as of 2026 [update] ) [ 328 ] MERS outbreak 2012–present Worldwide Middle East respiratory syndrome / MERS-CoV 941 (as of 8 May 2021 [update] ) [ 329 ] [ 330 ] COVID-19 pandemic 2019 [ a ] –present Worldwide COVID-19 7.12–38 million [ 332 ] 2023–2025 mpox epidemic 2023–present Worldwide, primarily Africa Mpox 812 [ 333 ] 2024–2025 Sudanese cholera epidemic 2024–present Sudan , South Sudan , and Chad Cholera 9,224 [ 334 ] See also Pandemic portal Globalization and disease History of smallpox List of Ebola outbreaks – Cases and outbreaks of Ebola virus disease List of infectious diseases List of natural disasters by death toll#Deadliest epidemics Timeline of plague – Human and animal disease Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Explanatory notes ^ a b The COVID-19 pandemic started as a regional outbreak / epidemic of COVID-19 in China in late 2019. The World Health Organization referred to it as a "pandemic" on 11 March 2020. [ 331 ] The starting time of this epidemic is thus 2019, regardless of the time when it became a pandemic. ^ The disease was a public health emergency of international concern from January 30, 2020 to May 5, 2023. 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Retrieved 15 May 2020 . ^ Encephalitis outbreak: AES is a perennial issue in eastern Uttar Pradesh, northern Bihar Archived 2023-07-11 at the Wayback Machine Bihar's AES data summary looks more like a repeat of 2017 when a major JEV outbreak in Uttar Pradesh's Gorakhpur claimed the lives of many children. 17 June 2019 www.indiatvnews.com , accessed 17 February 2020 ^ "Trends" . www.epid.gov.lk . Archived from the original on 2020-04-09 . Retrieved 2020-12-25 . ^ "Nipah virus contained, last two positive cases have recovered: Kerala Health Min" . The News Minute . 2018-06-11. Archived from the original on 2019-02-08 . Retrieved 2020-02-16 . ^ "Operations Dashboard for ArcGIS" . who.maps.arcgis.com . 25 June 2020. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019 . Retrieved 28 June 2020 . ^ "Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak Uganda Situation Reports" . WHO | Regional Office for Africa . Archived from the original on 20 June 2019 . Retrieved 3 September 2019 . ^ "DR Congo's deadliest Ebola outbreak declared over" . BBC News . 25 June 2020. Archived from the original on 31 December 2020 . Retrieved 25 June 2020 . ^ "Superbug That Surfaced In Delhi Strikes In Italy's Tuscany" . ndtv.com . 12 September 2019. Archived from the original on 25 December 2021 . Retrieved 8 February 2021 . ^ "DRC: More Ebola and plague cases reported, End of measles epidemic declared" . Archived from the original on 2020-08-30 . Retrieved 2020-09-07 . ^ "Measles weekly report" (PDF) . Public Health Surveillance . 24 February 2020. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 February 2020 . Retrieved 4 March 2021 . ^ Tomacruz, Sofia (11 February 2019). "At least 70 deaths due to measles – DOH" . Rappler . Archived from the original on 6 June 2020 . Retrieved 11 February 2019 . ^ Oon, Alyssa J. (17 June 2019). "A Measles Outbreak Is The Cause of 15 Orang Asli Deaths In Kelantan" . Says.com. Archived from the original on 27 August 2019 . Retrieved 27 August 2019 . ^ "Two more deaths from measles in samoa over new year period" . Radio New Zealand . 2020-01-07. Archived from the original on 2020-01-07. ^ "Dengue and severe dengue" . World Health Organization (WHO) . 2 March 2020. ^ "UNICEF welcomes end of Ebola outbreak in the Equateur Province of the DRC" . www.unicef.org . Retrieved 18 November 2020 . ^ "Dengue surveillance data, Oct – Dec 2020" (PDF) . National Environment Agency. ^ "YELLOW FEVER SITUATION REPORT week 53 (December 31 2020)" . Nigeria Centre for Disease Control . 31 Dec 2020 . Retrieved 27 Jan 2021 . ^ Heilman, Greg (2021-12-24). "What disease does WHO say is causing deaths in South Sudan?" . Diario AS . Retrieved 2022-10-24 . ^ "India reports 45,374 Black fungus cases, 4,332 deaths so far, says Health Ministry" . Asian News International . 22 July 2021 . Retrieved 22 July 2021 . ^ "Mystery liver disease kills three more children after "unexpected significant increase" in cases reported" . CBS News . 3 May 2022. ^ "CDC investigating 109 cases of severe hepatitis in kids across two dozen states, including 5 deaths" . CNBC . 6 May 2022. ^ "UPDATE: Israel report death of a child as Acute Hepatitis cases rise to 228 cases in mysterious global outbreak" . Euro Weekly News . 4 May 2022. ^ "The cholera outbreak in Eastern and Southern Africa isn't just an outbreak, it's an emergency for children" . UNICEF . 2023. ^ Steenhuysen, Julie (30 August 2022). "Texas reports first U.S. death in person with monkeypox" . Reuters . ^ Faus, Joan (30 July 2022). "Spain reports second monkeypox-related death in Europe" . Reuters . Retrieved 9 September 2022 . ^ "Monkeypox" (PDF) . African CDC . Retrieved 9 September 2022 . ^ "RDC : 3 décès et 69 nouveaux cas de Variole de singe enregistrés au Sankuru" . Actualite.cd (in French). 12 August 2022 . Retrieved 9 September 2022 . ^ "Ebola outbreak in Uganda declared over" . BNO News . 11 January 2023 . Retrieved 11 January 2023 . ^ "Cholera Threatens Lives of Children and their Families in Parts of Zambia" . UNICEF . ^ "Legionellosis – Poland" . www.who.int . Retrieved 16 January 2024 . ^ "Poland: Legionnaire's bacteria outbreak kills 19 – DW – 09/02/2023" . dw.com . Retrieved 27 September 2023 . ^ "Oropouche: The mysterious 'sloth virus' with no treatment" . www.bbc.com . 29 August 2024 . Retrieved 2024-08-30 . ^ Lenharo, Mariana (2024-08-26). "Mysterious Oropouche virus is spreading: what you should know" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-024-02746-2 . PMID 39187671 . ^ Morrison, Andrea (2024). "Oropouche Virus Disease Among U.S. Travelers — United States, 2024" . MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report . 73 (35): 769– 773. doi : 10.15585/mmwr.mm7335e1 . ISSN 0149-2195 . PMC 11376504 . PMID 39236058 . ^ Osborn, Catherine (August 26, 2024). "Dengue Surge Grips Latin America" . ^ Abene, Sophia (December 18, 2024). "Severe Malaria Identified as Cause of Outbreak in DRC's Kwango Province" . ^ "Cholera" . World Health Organization. 5 December 2024. Archived from the original on 21 October 2025 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ The Lancet (19 October 2024). "Cholera: a pandemic ignored". The Lancet . 404 (10462): 1493. doi : 10.1016/S0140-6736(24)02305-5 . PMID 39426821 . ^ "Global HIV and AIDS statistics" . UNAIDS . Archived from the original on 2019-12-04 . Retrieved 2021-08-23 . ^ "Geographical distribution of confirmed MERS-CoV cases by country of infection and year" . European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control . 1 February 2021. Archived from the original on 26 March 2021 . Retrieved 28 February 2021 . ^ "Saudi Arabia reports 8th MERS case of 2021" . Outbreak News Today . 8 May 2021. Archived from the original on 5 June 2021 . Retrieved 5 June 2021 . ^ "WHO Director-General's opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19 – 11 March 2020" . World Health Organization . ^ "The pandemic's true death toll" . The Economist . 26 July 2023. Archived from the original on 8 February 2024. ^ "Rapid Spread of Mpox in Africa Is Global Health Emergency, WHO Says" . www.wsj.com . Retrieved 2024-08-16 . ^ "Cholera is latest peril in Sudan | MSF" . www.msf.org . Retrieved 2025-08-14 . Further reading Eisenberg, Merle, and Lee Mordechai. "The Justinianic Plague and Global Pandemics: The Making of the Plague Concept." American Historical Review 125.5 (2020): 1632–1667. Hunter, Philip (2007). "Inevitable or avoidable? Despite the lessons of history, the world is not yet ready to face the next great plague" . EMBO Reports . 8 (6): 531– 534. doi : 10.1038/sj.embor.7400987 . PMC 2002527 . PMID 17545992 . Snowden, Frank M. (2019). Epidemics and Society: From the Black Death to the Present . Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300192216 . External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Epidemics at Wikimedia Commons .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Disasters v t e Overview Lists by death toll by cost Australia Bangladesh Canada China Croatia Czech Republic Estonia Fiji Finland France Great Britain and Ireland Greece Haiti India Indonesia Italy Japan Malta New Zealand Norway Pakistan Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Singapore South Korea Spain Sweden Switzerland Taiwan Thailand United States Vietnam Lists by death toll by cost by death toll by cost Australia Bangladesh Canada China Croatia Czech Republic Estonia Fiji Finland France Great Britain and Ireland Greece Haiti India Indonesia Italy Japan Malta New Zealand Norway Pakistan Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Singapore South Korea Spain Sweden Switzerland Taiwan Thailand United States Vietnam Disasters v t e Natural disasters – list by death toll Geological Mass wasting Landslide Avalanche Mudflow Debris flow Earthquake ( List ) Seismic hazard Seismic risk Soil liquefaction Volcano eruption Pyroclastic flow Lahar Volcanic ash Natural erosion Sinkhole Hydrological Flood ( List ) Coastal flood Flash flood Storm surge Other Tsunami Megatsunami Limnic eruption Meteorological Temperature Blizzard Cold wave Ice storm Heat wave Drought Megadrought Cyclonic storms Bomb cyclone Thunderstorm ( Hail ) Tornado ( Tornado outbreak ) Tropical cyclone Other Derecho Wildfire Firestorm ARkStorm Astronomical Potentially hazardous object Impact event Meteor shower Geomagnetic storm Solar flare Supernova Hypernova Accidents Health Biosecurity Diseases of affluence Disease of despair Diseases of poverty Epidemic list Famine List Famine scales Opioid epidemic Pandemic Industrial Bridge Dam Infrastructure Levee breach Mast and tower Mining Oil spills Structural failures and collapses Nuclear ( by death toll ) Civilian nuclear Civilian radiation Military nuclear Transport Air Maritime Rail Shipwreck Spaceflight Man-made Crowd collapses and crushes Economic crises Environmental disasters Sacrifice zone Military Nightclub fires Riots Societal collapse Terrorist incidents Wars v t e Natural disasters – list by death toll Geological Mass wasting Landslide Avalanche Mudflow Debris flow Earthquake ( List ) Seismic hazard Seismic risk Soil liquefaction Volcano eruption Pyroclastic flow Lahar Volcanic ash Natural erosion Sinkhole Hydrological Flood ( List ) Coastal flood Flash flood Storm surge Other Tsunami Megatsunami Limnic eruption Meteorological Temperature Blizzard Cold wave Ice storm Heat wave Drought Megadrought Cyclonic storms Bomb cyclone Thunderstorm ( Hail ) Tornado ( Tornado outbreak ) Tropical cyclone Other Derecho Wildfire Firestorm ARkStorm Astronomical Potentially hazardous object Impact event Meteor shower Geomagnetic storm Solar flare Supernova Hypernova v t e Natural disasters – list by death toll v t e Geological Mass wasting Landslide Avalanche Mudflow Debris flow Earthquake ( List ) Seismic hazard Seismic risk Soil liquefaction Volcano eruption Pyroclastic flow Lahar Volcanic ash Natural erosion Sinkhole Mass wasting Landslide Avalanche Mudflow Debris flow Landslide Avalanche Mudflow Debris flow Earthquake ( List ) Seismic hazard Seismic risk Soil liquefaction Seismic hazard Seismic risk Soil liquefaction Volcano eruption Pyroclastic flow Lahar Volcanic ash Pyroclastic flow Lahar Lahar Volcanic ash Natural erosion Sinkhole Sinkhole Hydrological Flood ( List ) Coastal flood Flash flood Storm surge Other Tsunami Megatsunami Limnic eruption Flood ( List ) Coastal flood Flash flood Storm surge Coastal flood Flash flood Storm surge Other Tsunami Megatsunami Limnic eruption Tsunami Megatsunami Megatsunami Limnic eruption Meteorological Temperature Blizzard Cold wave Ice storm Heat wave Drought Megadrought Cyclonic storms Bomb cyclone Thunderstorm ( Hail ) Tornado ( Tornado outbreak ) Tropical cyclone Other Derecho Wildfire Firestorm ARkStorm Temperature Blizzard Cold wave Ice storm Heat wave Blizzard Cold wave Ice storm Heat wave Drought Megadrought Megadrought Cyclonic storms Bomb cyclone Thunderstorm ( Hail ) Tornado ( Tornado outbreak ) Tropical cyclone Bomb cyclone Thunderstorm ( Hail ) Tornado ( Tornado outbreak ) Tropical cyclone Other Derecho Wildfire Firestorm ARkStorm Derecho Wildfire Firestorm Firestorm ARkStorm Astronomical Potentially hazardous object Impact event Meteor shower Geomagnetic storm Solar flare Supernova Hypernova Potentially hazardous object Impact event Meteor shower Geomagnetic storm Solar flare Supernova Hypernova Accidents Health Biosecurity Diseases of affluence Disease of despair Diseases of poverty Epidemic list Famine List Famine scales Opioid epidemic Pandemic Industrial Bridge Dam Infrastructure Levee breach Mast and tower Mining Oil spills Structural failures and collapses Nuclear ( by death toll ) Civilian nuclear Civilian radiation Military nuclear Transport Air Maritime Rail Shipwreck Spaceflight Health Biosecurity Diseases of affluence Disease of despair Diseases of poverty Epidemic list Famine List Famine scales Opioid epidemic Pandemic Biosecurity Diseases of affluence Disease of despair Diseases of poverty Epidemic list list Famine List Famine scales List Famine scales Opioid epidemic Pandemic Industrial Bridge Dam Infrastructure Levee breach Mast and tower Mining Oil spills Structural failures and collapses Bridge Dam Infrastructure Levee breach Mast and tower Mining Oil spills Structural failures and collapses Nuclear ( by death toll ) Civilian nuclear Civilian radiation Military nuclear Civilian nuclear Civilian radiation Military nuclear Transport Air Maritime Rail Shipwreck Spaceflight Air Maritime Rail Shipwreck Spaceflight Man-made Crowd collapses and crushes Economic crises Environmental disasters Sacrifice zone Military Nightclub fires Riots Societal collapse Terrorist incidents Wars Crowd collapses and crushes Economic crises Environmental disasters Sacrifice zone Sacrifice zone Military Nightclub fires Riots Societal collapse Terrorist incidents Wars Preparation Disaster risk reduction Earthquake preparedness Hurricane preparedness Safety Survival kit Anticipatory action Disaster risk reduction Earthquake preparedness Hurricane preparedness Safety Survival kit Anticipatory action Countermeasures Crisis management Disaster area Earthquake warning system Emergency Alert System Emergency management Emergency population warning Evacuations Humanitarian aid Hurricane response Crisis management Disaster area Earthquake warning system Emergency Alert System Emergency management Emergency population warning Evacuations Humanitarian aid Hurricane response Media Disaster film ( List of disaster films ) Disaster film ( List of disaster films ) Organizations Civil defense ( List of civil defense organisations ) Disaster Accountability Project International Association of Emergency Managers International Disaster and Risk Conference International Disaster Emergency Service Civil defense ( List of civil defense organisations ) Disaster Accountability Project International Association of Emergency Managers International Disaster and Risk Conference International Disaster Emergency Service WikiProject WikiProject v t e Natural disasters – list by death toll v t e Geological Mass wasting Landslide Avalanche Mudflow Debris flow Earthquake ( List ) Seismic hazard Seismic risk Soil liquefaction Volcano eruption Pyroclastic flow Lahar Volcanic ash Natural erosion Sinkhole Mass wasting Landslide Avalanche Mudflow Debris flow Landslide Avalanche Mudflow Debris flow Earthquake ( List ) Seismic hazard Seismic risk Soil liquefaction Seismic hazard Seismic risk Soil liquefaction Volcano eruption Pyroclastic flow Lahar Volcanic ash Pyroclastic flow Lahar Lahar Volcanic ash Natural erosion Sinkhole Sinkhole Hydrological Flood ( List ) Coastal flood Flash flood Storm surge Other Tsunami Megatsunami Limnic eruption Flood ( List ) Coastal flood Flash flood Storm surge Coastal flood Flash flood Storm surge Other Tsunami Megatsunami Limnic eruption Tsunami Megatsunami Megatsunami Limnic eruption Meteorological Temperature Blizzard Cold wave Ice storm Heat wave Drought Megadrought Cyclonic storms Bomb cyclone Thunderstorm ( Hail ) Tornado ( Tornado outbreak ) Tropical cyclone Other Derecho Wildfire Firestorm ARkStorm Temperature Blizzard Cold wave Ice storm Heat wave Blizzard Cold wave Ice storm Heat wave Drought Megadrought Megadrought Cyclonic storms Bomb cyclone Thunderstorm ( Hail ) Tornado ( Tornado outbreak ) Tropical cyclone Bomb cyclone Thunderstorm ( Hail ) Tornado ( Tornado outbreak ) Tropical cyclone Other Derecho Wildfire Firestorm ARkStorm Derecho Wildfire Firestorm Firestorm ARkStorm Astronomical Potentially hazardous object Impact event Meteor shower Geomagnetic storm Solar flare Supernova Hypernova Potentially hazardous object Impact event Meteor shower Geomagnetic storm Solar flare Supernova Hypernova v t e Pandemics , epidemics and notable disease outbreaks v t e List of epidemics and pandemics List of epidemics and pandemics Local Ancient Hittite plague ( c. 1330 BC) Plague of Athens (429–426 BC) Antonine Plague (165–180 AD) Plague of Cyprian (250–266) Post- classical Plague of Justinian (541–542) Roman Plague (590) Plague of Sheroe (627–628) Plague of Amwas (638–639) Plague of 664 (664–689) Japanese smallpox (735–737) Black Death (1346–1353) Sweating sickness (1485–1551) Early modern 16th century Influenza pandemic (1510) Mexican smallpox (1520) "Cocoliztli" epidemics in colonial Mexico (1545, 1576) Influenza pandemic (1557–1559) London plague (1563–1564) Maltese plague (1592–1593) London plague (1592–1593) 17th century London plague (1603) Maltese plague (1623) Italian plague (1629–1631) Massachusetts smallpox (1633) Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty (1633–1644) Great Plague of Seville (1647–1652) Maltese plague (1655) Naples Plague (1656) Great Plague of London (1665–1666) Maltese plague (1675–1676) Great Plague of Vienna (1679) 18th century Iceland smallpox epidemic (1707–1708) Great Northern War plague (1710–1712) Great Plague of Marseille (1720–1722) Great Plague of 1738 (1738) Russian plague (1770–1772) Persian Plague (1772) North American smallpox (1780–1782) Philadelphia yellow fever (1793–1798) Modern 19th century Ottoman plague (1812–1819) Maltese plague (1813–1814) Caragea's plague (1813) Groningen epidemic (1829) Great Plains smallpox (1837–1838) Typhus (1847–1848) Copenhagen cholera (1853) Stockholm cholera (1853) Broad Street cholera (1854) Guam smallpox (1856) Pacific Northwest smallpox (1862–1863) Barcelona yellow fever (1870) Buenos Aires yellow fever (1871) Australia scarlet fever (1875–1876) Hong Kong plague (1894) 20th century San Francisco plague (1900–1904) Manchurian plague (1910–1911) LA pneumonic plague (1924) Croydon typhoid (1937) NYC smallpox (1947) Wrocław smallpox (1963) Yugoslav smallpox (1972) London flu (1972–1973) Indian smallpox (1974) Surat plague (1994) Malaysian Nipah virus (1998–1999) 21st century SARS (2002–2004) Midwest monkeypox (2003) Bird flu (2003–2005) Singaporean dengue (2005) Indian dengue (2006) Chikungunya outbreaks (2006) Pakistani dengue (2006) Iraqi cholera (2007) Zimbabwean cholera (2008–2009) Madagascar plague (2008–2017) Bolivian dengue (2009) Gujarat hepatitis (2009) Western African meningitis (2009–2010) Haiti cholera (2010–2019) Pakistani dengue (2011) Darfur yellow fever (2012) MERS (2012) Singaporean dengue (2013) Swansea measles (2013) Chikungunya (2013–2014) Western African Ebola (2013–2016) DR Congo Ebola (2014) Madagascar plague (2014) Odisha hepatitis (2014) Polio declaration (2014) Indian swine flu (2015) South Korean MERS (2015) Zika (2015–2016) Angolan yellow fever (2016) Yemeni cholera (2016–2022) Gorakhpur Japanese encephalitis (2017) Saudi Arabian MERS (2018) Kerala Nipah virus (2018) Équateur province Ebola (2018) Kivu Ebola (2018–2020) Madagascar measles (2018) Samoa measles (2019) Philippine measles (2019) Pacific NW measles (2019) New York measles (2019) Kuala Koh measles (2019) Tonga measles (2019) DRC measles (2019–2020) New Zealand measles (2019–2020) Singaporean dengue (2020) Uganda Ebola (2022–2023) Jamaica dengue (2023) Bangsamoro measles (2023–present) 2024 Latin American dengue Argentina (2024) Sudanese cholera epidemic (2024–2025) Kasaï Province Ebola (2025–present) New Zealand measles (2025) Ancient Hittite plague ( c. 1330 BC) Plague of Athens (429–426 BC) Antonine Plague (165–180 AD) Plague of Cyprian (250–266) Hittite plague ( c. 1330 BC) Plague of Athens (429–426 BC) Antonine Plague (165–180 AD) Plague of Cyprian (250–266) Post- classical Plague of Justinian (541–542) Roman Plague (590) Plague of Sheroe (627–628) Plague of Amwas (638–639) Plague of 664 (664–689) Japanese smallpox (735–737) Black Death (1346–1353) Sweating sickness (1485–1551) Plague of Justinian (541–542) Roman Plague (590) Plague of Sheroe (627–628) Plague of Amwas (638–639) Plague of 664 (664–689) Japanese smallpox (735–737) Black Death (1346–1353) Sweating sickness (1485–1551) Early modern 16th century Influenza pandemic (1510) Mexican smallpox (1520) "Cocoliztli" epidemics in colonial Mexico (1545, 1576) Influenza pandemic (1557–1559) London plague (1563–1564) Maltese plague (1592–1593) London plague (1592–1593) 17th century London plague (1603) Maltese plague (1623) Italian plague (1629–1631) Massachusetts smallpox (1633) Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty (1633–1644) Great Plague of Seville (1647–1652) Maltese plague (1655) Naples Plague (1656) Great Plague of London (1665–1666) Maltese plague (1675–1676) Great Plague of Vienna (1679) 18th century Iceland smallpox epidemic (1707–1708) Great Northern War plague (1710–1712) Great Plague of Marseille (1720–1722) Great Plague of 1738 (1738) Russian plague (1770–1772) Persian Plague (1772) North American smallpox (1780–1782) Philadelphia yellow fever (1793–1798) 16th century Influenza pandemic (1510) Mexican smallpox (1520) "Cocoliztli" epidemics in colonial Mexico (1545, 1576) Influenza pandemic (1557–1559) London plague (1563–1564) Maltese plague (1592–1593) London plague (1592–1593) Influenza pandemic (1510) Mexican smallpox (1520) "Cocoliztli" epidemics in colonial Mexico (1545, 1576) Influenza pandemic (1557–1559) London plague (1563–1564) Maltese plague (1592–1593) London plague (1592–1593) 17th century London plague (1603) Maltese plague (1623) Italian plague (1629–1631) Massachusetts smallpox (1633) Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty (1633–1644) Great Plague of Seville (1647–1652) Maltese plague (1655) Naples Plague (1656) Great Plague of London (1665–1666) Maltese plague (1675–1676) Great Plague of Vienna (1679) London plague (1603) Maltese plague (1623) Italian plague (1629–1631) Massachusetts smallpox (1633) Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty (1633–1644) Great Plague of Seville (1647–1652) Maltese plague (1655) Naples Plague (1656) Great Plague of London (1665–1666) Maltese plague (1675–1676) Great Plague of Vienna (1679) 18th century Iceland smallpox epidemic (1707–1708) Great Northern War plague (1710–1712) Great Plague of Marseille (1720–1722) Great Plague of 1738 (1738) Russian plague (1770–1772) Persian Plague (1772) North American smallpox (1780–1782) Philadelphia yellow fever (1793–1798) Iceland smallpox epidemic (1707–1708) Great Northern War plague (1710–1712) Great Plague of Marseille (1720–1722) Great Plague of 1738 (1738) Russian plague (1770–1772) Persian Plague (1772) North American smallpox (1780–1782) Philadelphia yellow fever (1793–1798) Modern 19th century Ottoman plague (1812–1819) Maltese plague (1813–1814) Caragea's plague (1813) Groningen epidemic (1829) Great Plains smallpox (1837–1838) Typhus (1847–1848) Copenhagen cholera (1853) Stockholm cholera (1853) Broad Street cholera (1854) Guam smallpox (1856) Pacific Northwest smallpox (1862–1863) Barcelona yellow fever (1870) Buenos Aires yellow fever (1871) Australia scarlet fever (1875–1876) Hong Kong plague (1894) 20th century San Francisco plague (1900–1904) Manchurian plague (1910–1911) LA pneumonic plague (1924) Croydon typhoid (1937) NYC smallpox (1947) Wrocław smallpox (1963) Yugoslav smallpox (1972) London flu (1972–1973) Indian smallpox (1974) Surat plague (1994) Malaysian Nipah virus (1998–1999) 21st century SARS (2002–2004) Midwest monkeypox (2003) Bird flu (2003–2005) Singaporean dengue (2005) Indian dengue (2006) Chikungunya outbreaks (2006) Pakistani dengue (2006) Iraqi cholera (2007) Zimbabwean cholera (2008–2009) Madagascar plague (2008–2017) Bolivian dengue (2009) Gujarat hepatitis (2009) Western African meningitis (2009–2010) Haiti cholera (2010–2019) Pakistani dengue (2011) Darfur yellow fever (2012) MERS (2012) Singaporean dengue (2013) Swansea measles (2013) Chikungunya (2013–2014) Western African Ebola (2013–2016) DR Congo Ebola (2014) Madagascar plague (2014) Odisha hepatitis (2014) Polio declaration (2014) Indian swine flu (2015) South Korean MERS (2015) Zika (2015–2016) Angolan yellow fever (2016) Yemeni cholera (2016–2022) Gorakhpur Japanese encephalitis (2017) Saudi Arabian MERS (2018) Kerala Nipah virus (2018) Équateur province Ebola (2018) Kivu Ebola (2018–2020) Madagascar measles (2018) Samoa measles (2019) Philippine measles (2019) Pacific NW measles (2019) New York measles (2019) Kuala Koh measles (2019) Tonga measles (2019) DRC measles (2019–2020) New Zealand measles (2019–2020) Singaporean dengue (2020) Uganda Ebola (2022–2023) Jamaica dengue (2023) Bangsamoro measles (2023–present) 2024 Latin American dengue Argentina (2024) Sudanese cholera epidemic (2024–2025) Kasaï Province Ebola (2025–present) New Zealand measles (2025) 19th century Ottoman plague (1812–1819) Maltese plague (1813–1814) Caragea's plague (1813) Groningen epidemic (1829) Great Plains smallpox (1837–1838) Typhus (1847–1848) Copenhagen cholera (1853) Stockholm cholera (1853) Broad Street cholera (1854) Guam smallpox (1856) Pacific Northwest smallpox (1862–1863) Barcelona yellow fever (1870) Buenos Aires yellow fever (1871) Australia scarlet fever (1875–1876) Hong Kong plague (1894) Ottoman plague (1812–1819) Maltese plague (1813–1814) Caragea's plague (1813) Groningen epidemic (1829) Great Plains smallpox (1837–1838) Typhus (1847–1848) Copenhagen cholera (1853) Stockholm cholera (1853) Broad Street cholera (1854) Guam smallpox (1856) Pacific Northwest smallpox (1862–1863) Barcelona yellow fever (1870) Buenos Aires yellow fever (1871) Australia scarlet fever (1875–1876) Hong Kong plague (1894) 20th century San Francisco plague (1900–1904) Manchurian plague (1910–1911) LA pneumonic plague (1924) Croydon typhoid (1937) NYC smallpox (1947) Wrocław smallpox (1963) Yugoslav smallpox (1972) London flu (1972–1973) Indian smallpox (1974) Surat plague (1994) Malaysian Nipah virus (1998–1999) San Francisco plague (1900–1904) Manchurian plague (1910–1911) LA pneumonic plague (1924) Croydon typhoid (1937) NYC smallpox (1947) Wrocław smallpox (1963) Yugoslav smallpox (1972) London flu (1972–1973) Indian smallpox (1974) Surat plague (1994) Malaysian Nipah virus (1998–1999) 21st century SARS (2002–2004) Midwest monkeypox (2003) Bird flu (2003–2005) Singaporean dengue (2005) Indian dengue (2006) Chikungunya outbreaks (2006) Pakistani dengue (2006) Iraqi cholera (2007) Zimbabwean cholera (2008–2009) Madagascar plague (2008–2017) Bolivian dengue (2009) Gujarat hepatitis (2009) Western African meningitis (2009–2010) Haiti cholera (2010–2019) Pakistani dengue (2011) Darfur 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Musical career 2 Style and appreciation 3 Personal life 4 Discography Toggle Discography subsection 4.1 Solo 4.2 As sideman 4.1 Solo 4.2 As sideman 5 References 6 External links Jeff Berlin العربية تۆرکجه Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano עברית مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Suomi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Jeff Berlin Berlin performing in 2007 Background information Born Jeffrey Arthur Berlin ( 1953-01-17 ) January 17, 1953 (age 72) Queens, New York , U.S. Genres Jazz rock progressive rock Occupation Musician Instruments Bass, vocals Years active 1970 — Present Labels Denon , Rock Empire, Random Act Jeffrey Arthur Berlin (born January 17, 1953) is an American jazz rock bassist and composer. He first came to prominence in the 1970s as a member of the band Bruford , led by drummer Bill Bruford . Musical career Berlin was born on January 17, 1953, in Queens, New York . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] He studied violin from 5 until 15 years of age, when he was inspired to play bass guitar after seeing the Beatles . [ 3 ] He attended Berklee College of Music to study bass. [ 4 ] He was influenced by Jack Bruce , Paul McCartney , Tim Bogert , and Jack Casady early on, and later by Rocco Prestia and Jaco Pastorius . [ 5 ] After session work with Patrick Moraz , David Liebman and Patti Austin , he gained widespread international attention in 1977 when British musician Bill Bruford handpicked him for his debut album Feels Good to Me . He played in Bruford's namesake band until 1980. His Bruford bandmate Allan Holdsworth employed Berlin for his 1983 Warner Brothers album Road Games . Berlin continued to record and tour throughout the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. Style and appreciation In a review for Berlin's album Low Standards , Bass Musician Magazine said: "Anytime I mention [Jeff Berlin], there seems to be a ripple in the force and the wave of Berlin supporters or antagonists come to the surface and spout-off their opinions. No matter where you stand regarding Jeff's musical philosophy, no one can reasonably deny the simple fact that Jeff seriously knows his craft and is one of the major players of our time." [ 6 ] Berlin's melodic, lead-bass playing style was heavily influenced by that of Jaco Pastorius ; despite this, Berlin has repeatedly stated his distaste for Jaco imitators. [ 7 ] Personal life On August 30, 2013, Berlin married Gabriela Sinagra, a jazz singer and vocal coach from Rosario, Argentina . Discography Solo 1985 Champion (Passport Jazz) [ 8 ] 1986 Pump It! (Passport Jazz) [ 9 ] 1997 Taking Notes ( Denon ) [ 10 ] 1998 Crossroads (Denon) [ 11 ] 2000 Star Licks Master Sessions: Jeff Berlin ( Star Licks Productions ) (VHS) [ 12 ] 2000 In Harmony's Way (M.A.J. Records, multiple re-releases) [ 13 ] 2004 Lumpy Jazz (M.A.J.) [ 14 ] 2006 Aneurythms/Ace of Bass (M.A.J.) [ 15 ] 2006 Mel Bay Jeff Berlin-Bass Logic from the Players School of Music (Mel Bay Publications) (DVD) [ 16 ] 2010 High Standards (King Japan / M.A.J.) [ 17 ] 2013 Low Standards (Random Act) [ 18 ] 2022 Jack Songs (Jeff Berlin Music Group) [ 19 ] As sideman 1976 Patrick Moraz – The Story of I ( Charisma (UK), Atlantic (US/Canada), Voiceprint (reissue)) [ 20 ] 1976 Esther Phillips – Capricorn Princess [ 21 ] 1976 Patti Austin – End of a Rainbow ( CTI ) [ 22 ] 1976 David Matthews with Whirlwind - Shoogie Wanna Boogie (CTI) [ 23 ] 1977 Ray Barretto – Eye of the Beholder (Atlantic) [ 24 ] 1977 David Liebman – Light'n Up, Please! ( A&M ) [ 25 ] [ 26 ] 1977 Ernie Krivda – Satanic ( Inner City ) [ 27 ] 1977 Bruford – Feels Good to Me [ 28 ] 1978 Don Pullen – Montreux Concert (Atlantic) [ 29 ] 1979 David Sancious – Just As I Thought [ 30 ] 1979 Bruford – One of a Kind (Winterfold) [ 31 ] 1980 Bruford – Gradually Going Tornado (Winterfold) [ 32 ] 1980 Passport - Lifelike 1980 Joe Diorio – 20th Century Impressions 1981 Bruford – The Bruford Tapes (Winterfold) [ 32 ] 1981 Herbie Mann – Mellow 1983 Allan Holdsworth – Road Games 1983 Janis Ian – Uncle Wonderful 1984 Clare Fischer and Salsa Picante – Crazy Bird 1985 Shumate-Reno Jazz Quintet – Hurricane 1986 Bruford - Master Strokes: 1978–1985 1986 T Lavitz – Storytime 1987 Henderson -Berlin- Smith -Lavitz – Players 1987 Kazumi Watanabe – The Spice of Life 1988 Kazumi Watanabe – The Spice of Life Too 1993 k.d. lang – Even Cowgirls Get the Blues 1993 Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe – An Evening of Yes Music Plus 1994 Nathan Cavaleri Band – Nathan 1995 Richie Kotzen – The Inner Galactic Fusion Experience 1995 Michael Zentner – Playtime 2002 Novecento – Featuring... 2006 Chambers - Jeff Berlin- Fiuczynski -Lavitz – Boston T Party 2006 Bruford – Rock goes to College - (2006 DVD Winterfold Records) 2012 Henderson-Berlin-Chambers – HBC ( Tone Center ) 2013 Nick Miller – My Memories References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Gilbert, Mark (2002). Kernfeld, Barry (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz . Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). New York: Grove's Dictionaries Inc. p. 201. ISBN 1-56159-284-6 . ^ Jisi, C. Brave New Bass . Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 97. ISBN 9781617745065 . Retrieved 2015-06-22 . ^ Mulhern, Tom (1993). Bass Heroes: Styles, Stories & Secrets of 30 Great Bass Players : from the Pages of Guitar Player Magazine . Backbeat Books. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-87930-274-0 . Retrieved 2013-07-29 . ^ Ake, David Andrew (2010). Jazz Matters: Sound, Place, and Time Since Bebop . University of California Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-520-26688-9 . Retrieved 2013-07-29 . ^ "Cliff Engel | Interviews - Jeff Berlin" . www.cliffengel.com . Retrieved 2025-10-22 . ^ "Low Standards: Jeff Berlin" . Bass Musician Magazine . ^ "Jeff Berlin: Whatever doesn't kill you makes you stronger!" . Bass Inside. September 2002. Archived from the original on 2007-03-11 . Retrieved 2013-07-24 . ^ Jeff Berlin & Vox Humana (4) - Champion (Vinyl, LP, Album) at Discogs ^ Jeff Berlin - Pump It! at Discogs ^ Jeff Berlin - Taking Notes (CD, Album) at Discogs ^ Jeff Berlin - Crossroads (CD) at Discogs ^ Star Licks Master Sessions: Jeff Berlin | MTV Movies [ dead link ] ^ In Harmony's Way - Jeff Berlin | AllMusic ^ Jeff Berlin - Lumpy Jazz (CD, Album) at Discogs ^ Aneurythms - Jeff Berlin | AllMusic ^ Amazon.com: Mel Bay Jeff Berlin-Bass Logic from the Players School of Music ^ High Standards - Jeff Berlin | AllMusic ^ Low Standards - Jeff Berlin | AllMusic ^ Parker, Matt (August 5, 2022). "Jeff Berlin releases Jack Bruce tribute album featuring guitar solos from Alex Lifeson, Bumblefoot and Eric Johnson" . Guitar World . Retrieved August 10, 2022 . ^ DeGagne, Mike. Jeff Berlin at AllMusic ^ Capricorn Princess - Esther Phillips | AllMusic ^ End of a Rainbow - Patti Austin | AllMusic ^ David Matthews With Whirlwind - Shoogie Wanna Boogie (Vinyl, LP, Album) at Discogs ^ Eye of the Beholder - Ray Barretto | AllMusic ^ David Liebman - Light'n Up, Please! (Vinyl, LP, Album) at Discogs ^ Liebman, Dave (2012). What It Is:The Life of a Jazz Artist . Scarecrow Press . p. 209. ISBN 9780810882546 . ^ Satanic - Ernie Krivda | AllMusic ^ Kelma, John (April 24, 2005). "Bill Bruford: Feels Good to Me and One of a Kind" . All About Jazz . Retrieved August 11, 2013 . ^ Montreux Concert - Don Pullen | AllMusic ^ Just as I Thought - David Sancious | AllMusic ^ Bruford - One Of A Kind (CD, Album) at Discogs ^ a b Kelman, John (October 14, 2005). "Bill Bruford: Feels Good to Me and One of a Kind" . All About Jazz . Retrieved August 11, 2013 . External links Official site Jeff Berlin at AllMusic Jeff Berlin Interview at NAMM Oral History Collection (2021) Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND WorldCat National United States France BnF data Czech Republic United States France BnF data Czech Republic Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Deutsche Biographie Deutsche Biographie Jazz fusion musicians 1953 births Living people American jazz bass guitarists American male bass guitarists Jazz educators Berklee College of Music alumni Musicians Institute alumni 20th-century American bass guitarists 20th-century American male musicians American male jazz musicians The Eleventh House members CS1: unfit URL All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2024 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with hCards Pages using infobox musical artist with associated acts This page was last edited on 22 October 2025, at 21:02 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 Pre-1600 1.2 1601–1900 1.3 1901–present 1.1 Pre-1600 1.2 1601–1900 1.3 1901–present 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 Pre-1600 2.2 1601–1900 2.3 1901–present 2.1 Pre-1600 2.2 1601–1900 2.3 1901–present 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 Pre-1600 3.2 1601–1900 3.3 1901–present 3.1 Pre-1600 3.2 1601–1900 3.3 1901–present 4 Holidays and observances 5 References 6 External links January 17 Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kiswahili Коми Kongo Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Перем коми Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла संस्कृतम् Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taqbaylit Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Тыва дыл Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Руски Tolışi ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikidata item Page version status This is an accepted version of this page .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{color:var(--color-base,#202122);background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{color:var(--color-base,#202122);background-color:#d8e0ff}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{background-color:#2a2a5c}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{background-color:#202040}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{background-color:#2a2a5c}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{background-color:#202040}} << January >> Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2026 January 17 in recent years 2025 (Friday) 2024 (Wednesday) 2023 (Tuesday) 2022 (Monday) 2021 (Sunday) 2020 (Friday) 2019 (Thursday) 2018 (Wednesday) 2017 (Tuesday) 2016 (Sunday) January 17 is the 17th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar ; 348 days remain until the end of the year (349 in leap years ). Events Pre-1600 38 BC – Octavian divorces his wife Scribonia and marries Livia Drusilla , ending the fragile peace between the Second Triumvirate and Sextus Pompey . [ 1 ] 1362 – Saint Marcellus' flood kills at least 25,000 people on the shores of the North Sea. [ 2 ] 1377 – Pope Gregory XI reaches Rome, after deciding to move the Papacy back to Rome from Avignon . [ 3 ] 1524 – Giovanni da Verrazzano sets sail westward from Madeira to find a sea route to the Pacific Ocean. [ 4 ] 1562 – France grants religious toleration to the Huguenots in the Edict of Saint-Germain . [ 5 ] 1595 – During the French Wars of Religion , Henry IV of France declares war on Spain. [ 6 ] 1601–1900 1608 – Emperor Susenyos I of Ethiopia surprises an Oromo army at Ebenat; his army reportedly kills 12,000 Oromo at the cost of 400 of his men. [ 7 ] 1648 – England's Long Parliament passes the " Vote of No Addresses ", breaking off negotiations with King Charles I and thereby setting the scene for the second phase of the English Civil War . [ 8 ] 1649 – The Second Ormonde Peace creates an alliance between the Irish Royalists and Confederates during the War of the Three Kingdoms . The coalition was then decisively defeated during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland . [ 9 ] 1773 – Captain James Cook leads the first expedition to sail south of the Antarctic Circle . [ 10 ] 1781 – American Revolutionary War : Battle of Cowpens : Continental troops under Brigadier General Daniel Morgan defeat British forces under Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton at the battle in South Carolina . [ 11 ] 1799 – Maltese patriot Dun Mikiel Xerri , along with a number of other patriots, is executed. [ 12 ] 1811 – Mexican War of Independence : In the Battle of Calderón Bridge , a heavily outnumbered Spanish force of 6,000 troops defeats nearly 100,000 Mexican revolutionaries. [ 13 ] 1852 – The United Kingdom signs the Sand River Convention with the South African Republic . [ 14 ] 1873 – A group of Modoc warriors defeats the United States Army in the First Battle of the Stronghold , part of the Modoc War . [ 15 ] 1885 – A British force defeats a large Dervish army at the Battle of Abu Klea in the Sudan . [ 16 ] 1893 – Lorrin A. Thurston , along with the Citizens' Committee of Public Safety , led the Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and the government of Queen Liliʻuokalani . [ 17 ] 1899 – The United States takes possession of Wake Island in the Pacific Ocean. [ 18 ] 1901–present 1903 – El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico becomes part of the United States National Forest System as the Luquillo Forest Reserve. 1904 – Anton Chekhov 's The Cherry Orchard receives its premiere performance at the Moscow Art Theatre . [ 19 ] 1912 – British polar explorer Captain Robert Falcon Scott reaches the South Pole , one month after Roald Amundsen . 1915 – Russia defeats Ottoman Turkey in the Battle of Sarikamish during the Caucasus Campaign of World War I . 1917 – The United States pays Denmark $25 million for the Virgin Islands . [ 20 ] 1918 – Finnish Civil War : The first serious battles take place between the Red Guards and the White Guard . 1920 – Alcohol Prohibition begins in the United States as the Volstead Act goes into effect. [ 21 ] 1941 – Franco-Thai War : Vichy French forces inflict a decisive defeat over the Royal Thai Navy . 1943 – World War II : Greek submarine Papanikolis captures the 200-ton sailing vessel Agios Stefanos and mans her with part of her crew. 1944 – World War II: Allied forces launch the first of four assaults on Monte Cassino with the intention of breaking through the Winter Line and seizing Rome, an effort that would ultimately take four months and cost 105,000 Allied casualties. 1945 – World War II: The Vistula–Oder Offensive forces German troops out of Warsaw . 1945 – The SS-Totenkopfverbände begin the evacuation of the Auschwitz concentration camp as the Red Army closes in. 1945 – Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg is taken into Soviet custody while in Hungary; he is never publicly seen again. [ 22 ] 1946 – The UN Security Council holds its first session. 1948 – The Renville Agreement between the Netherlands and Indonesia is ratified. 1950 – The Great Brink's Robbery : Eleven thieves steal more than $2 million from an armored car company's offices in Boston . [ 23 ] 1950 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 79 relating to arms control is adopted. 1961 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower delivers a televised farewell address to the nation three days before leaving office, in which he warns against the accumulation of power by the " military–industrial complex " as well as the dangers of massive spending, especially deficit spending. 1961 – Former Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba is murdered together with former Minister of Youth and Sports of the Republic of the Congo Maurice Mpolo and former Senator from Kasai Province Joseph Okito in circumstances suggesting the support and complicity of the governments of Belgium and the United States. 1966 – Palomares incident : A B-52 bomber collides with a KC-135 Stratotanker over Spain, killing seven airmen, and dropping three 70-kiloton nuclear bombs near the town of Palomares and another one into the sea. 1969 – Black Panther Party members Bunchy Carter and John Huggins are killed during a meeting in Campbell Hall on the campus of UCLA . 1977 – Capital punishment in the United States resumes after a ten-year hiatus, as convicted murderer Gary Gilmore is executed by firing squad in Utah. 1981 – President of the Philippines Ferdinand Marcos lifts martial law eight years and five months after declaring it. 1991 – Gulf War : Operation Desert Storm begins early in the morning as aircraft strike positions across Iraq, it is also the first major combat sortie for the F-117 . LCDR Scott Speicher's F/A-18C Hornet from VFA-81 is shot down by a Mig-25 and is the first American casualty of the War. Iraq fires eight Scud missiles into Israel in an unsuccessful bid to provoke Israeli retaliation. 1991 – Crown Prince Harald of Norway becomes King Harald V , following the death of his father, King Olav V . 1992 – During a visit to South Korea, Japanese Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa apologizes for forcing Korean women into sexual slavery during World War II. 1994 – The 6.7 M w Northridge earthquake shakes the Greater Los Angeles Area with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX ( Violent ), leaving 57 people dead and more than 8,700 injured. 1995 – The 6.9 M w Great Hanshin earthquake shakes the southern Hyōgo Prefecture with a maximum Shindo of 7, leaving 5,502–6,434 people dead, and 251,301–310,000 displaced. 1996 – The Czech Republic applies for membership in the European Union . 1997 – Cape Canaveral Air Force Station : A Delta II carrying the GPS IIR-1 satellite explodes 13 seconds after launch, dropping 250 tons of burning rocket remains around the launch pad. 1998 – Clinton–Lewinsky scandal : Matt Drudge breaks the story of the Bill Clinton – Monica Lewinsky affair on his Drudge Report website. 2002 – Mount Nyiragongo erupts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo , displacing an estimated 400,000 people. 2007 – The Doomsday Clock is set to five minutes to midnight in response to North Korea 's nuclear testing. 2008 – British Airways Flight 38 crashes short of the runway at Heathrow Airport , injuring 47. [ 24 ] 2010 – Rioting begins between Muslim and Christian groups in Jos, Nigeria , results in at least 200 deaths. 2013 – Former cyclist Lance Armstrong confesses to his doping in an airing of Oprah's Next Chapter . [ 25 ] 2013 – Shahzad Luqman is murdered by members of Golden Dawn in Petralona , Athens , leading the creation of new measures to combat race-based attacks in Greece . [ 26 ] 2016 – President Barack Obama announces the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action , an agreement intended to limit Iran's nuclear program. [ 27 ] 2017 – The search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 is announced to be suspended. [ 28 ] 2023 – An avalanche strikes Nyingchi, Tibet , killing 28 people. [ 29 ] Births Pre-1600 1342 – Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (died 1404) 1429 – Antonio del Pollaiuolo , Italian artist (diedc. 1498 ) 1463 – Frederick III, Elector of Saxony (died 1525) 1463 – Antoine Duprat , French cardinal (died 1535) 1472 – Guidobaldo da Montefeltro , Italian captain (died 1508) 1484 – George Spalatin , German priest and reformer (died 1545) 1501 – Leonhart Fuchs , German physician and botanist (died 1566) 1504 – Pope Pius V (died 1572) [ 30 ] 1517 – Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk , English Duke (died 1554) 1560 – Gaspard Bauhin , Swiss botanist, physician, and academic (died 1624) 1574 – Robert Fludd , English physician, astrologer, and mathematician (died 1637) 1593 – William Backhouse , English alchemist and astrologer (died 1662) 1600 – Pedro Calderón de la Barca , Spanish playwright and poet (died 1681) 1601–1900 1612 – Thomas Fairfax , English general and politician (died 1671) 1640 – Jonathan Singletary Dunham , American settler (died 1724) 1659 – Antonio Veracini , Italian violinist and composer (died 1745) 1666 – Antonio Maria Valsalva , Italian anatomist and physician (died 1723) 1686 – Archibald Bower , Scottish historian and author (died 1766) 1693 – Melchor de Navarrete , Spanish colonial governor of Cartagena de Indias (Colombia, 1739 – 1742); of Spanish Florida (1749 – 1752); and of Yucatán (Mexico, 1754 – 1758) (died 1761) [ 31 ] 1706 – Benjamin Franklin , American publisher, inventor, and politician, 6th President of Pennsylvania (died 1790) 1712 – John Stanley , English organist and composer (died 1786) 1719 – William Vernon , American businessman (died 1806) 1728 – Johann Gottfried Müthel , German pianist and composer (died 1788) 1732 – Stanisław August Poniatowski , Polish-Lithuanian king (died 1798) 1734 – François-Joseph Gossec , French composer and conductor (died 1829) 1761 – Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet , Scottish geologist and geophysicist (died 1832) 1789 – August Neander , German historian and theologian (died 1850) 1793 – Antonio José Martínez , Spanish-American priest, rancher and politician (died 1867) 1814 – Ellen Wood , English author (died 1887) 1820 – Anne Brontë , English author and poet (died 1849) 1828 – Lewis A. Grant , American lawyer and general, Medal of Honor recipient (died 1918) 1828 – Ede Reményi , Hungarian violinist and composer (died 1898) 1832 – Henry Martyn Baird , American historian and academic (died 1906) 1834 – August Weismann , German biologist, zoologist, and geneticist (died 1914) 1850 – Joaquim Arcoverde de Albuquerque Cavalcanti , Brazilian cardinal (died 1930) 1850 – Alexander Taneyev , Russian pianist and composer (died 1918) 1851 – A. B. Frost , American author and illustrator (died 1928) 1853 – Alva Belmont , American suffragist (died 1933) [ 32 ] 1853 – T. Alexander Harrison , American painter and academic (died 1930) 1857 – Wilhelm Kienzl , Austrian pianist, composer, and conductor (died 1941) 1857 – Eugene Augustin Lauste , French-American engineer (died 1935) 1858 – Tomás Carrasquilla , Colombian author (died 1940) 1860 – Douglas Hyde , Irish academic and politician, 1st President of Ireland (died 1949) 1863 – David Lloyd George , Welsh lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (died 1945) 1863 – Konstantin Stanislavski , Russian actor and director (died 1938) 1865 – Sir Charles Fergusson, 7th Baronet , English general and politician, 3rd Governor-General of New Zealand (died 1951) 1867 – Carl Laemmle , German-born American film producer, co-founded Universal Studios (died 1939) 1867 – Sir Alfred Rawlinson, 3rd Baronet , English colonel, pilot, and polo player (died 1934) 1871 – David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty , English admiral (died 1936) 1871 – Nicolae Iorga , Romanian historian and politician, 34th Prime Minister of Romania (died 1940) 1875 – Florencio Sánchez , Uruguayan journalist and playwright (died 1910) 1876 – Frank Hague , American lawyer and politician, 30th Mayor of Jersey City (died 1956) 1877 – Marie Zdeňka Baborová-Čiháková , Czech botanist and zoologist (died 1937) [ 33 ] 1877 – May Gibbs , English-Australian author and illustrator (died 1969) 1880 – Mack Sennett , Canadian-American actor, director, and producer (died 1960) 1881 – Antoni Łomnicki , Polish mathematician and academic (died 1941) 1881 – Harry Price , English psychologist and author (died 1948) 1882 – Noah Beery, Sr. , American actor (died 1946) 1883 – Compton Mackenzie , English-Scottish author, poet, and playwright (died 1972) 1886 – Glenn L. Martin , American pilot and businessman, founded the Glenn L. Martin Company (died 1955) 1887 – Ola Raknes , Norwegian psychoanalyst and philologist (died 1975) 1888 – Babu Gulabrai , Indian philosopher and author (died 1963) 1897 – Marcel Petiot , French physician and serial killer (died 1946) 1898 – Lela Mevorah , Serbian librarian (died 1972) [ 34 ] 1899 – Al Capone , American mob boss (died 1947) 1899 – Robert Maynard Hutchins , American philosopher and academic (died 1977) 1899 – Nevil Shute , English engineer and author (died 1960) 1901–present 1901 – Aron Gurwitsch , Lithuanian-American philosopher and author (died 1973) 1904 – Hem Vejakorn , Thai painter and illustrator (died 1969) 1905 – Ray Cunningham , American baseball player (died 2005) 1905 – Peggy Gilbert , American saxophonist and bandleader (died 2007) 1905 – Eduard Oja , Estonian composer, conductor, educator, and critic (died 1950) 1905 – Guillermo Stábile , Argentinian footballer and manager (died 1966) 1905 – Jan Zahradníček , Czech poet and translator (died 1960) 1907 – Henk Badings , Indonesian-Dutch composer and engineer (died 1987) 1907 – Alfred Wainwright , British fellwalker, guidebook author and illustrator (died 1991) 1908 – Cus D'Amato , American boxing manager and trainer (died 1985) 1911 – Busher Jackson , Canadian ice hockey player (died 1966) 1911 – John S. McCain Jr. , American admiral (died 1981) 1911 – George Stigler , American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1991) 1914 – Anacleto Angelini , Italian-Chilean businessman (died 2007) 1914 – Irving Brecher , American director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2008) 1914 – Howard Marion-Crawford , English actor (died 1969) [ 35 ] 1914 – Paul Royle , Australian lieutenant and pilot (died 2015) 1914 – William Stafford , American poet and author (died 1993) 1916 – Peter Frelinghuysen Jr. , American lieutenant and politician (died 2011) 1917 – M. G. Ramachandran , Indian actor, director, and politician, 3rd Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (died 1987) 1918 – Keith Joseph , English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Education (died 1994) 1918 – George M. Leader , American soldier and politician, 36th Governor of Pennsylvania (died 2013) 1920 – Georges Pichard , French author and illustrator (died 2003) 1921 – Jackie Henderson , Scottish footballer (died 2005) [ 36 ] 1921 – Asghar Khan , Pakistani general and politician (died 2018) 1921 – Charlie Mitten , English footballer and manager (died 2002) [ 37 ] 1921 – Antonio Prohías , Cuban cartoonist (died 1998) 1922 – Luis Echeverría , Mexican academic and politician, 50th President of Mexico (died 2022) [ 38 ] 1922 – Nicholas Katzenbach , American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 65th United States Attorney General (died 2012) 1922 – Betty White , American actress, game show panelist, television personality, and animal rights activist (died 2021) [ 39 ] 1923 – Rangeya Raghav , Indian author and playwright (died 1962) 1924 – Rik De Saedeleer , Belgian footballer and journalist (died 2013) 1924 – Jewel Plummer Cobb , American biologist, cancer researcher, and academic (died 2017) 1925 – Gunnar Birkerts , Latvian-American architect (died 2017) 1925 – Robert Cormier , American author and journalist (died 2000) 1925 – Abdul Hafeez Kardar , Pakistani cricketer and author (died 1996) 1926 – Newton N. Minow , American lawyer and politician (died 2023) [ 40 ] 1926 – Moira Shearer , Scottish-English ballerina and actress (died 2006) 1926 – Clyde Walcott , Barbadian cricketer (died 2006) 1927 – Thomas Anthony Dooley III , American physician and humanitarian (died 1961) 1927 – Eartha Kitt , American actress and singer (died 2008) [ 41 ] 1927 – Harlan Mathews , American lawyer and politician (died 2014) 1927 – E. W. Swackhamer , American director and producer (died 1994) 1928 – Jean Barraqué , French composer (died 1973) 1928 – Vidal Sassoon , English-American hairdresser and businessman (died 2012) [ 42 ] 1929 – Philip Latham , British actor (died 2020) [ 43 ] 1929 – Jacques Plante , Canadian-Swiss ice hockey player, coach, and sportscaster (died 1986) 1929 – Tan Boon Teik , Malaysian-Singaporean lawyer and politician, Attorney-General of Singapore (died 2012) 1931 – James Earl Jones , American actor (died 2024) [ 44 ] 1931 – Douglas Wilder , American sergeant and politician, 66th Governor of Virginia [ 42 ] 1931 – Don Zimmer , American baseball player, coach, and manager (died 2014) 1932 – John Cater , English actor (died 2009) [ 45 ] 1932 – Sheree North , American actress and dancer (died 2005) [ 46 ] 1933 – Dalida , Egyptian-French singer and actress (died 1987) 1933 – Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan , French-Pakistani diplomat, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (died 2003) 1933 – Shari Lewis , American actress, puppeteer/ventriloquist, and television host (died 1998) [ 42 ] 1934 – Donald Cammell , Scottish-American director and screenwriter (died 1996) [ 47 ] 1935 – Ruth Ann Minner , American businesswoman and politician, 72nd Governor of Delaware (died 2021) 1936 – John Boyd , English academic and diplomat, British ambassador to Japan (died 2019) 1936 – A. Thangathurai , Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (died 1997) 1937 – Alain Badiou , French philosopher and academic 1938 – John Bellairs , American author and academic (died 1991) 1938 – Toini Gustafsson , Swedish cross country skier 1939 – Christodoulos of Athens , Greek archbishop (died 2008) 1939 – Maury Povich , American talk show host and producer [ 48 ] 1940 – Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni , Egyptian-Armenian patriarch (died 2015) 1940 – Kipchoge Keino , Kenyan athlete [ 42 ] 1940 – Tabaré Vázquez , Uruguayan physician and politician, 39th President of Uruguay (died 2020) 1941 – István Horthy, Jr. , Hungarian physicist and architect 1942 – Muhammad Ali , American boxer and activist (died 2016) [ 49 ] 1942 – Ita Buttrose , Australian journalist and author 1942 – Ulf Hoelscher , German violinist and educator 1942 – Nigel McCulloch , English bishop 1943 – Chris Montez , American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1943 – René Préval , Haitian agronomist and politician, 52nd President of Haiti (died 2017) 1944 – Ann Oakley , English sociologist, author, and academic 1945 – Javed Akhtar , Indian poet, playwright, and composer 1945 – Anne Cutler , Australian psychologist and academic (died 2022) 1947 – Joanna David , English actress [ 48 ] 1947 – Jane Elliot , American actress [ 48 ] 1948 – Davíð Oddsson , Icelandic politician, 21st Prime Minister of Iceland 1949 – Anita Borg , American computer scientist and academic (died 2003) 1949 – Gyude Bryant , Liberian businessman and politician (died 2014) 1949 – Augustin Dumay , French violinist and conductor 1949 – Andy Kaufman , American actor and comedian (died 1984) [ 42 ] 1949 – Mick Taylor , English singer-songwriter and guitarist [ 42 ] 1950 – Luis López Nieves , Puerto Rican-American author and academic 1952 – Tom Deitz , American author (died 2009) [ 50 ] 1952 – Darrell Porter , American baseball player and sportscaster (died 2002) 1952 – Ryuichi Sakamoto , Japanese pianist, composer, and producer (died 2023) [ 51 ] 1953 – Jeff Berlin , American bass player and educator 1953 – Carlos Johnson , American singer and guitarist 1954 – Robert F. Kennedy, Jr. , American environmental lawyer, writer, and conspiracy theorist 1955 – Steve Earle , American singer-songwriter, musician, record producer, author and actor [ 48 ] 1955 – Pietro Parolin , Italian cardinal 1955 – Steve Javie , American basketball player and referee 1956 – Damian Green , English journalist and politician 1956 – Paul Young , English singer-songwriter and guitarist [ 48 ] 1957 – Steve Harvey , American actor, comedian, television personality and game show host [ 52 ] 1957 – Ann Nocenti , American journalist and author 1958 – Tony Kouzarides , English biologist, cancer researcher 1959 – Susanna Hoffs , American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress [ 48 ] 1960 – John Crawford , American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1960 – Chili Davis , Jamaican-American baseball player and coach 1961 – Brian Helgeland , American director, producer, and screenwriter [ 48 ] 1962 – Jun Azumi , Japanese broadcaster and politician, 46th Japanese Minister of Finance 1962 – Jim Carrey , Canadian-American actor, comedian, and producer [ 48 ] 1962 – Sebastian Junger , American journalist and author [ 42 ] 1962 – Denis O'Hare , American actor and singer [ 48 ] 1963 – Colin Gordon , English footballer, agent, manager and chief executive [ 53 ] 1963 – Kai Hansen , German singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1964 – Michelle Obama , American lawyer and activist, 44th First Lady of the United States [ 48 ] 1964 – John Schuster , Samoan-New Zealand rugby player 1965 – Sylvain Turgeon , Canadian ice hockey player 1966 – Trish Johnson , English golfer 1966 – Joshua Malina , American actor [ 48 ] 1966 – Shabba Ranks , Jamaican rapper, musician, and songwriter [ 48 ] 1967 – Richard Hawley , English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1968 – Rowan Pelling , English journalist and author 1968 – Ilja Leonard Pfeijffer , Dutch author, poet, and scholar 1969 – Naveen Andrews , English actor [ 48 ] 1969 – Lukas Moodysson , Swedish director, screenwriter, and author 1969 – Tiësto , Dutch DJ and producer [ 48 ] 1970 – Cássio Alves de Barros , Brazilian footballer 1970 – Jeremy Roenick , American ice hockey player and actor 1970 – Genndy Tartakovsky , Russian-American animator, director, and producer [ 54 ] 1971 – Giorgos Balogiannis , Greek basketball player 1971 – Richard Burns , English race car driver (died 2005) 1971 – Kid Rock , American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor [ 48 ] 1971 – Sylvie Testud , French actress, director, and screenwriter 1973 – Cuauhtémoc Blanco , Mexican footballer and actor 1973 – Chris Bowen , Australian politician, 37th Treasurer of Australia 1973 – Liz Ellis , Australian netball player and sportscaster 1973 – Aaron Ward , Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1974 – Yang Chen , Chinese footballer and manager 1974 – Vesko Kountchev , Bulgarian viola player, composer, and producer 1974 – Derrick Mason , American football player 1975 – Freddy Rodriguez , American actor [ 48 ] 1977 – Leigh Whannell , Australian actor, director, screenwriter, and producer [ 48 ] 1978 – Lisa Llorens , Australian Paralympian [ 55 ] 1978 – Ricky Wilson , English singer-songwriter 1980 – Maksim Chmerkovskiy , Ukrainian-American dancer and choreographer [ 42 ] 1980 – Zooey Deschanel , American singer-songwriter and actress [ 48 ] 1980 – Modestas Stonys , Lithuanian footballer 1981 – Warren Feeney , Northern Irish footballer and manager 1981 – Ray J , American singer, actor, and television personality [ 56 ] 1981 – Michael Zigomanis , Canadian ice hockey player [ 57 ] 1982 – Dwyane Wade , American basketball player [ 42 ] 1982 – Andrew Webster , Australian rugby league player and coach [ 58 ] 1982 – Amanda Wilkinson , Canadian singer [ 48 ] 1983 – Álvaro Arbeloa , Spanish footballer 1983 – Ryan Gage , English actor [ 48 ] 1983 – Johannes Herber , German basketball player 1983 – Rick Kelly , Australian race car driver 1983 – Marcelo Garcia , Brazilian martial artist 1984 – Calvin Harris , Scottish singer-songwriter, DJ, and producer [ 48 ] 1984 – Dexter Lumis , American wrestler [ 59 ] 1985 – Pablo Barrientos , Argentinian footballer 1985 – Simone Simons , Dutch singer-songwriter 1986 – Viktor Stålberg , Swedish ice hockey player [ 60 ] 1987 – Cody Decker , American baseball player 1987 – Oleksandr Usyk , Ukrainian boxer [ 61 ] 1988 – Andrea Antonelli , Italian motorcycle racer (died 2013) 1988 – Earl Clark , American basketball player [ 62 ] 1988 – Will Genia , Australian rugby player 1988 – Jonathan Keltz , American actor [ 48 ] 1988 – Héctor Moreno , Mexican footballer 1989 – Taylor Jordan , American baseball player 1989 – Kelly Marie Tran , American actress [ 48 ] 1990 – Santiago Tréllez , Colombian footballer 1990 – Tyler Zeller , American basketball player [ 63 ] 1991 – Trevor Bauer , American baseball player 1991 – Willa Fitzgerald , American actress [ 42 ] 1991 – Esapekka Lappi , Finnish rally driver 1991 – Alise Post , American BMX rider 1992 – Stanislav Galiev , Russian ice hockey player [ 64 ] 1994 – Lucy Boynton , American-English actress [ 42 ] 1994 – Mark Steketee , Australian cricketer 1995 – Indya Moore , American actor and model [ 65 ] 1996 – Allonzo Trier , American basketball player [ 66 ] 1997 – Jake Paul , American boxer, actor, rapper, and social media personality [ 67 ] 1997 – Kyle Tucker , American baseball player [ 68 ] 1998 – Sophie Molineux , Australian cricketer 1998 – Jeff Reine-Adélaïde , French footballer 1999 – Isa Briones , American actor and singer [ 69 ] 2000 – Kang Chan-hee , South Korean singer and actor [ 70 ] 2000 – Devlin DeFrancesco , Canadian race car driver [ 71 ] 2000 – Ayo Dosunmu , American basketball player [ 72 ] 2001 – Enzo Fernández , Argentinian footballer [ 73 ] 2002 – Samuel , American singer based in South Korea. [ 74 ] 2003 – Robin Roefs , Dutch footballer [ 75 ] 2005 – Peio Canales , Spanish footballer [ 76 ] Deaths Pre-1600 395 – Theodosius I , Roman emperor (born 347) 644 – Sulpitius the Pious , French bishop and saint 764 – Joseph of Freising , German bishop 1040 – Mas'ud I of Ghazni , Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire (born 998) 1156 – André de Montbard , fifth Grand Master of the Knights Templar 1168 – Thierry, Count of Flanders (born 1099) 1229 – Albert of Riga , German bishop (born 1165) 1329 – Roseline of Villeneuve , Carthusian nun (born 1263) 1334 – John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond (born 1266) 1345 – Henry of Asti , Greek patriarch 1345 – Martino Zaccaria , Genoese Lord of Chios 1369 – Peter I of Cyprus (born 1328) 1456 – Elisabeth of Lorraine-Vaudémont , French translator (born 1395) 1468 – Skanderbeg , Albanian soldier and politician (born 1405) 1523 – Elisabeth of Hesse-Marburg , German landgravine (born 1466) [ 77 ] [ 78 ] 1588 – Qi Jiguang , Chinese general (born 1528) 1598 – Feodor I of Russia (born 1557) 1601–1900 1617 – Fausto Veranzio , Croatian bishop and lexicographer (born 1551) 1705 – John Ray , English botanist and historian (born 1627) 1718 – Benjamin Church , American colonel (born 1639) 1737 – Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann , German architect (born 1662) 1738 – Jean-François Dandrieu , French organist and composer (born 1682) 1751 – Tomaso Albinoni , Italian violinist and composer (born 1671) 1826 – Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga , Spanish-French composer (born 1806) 1834 – Giovanni Aldini , Italian physicist and academic (born 1762) 1850 – Elizabeth Simcoe , English-Canadian painter and author (born 1762) [ 79 ] 1861 – Lola Montez , Irish actress and dancer (born 1821) 1863 – Horace Vernet , French painter (born 1789) 1869 – Alexander Dargomyzhsky , Russian composer (born 1813) 1878 – Edward Shepherd Creasy , English historian and jurist (born 1812) 1884 – Hermann Schlegel , German ornithologist and herpetologist (born 1804) 1887 – William Giblin , Australian lawyer and politician, 13th Premier of Tasmania (born 1840) 1888 – Big Bear , Canadian tribal chief (born 1825) 1891 – George Bancroft , American historian and politician, 17th United States Secretary of the Navy (born 1800) 1893 – Rutherford B. Hayes , American general, lawyer, and politician, 19th President of the United States (born 1822) 1896 – Augusta Hall, Baroness Llanover , Welsh writer and patron of the arts (born 1802) [ 80 ] 1901–present 1903 – Ignaz Wechselmann , Hungarian architect and philanthropist (born 1828) 1908 – Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of Tuscany (born 1835) 1909 – Agathon Meurman , Finnish politician and journalist (born 1826) [ 81 ] 1909 – Francis Smith , Australian lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th Premier of Tasmania (born 1819) 1911 – Francis Galton , English polymath, anthropologist, and geographer (born 1822) 1927 – Juliette Gordon Low , American founder of the Girl Scouts of the USA (born 1860) 1930 – Gauhar Jaan , One of the first performers to record music on 78 rpm records in India. (born 1873) 1931 – Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich of Russia (born 1864) 1932 – Ahmet Derviş , Turkish general (born 1881) 1932 – Albert Jacka , Australian captain, Victoria Cross recipient (born 1893) 1933 – Louis Comfort Tiffany , American stained glass artist (born 1848) 1936 – Mateiu Caragiale , Romanian journalist, author, and poet (born 1885) 1942 – Walther von Reichenau , German field marshal (born 1884) 1947 – Pyotr Krasnov , Russian historian and general (born 1869) 1947 – Jean-Marie-Rodrigue Villeneuve , Canadian cardinal (born 1883) 1951 – Jyoti Prasad Agarwala , Indian poet, playwright, and director (born 1903) 1952 – Walter Briggs Sr. , American businessman (born 1877) 1961 – Patrice Lumumba , Congolese politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (born 1925) 1970 – Simon Kovar , Russian-American bassoon player and educator (born 1890) 1970 – Billy Stewart , American rhythm and blues singer and pianist (born 1937) 1972 – Betty Smith , American author and playwright (born 1896) 1977 – Dougal Haston , Scottish mountaineer (born 1940) 1977 – Gary Gilmore , American murderer (born 1940) 1981 – Loukas Panourgias , Greek footballer and lawyer (born 1899) 1984 – Kostas Giannidis , Greek pianist, composer, and conductor (born 1903) 1987 – Hugo Fregonese , Argentinian director and screenwriter (born 1908) 1987 – Lawrence Kohlberg , American psychologist and author (born 1927) [ 82 ] 1988 – Percy Qoboza , South African journalist and author (born 1938) 1990 – Panka Pelishek , Bulgarian pianist and music teacher (born 1899) [ 83 ] 1991 – Olav V of Norway (born 1903) 1992 – Frank Pullen , English soldier and businessman (born 1915) 1993 – Albert Hourani , English-Lebanese historian and academic (born 1915) 1994 – Yevgeni Ivanov , Russian spy (born 1926) 1994 – Helen Stephens , American runner, shot putter, and discus thrower (born 1918) 1996 – Barbara Jordan , American lawyer and politician (born 1936) 1996 – Sylvia Lawler , English geneticist (born 1922) 1997 – Bert Kelly , Australian farmer and politician, 20th Australian Minister for the Navy (born 1912) 1997 – Clyde Tombaugh , American astronomer and academic, discovered Pluto (born 1906) 2000 – Philip Jones , English trumpet player and educator (born 1928) 2000 – Ion Rațiu , Romanian journalist and politician (born 1917) 2002 – Camilo José Cela , Spanish author and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1916) 2002 – Roman Personov , Russian physicist and academic (born 1932) 2003 – Richard Crenna , American actor and director (born 1926) 2004 – Raymond Bonham Carter , English banker (born 1929) 2004 – Harry Brecheen , American baseball player and coach (born 1914) 2004 – Ray Stark , American film producer (born 1915) 2004 – Noble Willingham , American actor (born 1931) 2005 – Charlie Bell , Australian businessman (born 1960) 2005 – Virginia Mayo , American actress, singer, and dancer (born 1920) 2005 – Albert Schatz , American microbiologist and academic (born 1920) 2005 – Zhao Ziyang , Chinese politician, 3rd Premier of the People's Republic of China (born 1919) 2006 – Pierre Grondin , Canadian surgeon (born 1925) 2007 – Art Buchwald , American journalist and author (born 1925) 2007 – Yevhen Kushnaryov , Ukrainian engineer and politician (born 1951) 2007 – Uwe Nettelbeck , German record producer, journalist and film critic (born 1940) [ 84 ] 2008 – Bobby Fischer , American chess player and author (born 1943) [ 85 ] 2008 – Ernie Holmes , American football player, wrestler, and actor (born 1948) 2009 – Anders Isaksson , Swedish journalist and historian (born 1943) 2010 – Gaines Adams , American football player (born 1983) 2010 – Jyoti Basu , Indian politician and 9th Chief Minister of West Bengal (born 1914) 2010 – Michalis Papakonstantinou , Greek journalist and politician, Foreign Minister of Greece (born 1919) 2010 – Erich Segal , American author and screenwriter (born 1937) 2011 – Don Kirshner , American songwriter and producer (born 1934) 2012 – Julius Meimberg , German soldier and pilot (born 1917) 2012 – Johnny Otis , American singer-songwriter and producer (born 1921) 2012 – Marty Springstead , American baseball player and umpire (born 1937) 2013 – Mehmet Ali Birand , Turkish journalist and author (born 1941) 2013 – Jakob Arjouni , German author (born 1964) 2013 – Yves Debay , Belgian journalist (born 1954) 2013 – John Nkomo , Zimbabwean politician, Vice President of Zimbabwe (born 1934) 2013 – Lizbeth Webb , English soprano and actress (born 1926) 2014 – Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin , Indian spiritual leader, 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq (born 1915) 2014 – Francine Lalonde , Canadian educator and politician (born 1940) 2014 – Alistair McAlpine, Baron McAlpine of West Green , English businessman and politician (born 1942) 2014 – John J. McGinty III , American captain, Medal of Honor recipient (born 1940) 2014 – Sunanda Pushkar , Indian-Canadian businesswoman (born 1962) 2014 – Suchitra Sen , Indian film actress (born 1931) [ 86 ] 2015 – Ken Furphy , English footballer and manager (born 1931) 2015 – Faten Hamama , Egyptian actress and producer (born 1931) 2015 – Don Harron , Canadian actor and screenwriter (born 1924) 2016 – Blowfly , American singer-songwriter and producer (born 1939) 2016 – Melvin Day , New Zealand painter and historian (born 1923) 2016 – V. Rama Rao , Indian lawyer and politician, 12th Governor of Sikkim (born 1935) 2016 – Sudhindra Thirtha , Indian religious leader (born 1926) 2017 – Tirrel Burton , American football player and coach (born 1929) 2017 – Colo , American western lowland gorilla , first gorilla born in captivity and oldest recorded (born 1956) [ 87 ] [ 88 ] 2019 – S. Balakrishnan , Malayalam movie composer (born 1948) [ 89 ] 2020 – Derek Fowlds , British actor (born1937) [ 90 ] 2021 – Rasheed Naz , Pakistani film and television actor (born 1948) [ 91 ] 2022 – Birju Maharaj , Indian dancer (born 1937) [ 92 ] 2023 – Lucile Randon , French supercentenarian (born 1904) [ 93 ] 2025 – Didier Guillaume , French politician, 25th Minister of State of Monaco (born 1959) [ 94 ] 2025 – Jules Feiffer , American cartoonist, playwright, screenwriter, and educator (born 1929) [ 95 ] 2025 – Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat , Mongolian politician, 1st President of Mongolia (born 1942) [ 96 ] 2025 – Denis Law , Scottish footballer (born 1940) [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Holidays and observances Christian feast day : Anthony the Great Blessed Angelo Paoli Blessed Gamelbert of Michaelsbuch Charles Gore ( Church of England ) Jenaro Sánchez Delgadillo (one of Saints of the Cristero War ) Mildgyth Our Lady of Pontmain Sulpitius the Pious January 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Anthony the Great Blessed Angelo Paoli Blessed Gamelbert of Michaelsbuch Charles Gore ( Church of England ) Jenaro Sánchez Delgadillo (one of Saints of the Cristero War ) Mildgyth Our Lady of Pontmain Sulpitius the Pious January 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) National Day ( Menorca , Spain ) The opening ceremony of Patras Carnival , celebrated until Clean Monday . ( Patras , Greece ) References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Anthony A. 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Retrieved June 20, 2023 . ^ "Noted music composer S Balakrishnan passes away" . Mathrubhumi . Archived from the original on 2019-01-19 . Retrieved 2019-01-17 . ^ Louise Randell. "Yes Minister and Heartbeat star Derek Fowlds dead at 82" . MSN . Retrieved 2020-01-18 . ^ "Veteran actor Rashid Naz passes away at 73" . Images . 2022-01-17 . Retrieved 2025-08-07 . ^ "Leading Indian dancer Birju Maharaj dies" . Reuters . 2022-01-17 . Retrieved 2022-01-18 . ^ "The world's oldest known person, French nun Lucile Randon, dead at 118" . France 24 . 2023-01-17 . Retrieved 2023-03-05 . ^ Beaudet, Florence (January 17, 2025). "Drôme : Didier Guillaume, ancien président du département et ancien ministre de l'Agriculture, est mort" . France Bleu (in French) . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . ^ Webster, Andy (January 21, 2025). "Jules Feiffer, Acerbic Cartoonist, Writer and Much Else, Dies at 95" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved January 21, 2025 . ^ "Mongolian ex-president passes away" . XinhauNet . January 18, 2025 . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . ^ "Denis Law obituary" . The Guardian, UK . January 19, 2025 . Retrieved January 19, 2025 . ^ "Man Utd and Scotland legend Law dies aged 84" . BBC Sport . January 17, 2025 . Retrieved January 24, 2025 . External links BBC: On This Day The New York Times : On This Day Historical Events on January 17 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Months and days of the year v t e Today: January 16 , 2026 [refresh] January 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 February 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 March 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 April 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 May 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 June 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 July 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 August 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 September 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 October 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 November 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 December 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Related: List of non-standard dates Related: List of non-standard dates Days of January CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 Czech-language sources (cs) CS1 Korean-language sources (ko) CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles using Mw magnitude scale Commons link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 03:25 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Dimensions and planes of existence Toggle Dimensions and planes of existence subsection 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 2 Theoretical joint points Toggle Theoretical joint points subsection 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 3 The "problem of psychology" Toggle The "problem of psychology" subsection 3.1 Solution 3.1 Solution 4 Consciousness and human behavior 5 Toward the integration of human knowledge 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Tree of knowledge system العربية Español فارسی Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these messages ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The tree of knowledge ( ToK ) system is a new [ when? ] map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques , who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University . [ 1 ] The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [ 2 ] [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in Review of General Psychology . [ 3 ] Two special issues of the Journal of Clinical Psychology in December 2004 [ 4 ] and January 2005 [ 5 ] were devoted to the elaboration and evaluation of the model. In 2008, a special issue of Theory & Psychology [ 6 ] was devoted to the ToK System. In 2011, Henriques published A New Unified Theory of Psychology . That same year he also launched the blog Theory of Knowledge: A Unified Approach to Psychology and Philosophy on Psychology Today , which remains active. There is also a Theory Of Knowledge Society and discussion listserve that is devoted to discussing Henriques' work and other big picture viewpoints. In some ways, the ToK System reflects a fairly common hierarchy of nature and of the sciences that has been represented in one way or another since the time of Auguste Comte , who in the 19th century used a hierarchical conception of nature to argue for the existence of sociology. It also has clear parallels with Aristotle's conception of the scales of nature and the first four levels of the Great Chain of Being . Despite some overlap with a number of traditional schemes, the ToK System is properly thought of as a new theory of both ontic reality and our scientific knowledge of that reality. One of the most important and salient features of the Tree of Knowledge is how it represents reality as consisting of four different planes of existence. The theory is that, following Matter, Life, Mind and Culture each represent complex adaptive landscapes that are organized and mediated by novel emergent information processing and communication systems. Specifically, DNA/RNA store information that is processed by cells which then engage in intercellular communication to create the plane of existence called Life. Similarly, the brain and nervous system store and process information in animals which then engage in communication networks on the complex adaptive plane called Mind. Finally, linguistic storage and processing and communication between human beings generates the emergence of the Culture-Person plane of existence. The separable planes of existence or dimension of complexity argument is one of the most crucial aspects of the system. Many have argued nature is hierarchically leveled; for example, a list of such levels might be subatomic particles , atoms , molecules , cells , organ structures, multi-celled organisms, consciousness , and society is common. The ToK System embraces a view of nature as levels, but adds the notion that there are also separable dimensions of complexity . The difference becomes particularly clear in the extension of the ToK System into the Periodic Table of Behavior . The Periodic Table of Behavior (PTB) shows that natural science can be arranged in terms of the four fundamental dimensions (i.e., matter, life, mind, and culture) and three fundamental levels of analysis (i.e., part, whole, group). The PTB also demonstrates that behavior is a central concept in science. Epistemologically, natural scientists view the world via a third person behavioral lens. Ontologically, science is about mapping different kinds of behaviors that take place in nature at various levels and dimensions of analysis. The second central insight of the ToK System is that it shows how natural science is a particular kind of justification system that emerges out of Culture based on novel methods and specific epistemological commitments and assumptions (i.e., an exterior view point, quantification and experimentation). This epistemology and methodology functions to justify scientific ontology, which in turn maps the ontic reality. Specifically, the domains of the physical, biological, (basic) psychological and social sciences map the ontic dimensions of matter, life, mind and culture. The Periodic Table of Behavior further shows how science is a justification system that is arranged to map behavioral frequencies at different dimensions of complexity and levels of analysis. Dimensions and planes of existence This section relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. ( April 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Matter/Object — Physical sciences The dimension of matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with modern cosmology , matter is theorized to have emerged from a pure energy singularity at the Big Bang . Space and time were also born at such a point. Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics , chemistry , geology, astronomy ) describe the behavior of material objects. [ 3 ] Life/Organism — Biological sciences The dimension of life refers to organisms and their behaviors through time. Living objects are considered a unique subset of material objects. Just as quantum particles form the fundamental units of material complexity, genes are the fundamental units of living information. Although many questions about the emergence of life remain unanswered, in accordance with modern biology, the ToK posits that natural selection operating on genetic combinations through time is the unified theory of biology and forms the foundational understanding for the emergence of organic complexity. [ 3 ] Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition , in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science . [ 3 ] Henriques argues that comparative psychology , ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. Culture/Person — Human social sciences Culture in the ToK system refers to the set of sociolinguistic behaviors, which range from large scale nation states to individual human justifications for particular actions. Just as genetic information processing is associated with the Life dimension and neuronal information processing associated with the Mind dimension, symbolic information processing emerges with the Cultural dimension. [ 3 ] Henriques argues that human cognitive science, human psychology and the social sciences (i.e., anthropology, sociology, political science, and economics) work to map this domain. Theoretical joint points Quantum gravity Quantum gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science which are quantum mechanics , the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general relativity , the science of the macroscopic (e.g., galaxies ). Currently, these two great domains of science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything , yet progress is being made, most notably through string theory , loop quantum gravity , black hole thermodynamics and the study of the early universe. Some of the difficulties combining these two pillars of physical science are philosophical in nature and it is possible that the macro view of knowledge offered by the ToK may eventually aid in the construction of a coherent theory of quantum gravity. The reason the ToK might help is that it locates scientific knowledge in relationship to the physical universe. The modern synthesis The modern synthesis refers to the merger of genetics with natural selection which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s and offers a reasonably complete framework for understanding the emergence of biological complexity. Although there remain significant gaps in biological knowledge surrounding questions such as the origin of life and the emergence of sexual reproduction, the modern synthesis represents the most complete and well-substantiated joint point. Behavioral investment theory Behavioral investment theory (BIT) is a metatheoretical formulation for the mind, brain and animal behavioral sciences. Henriques proposes that it enables the merger of the selection science of behaviorism with the information science of cognitive neuroscience that has conceptual parallels with the modern synthesis. BIT posits that the nervous system evolved as an increasingly flexible computational control system that coordinates the behavioral expenditure of energy of the animal as a whole. Expenditure of behavioral energy is theorized to be computed on an investment value system built evolutionarily through natural selection operating on genetic combinations and ontogenetically through behavioral selection operating on neural combinations. As such, the current behavioral investments of the animal are conceptualized as the joint product of the two vectors of phylogeny and ontogeny . A unique element of BIT is that it finds a core of agreement and builds bridges between five brain-behavior paradigms: (1) cognitive science ; (2) behavioral science ; (3) evolutionary theory and genetics; (4) neuroscience; and (5) cybernetics / systems theory . David C. Geary noted the similarities between his "motive-to-control" hypothesis and Henriques' Behavioral Investment Theory, which were developed independently of each other. Furthermore, Geary suggested that his model "seem[ed] to fill in many of the proximate mechanisms and evolutionary pressures that define the life-mind joint point, and provided a framework for further development of the mind-culture joint point." [ 7 ] Justification systems theory The justification systems theory (JUST; formerly known as the justification hypothesis) posits that the evolution of language reached a tipping point with emergence of propositional claims. Specifically, propositional claims can be questioned, which generates the "question-answer" dynamic. This creates the problem of justification, which Henriques argues drives both the design of the human self-consciousness system as a mental organ of justification and gives rise to the evolution of the Culture-Person plane of existence. JUST is a novel proposal that allows for both the understanding of the evolution of culture and for identifying what makes humans distinct animals. A basic initial claim of JUST is that the process of justification is a crucial component of human mental behavior at both the individual and societal level. Unlike all other animals, humans everywhere ask for and give explanations for their actions. Arguments, debates, moral dictates, rationalizations, and excuses all involve the process of explaining why one's claims, thoughts or actions are warranted. In virtually every form of social exchange, from warfare to politics to family struggles to science, humans are constantly justifying their behavioral investments to themselves and others. JUST consists of three key postulates: The first is that the evolution of propositional language must have created the problem of justification, which involves three interlocking problems of deciphering what is (1) analytically true and what is (2) good for the group and (3) good for the individual. The second postulate is that the structure and functional design of human consciousness can be understood as a solution to the problem of justification. Specifically, the three domains of human consciousness that Henriques identifies in the Updated Tripartite Model of the (1) experiential; (2) private narrator; and (3) public narrator are directly consistent with adaptive pressures that arise from the logic of the problem of justification. This analysis deepens when one considers the dynamic relationships and filtering that takes place between these three domains. The third postulate is that culture can be understood as large scale justification systems that coordinate the behavior of human populations. Cultural systems are seen to evolve much in the same way as organisms do in biological evolution: there is a process of variation, selection and retention of belief systems. The "problem of psychology" The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework . The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are ignorant of different approaches. In most cases, individual psychologists have to determine for themselves which elements of which perspective to apply, and how to integrate them into their overall understanding. Henriques argues that the problem of psychology is a central feature of modern knowledge systems. In A New Unified Theory of Psychology , he described it as follows: The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The reason for psychology's fragmentation, according to the ToK System, is that there has been no meta-theoretical frame that allows scholars to agree on the basic questions that need to be addressed. As such, the different schools of thought in psychology are like the blind men who each grab a part of the elephant and proclaim they have discovered its true nature. With its novel depiction of evolving dimensions of complexity, the ToK allows scholars finally to see the elephant. In his 2003 Review of General Psychology paper, [ 8 ] Henriques used the ToK System with the attempt to clarify and align the views of B.F. Skinner and Sigmund Freud . These luminaries were chosen because when one considers their influence and historical opposition, it can readily be argued that they represent two schools of thought that are the most difficult to integrate. Henriques used the meta-perspective offered by the ToK to argue how one can retain the key insights from each school of thought, identify errors and points of confusion, and integrate the insights into a coherent whole. Cultural and personality psychologist, Michael Katzko, [ 10 ] however critiques Henriques' position on "the problem of psychology": There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] Solution The problem of psychology, according to the ToK, is its conceptual incoherence, which Henriques identifies by the following: When the various conceptions of psychology (e.g., behavioral, humanistic, cognitive) are viewed through the lens of the ToK System, psychology spans two different dimensions of complexity: the mental and the cultural. In other words, the discipline has historically spanned two fundamentally separate problems: If, as previously thought, nature simply consisted of levels of complexity, psychology would not be crisply defined in relationship to biology or the social sciences. And, indeed, it is frequently suggested that psychology exists in an amorphous space between biology and the social sciences. However, with its dimension of complexity depiction, the ToK System suggests that psychology can be crisply defined as the science of mind, which is the third dimension of complexity. Furthermore, because human behavior exists in the fourth dimension, psychology must be divided into two broad scientific domains of Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). [ 9 ] Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] In a similar vein, Scott O. Lilienfeld, who described Henriques' effort as "thoughtful", contended that psychology is "an inherently fuzzy concept that resists precise definition" and that "attempts to define psychology [would be] likely to hamper rather than foster consilience across disciplines". Lilienfield went on further to suggest that the scientist-practitioner gap in psychology lies not in definitional issues, but in different "epistemic attitudes" between these two groups. He stated that scientists have an epistemic attitude of empiricism , (where questions regarding human nature are settled by scientific evidence), and that practitioners have an epistemic attitude of romanticism , (where questions of human nature are settled by intuition). Lilienfeld suggested that the solution to the scientist-practitioner gulf isn't definitional, but in "train[ing] future clinical scientists to appreciate the proper places of romanticism and empiricism within science". [ 13 ] Consciousness and human behavior A frequent question and point of confusion in the ToK System is the definition and meaning of consciousness . As mentioned above, mind is not synonymous with consciousness. And, to understand consciousness from a ToK vantage point, it is crucial to recognize that the term is often ambiguous in its meaning. Two primary meanings are sentience , which is the capacity for mental experience and self-awareness , which is the capacity to be aware of one's awareness. Sentience is conceptualized as a "level 3" phenomenon, possessed by many animals other than humans and is defined as a "perceived" electro-neuro-chemical representation of animal-environment relations. The ingredient of neurological behavior that allows for the emergence of mental experience is considered the "hard" problem of consciousness and the ToK System does not address this question explicitly. In contrast, through the Justification Hypothesis (see below), the ToK System involves a very direct analysis of the other issue of consciousness, that of self-awareness . Another frequent question that is raised is "Where does individual human behavior fall on the ToK?" To analyze human behavior from the context of the ToK, one uses the ToK like a prism to separate the dimensions of behavior into physiochemical, biogenetic, neuropsychological and sociolinguistic. Thus if we imagine a conversation between a husband and wife as follows: Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” The words represent the sociolinguistic dimension and are understood as a function of justification. Justification systems are seen both at the level of individual, micro-social and societal (i.e., the context of justification in which men work and women stay at home). The actions of the husband and wife in terms of facial expression , body movement, etc. are seen as the mental dimension and are understood as a function of behavioral investment. The physiological make up of the organ systems and cells of each body is seen as the biogenetic dimension. Finally, the position, temperature, molecular make up is seen as the physiochemical dimension. Each of the more basic dimensions represent conditions of possibility that allow for the emergence of the higher dimension of process. Thus, insufficient oxygen disrupts organic processes which in turn renders neuropsychological and sociolinguistic processes impossible. Toward the integration of human knowledge As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience . Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In a 2008 article on the ToK, [ 14 ] Henriques cites Oliver Reiser 's 1958 call for unifying scientific knowledge that Henriques implies is similar in theme to the ToK: With its depiction of the dimensions of complexity and interlocking theoretical joint points, Henriques' believes that his ToK System offers new avenues that might allow scholars to meet Reiser’s call for academic synthesis. Henriques, like Reiser, believes that with a shared sense of purpose and a common background of explanation, people might yet be able to integrate bodies of knowledge into a unified interpretation of humanity, with humanity's place in nature and its potentialities for creating the good society. See also Tree of knowledge (philosophy) by René Descartes Tinbergen's four questions Behavioral repertoire Consilience Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Descriptive psychology General System Theory Psychological behaviorism Social meaning-making The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution – 1959 book by C. P. Snow Unified theory of cognition Unity of science Metasystem transition References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} " "About Me" section of the ToK System website" . Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 . Retrieved 3 January 2009 . ^ " "The Tree of Knowledge System" section of the 8 key ideas in the Unified Theory of Knowledge website" . Archived from the original on 2 July 2022 . Retrieved 2 July 2022 . ^ a b c d e Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 60, No 12" . Archived from the original on 3 March 2011 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 61, No 1" . Archived from the original on 16 December 2012 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Theory & Psychology - Volume 18, Number 6, Dec 01, 2008" . Sage Journals . ^ Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2003). The tree of knowledge system and the theoretical unification of psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. ^ Homepage of Michael Katzko ^ Katzko, M. W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology , 18, 817–828. Abstract ^ Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. ^ Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Final draft ^ Reiser, O.L. (1958). The integration of human knowledge. Boston: Porter Sargent. Bibliography Anchin, J.C. (2008). The critical role of the dialectic in viable metatheory: A commentary on Henriques' Tree of Knowledge System for integrating human knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 801–816. Full text Calhoun, L.G. (2004). The unification of psychology: A noble quest. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 60, 1283–1289. Abstract Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. Full text Gilbert, P. (2004). A much needed macro level view: A commentary on Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1223–1226. Full text Goertzen, J.R. (2008). On the possibility of unification: The reality and nature of the crisis in psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18, 829–852. Full text Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. Full text Hayes, S.C. (2004). Taxonomy as a contextualist views it. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1231–1236. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). A new vision for the field: Introduction to the second special issue on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61, 3–6. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). Toward a useful mass movement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 121–139. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. Full text Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Henriques, G.R. (2004). The development of the unified theory and the future of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 39, 16–21. Final draft Henriques, G.R., & Cobb, H.C. (2004). Introduction to the special issues on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1203–1205. Full text Henriques, G.R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Unified professional psychology: Implications for combined-integrated doctoral training programs. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1051–1063. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. Full text Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Henriques, G.R. (2002). The harmful dysfunction analysis and the differentiation between mental disorder and disease. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice , 1, 157–173. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2000). Depression: Disease or behavioral shutdown mechanism? Journal of Science and Health Policy, 1, 152–165. Full text Jones, R. (2005). From that dirty little science grows a Tree of Knowledge. The Madison, 1, 36–45. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 817–828. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2004). Psychology's dilemma: An institutional neurosis? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1237–1242. Full text Kihlstrom, J.F. (2004). Unity within psychology, and unity between science and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1243–1247. Full text Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. Full text Mayer, J.D. (2004). How does psychotherapy influence personality? A theoretical integration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1291–1315. Full text Presbury, J. (2004). Rooting the tree of knowledge: A response to Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1255–1258. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2008). Theoretical unification as a practical project: Kant and the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 757–777. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2005). Remythologizing culture: Narrativity, justification, and the politics of personalization. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 67–80. Full text Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rand, K.L., & Ilardi, S.S. (2005). Toward a consilient science of psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 7–20. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2008). Religion as a large-scale justification system: Does the Justification Hypothesis explain animistic attribution? Theory & Psychology, 18, 779–799. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2006). Durkheim's aphorism, the Justification Hypothesis, and the nature of social facts. Sociological Viewpoints, fall issue, 57–70. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2005). From mirror self-recognition to the looking glass self: Exploring the justification hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 47–65 . Full text Shealy, C.N. (2005). Justifying the justification hypothesis: Scientific-humanism, Equilintegration (EI) Theory, and the Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 81–106. Full text Slife, B. (2005). Testing the limits of Henriques' proposal: Wittgensteinian lessons and hermenuetic dialogue. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 107–120. Full text Stam, H.J. (2004). Unifying psychology: Epistemological act or disciplinary maneuver? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1259–1262. Full text Stanovich, K.E. (2004). Metarepresentation and the great cognitive divide: A commentary on Henriques' "Psychology Defined". Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1263–1266. Full text Stricker, G. (2004). The unification of psychology and psychological organizations. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1267–1269. Full text Vazire, S., & Robins, R.W. (2004). Beyond the Justification Hypothesis: A Broader Theory of the Evolution of Self-Consciousness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1271–1273. Full text Viney, W. (2004). Pluralism in the sciences is not easily dismissed. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1275–1278. Full text Yanchar, S.C. (2004). Some discontents with theoretical unification. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1279–1281. Full text External links The Official Tree of Knowledge Website Archived 6 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques at the Psychology Wiki This page uses content from the English-language version of Psychology Wiki . The original article was at Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques . The list of authors can be seen in the page history . The text of both The Psychology Wiki and Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License . 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–1 of 1 results for author: Zumel, A A Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2509.20913 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI doi 10.1007/s10940-025-09629-3 Deep Learning for Crime Forecasting: The Role of Mobility at Fine-grained Spatiotemporal Scales Authors: Ariadna Albors Zumel , Michele Tizzoni , Gian Maria Campedelli Abstract : Objectives: To develop a deep learning framework to evaluate if and how incorporating micro-level mobility features, alongside historical crime and sociodemographic data, enhances predictive performance in crime forecasting at fine-grained spatial and temporal resolutions. Methods: We advance the literature on computational methods and crime forecasting by focusing on four U.S. cities (i.e., Bal… ▽ More Objectives: To develop a deep learning framework to evaluate if and how incorporating micro-level mobility features, alongside historical crime and sociodemographic data, enhances predictive performance in crime forecasting at fine-grained spatial and temporal resolutions. Methods: We advance the literature on computational methods and crime forecasting by focusing on four U.S. cities (i.e., Baltimore, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia). We employ crime incident data obtained from each city's police department, combined with sociodemographic data from the American Community Survey and human mobility data from Advan, collected from 2019 to 2023. This data is aggregated into grids with equally sized cells of 0.077 sq. miles (0.2 sq. kms) and used to train our deep learning forecasting model, a Convolutional Long Short-Term Memory (ConvLSTM) network, which predicts crime occurrences 12 hours ahead using 14-day and 2-day input sequences. We also compare its performance against three baseline models: logistic regression, random forest, and standard LSTM. Results: Incorporating mobility features improves predictive performance, especially when using shorter input sequences. Noteworthy, however, the best results are obtained when both mobility and sociodemographic features are used together, with our deep learning model achieving the highest recall, precision, and F1 score in all four cities, outperforming alternative methods. With this configuration, longer input sequences enhance predictions for violent crimes, while shorter sequences are more effective for property crimes. Conclusion: These findings underscore the importance of integrating diverse data sources for spatiotemporal crime forecasting, mobility included. They also highlight the advantages (and limits) of deep learning when dealing with fine-grained spatial and temporal scales. △ Less Submitted 25 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 64 pages, 33 figures, and 6 tables (including appendix) Journal ref: Albors Zumel, A., Tizzoni, M., & Campedelli, G.M. (2025). Deep Learning for Crime Forecasting: The Role of Mobility at Fine-grained Spatiotemporal Scales. Journal of Quantitative Criminology arXiv:2509.20913 [ pdf , ps , other ] Deep Learning for Crime Forecasting: The Role of Mobility at Fine-grained Spatiotemporal Scales Authors: Ariadna Albors Zumel , Michele Tizzoni , Gian Maria Campedelli Abstract : Objectives: To develop a deep learning framework to evaluate if and how incorporating micro-level mobility features, alongside historical crime and sociodemographic data, enhances predictive performance in crime forecasting at fine-grained spatial and temporal resolutions. Methods: We advance the literature on computational methods and crime forecasting by focusing on four U.S. cities (i.e., Bal… ▽ More Objectives: To develop a deep learning framework to evaluate if and how incorporating micro-level mobility features, alongside historical crime and sociodemographic data, enhances predictive performance in crime forecasting at fine-grained spatial and temporal resolutions. Methods: We advance the literature on computational methods and crime forecasting by focusing on four U.S. cities (i.e., Baltimore, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia). We employ crime incident data obtained from each city's police department, combined with sociodemographic data from the American Community Survey and human mobility data from Advan, collected from 2019 to 2023. This data is aggregated into grids with equally sized cells of 0.077 sq. miles (0.2 sq. kms) and used to train our deep learning forecasting model, a Convolutional Long Short-Term Memory (ConvLSTM) network, which predicts crime occurrences 12 hours ahead using 14-day and 2-day input sequences. We also compare its performance against three baseline models: logistic regression, random forest, and standard LSTM. Results: Incorporating mobility features improves predictive performance, especially when using shorter input sequences. Noteworthy, however, the best results are obtained when both mobility and sociodemographic features are used together, with our deep learning model achieving the highest recall, precision, and F1 score in all four cities, outperforming alternative methods. With this configuration, longer input sequences enhance predictions for violent crimes, while shorter sequences are more effective for property crimes. Conclusion: These findings underscore the importance of integrating diverse data sources for spatiotemporal crime forecasting, mobility included. They also highlight the advantages (and limits) of deep learning when dealing with fine-grained spatial and temporal scales. △ Less Submitted 25 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 64 pages, 33 figures, and 6 tables (including appendix) Journal ref: Albors Zumel, A., Tizzoni, M., & Campedelli, G.M. (2025). Deep Learning for Crime Forecasting: The Role of Mobility at Fine-grained Spatiotemporal Scales. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Content use DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education Related AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali 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Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 Pre-1600 1.2 1601–1900 1.3 1901–present 1.1 Pre-1600 1.2 1601–1900 1.3 1901–present 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 Pre-1600 2.2 1601–1900 2.3 1901–present 2.1 Pre-1600 2.2 1601–1900 2.3 1901–present 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 Pre-1600 3.2 1601–1900 3.3 1901–present 3.1 Pre-1600 3.2 1601–1900 3.3 1901–present 4 Holidays and observances 5 References 6 External links January 17 Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kiswahili Коми Kongo Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Перем коми Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла संस्कृतम् Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taqbaylit Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Тыва дыл Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Руски Tolışi ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikidata item Page version status This is an accepted version of this page .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{color:var(--color-base,#202122);background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{color:var(--color-base,#202122);background-color:#d8e0ff}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{background-color:#2a2a5c}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{background-color:#202040}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .calendar-purple{background-color:#2a2a5c}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .calendar-lightpurple{background-color:#202040}} << January >> Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2026 January 17 in recent years 2025 (Friday) 2024 (Wednesday) 2023 (Tuesday) 2022 (Monday) 2021 (Sunday) 2020 (Friday) 2019 (Thursday) 2018 (Wednesday) 2017 (Tuesday) 2016 (Sunday) January 17 is the 17th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar ; 348 days remain until the end of the year (349 in leap years ). Events Pre-1600 38 BC – Octavian divorces his wife Scribonia and marries Livia Drusilla , ending the fragile peace between the Second Triumvirate and Sextus Pompey . [ 1 ] 1362 – Saint Marcellus' flood kills at least 25,000 people on the shores of the North Sea. [ 2 ] 1377 – Pope Gregory XI reaches Rome, after deciding to move the Papacy back to Rome from Avignon . [ 3 ] 1524 – Giovanni da Verrazzano sets sail westward from Madeira to find a sea route to the Pacific Ocean. [ 4 ] 1562 – France grants religious toleration to the Huguenots in the Edict of Saint-Germain . [ 5 ] 1595 – During the French Wars of Religion , Henry IV of France declares war on Spain. [ 6 ] 1601–1900 1608 – Emperor Susenyos I of Ethiopia surprises an Oromo army at Ebenat; his army reportedly kills 12,000 Oromo at the cost of 400 of his men. [ 7 ] 1648 – England's Long Parliament passes the " Vote of No Addresses ", breaking off negotiations with King Charles I and thereby setting the scene for the second phase of the English Civil War . [ 8 ] 1649 – The Second Ormonde Peace creates an alliance between the Irish Royalists and Confederates during the War of the Three Kingdoms . The coalition was then decisively defeated during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland . [ 9 ] 1773 – Captain James Cook leads the first expedition to sail south of the Antarctic Circle . [ 10 ] 1781 – American Revolutionary War : Battle of Cowpens : Continental troops under Brigadier General Daniel Morgan defeat British forces under Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton at the battle in South Carolina . [ 11 ] 1799 – Maltese patriot Dun Mikiel Xerri , along with a number of other patriots, is executed. [ 12 ] 1811 – Mexican War of Independence : In the Battle of Calderón Bridge , a heavily outnumbered Spanish force of 6,000 troops defeats nearly 100,000 Mexican revolutionaries. [ 13 ] 1852 – The United Kingdom signs the Sand River Convention with the South African Republic . [ 14 ] 1873 – A group of Modoc warriors defeats the United States Army in the First Battle of the Stronghold , part of the Modoc War . [ 15 ] 1885 – A British force defeats a large Dervish army at the Battle of Abu Klea in the Sudan . [ 16 ] 1893 – Lorrin A. Thurston , along with the Citizens' Committee of Public Safety , led the Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and the government of Queen Liliʻuokalani . [ 17 ] 1899 – The United States takes possession of Wake Island in the Pacific Ocean. [ 18 ] 1901–present 1903 – El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico becomes part of the United States National Forest System as the Luquillo Forest Reserve. 1904 – Anton Chekhov 's The Cherry Orchard receives its premiere performance at the Moscow Art Theatre . [ 19 ] 1912 – British polar explorer Captain Robert Falcon Scott reaches the South Pole , one month after Roald Amundsen . 1915 – Russia defeats Ottoman Turkey in the Battle of Sarikamish during the Caucasus Campaign of World War I . 1917 – The United States pays Denmark $25 million for the Virgin Islands . [ 20 ] 1918 – Finnish Civil War : The first serious battles take place between the Red Guards and the White Guard . 1920 – Alcohol Prohibition begins in the United States as the Volstead Act goes into effect. [ 21 ] 1941 – Franco-Thai War : Vichy French forces inflict a decisive defeat over the Royal Thai Navy . 1943 – World War II : Greek submarine Papanikolis captures the 200-ton sailing vessel Agios Stefanos and mans her with part of her crew. 1944 – World War II: Allied forces launch the first of four assaults on Monte Cassino with the intention of breaking through the Winter Line and seizing Rome, an effort that would ultimately take four months and cost 105,000 Allied casualties. 1945 – World War II: The Vistula–Oder Offensive forces German troops out of Warsaw . 1945 – The SS-Totenkopfverbände begin the evacuation of the Auschwitz concentration camp as the Red Army closes in. 1945 – Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg is taken into Soviet custody while in Hungary; he is never publicly seen again. [ 22 ] 1946 – The UN Security Council holds its first session. 1948 – The Renville Agreement between the Netherlands and Indonesia is ratified. 1950 – The Great Brink's Robbery : Eleven thieves steal more than $2 million from an armored car company's offices in Boston . [ 23 ] 1950 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 79 relating to arms control is adopted. 1961 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower delivers a televised farewell address to the nation three days before leaving office, in which he warns against the accumulation of power by the " military–industrial complex " as well as the dangers of massive spending, especially deficit spending. 1961 – Former Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba is murdered together with former Minister of Youth and Sports of the Republic of the Congo Maurice Mpolo and former Senator from Kasai Province Joseph Okito in circumstances suggesting the support and complicity of the governments of Belgium and the United States. 1966 – Palomares incident : A B-52 bomber collides with a KC-135 Stratotanker over Spain, killing seven airmen, and dropping three 70-kiloton nuclear bombs near the town of Palomares and another one into the sea. 1969 – Black Panther Party members Bunchy Carter and John Huggins are killed during a meeting in Campbell Hall on the campus of UCLA . 1977 – Capital punishment in the United States resumes after a ten-year hiatus, as convicted murderer Gary Gilmore is executed by firing squad in Utah. 1981 – President of the Philippines Ferdinand Marcos lifts martial law eight years and five months after declaring it. 1991 – Gulf War : Operation Desert Storm begins early in the morning as aircraft strike positions across Iraq, it is also the first major combat sortie for the F-117 . LCDR Scott Speicher's F/A-18C Hornet from VFA-81 is shot down by a Mig-25 and is the first American casualty of the War. Iraq fires eight Scud missiles into Israel in an unsuccessful bid to provoke Israeli retaliation. 1991 – Crown Prince Harald of Norway becomes King Harald V , following the death of his father, King Olav V . 1992 – During a visit to South Korea, Japanese Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa apologizes for forcing Korean women into sexual slavery during World War II. 1994 – The 6.7 M w Northridge earthquake shakes the Greater Los Angeles Area with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX ( Violent ), leaving 57 people dead and more than 8,700 injured. 1995 – The 6.9 M w Great Hanshin earthquake shakes the southern Hyōgo Prefecture with a maximum Shindo of 7, leaving 5,502–6,434 people dead, and 251,301–310,000 displaced. 1996 – The Czech Republic applies for membership in the European Union . 1997 – Cape Canaveral Air Force Station : A Delta II carrying the GPS IIR-1 satellite explodes 13 seconds after launch, dropping 250 tons of burning rocket remains around the launch pad. 1998 – Clinton–Lewinsky scandal : Matt Drudge breaks the story of the Bill Clinton – Monica Lewinsky affair on his Drudge Report website. 2002 – Mount Nyiragongo erupts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo , displacing an estimated 400,000 people. 2007 – The Doomsday Clock is set to five minutes to midnight in response to North Korea 's nuclear testing. 2008 – British Airways Flight 38 crashes short of the runway at Heathrow Airport , injuring 47. [ 24 ] 2010 – Rioting begins between Muslim and Christian groups in Jos, Nigeria , results in at least 200 deaths. 2013 – Former cyclist Lance Armstrong confesses to his doping in an airing of Oprah's Next Chapter . [ 25 ] 2013 – Shahzad Luqman is murdered by members of Golden Dawn in Petralona , Athens , leading the creation of new measures to combat race-based attacks in Greece . [ 26 ] 2016 – President Barack Obama announces the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action , an agreement intended to limit Iran's nuclear program. [ 27 ] 2017 – The search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 is announced to be suspended. [ 28 ] 2023 – An avalanche strikes Nyingchi, Tibet , killing 28 people. [ 29 ] Births Pre-1600 1342 – Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (died 1404) 1429 – Antonio del Pollaiuolo , Italian artist (diedc. 1498 ) 1463 – Frederick III, Elector of Saxony (died 1525) 1463 – Antoine Duprat , French cardinal (died 1535) 1472 – Guidobaldo da Montefeltro , Italian captain (died 1508) 1484 – George Spalatin , German priest and reformer (died 1545) 1501 – Leonhart Fuchs , German physician and botanist (died 1566) 1504 – Pope Pius V (died 1572) [ 30 ] 1517 – Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk , English Duke (died 1554) 1560 – Gaspard Bauhin , Swiss botanist, physician, and academic (died 1624) 1574 – Robert Fludd , English physician, astrologer, and mathematician (died 1637) 1593 – William Backhouse , English alchemist and astrologer (died 1662) 1600 – Pedro Calderón de la Barca , Spanish playwright and poet (died 1681) 1601–1900 1612 – Thomas Fairfax , English general and politician (died 1671) 1640 – Jonathan Singletary Dunham , American settler (died 1724) 1659 – Antonio Veracini , Italian violinist and composer (died 1745) 1666 – Antonio Maria Valsalva , Italian anatomist and physician (died 1723) 1686 – Archibald Bower , Scottish historian and author (died 1766) 1693 – Melchor de Navarrete , Spanish colonial governor of Cartagena de Indias (Colombia, 1739 – 1742); of Spanish Florida (1749 – 1752); and of Yucatán (Mexico, 1754 – 1758) (died 1761) [ 31 ] 1706 – Benjamin Franklin , American publisher, inventor, and politician, 6th President of Pennsylvania (died 1790) 1712 – John Stanley , English organist and composer (died 1786) 1719 – William Vernon , American businessman (died 1806) 1728 – Johann Gottfried Müthel , German pianist and composer (died 1788) 1732 – Stanisław August Poniatowski , Polish-Lithuanian king (died 1798) 1734 – François-Joseph Gossec , French composer and conductor (died 1829) 1761 – Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet , Scottish geologist and geophysicist (died 1832) 1789 – August Neander , German historian and theologian (died 1850) 1793 – Antonio José Martínez , Spanish-American priest, rancher and politician (died 1867) 1814 – Ellen Wood , English author (died 1887) 1820 – Anne Brontë , English author and poet (died 1849) 1828 – Lewis A. Grant , American lawyer and general, Medal of Honor recipient (died 1918) 1828 – Ede Reményi , Hungarian violinist and composer (died 1898) 1832 – Henry Martyn Baird , American historian and academic (died 1906) 1834 – August Weismann , German biologist, zoologist, and geneticist (died 1914) 1850 – Joaquim Arcoverde de Albuquerque Cavalcanti , Brazilian cardinal (died 1930) 1850 – Alexander Taneyev , Russian pianist and composer (died 1918) 1851 – A. B. Frost , American author and illustrator (died 1928) 1853 – Alva Belmont , American suffragist (died 1933) [ 32 ] 1853 – T. Alexander Harrison , American painter and academic (died 1930) 1857 – Wilhelm Kienzl , Austrian pianist, composer, and conductor (died 1941) 1857 – Eugene Augustin Lauste , French-American engineer (died 1935) 1858 – Tomás Carrasquilla , Colombian author (died 1940) 1860 – Douglas Hyde , Irish academic and politician, 1st President of Ireland (died 1949) 1863 – David Lloyd George , Welsh lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (died 1945) 1863 – Konstantin Stanislavski , Russian actor and director (died 1938) 1865 – Sir Charles Fergusson, 7th Baronet , English general and politician, 3rd Governor-General of New Zealand (died 1951) 1867 – Carl Laemmle , German-born American film producer, co-founded Universal Studios (died 1939) 1867 – Sir Alfred Rawlinson, 3rd Baronet , English colonel, pilot, and polo player (died 1934) 1871 – David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty , English admiral (died 1936) 1871 – Nicolae Iorga , Romanian historian and politician, 34th Prime Minister of Romania (died 1940) 1875 – Florencio Sánchez , Uruguayan journalist and playwright (died 1910) 1876 – Frank Hague , American lawyer and politician, 30th Mayor of Jersey City (died 1956) 1877 – Marie Zdeňka Baborová-Čiháková , Czech botanist and zoologist (died 1937) [ 33 ] 1877 – May Gibbs , English-Australian author and illustrator (died 1969) 1880 – Mack Sennett , Canadian-American actor, director, and producer (died 1960) 1881 – Antoni Łomnicki , Polish mathematician and academic (died 1941) 1881 – Harry Price , English psychologist and author (died 1948) 1882 – Noah Beery, Sr. , American actor (died 1946) 1883 – Compton Mackenzie , English-Scottish author, poet, and playwright (died 1972) 1886 – Glenn L. Martin , American pilot and businessman, founded the Glenn L. Martin Company (died 1955) 1887 – Ola Raknes , Norwegian psychoanalyst and philologist (died 1975) 1888 – Babu Gulabrai , Indian philosopher and author (died 1963) 1897 – Marcel Petiot , French physician and serial killer (died 1946) 1898 – Lela Mevorah , Serbian librarian (died 1972) [ 34 ] 1899 – Al Capone , American mob boss (died 1947) 1899 – Robert Maynard Hutchins , American philosopher and academic (died 1977) 1899 – Nevil Shute , English engineer and author (died 1960) 1901–present 1901 – Aron Gurwitsch , Lithuanian-American philosopher and author (died 1973) 1904 – Hem Vejakorn , Thai painter and illustrator (died 1969) 1905 – Ray Cunningham , American baseball player (died 2005) 1905 – Peggy Gilbert , American saxophonist and bandleader (died 2007) 1905 – Eduard Oja , Estonian composer, conductor, educator, and critic (died 1950) 1905 – Guillermo Stábile , Argentinian footballer and manager (died 1966) 1905 – Jan Zahradníček , Czech poet and translator (died 1960) 1907 – Henk Badings , Indonesian-Dutch composer and engineer (died 1987) 1907 – Alfred Wainwright , British fellwalker, guidebook author and illustrator (died 1991) 1908 – Cus D'Amato , American boxing manager and trainer (died 1985) 1911 – Busher Jackson , Canadian ice hockey player (died 1966) 1911 – John S. McCain Jr. , American admiral (died 1981) 1911 – George Stigler , American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1991) 1914 – Anacleto Angelini , Italian-Chilean businessman (died 2007) 1914 – Irving Brecher , American director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2008) 1914 – Howard Marion-Crawford , English actor (died 1969) [ 35 ] 1914 – Paul Royle , Australian lieutenant and pilot (died 2015) 1914 – William Stafford , American poet and author (died 1993) 1916 – Peter Frelinghuysen Jr. , American lieutenant and politician (died 2011) 1917 – M. G. Ramachandran , Indian actor, director, and politician, 3rd Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (died 1987) 1918 – Keith Joseph , English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Education (died 1994) 1918 – George M. Leader , American soldier and politician, 36th Governor of Pennsylvania (died 2013) 1920 – Georges Pichard , French author and illustrator (died 2003) 1921 – Jackie Henderson , Scottish footballer (died 2005) [ 36 ] 1921 – Asghar Khan , Pakistani general and politician (died 2018) 1921 – Charlie Mitten , English footballer and manager (died 2002) [ 37 ] 1921 – Antonio Prohías , Cuban cartoonist (died 1998) 1922 – Luis Echeverría , Mexican academic and politician, 50th President of Mexico (died 2022) [ 38 ] 1922 – Nicholas Katzenbach , American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 65th United States Attorney General (died 2012) 1922 – Betty White , American actress, game show panelist, television personality, and animal rights activist (died 2021) [ 39 ] 1923 – Rangeya Raghav , Indian author and playwright (died 1962) 1924 – Rik De Saedeleer , Belgian footballer and journalist (died 2013) 1924 – Jewel Plummer Cobb , American biologist, cancer researcher, and academic (died 2017) 1925 – Gunnar Birkerts , Latvian-American architect (died 2017) 1925 – Robert Cormier , American author and journalist (died 2000) 1925 – Abdul Hafeez Kardar , Pakistani cricketer and author (died 1996) 1926 – Newton N. Minow , American lawyer and politician (died 2023) [ 40 ] 1926 – Moira Shearer , Scottish-English ballerina and actress (died 2006) 1926 – Clyde Walcott , Barbadian cricketer (died 2006) 1927 – Thomas Anthony Dooley III , American physician and humanitarian (died 1961) 1927 – Eartha Kitt , American actress and singer (died 2008) [ 41 ] 1927 – Harlan Mathews , American lawyer and politician (died 2014) 1927 – E. W. Swackhamer , American director and producer (died 1994) 1928 – Jean Barraqué , French composer (died 1973) 1928 – Vidal Sassoon , English-American hairdresser and businessman (died 2012) [ 42 ] 1929 – Philip Latham , British actor (died 2020) [ 43 ] 1929 – Jacques Plante , Canadian-Swiss ice hockey player, coach, and sportscaster (died 1986) 1929 – Tan Boon Teik , Malaysian-Singaporean lawyer and politician, Attorney-General of Singapore (died 2012) 1931 – James Earl Jones , American actor (died 2024) [ 44 ] 1931 – Douglas Wilder , American sergeant and politician, 66th Governor of Virginia [ 42 ] 1931 – Don Zimmer , American baseball player, coach, and manager (died 2014) 1932 – John Cater , English actor (died 2009) [ 45 ] 1932 – Sheree North , American actress and dancer (died 2005) [ 46 ] 1933 – Dalida , Egyptian-French singer and actress (died 1987) 1933 – Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan , French-Pakistani diplomat, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (died 2003) 1933 – Shari Lewis , American actress, puppeteer/ventriloquist, and television host (died 1998) [ 42 ] 1934 – Donald Cammell , Scottish-American director and screenwriter (died 1996) [ 47 ] 1935 – Ruth Ann Minner , American businesswoman and politician, 72nd Governor of Delaware (died 2021) 1936 – John Boyd , English academic and diplomat, British ambassador to Japan (died 2019) 1936 – A. Thangathurai , Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (died 1997) 1937 – Alain Badiou , French philosopher and academic 1938 – John Bellairs , American author and academic (died 1991) 1938 – Toini Gustafsson , Swedish cross country skier 1939 – Christodoulos of Athens , Greek archbishop (died 2008) 1939 – Maury Povich , American talk show host and producer [ 48 ] 1940 – Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni , Egyptian-Armenian patriarch (died 2015) 1940 – Kipchoge Keino , Kenyan athlete [ 42 ] 1940 – Tabaré Vázquez , Uruguayan physician and politician, 39th President of Uruguay (died 2020) 1941 – István Horthy, Jr. , Hungarian physicist and architect 1942 – Muhammad Ali , American boxer and activist (died 2016) [ 49 ] 1942 – Ita Buttrose , Australian journalist and author 1942 – Ulf Hoelscher , German violinist and educator 1942 – Nigel McCulloch , English bishop 1943 – Chris Montez , American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1943 – René Préval , Haitian agronomist and politician, 52nd President of Haiti (died 2017) 1944 – Ann Oakley , English sociologist, author, and academic 1945 – Javed Akhtar , Indian poet, playwright, and composer 1945 – Anne Cutler , Australian psychologist and academic (died 2022) 1947 – Joanna David , English actress [ 48 ] 1947 – Jane Elliot , American actress [ 48 ] 1948 – Davíð Oddsson , Icelandic politician, 21st Prime Minister of Iceland 1949 – Anita Borg , American computer scientist and academic (died 2003) 1949 – Gyude Bryant , Liberian businessman and politician (died 2014) 1949 – Augustin Dumay , French violinist and conductor 1949 – Andy Kaufman , American actor and comedian (died 1984) [ 42 ] 1949 – Mick Taylor , English singer-songwriter and guitarist [ 42 ] 1950 – Luis López Nieves , Puerto Rican-American author and academic 1952 – Tom Deitz , American author (died 2009) [ 50 ] 1952 – Darrell Porter , American baseball player and sportscaster (died 2002) 1952 – Ryuichi Sakamoto , Japanese pianist, composer, and producer (died 2023) [ 51 ] 1953 – Jeff Berlin , American bass player and educator 1953 – Carlos Johnson , American singer and guitarist 1954 – Robert F. Kennedy, Jr. , American environmental lawyer, writer, and conspiracy theorist 1955 – Steve Earle , American singer-songwriter, musician, record producer, author and actor [ 48 ] 1955 – Pietro Parolin , Italian cardinal 1955 – Steve Javie , American basketball player and referee 1956 – Damian Green , English journalist and politician 1956 – Paul Young , English singer-songwriter and guitarist [ 48 ] 1957 – Steve Harvey , American actor, comedian, television personality and game show host [ 52 ] 1957 – Ann Nocenti , American journalist and author 1958 – Tony Kouzarides , English biologist, cancer researcher 1959 – Susanna Hoffs , American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress [ 48 ] 1960 – John Crawford , American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1960 – Chili Davis , Jamaican-American baseball player and coach 1961 – Brian Helgeland , American director, producer, and screenwriter [ 48 ] 1962 – Jun Azumi , Japanese broadcaster and politician, 46th Japanese Minister of Finance 1962 – Jim Carrey , Canadian-American actor, comedian, and producer [ 48 ] 1962 – Sebastian Junger , American journalist and author [ 42 ] 1962 – Denis O'Hare , American actor and singer [ 48 ] 1963 – Colin Gordon , English footballer, agent, manager and chief executive [ 53 ] 1963 – Kai Hansen , German singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1964 – Michelle Obama , American lawyer and activist, 44th First Lady of the United States [ 48 ] 1964 – John Schuster , Samoan-New Zealand rugby player 1965 – Sylvain Turgeon , Canadian ice hockey player 1966 – Trish Johnson , English golfer 1966 – Joshua Malina , American actor [ 48 ] 1966 – Shabba Ranks , Jamaican rapper, musician, and songwriter [ 48 ] 1967 – Richard Hawley , English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1968 – Rowan Pelling , English journalist and author 1968 – Ilja Leonard Pfeijffer , Dutch author, poet, and scholar 1969 – Naveen Andrews , English actor [ 48 ] 1969 – Lukas Moodysson , Swedish director, screenwriter, and author 1969 – Tiësto , Dutch DJ and producer [ 48 ] 1970 – Cássio Alves de Barros , Brazilian footballer 1970 – Jeremy Roenick , American ice hockey player and actor 1970 – Genndy Tartakovsky , Russian-American animator, director, and producer [ 54 ] 1971 – Giorgos Balogiannis , Greek basketball player 1971 – Richard Burns , English race car driver (died 2005) 1971 – Kid Rock , American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor [ 48 ] 1971 – Sylvie Testud , French actress, director, and screenwriter 1973 – Cuauhtémoc Blanco , Mexican footballer and actor 1973 – Chris Bowen , Australian politician, 37th Treasurer of Australia 1973 – Liz Ellis , Australian netball player and sportscaster 1973 – Aaron Ward , Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1974 – Yang Chen , Chinese footballer and manager 1974 – Vesko Kountchev , Bulgarian viola player, composer, and producer 1974 – Derrick Mason , American football player 1975 – Freddy Rodriguez , American actor [ 48 ] 1977 – Leigh Whannell , Australian actor, director, screenwriter, and producer [ 48 ] 1978 – Lisa Llorens , Australian Paralympian [ 55 ] 1978 – Ricky Wilson , English singer-songwriter 1980 – Maksim Chmerkovskiy , Ukrainian-American dancer and choreographer [ 42 ] 1980 – Zooey Deschanel , American singer-songwriter and actress [ 48 ] 1980 – Modestas Stonys , Lithuanian footballer 1981 – Warren Feeney , Northern Irish footballer and manager 1981 – Ray J , American singer, actor, and television personality [ 56 ] 1981 – Michael Zigomanis , Canadian ice hockey player [ 57 ] 1982 – Dwyane Wade , American basketball player [ 42 ] 1982 – Andrew Webster , Australian rugby league player and coach [ 58 ] 1982 – Amanda Wilkinson , Canadian singer [ 48 ] 1983 – Álvaro Arbeloa , Spanish footballer 1983 – Ryan Gage , English actor [ 48 ] 1983 – Johannes Herber , German basketball player 1983 – Rick Kelly , Australian race car driver 1983 – Marcelo Garcia , Brazilian martial artist 1984 – Calvin Harris , Scottish singer-songwriter, DJ, and producer [ 48 ] 1984 – Dexter Lumis , American wrestler [ 59 ] 1985 – Pablo Barrientos , Argentinian footballer 1985 – Simone Simons , Dutch singer-songwriter 1986 – Viktor Stålberg , Swedish ice hockey player [ 60 ] 1987 – Cody Decker , American baseball player 1987 – Oleksandr Usyk , Ukrainian boxer [ 61 ] 1988 – Andrea Antonelli , Italian motorcycle racer (died 2013) 1988 – Earl Clark , American basketball player [ 62 ] 1988 – Will Genia , Australian rugby player 1988 – Jonathan Keltz , American actor [ 48 ] 1988 – Héctor Moreno , Mexican footballer 1989 – Taylor Jordan , American baseball player 1989 – Kelly Marie Tran , American actress [ 48 ] 1990 – Santiago Tréllez , Colombian footballer 1990 – Tyler Zeller , American basketball player [ 63 ] 1991 – Trevor Bauer , American baseball player 1991 – Willa Fitzgerald , American actress [ 42 ] 1991 – Esapekka Lappi , Finnish rally driver 1991 – Alise Post , American BMX rider 1992 – Stanislav Galiev , Russian ice hockey player [ 64 ] 1994 – Lucy Boynton , American-English actress [ 42 ] 1994 – Mark Steketee , Australian cricketer 1995 – Indya Moore , American actor and model [ 65 ] 1996 – Allonzo Trier , American basketball player [ 66 ] 1997 – Jake Paul , American boxer, actor, rapper, and social media personality [ 67 ] 1997 – Kyle Tucker , American baseball player [ 68 ] 1998 – Sophie Molineux , Australian cricketer 1998 – Jeff Reine-Adélaïde , French footballer 1999 – Isa Briones , American actor and singer [ 69 ] 2000 – Kang Chan-hee , South Korean singer and actor [ 70 ] 2000 – Devlin DeFrancesco , Canadian race car driver [ 71 ] 2000 – Ayo Dosunmu , American basketball player [ 72 ] 2001 – Enzo Fernández , Argentinian footballer [ 73 ] 2002 – Samuel , American singer based in South Korea. [ 74 ] 2003 – Robin Roefs , Dutch footballer [ 75 ] 2005 – Peio Canales , Spanish footballer [ 76 ] Deaths Pre-1600 395 – Theodosius I , Roman emperor (born 347) 644 – Sulpitius the Pious , French bishop and saint 764 – Joseph of Freising , German bishop 1040 – Mas'ud I of Ghazni , Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire (born 998) 1156 – André de Montbard , fifth Grand Master of the Knights Templar 1168 – Thierry, Count of Flanders (born 1099) 1229 – Albert of Riga , German bishop (born 1165) 1329 – Roseline of Villeneuve , Carthusian nun (born 1263) 1334 – John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond (born 1266) 1345 – Henry of Asti , Greek patriarch 1345 – Martino Zaccaria , Genoese Lord of Chios 1369 – Peter I of Cyprus (born 1328) 1456 – Elisabeth of Lorraine-Vaudémont , French translator (born 1395) 1468 – Skanderbeg , Albanian soldier and politician (born 1405) 1523 – Elisabeth of Hesse-Marburg , German landgravine (born 1466) [ 77 ] [ 78 ] 1588 – Qi Jiguang , Chinese general (born 1528) 1598 – Feodor I of Russia (born 1557) 1601–1900 1617 – Fausto Veranzio , Croatian bishop and lexicographer (born 1551) 1705 – John Ray , English botanist and historian (born 1627) 1718 – Benjamin Church , American colonel (born 1639) 1737 – Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann , German architect (born 1662) 1738 – Jean-François Dandrieu , French organist and composer (born 1682) 1751 – Tomaso Albinoni , Italian violinist and composer (born 1671) 1826 – Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga , Spanish-French composer (born 1806) 1834 – Giovanni Aldini , Italian physicist and academic (born 1762) 1850 – Elizabeth Simcoe , English-Canadian painter and author (born 1762) [ 79 ] 1861 – Lola Montez , Irish actress and dancer (born 1821) 1863 – Horace Vernet , French painter (born 1789) 1869 – Alexander Dargomyzhsky , Russian composer (born 1813) 1878 – Edward Shepherd Creasy , English historian and jurist (born 1812) 1884 – Hermann Schlegel , German ornithologist and herpetologist (born 1804) 1887 – William Giblin , Australian lawyer and politician, 13th Premier of Tasmania (born 1840) 1888 – Big Bear , Canadian tribal chief (born 1825) 1891 – George Bancroft , American historian and politician, 17th United States Secretary of the Navy (born 1800) 1893 – Rutherford B. Hayes , American general, lawyer, and politician, 19th President of the United States (born 1822) 1896 – Augusta Hall, Baroness Llanover , Welsh writer and patron of the arts (born 1802) [ 80 ] 1901–present 1903 – Ignaz Wechselmann , Hungarian architect and philanthropist (born 1828) 1908 – Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of Tuscany (born 1835) 1909 – Agathon Meurman , Finnish politician and journalist (born 1826) [ 81 ] 1909 – Francis Smith , Australian lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th Premier of Tasmania (born 1819) 1911 – Francis Galton , English polymath, anthropologist, and geographer (born 1822) 1927 – Juliette Gordon Low , American founder of the Girl Scouts of the USA (born 1860) 1930 – Gauhar Jaan , One of the first performers to record music on 78 rpm records in India. (born 1873) 1931 – Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich of Russia (born 1864) 1932 – Ahmet Derviş , Turkish general (born 1881) 1932 – Albert Jacka , Australian captain, Victoria Cross recipient (born 1893) 1933 – Louis Comfort Tiffany , American stained glass artist (born 1848) 1936 – Mateiu Caragiale , Romanian journalist, author, and poet (born 1885) 1942 – Walther von Reichenau , German field marshal (born 1884) 1947 – Pyotr Krasnov , Russian historian and general (born 1869) 1947 – Jean-Marie-Rodrigue Villeneuve , Canadian cardinal (born 1883) 1951 – Jyoti Prasad Agarwala , Indian poet, playwright, and director (born 1903) 1952 – Walter Briggs Sr. , American businessman (born 1877) 1961 – Patrice Lumumba , Congolese politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (born 1925) 1970 – Simon Kovar , Russian-American bassoon player and educator (born 1890) 1970 – Billy Stewart , American rhythm and blues singer and pianist (born 1937) 1972 – Betty Smith , American author and playwright (born 1896) 1977 – Dougal Haston , Scottish mountaineer (born 1940) 1977 – Gary Gilmore , American murderer (born 1940) 1981 – Loukas Panourgias , Greek footballer and lawyer (born 1899) 1984 – Kostas Giannidis , Greek pianist, composer, and conductor (born 1903) 1987 – Hugo Fregonese , Argentinian director and screenwriter (born 1908) 1987 – Lawrence Kohlberg , American psychologist and author (born 1927) [ 82 ] 1988 – Percy Qoboza , South African journalist and author (born 1938) 1990 – Panka Pelishek , Bulgarian pianist and music teacher (born 1899) [ 83 ] 1991 – Olav V of Norway (born 1903) 1992 – Frank Pullen , English soldier and businessman (born 1915) 1993 – Albert Hourani , English-Lebanese historian and academic (born 1915) 1994 – Yevgeni Ivanov , Russian spy (born 1926) 1994 – Helen Stephens , American runner, shot putter, and discus thrower (born 1918) 1996 – Barbara Jordan , American lawyer and politician (born 1936) 1996 – Sylvia Lawler , English geneticist (born 1922) 1997 – Bert Kelly , Australian farmer and politician, 20th Australian Minister for the Navy (born 1912) 1997 – Clyde Tombaugh , American astronomer and academic, discovered Pluto (born 1906) 2000 – Philip Jones , English trumpet player and educator (born 1928) 2000 – Ion Rațiu , Romanian journalist and politician (born 1917) 2002 – Camilo José Cela , Spanish author and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1916) 2002 – Roman Personov , Russian physicist and academic (born 1932) 2003 – Richard Crenna , American actor and director (born 1926) 2004 – Raymond Bonham Carter , English banker (born 1929) 2004 – Harry Brecheen , American baseball player and coach (born 1914) 2004 – Ray Stark , American film producer (born 1915) 2004 – Noble Willingham , American actor (born 1931) 2005 – Charlie Bell , Australian businessman (born 1960) 2005 – Virginia Mayo , American actress, singer, and dancer (born 1920) 2005 – Albert Schatz , American microbiologist and academic (born 1920) 2005 – Zhao Ziyang , Chinese politician, 3rd Premier of the People's Republic of China (born 1919) 2006 – Pierre Grondin , Canadian surgeon (born 1925) 2007 – Art Buchwald , American journalist and author (born 1925) 2007 – Yevhen Kushnaryov , Ukrainian engineer and politician (born 1951) 2007 – Uwe Nettelbeck , German record producer, journalist and film critic (born 1940) [ 84 ] 2008 – Bobby Fischer , American chess player and author (born 1943) [ 85 ] 2008 – Ernie Holmes , American football player, wrestler, and actor (born 1948) 2009 – Anders Isaksson , Swedish journalist and historian (born 1943) 2010 – Gaines Adams , American football player (born 1983) 2010 – Jyoti Basu , Indian politician and 9th Chief Minister of West Bengal (born 1914) 2010 – Michalis Papakonstantinou , Greek journalist and politician, Foreign Minister of Greece (born 1919) 2010 – Erich Segal , American author and screenwriter (born 1937) 2011 – Don Kirshner , American songwriter and producer (born 1934) 2012 – Julius Meimberg , German soldier and pilot (born 1917) 2012 – Johnny Otis , American singer-songwriter and producer (born 1921) 2012 – Marty Springstead , American baseball player and umpire (born 1937) 2013 – Mehmet Ali Birand , Turkish journalist and author (born 1941) 2013 – Jakob Arjouni , German author (born 1964) 2013 – Yves Debay , Belgian journalist (born 1954) 2013 – John Nkomo , Zimbabwean politician, Vice President of Zimbabwe (born 1934) 2013 – Lizbeth Webb , English soprano and actress (born 1926) 2014 – Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin , Indian spiritual leader, 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq (born 1915) 2014 – Francine Lalonde , Canadian educator and politician (born 1940) 2014 – Alistair McAlpine, Baron McAlpine of West Green , English businessman and politician (born 1942) 2014 – John J. McGinty III , American captain, Medal of Honor recipient (born 1940) 2014 – Sunanda Pushkar , Indian-Canadian businesswoman (born 1962) 2014 – Suchitra Sen , Indian film actress (born 1931) [ 86 ] 2015 – Ken Furphy , English footballer and manager (born 1931) 2015 – Faten Hamama , Egyptian actress and producer (born 1931) 2015 – Don Harron , Canadian actor and screenwriter (born 1924) 2016 – Blowfly , American singer-songwriter and producer (born 1939) 2016 – Melvin Day , New Zealand painter and historian (born 1923) 2016 – V. Rama Rao , Indian lawyer and politician, 12th Governor of Sikkim (born 1935) 2016 – Sudhindra Thirtha , Indian religious leader (born 1926) 2017 – Tirrel Burton , American football player and coach (born 1929) 2017 – Colo , American western lowland gorilla , first gorilla born in captivity and oldest recorded (born 1956) [ 87 ] [ 88 ] 2019 – S. Balakrishnan , Malayalam movie composer (born 1948) [ 89 ] 2020 – Derek Fowlds , British actor (born1937) [ 90 ] 2021 – Rasheed Naz , Pakistani film and television actor (born 1948) [ 91 ] 2022 – Birju Maharaj , Indian dancer (born 1937) [ 92 ] 2023 – Lucile Randon , French supercentenarian (born 1904) [ 93 ] 2025 – Didier Guillaume , French politician, 25th Minister of State of Monaco (born 1959) [ 94 ] 2025 – Jules Feiffer , American cartoonist, playwright, screenwriter, and educator (born 1929) [ 95 ] 2025 – Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat , Mongolian politician, 1st President of Mongolia (born 1942) [ 96 ] 2025 – Denis Law , Scottish footballer (born 1940) [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Holidays and observances Christian feast day : Anthony the Great Blessed Angelo Paoli Blessed Gamelbert of Michaelsbuch Charles Gore ( Church of England ) Jenaro Sánchez Delgadillo (one of Saints of the Cristero War ) Mildgyth Our Lady of Pontmain Sulpitius the Pious January 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Anthony the Great Blessed Angelo Paoli Blessed Gamelbert of Michaelsbuch Charles Gore ( Church of England ) Jenaro Sánchez Delgadillo (one of Saints of the Cristero War ) Mildgyth Our Lady of Pontmain Sulpitius the Pious January 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) National Day ( Menorca , Spain ) The opening ceremony of Patras Carnival , celebrated until Clean Monday . ( Patras , Greece ) References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Anthony A. 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OCLC 252454075 . ^ Agathon Meurman – Agathon Meurmanin sukuseura (in Finnish) ^ Rest, James; Power, Clark; Brabeck, Mary (May 1988). "Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)". American Psychologist . 43 (5): 399– 400. doi : 10.1037/h0091958 . ^ Bozhikova, Milena (2001). "Pelishek, Panka" . Grove Music Online . Oxford Music Online. doi : 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.2274258 . Retrieved 19 August 2025 . ^ Boyd, J (13 February 2007). "Obituary: Uwe Nettelbeck" . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 10 June 2021 . ^ "Bobby Fischer (March 9, 1943 – January 17, 2008) – The U.S. Chess Trust" . uschesstrust.org . Retrieved 31 January 2020 . ^ "Suchitra Sen, India's Greta Garbo, dies aged 82" . The National . January 18, 2014. ^ Lyttle, Jeff (1997). Gorillas in Our Midst: The Story of the Columbus Zoo Gorillas . Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press. ISBN 9780814207666 . ^ "Colo, the oldest gorilla in captivity, dies aged 60" . BBC News. January 18, 2017 . Retrieved June 20, 2023 . ^ "Noted music composer S Balakrishnan passes away" . Mathrubhumi . Archived from the original on 2019-01-19 . Retrieved 2019-01-17 . ^ Louise Randell. "Yes Minister and Heartbeat star Derek Fowlds dead at 82" . MSN . Retrieved 2020-01-18 . ^ "Veteran actor Rashid Naz passes away at 73" . Images . 2022-01-17 . Retrieved 2025-08-07 . ^ "Leading Indian dancer Birju Maharaj dies" . Reuters . 2022-01-17 . Retrieved 2022-01-18 . ^ "The world's oldest known person, French nun Lucile Randon, dead at 118" . France 24 . 2023-01-17 . Retrieved 2023-03-05 . ^ Beaudet, Florence (January 17, 2025). "Drôme : Didier Guillaume, ancien président du département et ancien ministre de l'Agriculture, est mort" . France Bleu (in French) . Retrieved January 18, 2025 . ^ Webster, Andy (January 21, 2025). "Jules Feiffer, Acerbic Cartoonist, Writer and Much Else, Dies at 95" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved January 21, 2025 . ^ "Mongolian ex-president passes away" . 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External links BBC: On This Day The New York Times : On This Day Historical Events on January 17 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Months and days of the year v t e Today: January 16 , 2026 [refresh] January 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 February 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 March 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 April 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 May 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 June 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 July 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 August 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 September 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 October 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 November 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 December 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Related: List of non-standard dates Related: List of non-standard dates Days of January CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 Czech-language sources (cs) CS1 Korean-language sources (ko) CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles using Mw magnitude scale Commons link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 03:25 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.1 January 2 Scheduled events 3 See also 4 References 5 External links 2026 in science Беларуская Français 日本語 Română Русский Українська Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item List of years in science ( table ) … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The following scientific events occurred, or are scheduled to occur in 2026 . Events January 1 January – Researchers operating China’s Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) report the first experimental verification of a theorised density-free plasma operating regime, achieving stable electron densities approximately 1.3–1.65 times the Greenwald limit . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] 2 January – Researchers at the Vienna University of Technology and the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology demonstrate self-sustained superradiant microwave emission, produced by interacting spins in diamond , offering potential applications in quantum communication and sensing. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] 4–8 January – 247th Meeting of the American Astronomical Society [ 5 ] 5 January – NASA announces that it has awarded contracts to seven companies to study technologies for the Habitable Worlds Observatory , a next-generation telescope that could launch in the 2040s. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] 7 January – Astronomers using data from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory report that 2025 MN 45 has the fastest spin of any known asteroid larger than 0.5 km (0.31 mi) in diameter, completing one rotation every 1.88 minutes. [ 8 ] 13 January – The European Copernicus Climate Change Service reports that 2025 was the world's third hottest year on record (2024 was the hottest and 2023 the second hottest). In Antarctica, the average annual temperature was the warmest since measurements began and in the Arctic, it was the second highest. [ 9 ] 14 January Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Scheduled events NASA's first crewed lunar‑orbit mission in decades is slated for early 2026. [ 19 ] See also 2026 in spaceflight 2026 in Antarctica 2026 in climate change References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Liu, Jiaxing; Zhu, Ping; Escande, Dominique Franck; Liu, Wenbin; Xue, Shiwei; Lin, Xin; Tang, Panjun; Wang, Liang; Yan, Ning; Yang, Jinju; Duan, Yanmin; Jia, Kai; Wu, Zhenwei; Cheng, Yunxin; Zhang, Ling (2 January 2026). "Accessing the density-free regime with ECRH-assisted ohmic start-up on EAST" . Science Advances . 12 (1). doi : 10.1126/sciadv.adz3040 . ISSN 2375-2548 . PMC 12757026 . PMID 41477826 . ^ Mishra, Prabhat Ranjan (1 January 2026). "China's EAST Tokamak achieves stable operation at densities beyond limits" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ Kersten, Wenzel; de Zordo, Nikolaus; Diekmann, Oliver; Redchenko, Elena S.; Kanagin, Andrew N.; Angerer, Andreas; Munro, William J.; Nemoto, Kae; Mazets, Igor E.; Rotter, Stefan; Pohl, Thomas; Schmiedmayer, Jörg (2 January 2026). "Self-induced superradiant masing" . Nature Physics . doi : 10.1038/s41567-025-03123-0 . ISSN 1745-2473 . ^ Paleja, Ameya (2 January 2026). "First self-powered quantum microwave signal achieved in experiment" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 4 January 2026 . ^ "Calendar" . Secretary-General’s Scientific Advisory Board . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . ^ "NASA Selects Tech Proposals to Advance Search-for-Life Mission" . NASA . 5 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NASA seeks to accelerate development of Habitable Worlds Observatory" . Space News . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory Spots Record-Breaking Asteroid in Pre-Survey Observations" . Vera C. Rubin Observatory . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 11 January 2026 . ^ "Global Climate Highlights 2025" . copernicus.eu. 14 January 2025 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Yi, Difan; Liu, Qian; Chen, Shi; Dong, Chunlai; Feng, Huanbo; Gao, Chaosong; Huang, Wenqian; Jing, Xinmei; Kong, Lingquan; Li, Jin; Li, Peirong; Liang, Enwei; Ma, Ruiting; Su, Chenguang; Su, Liangliang (15 January 2026). "Direct observation of the Migdal effect induced by neutron bombardment" . Nature . 649 (8097): 580– 583. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09918-8 . ISSN 0028-0836 . ^ Nuo, Xu (16 January 2026). "New finding to help probe dark matter" . global.chinadaily.com.cn . Retrieved 16 January 2026 . ^ Communication, N. B. I. (15 January 2026). "Copenhagen researchers make the front page of Nature: Solving the mystery of the universe's 'little red dots' " . nbi.ku.dk . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Rusakov, V.; Watson, D.; Nikopoulos, G. P.; Brammer, G.; Gottumukkala, R.; Harvey, T.; Heintz, K. E.; Damgaard, R.; Sim, S. A.; Sneppen, A.; Vijayan, A. P.; Adams, N.; Austin, D.; Conselice, C. J.; Goolsby, C. M. (2026). "Little red dots as young supermassive black holes in dense ionized cocoons" . Nature . 649 (8097): 574– 579. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09900-4 . ISSN 1476-4687 . ^ "Ice from Swiss glacier is safely stored in Antarctica" . blue News . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antarctica ice sanctuary launched to preserve the cores of dying glaciers" . Yahoo News . 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Schneehöhle als Klima-Archiv der Erde: Erste Eisbohrkerne in Antarktis-Lagerstätte" . stern.de (in German). 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Stocker, Thomas (14 January 2026). "La première bibliothèque de carottes glaciaires en Antarctique pour protéger la mémoire climatique de l'humanité" . The Conversation . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antartide: nasce archivio mondiale ghiaccio con primi campioni da Alpi - Borsa Italiana" . www.borsaitaliana.it . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Artemis II 2026: NASA prepares first crewed mission to circle around the moon in 50 years, scheduled for February" . The Times of India . 25 September 2025. ISSN 0971-8257 . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . 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